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Defining Nasa: the Historical Debate Over the Agency's Mission Defining NASA Defining NASA The Historical Debate over the Agency’s Mission ᓃ W. D. Kay State University of New York Press Published by State University of New York Press, Albany © 2005 State University of New York All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. For information, address State University of New York Press, 194 Washington Avenue, Suite 305, Albany, NY 12210-2365 Production by Kelli Williams Marketing by Michael Campochiaro Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kay, W. D. Defining NASA : the historical debate over the agency’s mission / W. D. Kay. p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7914-6381-8 (hardcover: alk. paper) — 0-7914-6382-6 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. United States. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2. Space sciences— United States—History. 3. Astronautics—United States—History. I. Title. TL521.312.K38 2005 354.79'0973—dc22 2004009798 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To Melanie and Will, who were, in so many ways, an integral part of the process Contents Acknowledgments ix List of Abbreviations xi Part One: Introduction 1 Chapter 1 What Is NASA’s Purpose? 3 Chapter 2 Analytical Framework 11 Part Two: First Mission 25 Chapter 3 Prehistory: Space Policy Before Sputnik 27 Chapter 4 NASA: Born Out of Fright (1957–1961) 41 Chapter 5 Mission Advanced 67 Part Three: Second Mission 89 Chapter 6 Mission Accomplished . Now What? 91 Chapter 7 Space Policy Redefined (Again) 115 Chapter 8 Dollars, Not Dreams; Business, Not Government 143 Chapter 9 Concluding Thoughts 165 Notes 179 Index 243 vii Acknowledgments Like some other NASA programs one could name, this project took just a tad longer than planned, and looks rather different from what its designers envisioned. Way back in 1996, the agency’s History Office commissioned a manuscript, ten- tatively titled Contested Ground: The Historical Debate Over NASA’s Mission, that would provide an account of the different goals and objectives that had been set for the agency—as well as those that it had sought on its own—from 1958 to the present. I, however, being a political scientist and all, proceeded to alter the pre- scribed design to include a bit of policy analysis here and there. His has resulted in a narrative that a mainstream historian is apt to regard as a tad “wonky,” and a true policy wonk will see as dated (the public policy analyst’s word for historical). Thus, first and foremost, I need to thank the NASA History Office in Washington, DC, and particularly the former chief historian, Roger Launius— now at the Smithsonian—for his support and his patience over a few more years than either of us expected. The staff (some of whom have moved on)—Lee D. Saegesser, J. D. Hunley, Steve Garber, Nadine Andreassen—were, as always, a joy to work with. It was also through NASA that I encountered Andrew Butrica, a great scholar who was always willing to provide aid, advice, and encouragement. I acknowledged NASA first, because, well, they supported the research. It is my family, however, who deserves, my deepest thanks. Given all she has had to put up with, that really ought to be a picture of my wife, Jen, on the cover in- stead of Ed White (that would probably have helped with sales, too). Absent that, there are no words for how much I owe her, except: she is absolutely the love of my life. And speaking of life, there are two individuals who did not even exist when this project began. I vividly recall the tiny baby sleeping on my desk when I first began working on the text. Melanie is now all of seven years old, and has literally grown up alongside this book. Her younger brother, Will, has as well, although at four years of age, he is largely oblivious. As I said in the dedication, they both were every bit a part of this. The historical data comes from all across the country, and there are liter- ally dozens of people who were instrumental in helping me collect it. The staff members of the Kennedy, Johnson, Carter, and Reagan Presidential Libraries, along with their colleagues at the National Archives in Maryland, could not have been ix x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS more helpful. Given the later chapters’ discussion of space commerce, the book would have been even more difficult to write had it not been for the wonderful folks at the Space Business Archives, who let me rustle about in their collection while it was still being pulled together. It was also Melanie’s first long car trip. Happily, I was once again able to draw upon the insight and wisdom of my colleagues in the Organized Section on Science, Technology, and Environ- mental Politics of the American Political Science Association, especially Pat Ham- lett, Ned Woodhouse, Gary Bryner, Frank Laird, Dave Guston, Harry Lambright, Vicki Golich, Steve Collins, and, most particularly, the section chair, J. P. Singh. It was J. P. who introduced me to Michael Rinella of State University of New York Press, to whom, along with Kelli Williams, I also owe a huge debt. Finally, I have been very fortunate to have spent the last decade and a half among a group of academics in which the level of collegiality borders on the sur- real. The Department of Political Science at Northeastern University is stocked with some of the finest minds I’ve ever known: Bob Gilbert, John Portz, Denis Sullivan, David Rochefort, and the masterful Chris Bosso all made important con- tributions of one kind of another. Nor can I forget the tireless efforts of Shannon MacMahon, the greatest graduate assistant in the world. For those countless others—congressional staffers, the folks at the Na- tional Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Energy, and any number of foundations, academic departments, and university libraries—who I have neglected to mention by name: Please do not think me un- grateful—as Jen so often tells me, my head is built like a sieve. That fact, inciden- tally, also accounts, for whatever errors remain in the text. I can at least take some comfort from the fact that this time I managed to avoid making any Star Trek ref- erences—those are nothing but trouble. Abbreviations AEC Atomic Energy Commission AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency ASAT Anti-Satellite Weapon ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms BMD Ballistic Missile Defense Caltech California Institute of Technology CCCT Cabinet Council on Commerce and Trade CCDS Centers for the Commercial Development of Space CDSF Commercially Developed Space Facility CIA Central Intelligence Agency CRADA Cooperative Research and Development Agreement DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency DOC Department of Commerce DOD Department of Defense DOE Department of Energy DOT Department of Transportation EOR Earth Orbit Rendezvous EOSAT Earth Observation Satellites Corporation ESA European Space Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FCC Federal Communications Commission FY Fiscal Year GeV Billion Electron Volt GOP Republican Party HHS Department of Health and Human Services ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers IGY International Geophysical Year ISF Industrial Space Facility LOR lunar orbit rendezvous NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration xi xii ABBREVIATIONS NRL Naval Research Laboratory NSC National Security Council NSD National Security Directive NSDD National Security Decision Directive NSF National Science Foundation OMB Office of Management and Budget OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy PSAC President’s Science Advisory Council R&D Research and Development RCA Radio Corporation of America SDI Strategic Defense Initiative SIG (Space) Senior Interagency Group for Space SII Space Industries Incorporated SSC Superconducting Super Collider SSI Space Services Inc. STG Space Task Group STS Space Transportation System USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics VfR German Society for Spaceship Travel PART I INTRODUCTION 1 What Is NASA’s Purpose?ࣕ ince the opening of the Space Age nearly 50 years ago, the U.S. government Shas spent close to $1 trillion on space-related activities.1 Although by no means the largest public expenditure over that period—it is easily dwarfed by national de- fense, social security, and countless other federal programs—it is still, by any mea- sure, an enormous amount of money. It therefore seems perfectly reasonable to ask: what has the American taxpayer gotten in return for this massive investment? Most space advocates, of course, will immediately point to the myriad benefits that flow from space-based research and development. They would note the advances and improvements in weather forecasting, communications, and nav- igation, and argue that the economic impact of these systems alone—which have accounted for the creation of not only thousands of jobs, but of dozens of whole new industries as well—probably exceeds $1 trillion (it is certainly in the hundreds of billions). They might also claim that satellite and rocket technologies have made a contribution to American national security that is beyond economic calculation. And these are just the direct applications. Although critics often scoff at the supposedly inflated claims made for the “spin-offs” of the space program,2 there is no denying that a large number of commercial products, services, and technologies in common use today were originally developed for space missions.
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