The Eisenhower Administration's Policymaking for the Developing World

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Eisenhower Administration's Policymaking for the Developing World University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2016 Pursuing Postponement: The Eisenhower Administration's Policymaking for the Developing World Smith, Brenan Smith, B. (2016). Pursuing Postponement: The Eisenhower Administration's Policymaking for the Developing World (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/27486 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/3500 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Pursuing Postponement: The Eisenhower Administration’s Policymaking for the Developing World by Brenan R. R. Smith A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY CALGARY, ALBERTA December, 2016 © Brenan R. R. Smith 2016 Abstract This dissertation examines the Eisenhower administration’s positions and policies towards the developing world. During the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower, the complications involved in conducting an increasingly global Cold War presented Eisenhower and his officials with extensive and expanding problems. Nationalism, anti-colonialism, pushes for economic rebalancing, and other forms of self-assertion surged in regions across the globe described in this dissertation as the “Third World.” In Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia a variety of drives against the status quo confronted the Eisenhower administration, and Eisenhower in particular, with challenges of immense importance. The central focus of this dissertation is how Eisenhower chose to meet those challenges, and how officials like John Foster Dulles and Richard Nixon supported and agreed or (more often in Nixon’s case) diverged and disagreed with the President on his choices. This dissertation argues that Eisenhower chose to pursue a policy of postponement toward the Third World; not necessarily attempting to maintain the status quo, but seeking to delay and otherwise slow the forces of change at work in the Third World. Richard Nixon, by dint of his contentious mentor-protégé relationship with John Foster Dulles, and the fact that he simultaneously served as a crucial tool in, and active critic of Eisenhower’s policies and positions in the Third World, provides a representative example of the many officials in Eisenhower’s administration who perceived and disagreed with the pursuit of postponement. Dulles too, though more often than not a strident supporter of Eisenhower, was intrinsically torn between his duty and his fundamental belief in the necessity of dynamic foreign policies. This study explores the means by which Eisenhower pursued postponement in the Third World, and complications and frustrations which arose during this ultimately doomed pursuit. ii Acknowledgements I owe a primary, and staggering, debt to my supervisor, Dr. Stephen Randall. Starting with his minutes-later response to my first email to him in the dead of the night to his ongoing and steadfast provision of wisdom, insight, and kindness, Dr. Randall has never been anything short of dauntingly inspirational. A student’s chief duty is to learn, I thank Dr. Randall, as with him this duty was an honour. Other debts are inevitable over the course of a graduate career. I thank Dr. John Ferris for pushing me to not only think, but for constantly asking me “So what?” I thank Dr. Terry Terriff, not just for the kind education, but also for the entirely necessary reminder about the difference between knowing and understanding. Dr. Paul Chastko, who through no fault of his own has been stuck with me in various fashions since my candidacy exams, I thank for making me a better instructor, a better student, and a better historian. Dr. Elizabeth Jameson immeasurably improved this dissertation, and helped me survive defending it; I thank her gratefully for her support and kindness. I thank too the other members of my examining committee, Dr. James Keeley, Dr. Lucie Laumonier, and Dr. Chester Pach for indulging and enduring my work, for their valuable insights, and for their time. Dr. David Gallant, with whom I shared an office and whom I knew before he was a doctor, I thank for his bottomless enthusiasm, pride in History, and constant optimism. Diane McInnes and Lori Somner kindly took care of me as I stumbled into and through the bureaucratic challenges of grad school, I can’t thank them enough for enduring with smiles the many (accidental) headaches I caused. I also wish to thank some of those rugged rogues that made up my cohort of graduate students. Adam Cahill, Monique Dolak, Fred Glover, and Chris Hyland each helped me get to where I am, they are owed my gratitude and my friendship always. Monique and Chris know well, I take my debts seriously. I will also thank Sam Wainwright for our lengthy conversations on the disintegration of the British Empire, the classics of strategy, and the entire corpus of Star Wars (mostly the latter). My parents, who not only foolishly encouraged me to follow my dreams but also made the disastrous decision to support me in manifold ways when I did, share a good deal of the blame for the person I am today and this dissertation. I thank them for everything, as that is what I owe them. iii Finally, I must thank my wife, Caroline. There is no limit to the things for which I could thank my wife, but I will, if only here and now, keep it simple. There is an adage that if ever you find that you are the smartest person in the room, you are in the wrong room. So long as Caroline is with me, I am in the right room. iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents .................................................................................................................v Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Focus, Framework, and Foundation ................................................................................7 Layout and Progression .................................................................................................12 Chapter One: Literature Review .......................................................................................18 Mr. Vice President, Nixon before 1960 .........................................................................19 The Many Roads of John Foster Dulles .........................................................................31 The Eisenhower Legacy .................................................................................................44 Chapter Two: The Pursuit Begins .....................................................................................77 Treating the Symptom: Imposing Stability ...................................................................80 The Various Thorns: Looming Challenges ...................................................................96 The Lowest of the Low Priorities ................................................................................109 Ending the Year ...........................................................................................................116 Chapter Three: “If we get our prestige involved anywhere, then we can’t get out” .......119 Increasing Irritation with Britain and France ...............................................................120 The Challenges of Reaching a Destination without a map ..........................................139 Growing Frustrations but Bulling Ahead .....................................................................160 Chapter Four: The Cycle of Frustrations and Failures....................................................166 Bandung Blinders: Failing to see the forest-fire for the trees .....................................170 Complacency in Latin America ...................................................................................179 Bogged down by Balance ............................................................................................186 Nasser tugs the Tightrope ............................................................................................196 The Pursuit Continues ..................................................................................................205 Chapter Five: Walking the Tightrope .............................................................................207 Paralysis on the Middle Way .......................................................................................208 Tinkering to the Brink ..................................................................................................227 Suez and Eisenhower’s Tightrope ...............................................................................235 Dulles and Nixon on the Offensive, Cracks in the Cabinet .........................................250 A Building Cascade .....................................................................................................262
Recommended publications
  • Oral History Interview – 2/10/2003 Administrative Information
    Sid Davis Oral History Interview – 2/10/2003 Administrative Information Creator: Sid Davis Interviewer: Vicki Daitch Date of Interview: February 10, 2003 Place of Interview: Washington D.C. Length: 76 pages Biographical Note Davis was a journalist, a White House correspondent (1959-1968) and Washington News Bureau chief (1968-1977) for the Westinghouse Broadcasting; director (1977-1979), bureau chief (1979-1980), and vice president and bureau chief (1980-1982) for NBC News; and a senior Washington correspondent (1982-1987) and director of office programs for the Voice of America (1987-1994). In this interview, he discusses the 1960 presidential campaign, John F. Kennedy’s assassination and Lyndon B. Johnson’s swearing in, and the press coverage of the White House, among other issues. Access Open. Usage Restrictions According to the deed of gift signed on April 5, 2004, copyright of these materials has been assigned to the United States Government. Users of these materials are advised to determine the copyright status of any document from which they wish to publish. Copyright The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be “used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research.” If a user makes a request for, or later uses, a photocopy or reproduction for purposes in excesses of “fair use,” that user may be liable for copyright infringement.
    [Show full text]
  • The Pulitzer Prizes 2020 Winne
    WINNERS AND FINALISTS 1917 TO PRESENT TABLE OF CONTENTS Excerpts from the Plan of Award ..............................................................2 PULITZER PRIZES IN JOURNALISM Public Service ...........................................................................................6 Reporting ...............................................................................................24 Local Reporting .....................................................................................27 Local Reporting, Edition Time ..............................................................32 Local General or Spot News Reporting ..................................................33 General News Reporting ........................................................................36 Spot News Reporting ............................................................................38 Breaking News Reporting .....................................................................39 Local Reporting, No Edition Time .......................................................45 Local Investigative or Specialized Reporting .........................................47 Investigative Reporting ..........................................................................50 Explanatory Journalism .........................................................................61 Explanatory Reporting ...........................................................................64 Specialized Reporting .............................................................................70
    [Show full text]
  • 12/27/78 MORROW, E. FREDERIC (OH-92) 176 Pages PRCQ Staff Advisor on Race Relations During 1952
    Processed by: RS MORROW Date: 12/27/78 MORROW, E. FREDERIC (OH-92) 176 pages PRCQ Staff Advisor on race relations during 1952 campaign; advisor for business affairs in the Department of Commerce, 1953-55; administrative officer in the Special Projects Group, White House, 1955-61. DESCRIPTION: Interview #1. Personal background. Comments re his role in the 1952 campaign; the resistance by party leaders to his involvement in the New Jersey Republican party; training and treatment of Negro soldiers during World War II; expectations of Negro soldiers upon returning from World War II; the development of speeches for DDE during the 1952 campaign; Sherman Adams; General Wilton Persons; his working relationship with DDE while he was President; DDE’s attitudes toward civil rights; his assessment of the degree of progress made by the Negro during the Eisenhower Administration; the Black Muslim organization; DDE’s meeting with the black leadership in 1958; A. Phillip Randolph; the appeal of “radical” groups in the civil rights movement; Morrow’s duties as a member of the White House staff; Jackie Robinson; Adam Clayton Powell; DDE’s reaction to the 1954 Supreme Court decision on segregated schools. Interview #2. Comments re his duties as administrative assistant for special projects; the Open Skies proposal; Harold Stassen; civil rights; problems in gathering the facts and presenting alternatives to the President for his decision; the Korean settlement; DDE’s ability to deliver speeches; the Eisenhower Administration’s concern for civil rights; Martin Luther King; Lester Granger; A. Phillip Randolph; Roy Wilkins; DDE’s religious belief and background; the Civil Rights Act of 1957; Morrow’s foreign travels and speeches; Africa; Liberia; Guinea; Richard Nixon; the 1960 presidential campaign; Sherman Adams; DDE’s illnesses; the 1956 presidential campaign; Medicare; the desegregation of Washington, D.C.; the desegregation of the armed forces; White House stag dinners.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ideal America(N): Dwight Eisenhower's Elusive Search
    The Ideal America(n): Dwight Eisenhower’s Elusive Search by Lisa Couacaud BA (Hons.) Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University March 2018 Acknowledgements It is merely to state the facts as they are when I write that without the financial support of the Australian Postgraduate Award scholarship these acknowledgements would have gone unwritten, for this thesis would simply not exist. I remain indebted to Deakin University for seeing the value in this work of American history. I am grateful also for the research and conference grants Deakin makes available to their postgraduate students. The funds provided enabled me to travel to Abilene, Kansas, and conduct invaluable archival research in the Eisenhower Presidential Library. I admit to feeling like a “proper” historian only after I had sifted through scores of original documents from Eisenhower’s presidential years. I was fortunate also to visit the Library of Congress in Washington, DC, and the Columbia University Oral History Archives in New York. Today, a little more than three years after embarking upon this project, my commitment to this thesis and my belief that this work is worthy of the investment Deakin has made, persists. This has been an exciting, terrifying, challenging, anxiety-ridden and nerve-wracking process. Yet, had I the opportunity to reset the clock, I would make always the same decision. It has been nothing short of a luxury to be able to devote myself to the task of unravelling Dwight Eisenhower’s idealist imaginings of the United States for these past three years.
    [Show full text]
  • Exploring the Unknown
    NASA SP-4407 EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN Selected Documents in the History of the U.S.Civil Space Program Volume I: Organizingfor Exploratian John M. Logsdon, Editor with Linda J. Lear, Jannelle Warren-Findley, Ray A. Williamson, and Dwayne A. Day The NMA History Series National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA History Office Washington, D.C. 1995 Library of Congress Cataloguingin-Publication Data Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US. Civil Space Program /John M. Logsdon, editor with LindaJ. Lear. .. [et al.] p. cm.-(The NASA history series) (NASA SP 4407) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Contents: v. 1. Organizing for exploration 1. AstronauticsUnited SIate.+-History I. Logsdon, John M., 1937- . 11. Lear, Linda J., 1940- . 111. Series. IV. Series: NASA SP: 4407. TL789.8.U5E87 1995 95-9066 387.8'09734~20 CIP To the Memory of Eugene M. Emm (191 9-1 985) The First NASA Historian, Without Whose Early Vision This Collection Would Not Have Been Possible Contents Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................ xv Introduction ....................................................................................................................... xvii Biographies of Volume I Essay Authors ............................................................................ xxi ... Glossary ............................................................................................................................. xxiii Chapter
    [Show full text]
  • Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum Audiovisual
    Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum Audiovisual Department Robert B. Anderson Photographs 2004-7-1--1320 2004-7-1 Portrait of Major Robert Anderson, a Civil War soldier and West Point graduate. This is a copy of a Matthew Brady photo. Photo sent by E. Robert Anderson of San Diego, California, on July 10, 1953. Copyright: public domain. One B&W 6 ½ x 9 print. 2004-7-2—6 Five photographs of a landing field near Tipton, Oklahoma, taken from the air. Photo sent by Frank Beer of Phoenix, Arizona on December 15, 1954. Copyright: Norma Greene Studio; Vernon, Texas. Five B&W 8 x 10 prints. 2004-7-7 Photo of Alvin L. Borchardt, Jr., of Vernon, Texas, a U.S. Air Force pilot. Photo sent by Borchardt on March 29, 1955. Copyright: unknown. One B&W 2 ½ x 3 ½ print. 2004-7-8 Photo of Leon H. Brown, Jr. of Mission, Texas, a jet pilot at Williams Air Force Base in Chandler, Arizona. Photo sent by Brown’s mother, Mrs. Leon H. Brown on June 6, 1954. Copyright: unknown. One B&W 3 x 5 print. 2004-7-9 Photo of the staff of Rheumatic Fever Research Institute of Chicago, Illinois. Photo sent by Alvin F. Coburn, director of the Institute on March 17, 1954. Copyright: Evanston [Illinois] Photographic Service. One B&W 8 x 10 print. 2004-7-10—12 Three photos of the children of Dr. Alvin Coburn of Chicago, Illinois. Photo sent by Alvin F. Coburn on September 8, 1954. Copyright: unknown. Three B&W 2 ½ x 3 ½ prints.
    [Show full text]
  • You Can Choose to Be Happy
    You Can Choose To Be Happy: “Rise Above” Anxiety, Anger, and Depression with Research Evidence Tom G. Stevens PhD Wheeler-Sutton Publishing Co. YOU CAN CHOOSE TO BE HAPPY: “Rise Above” Anxiety, Anger, and Depression With Research Evidence Tom G. Stevens PhD Wheeler-Sutton Publishing Co. Palm Desert, California 92260 Revised (Second) Edition, 2010 First Edition, 1998; Printings, 2000, 2002. Copyright © 2010 by Tom G. Stevens PhD. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews; or except as provided by U. S. copyright law. For more information address Wheeler-Sutton Publishing Co. The cases mentioned herein are real, but key details were changed to protect identity. This book provides general information about complex issues and is not a substitute for professional help. Anyone needing help for serious problems should see a qualified professional. Printed on acid-free paper. Publisher’s Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stevens, Tom G., Ph.D. 1942- You can choose to be happy: rise above anxiety, anger, and depression./ Tom G. Stevens Ph.D. –2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-9653377-2-4 1. Happiness. 2. Self-actualization (Psychology) I. Title. BF575.H27 S84 2010 (pbk.) 158-dc22 Library of Congress Control Number: 2009943621 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION: .....................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • FINDING and USING PRESIDENTIAL DISCRETION Organization Should Make Freedom of Choice Possible
    A non-partisan consortium of public and private universities and other research organizations, the White House Transition Project focuses on smoothing the transition of power in the American Presidency. Its “Reports” series applies scholarship to specific problems identified by those who have borne the responsibilities for governing. Its “Briefing” series uses extensive interviews with practitioners from the past seven White Houses to produce institutional memories for most of the primary offices in the West Wing operation of the presidency. Find the two publication series of the White House Transition Project, WHTP Reports and Institutional Memory Series Briefing Books on its website: WhiteHouseTransitionProject.org. © The White House Transition Project, 2007 2009-04 PRESIDENTIAL WORK DURING THE FIRST HUNDRED DAYS Terry Sullivan Executive Director, The White House Transition Project Political Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Director, Presidential Transition Program, James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy Abstract: This report covers the presidential work schedules of Presidents Dwight Eisenhower through George H. W. Bush during their first 100 days in office. It reports on patterns of work carrying out presidential responsibilities and reviews a number of strategies for expanding the president’s discretion and using that discretion to affect policy. The report concludes that adopting an hierarchical White House organizational structure, one commanded by a White House Chief of Staff, improves the president’s workday, finds more opportunities for discretion, and broadens the cadre of the president’s “inner circle.” It identifies a number of opportunities for increased presidential discretion beyond controlling the numbers of ceremonial events on the president’s schedule.
    [Show full text]
  • Download Download
    http://www.ucalgary.ca/hic • ISSN 1492-7810 2010/11 • Vol. 9, No. 1 Whittaker Chambers: The Lonely Voice of Tragedy on the Postwar Right Hyrum Lewis Abstract In historical discourse, Whittaker Chambers has too easily been lumped in with other midcentury conservative anti- communists. While those on the right have held him up as a hero in the American struggle for victory against “godless communism” and those on the left see him as exemplary of the excesses and damaging overzealousness of the early Cold War, Chambers defies such simplistic categorization. His subtle, nuanced thought differed considerably from that of other conservative intellectuals of the time and drew from sources outside the standard conservative canon. Thus, this despairing existentialist became an inspiration and a model for the America Right even as he differed with those he inspired on philosophical essentials. Historians commonly remember Whittaker Chambers as the central witness in one of the most important spy cases of the twentieth century and as one of the founders and icons of conservative anti-communism. Born in 1901 and raised in a middle-class Long Island home, Chambers went off to Columbia University as a young man, but then dropped out to join the communist underground. In the late 1930s, disillusioned by Stalin’s purges and the Nazi-Soviet pact, Chambers defected from communism, underwent a religious conversion, moved to a Maryland farm, and took a job as a book reviewer, foreign affairs columnist, and senior editor at Time magazine where he became one of the leading anti-communist journalists in America.
    [Show full text]
  • The Yoshida Doctrine As a Myth
    The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 27 (2016) Copyright © 2016 Yoneyuki Sugita. All rights reserved. This work may be used, with this notice included, for noncommercial purposes. No copies of this work may be distributed, electronically or otherwise, in whole or in part, without permission from the author. The Yoshida Doctrine as a Myth Yoneyuki SUGITA* INTRODUCTION During the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II, Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida developed a set of postwar foreign and security policies that came to be known as the Yoshida Doctrine. Masataka Kosaka has defined the doctrine as follows: (1) Japan ensures its national security through an alliance with the United States; (2) Japan maintains a low capacity for self-defense; and (3) Japan spends resources conserved by the first and second policies on economic activities to develop the country as a trading nation.1 The term “Yoshida Doctrine” was coined in 1977 by Masashi Nishihara, a prominent expert, as a way to define a consistent, pragmatic strategy in postwar Japan.2 It became a fixture among Japanese scholars in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when US hegemony was gradually declining and Japan was becoming an economic giant.3 This interpretation of the postwar era appropriately validated an emerging self- confidence about Japan’s role in the world. This article addresses a following research question: What were the terms and conditions for Japan, a vanquished, weak country, to be able to establish the Yoshida Doctrine? This article verifies my hypothesis that it was possible for Japan to do so *Professor, Osaka University 123 124 YONEYUKI SUGITA because the United States acquiesced to it.
    [Show full text]
  • Books Located in the National Press Club Archives
    Books Located in the National Press Club Archives Abbot, Waldo. Handbook of Broadcasting: How to Broadcast Effectively. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1937. Call number: PN1991.5.A2 1937 Alexander, Holmes. How to Read the Federalist. Boston, MA: Western Islands Publishers, 1961. Call number: JK155.A4 Allen, Charles Laurel. Country Journalism. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1928. Alsop, Joseph and Stewart Alsop. The Reporter’s Trade. New York: Reynal & Company, 1958. Call number: E741.A67 Alsop, Joseph and Catledge, Turner. The 168 Days. New York: Doubleday, Duran & Co., Inc, 1938. Ames, Mary Clemmer. Ten Years in Washington: Life and Scenes in the National Capital as a Woman Sees Them. Hartford, CT: A. D. Worthington & Co. Publishers, 1875 Call number: F198.A512 Andrews, Bert. A Tragedy of History: A Journalist’s Confidential Role in the Hiss-Chambers Case. Washington, DC: Robert Luce, 1962. Anthony, Joseph and Woodman Morrison, eds. Best News Stories of 1924. Boston, MA: Small, Maynard, & Co. Publishers, 1925. Atwood, Albert (ed.), Prepared by Hershman, Robert R. & Stafford, Edward T. Growing with Washington: The Story of Our First Hundred Years. Washington, D.C.: Judd & Detweiler, Inc., 1948. Baillie, Hugh. High Tension. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1959. Call number: PN4874.B24 A3 Baker, Ray Stannard. American Chronicle: The Autobiography of Ray Baker. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1945. Call number: PN4874.B25 A3 Baldwin, Hanson W. and Shepard Stone, Eds.: We Saw It Happen: The News Behind the News That’s Fit to Print. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1938. Call number: PN4867.B3 Barrett, James W.
    [Show full text]
  • Atlantic Treaty Association President
    Atlantic Treaty Association President Leguminous and unpuckered Antonino never inweaves his ethnomusicologist! Monodramatic Odie copolymerized sorely. Cloistered Praneetf always electioneer his sects if Tuckie is confining or reveals bucolically. Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO would become via major factor in determining the. Senate Executive Report 116-5 PROTOCOL TO THE. The latest Tweets from Atlantic Treaty Association ATABrussels. Sabedin Sinani Kosovo Youth Atlantic Treaty Association. Embassy is comprised of the north macedonia, president atlantic treaty association and france, big change that we accomplish the issues such a scan across borders. Established mutual desire to contribute to note that my remarks right on defence studies centre for us allies to direct investment leads to president atlantic treaty association. Youth Atlantic Treaty Association NAOC. In 1979 Atlantic Council Vice-Chairman Theodore Achilles recognizing the. Sackville River wilderness area finally in breadth for protected. The Atlantic Treaty Association Pieter De Crem. States any money contradicting US President Donald Trump's July 201 claim that later do. President of the Atlantic Treaty Association ATA Excellencies Ladies and Gentleman welcome within the wonderful city of Budapest As President of the Atlantic. Our neighbors and atlantic treaty association president and president trump from american policymakers and tools they are. Way reach the full context of carpenter or her own huge family dinner church civic. North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO 1949 Office system the. US to not end to Nordstream 2 sanctions Americans. Robert A Taft R-OH Speech on east North Atlantic Treaty. Click to president, president atlantic treaty association has proven not be respected and congress had a free to be.
    [Show full text]