Nature Conservation Management: from Idea to Practical Results: Chapter - Multifunctionality and Biodiversity Conservation – Institutional Changes

Project no. GOCE-CT-2003-505298 ALTER-Net

A Long-Term Biodiversity, Ecosystem and Awareness Research Network

Nature Conservation Management: From Idea to Practical Results: Chapter - Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional changes

Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert De Blust, Maria Nijnik, Mart Külvik

Edited by Tadeusz J. Chmielewski

Deliverable Type: Publication

Kaljonen, M., et al. (2007), Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional changes. In. Chmielewski. T.J., ed Nature Conservation Management: From Idea to Practical Results, Poland: PWZN Print

Contract Deliverable Reference Number: 2.R4.D6

Instrument: Network of Excellence Thematic Priority: Global Change and Ecosystems (Sub-priority 1.1.6.3, Topic 6.3.III.1.1) Due date of deliverable: August 06 Submission date: September 06 Start date of project: 1st April 2004 Duration: 5 years Deliverable lead contractor: The Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) Revision: 1.0 Work Package: R4 Document Reference Number: WPR4-2006-10

www.alter-net.info

Nature Conservation Management: From Idea to Practical Results Research and education centers, whose activity particularly contributed to the creation of this book:

European Commission 6th Framework Programme Agricultural University in Lublin, Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Conservation A Long-Term Biodiversity, Ecosystem (LUA DLENC), Lublin, Poland and Awareness Research Network (ALTER-Net)

International Centre of Ecology, Polish Academy of Science (ICE PAS), Łódź, Poland

Finnish Environmental Institute (SYKE) Helsinki, Finland NATURE CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT: FROM IDEA TO PRACTICAL RESULTS

National Environmental Research Institute (NERI) University of Aarhus, Denmark

Edited by: TADEUSZ J. CHMIELEWSKI Polesie National Park Urszulin, Poland

The main sponsor of the book:

Province Environment Protection and Water Management Fund, Lublin, Poland

Lublin – Łódź – Helsinki – Aarhus The Reviewers: CONTENS Eeva Furman (SYKE, Helsinki, Finalnd) – 7 articles Geert de Blust (INBO, Brussels, Belgium) – 6 articles Tadeusz J. Chmielewski (LAA DLENC, Lublin, Poland) – 3 articles Terry Parr Preface 1 7 Maciej Zalewski (ICE PAS, Łódź, Poland) – 1 article Eeva Furman & Fleming Skov Preface 2 9 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Acknowledgements ...... 11

The language editor: Part 1 Tomasz Bylica New trends and ideas in nature conservation

Allan D. Watt, Juliette C. Young Cover photos: Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework ...... 15 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research and monitoring: The European Long-term Ecological Research Network´s (LTER-Europe) Cover design: role and perspectives ...... 36 Szymon Chmielewski Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert De Blust, Maria Nijnik, Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges . . . . 53 Janneke Vader, Pim Roza, Aris Gaaff The organization of nature compensation ...... 70 Martin Drechsler, Karin Ulbrich, Frank Wätzold, Karin Johst, Josef Settele A software tool for designing cost-effective compensation payments for species ISBN 83-87414-98-0 conservation 80 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New conception of the nature protection in Slovak Republic 86

Part 2 Nature conservation management and sustainable development Printed by: PWZN „Print 6” Sp. z o.o., 20-218 Lublin, ul. Hutnicza 9 Cristiana Cocciufa tel./fax: (081) 746-12-80 A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation...... 101 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards sustainable development of Scottish native woodlands 112 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain areas development and nature conservation in Ukrainian Carpathians ...... 133 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie Biosphere Preface 1 Reserve (mid-eastern Poland) ...... 150 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski . Landscape quality objectives as an element of local development strategy: the case of the Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve (mid-eastern Poland) . 178 At a time of increasing concern over the loss of biodiversity and its consequences for ecosystem services and human well-being this book is a timely addition to the literature on conservation management. It offers new insights into the way we should Part 3 conserve and manage biodiversity in the 21st century. It is based on the holistic view that conservation can no longer be confined to protected areas but must also include Public participation in nature conservation the wider countryside, whole landscapes and urban areas. It follows from this view Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov that nature conservation will be most successful if it is delivered by, and for, all sec- Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation ...... 195 tors of society and is based on a better understanding of the environmental, social and Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb, Simron J. Singh economic benefits of biodiversity. Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social monitoring and integrated sustainability assessment 208 We are beginning to understand what the main drivers and pressures of past biodiversity loss have been and these include land use change, land management change, Monika Suškevičs and Mart Külvik. climate change, habitat fragmentation, atmospheric pollution and invasive species. Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation But if we are to manage and conserve biodiversity in the future we must understand of Natura 2000 areas in the Otepää Nature Park area, Estonia ...... 220 how these drivers and pressures interact and how society should react in order to miti- gate or adapt to future change. This requires a whole new range of inter-disciplinary Part 4 research to understand the ecological, social, economic and political processes that affect biodiversity inside and outside of protected areas. This book covers some of the Ecological processes research new approaches to research on conservation in this complex socio-ecological world, Michał Osowiec but it has a welcome emphasis on practical results and tools. Furthermore, it is a book Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River that brings together ideas from across Europe and moves us closer towards the estab- in the Polesie National Park in the 19th and 20th Centuries ...... 239 lishment of common principles for effective conservation management – principles that mostly operate across a range of scales and include local, national, continental Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to dispersion and changes of areas assessment and global scale perspectives. of black grouse Tetrao tetrix in Polesie National Park ...... 253 The creation of research communities capable of undertaking such large scale inter-disciplinary work is a difficult process. The research underpinning this book is an outcome from one of the European Commission’s Networks of Excellence aimed at creating a Long-Term Biodiversity, Ecosystem and Awareness Research Network (ALTER-Net). One of the main objectives of ALTER-Net is to establish the interdisciplinary research capacity to address the complex issues of biodiversity loss and the sustainable use and management of biodiversity related resources. This book is one of many examples of the success of that approach within ALTER-Net. Further Terry Parr examples of research relevant to conservation can be found through ALTER-Net’s web site (www.www.alter-net.info) and its International Press Centre for Biodiver- sity Research (IPCB), a portal for biodiversity-related news and press releases (www. biodiversityresearch.net).

This book couldn’t have happened without the support of the European Commission Preface 2 in its 6th Framework Programme but it is primarily the result of active collaboration between research scientists from the 24 organisations from 17 countries contributing to ALTER-Net. I thank them for their efforts and hope that it represents just an early Most European countries find it difficult to reach the 2010 target on biodiversity de- example of the essential inter-disciplinary and collaborative work that will need to be spite the broad network of protected areas and strong legislation in Europe. So what done in the future if we are to continue to respond to the challenge of nature conserva- are the causes of the ongoing biodiversity degradation and what can be done about it? tion management in our ever-changing world. Since 2004, a consortium of 25 European research institutions has, through the AL- TER-Net-project, been planning and carrying out joint research on various new tools Terry Parr and models which could support more effective ways to manage biodi-versity. The Co-ordinator of ALTER-Net: „A Long-Term Biodiversity, Ecosystem consortium has raised two crucial issues: The first issue concerns gaps in the knowl- and Awareness Research Network” edge of the decision makers, including gaps in the forms in which knowledge is produced and communicated. The second issue focuses on gaps between policies and 16.11.2007 their practical implementation and management, which relate to the processes and methods through which policies and management are being developed.

Several studies have been carried out as part of the ALTER-Net collaboration. The implementation of the international goals on local levels, the use of cost-effectiveness in Natura 2000 networks, social learning, conflict management and participation have been among the issues reviewed and analysed during the last four years. Much attention has been paid to the development and use of models in biodiversity in particular in relation to the Driver-Pressure-State-Indicator-Response (DPSIR) model that forms the conceptual backbone of ALTER-Net. But modeling has also focussed on the knowledge representation and how to use models in participatory processes and for communication.

The consortium realized early the great need for tools to facilitate collaboration between scientists, biodiversity managers and local actors. Thus, at present, the AL- TER-Net researchers, together with the other stakeholders, focus on five sites around Europe where knowledge needs for the development of management plans are being identified. In these pilot studies, various models and tools for collaborative management are developed and tested.

This book is a major output of the ALTER-Net project. It reflects research topics carried out in the consortium institutions but also draws together work that researchers from the various ALTER-Net institutions have carried out jointly during the last years. The book presents analyses of topical concepts linked with conservation management using empirical data collected from various parts of Europe. It also provides interesting historical reviews of conservation management from selected regions. 10 Eeva Furman, Flemming Skov

The biodiversity in Europe is too valuable to be lost due to ineffective management. New ways of thinking and doing are needed. The intention of this book is to trigger the reader to readjust his or her approaches to management and to challenge the present management practices. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Eeva Furman Flemming Skov Programme manager Director of Research Department I should like to express my thanks to people whose goodwill and joint cooperation Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) University of Aarhus (NERI) have contributed to the creation of this book. Management and policies Models and scenarios I would like to thank the VIPs of ALTER net: Terry Parr, Allan Watt, Eeva Furman, ALTER-Net ALTER-Net Kinga Krauze and Flemming Skov for supporting the idea of publishing the book and supporting me in the organization process. I also want to thank the reviewers: Eeva Furman, Geert de Brust and Maciej 15.11.2007 Zalewski for astute reviews which helped to achieve a higher substantial level as well as improve the structure of particular articles. I would like to thank the director of Polesie National Park, Dariusz Piasecki, for excellent organization of the international seminar in beautiful Polesie landscape, during which we could discuss many details concerning the merits of the book as well as practical issues connected with the publishing. I would like to express special thanks to the Steering Comity the Board of Lublin Province Environment Protection and Water Management Fund, the main sponsor of the printing of the book. I also thank Tomasz Gruszecki, the dean of Biology and Animal Breeding Faculty at Lublin Academy of Agriculture and Kinga Krauze, the national coordinator of ALTER-Net in Poland, for considerable financial support.

Tadeusz J. Chmielewski 2007.11.30. Part 1

New trends and ideas in nature conservation

Photo: Sz. Chmielewski Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework

Allan D. Watt and Juliette C. Young Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Bush Estate, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0QB, Scotland, UK E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Summary

Nature conservation faces new challenges as a result of the current loss of biodiversity and the many threats it currently faces. This chapter considers nature conservation within the drivers, pressures, state, impact and response, or DPSIR, framework. The measurement of state and trends in biodiversity are essential to identifying when and where nature conservation actions are needed. Approaches to measuring and monitoring biodiversity include estimation of population size, measurement of habitat area and condition assessment, and diversity indices. Indicators such as the common bird index provide policy makers and other stakeholders with information on state and trends in biodiversity. Effective action to address negative trends biodiversity requires knowledge of the drivers and pressures that cause these trends. The major direct drivers, or pressures, are land use change (including habitat loss and fragmentation), climate change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution. The main response to threats to biodiversity has been to establish protected areas. The conservation of species and habitats is now also supported by the Convention on Biological Diversity, Biodiversity Action Plans implemented at international, national and local scales, and the EU Birds and Habitats Directives. The latter have driven the establishment of Natura 2000, a European network of protected areas. Nature conservation will increasingly require adaptation to the major drivers of biodiversity loss, particularly climate change. Effec- tive conservation needs recognition that conflicting demands on the natural world are the primary drivers of biodiversity loss. Conservation therefore requires a multidisciplinary approach, integrating ecological science, economics and social sciences.

Keywords

Nature conservation, biodiversity loss, indicators, land use change, climate change, invasive species, pollution, protected areas, Natura 2000, conflicts, DPSIR. 16 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 17 1. Introduction 2. State and trends in biodiversity

The current loss of biodiversity presents those concerned about nature conserva- The measurement of state, and trends, in biodiversity is a useful starting point for tion with many new challenges. This has led to new approaches to conservation, considering the DPSIR framework. There are many approaches to measuring and some of which are discussed below. It is important, however, to recognise that many monitoring biodiversity including the estimation of population size of individual approaches developed in the past are still valuable. Furthermore, knowledge gained species, the measurement of habitat area, the assessment of habitat condition, and over time provides the basis for the approaches being used and developed today. This the application of diversity indices. In the context of nature conservation, estimating chapter looks briefly at nature conservation in Europe today, with a particular focus trends in the abundance of threatened species is the most obvious challenge. This on some recent trends in assessing, understanding and responding to biodiversity may be done through sampling methods designed for particular taxa but the rarity loss. of many species means that assessment of the status of many species depends on expert judgement. IUCN (the World Conservation Union) have developed a Red List Ecological knowledge is essential for nature conservation, whether applied to sin- classification system to provide information on the status of species over more than gle species (Misztal et al., this volume), or to the habitats that maintain these spe- 40 years (Baillie et al., 2004; Rodrigues et al., 2006). Using quantitative criteria, the cies (Chmielewski et al., this volume). Increasingly, ecological knowledge is used in Red List classifies species in different categories including critically endangered, en- conceptual frameworks that recognise both the complex reasons for biodiversity loss dangered, and vulnerable (IUCN, 2001). Species classified as critically endangered, and the need to develop responses that provide a sustainable basis for conservation. endangered, or vulnerable are frequently described as “threatened”. The 2004 IUCN One example, used in ALTER-Net to structure its research programme, is the drivers, Red List named 15,589 species as threatened with extinction (Baillie et al., 2004). pressures, state, impact and response, or DPSIR, framework (Figure 1). In this chap- Trends in numbers of species in different Red List categories can be used as an index ter, nature conservation is considered in relation to this framework. of biodiversity (Butchart et al., 2005). The index can be calculated for any set of species that has been fully assessed twice or more and a Red List index is now available for the world’s birds (Baillie et al., 2004).

The scale of the threat facing biodiversity means that accurate assessments of trends in the abundance and distribution of more than a very small proportion of the world’s species are not possible. To solve this problem, biodiversity assessment is often made through indices of biodiversity (Krebs, 1999; Magurran, 2004; Speight et al., 2008). Many indices have been developed to measure species diversity, some placing emphasis on the number of species present, others emphasising the relative abundance of species. Magurran (2004) provides a critical review of the many diversity indices available and Krebs (1999) provides a guide to calculating diversity indices such as the log series index α, Simpson`s index D, and Shannon index H´. While urging caution in their use, Magurran recommends the calculation of the Margalef and Berger-Parker indices because they are simple and easy to interpret, the log series α because of it is widely used and theoretically robust, and the Shannon index because, although it has attracted criticism, it is widely used. The problem with diversity indices, however, is that they provide descriptors of diversity whose values mean very little to most people. In contrast, the number of species in a particular area, community, or habitat is a tangible entity, even if hard to estimate. It may also vary greatly over time, particularly when the numbers of mobile species is being considered. Nevertheless, it represents the number of species ecologically adapted to a habitat and/or the number of species of conservation concern in a particular area. Consequently, species richness is a widely used measure of biodiversity. It should also be noted that species richness also tends to be closely Fig. 1. The driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) model. Source: OECD. correlated with other measures of biodiversity (Brehm et al., 2007). 18 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 19 Although conceptually simple, species richness may not be easy to measure concluded that land use change, particularly agricultural intensification, was the accurately (Speight et al., 2008), but several books describe sampling methods most significant pressure on European biodiversity but that different parts of Eu- for different groups of organisms (e.g. Krebs, 1999; Southwood & Henderson, rope experienced different pressures. At the global scale, the MA concluded that the 2000). During sampling, the total number of species found typically rises rap- major direct drivers of change in biodiversity and ecosystems were habitat change, idly at first, then the rate at which new species are recorded gradually declines, climate change, invasive species, overexploitation, and pollution (from nitrogen eventually reaching an asymptote, given sufficient sampling. There are several and phosphorous) (Figure 2). statistical techniques for estimating species richness from sampling data, including the jack-knife method (Colwell, 2000; Colwell & Coddington, 1994; King & Porter, 2005). The species richness of different areas (or the same area at different times) can be compared by the total number of species sampled or an estimate of species richness derived from the jack-knife or some other method of extrapolation.

An alternative approach to assessing biodiversity is to measure the extent and condition of habitats. Habitat classification is a critical step in habitat assessment (Bunce et al., 2008) and through ground-based assessments (Firbank et al., 2003a) and earth observation (Brown et al., 2002) increasing information on the potential (Larsson, 2001) and actual (EEA, 2003) extent of European habitats is available. Such information is extremely valuable, particularly in identifying the loss of rare habitats. It is essential, however, also to consider status and trends in the condition of habitats. This requires an assessment of the factors that support the biodiversity associated with different habitats. Research on the factors influencing biodiversity in forest habitats, for example, demonstrates that such an approach is feasible even in the range of forest habitat types found in Europe (Larsson, 2001).

No discussion on the state of biodiversity is complete without highlighting the role that indicators play in providing information on trends in biodiversity for policy makers and other stakeholders (EASAC, 2005). Indicators of biodiversity may be biological, e.g. lichens (Bergamini et al., 2005) and butterflies (Thomas, 2005), structural, e.g. dead wood in forests (Grove, 2002), or functional, e.g. tree regeneration (Lars- son, 2001).

3. Drivers, pressures and their impacts

Effective action to address negative trends in biodiversity cannot be taken with- Fig. 2. Main direct drivers of change in biodiversity and ecosystems identified by the Millenni- out knowledge of the causes of these trends. These causes are often referred to as um Ecosystem Assessment (2005). The impact of each driver on biodiversity in each ecosystem drivers and pressures. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) defines driv- type over the last 50-100 years is indicated by the colour of the cells, high impact, for example, ers as “natural or human-induced factors that directly or indirectly cause a change indicating significant change to biodiversity in the relevant biome due to the particular driver. - in an ecosystem” (MA, 2005). Drivers are subdivided by the MA into direct driv- Trends are indicated by arrows: increasing trends in impact are represented by diagonal and ver tical arrows and continuation of the current levels of impact are shown by horizontal arrows. ers, which have a direct influence on ecosystems, and indirect drivers, which act indirectly on one or more direct drivers. Direct drivers are referred to as pressures by many authors (Petit et al., 2001), often as part of the DPSIR model used for bio- Impacts of different drivers are difficult to measure, largely because they act to- diversity, and environmental assessment generally (EEA, 2005). Petit et al. (2001) gether (Travis, 2003). Research confirms that land use change is the main current 20 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 21 pressure on biodiversity, both in Europe (Sousa et al., 2006; Stofer et al., 2006; Van- Pollution is another major pressure on biodiversity. It takes many forms, including bergen et al., 2005) and elsewhere (Watt et al., 2002). Land use change includes ozone (Jones et al., 2007), and affects many habitats and species. Nitrogen deposi- habitat loss and fragmentation and the way land is managed. Habitat fragmentation is tion is probably the most widespread form of pollution in Europe today affecting, for a significant pressure on certain taxa (Henleet al., 2004) and poses a risk to the adap- example, epiphytic communities in woodlands (Mitchell et al., 2004; Mitchell et al., tation potential of species (Ezard & Travis, 2006). One form of management that can 2005), montane mosses (van der Wal et al., 2005) and roadside vegetation (Truscott have a significant impact on biodiversity is grazing, which can affect many groups of et al., 2005). Lakes and rivers are particularly susceptible to pollution from sewage species including plants (Van der Wal & Brooker, 2004), invertebrates (Vanbergen et and phosphorous (Bowes et al., 2005; Spears et al., 2007). al., 2006) and birds (Evans et al., 2006a). The positive effects of particular levels of grazing should not, however, be ignored (Evans et al., 2006a; Evans et al., 2006b). There are many other pressures on biodiversity in addition to those discussed Climate change is a current threat to biodiversity (Thomas et al., 2004) and models above, including recreational activities such as skiing (Bayfield, 1996; Watson & demonstrate that it will have an increasing impact (Brooker et al., 2007b). High lati- Moss, 2004), hunting (Bro et al., 2006), fishing (Frederiksen, 2006) and human dis- tude and altitude communities are particularly threatened with, for example, homoge- turbance (Arroyo & Razin, 2006). nization of alpine summits resulting from an upward shift of plant species (Jurasinski & Kreyling, 2007). Many groups, including insects (Watt & McFarlane, 2002) and 4. Responses: options for conserving biodiversity birds (Wanless, 2006) are also at risk from climate change. Changes in climate act with other pressures, such as grazing (Scott et al., 2007) and fisheries (Frederiksen, Protected areas remain a major strategy for conserving biodiversity. Over 12% of 2006). the global land area is classified as protected area, but only about 0.5% and 1.4% of the ocean and the marine coastal zone, respectively (Chape et al., 2005). Despite the Another increasing pressure on biodiversity is non-indigenous, or alien, invasive number of protected areas exceeding 100,000, some ecosystems remain poorly pro- species. These species have been deliberately or accidentally introduced outside their tected, particularly those experiencing the greatest risk (Hoekstra et al., 2005). Pro- native habitats, and have the ability to establish themselves, successfully compete tected area programmes include the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) sites with native species and spread in their new environments. More than 2,000 species of and the European Natura 2000 network (see below). Major European protected areas non-indigenous plants, for example, are established in the continental United States include the Polesie National Park (Chmielewski, 2003; Chmielewski et al., 1997). (Vitousek et al., 1997). Invasive plants include weeds of riparian habitats such as Himalayan balsam Impatiens glandulifera and giant hogweed Heracleum mante- Climate change and the decline in the degree to which species can move readily gazzianum (Wadsworth et al., 2000) and mammals such as the coypu Myocastor across the landscape between protected areas limit the degree of nature conservation coypus (Gosling et al., 1981; Panzacchi et al., 2007) and the American mink Mustela that protected areas now provide. Furthermore, the establishment of protected areas uison (Bonesi & Palazon, 2007; Macdonald & Harrington, 2003). is often done in such a way as to alienate the local population (Young et al., 2005). Public participation in the management plans of protected areas is therefore crucial Invasive species also pose serious risks to human economies. The economic impact (Oprina Pavelescu et al. this volume). of the European green crab Carcinus maenas is estimated to be about $44 million/yr due to its impacts on commercial shellfish beds and on native oysters and crabs (Laf- After protected areas, the most common option for conserving biodiversity is spe- ferty & Kuris, 1996). In Italy, the range of the coypu is thought to be likely to expand cies protection. Many species are afforded legal protection, either directly or indi- 2.5-3.3 times, and economic losses may reach €12 millions/year (Panzacchi et al., rectly through legal restrictions on trade. The latter includes CITES, the Convention 2007). With a permanent control campaign in Italy estimated to cost €14 million on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. With many over six years) even such a costly eradication may be very cost-effective in the long species and habitats, however, legislation is only partially effective because the risks term. are too complex or it is too difficult to enforce the legislation adequately (Young et al., 2005). Legislation will also usually fail to address the driving forces that created Research has shown that only a tiny proportion of non-indigenous species are inva- the risk that the species face. sive, that most invasions occur in human dominated rather than in pristine habitats, that non-indigenous species are sufficiently similar in their impacts to indigenous Nevertheless, the legal protection of species and their habitats plays a key role in species, and that there is evidence to suggest that introduced species increase rather nature conservation, and is supported by national and international legislation. In than reduce species diversity (Hulme, 2003). 22 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 23 Europe, the first Environmental Action Programme was launched in 1973, the Birds Tab. 1. Status of Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) in Directive in 1979 and the Habitats Directive in 1992. the EU-25. Source: Adapted from the Natura 2000 Barometer (June 2006).

Number of SCIs % Terrestrial area Number of SPAs % Terrestrial area Through the Birds and Habitats Directives, Natura 2000, a pan-European network Austria 164 10.6 94 11.1 of Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas, has been created in Belgium 278 10.0 229 9.7 a major effort to ensure the favourable conservation status of habitats and species in Cyprus 26 8.0 7 13.4 their natural range (Figure 3 and Table 1). Natura 2000 is, however, not a network of Czech Republic 841 9.2 38 8.8 Denmark 254 7.4 113 5.9 strictly protected areas: it is a network of sites in which steps are being taken to recon- Estonia 509 15.9 66 12.8 cile biodiversity conservation in Europe with the need to “take account of economic, Finland 1715 12.7 467 7.5 social and cultural requirements and regional and local characteristics” (Article 2(3) France 1304 7.9 366 7.6 Germany 4617 9.9 568 8.9 of the Habitats Directive). Most Natura 2000 sites are owned and, more importantly, Greece 239 16.4 151 10.0 managed by private landowners. Despite a drive to include local actors in the de- Hungary 467 15.0 55 14.5 velopment of Natura 2000, this initiative has seen a number of conflicts, leading to Ireland 413 10.2 131 2.9 serious delays in its implementation (Young et al., 2005). Public participation in the Italy 2255 13.9 503 8.1 Latvia 331 11.0 97 9.6 designation of Natura 2000 sites may reduce such conflicts (Suŝkeviĉs and Kulvik, Lithuania 267 10.0 73 7.8 this volume). Luxembourg 47 14.8 12 5.4 Malta 23 12.5 6 2.4 Netherlands 141 8.4 77 12.5 Poland 192 4.2 72 7.8 Portugal 94 17.4 50 10.1 Slovakia 382 11.8 38 25.2 Slovenia 259 31.4 27 23.0 Spain 380 22.6 512 18.2 Sweden 3981 13.7 530 6.2 United Kingdom 610 6.5 258 5.8 Total 19,789 12.5 4,540 10.2

International agreements provide support for the conservation of biodiversity. Un- doubtedly the most important landmark in nature conservation to date has been the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Operating at the global level it has both thematic and cross-cutting programmes. A major European response to the CBD was the 1998 European Community Biodiversity Strategy, followed, in 2001, by a series of Biodiversity Action Plans in the areas of Conservation of Natural Resources, Ag- riculture, Fisheries, and Development and Economic Cooperation. In 2006, the Euro- pean Commission published a Communication on “Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 and beyond” (EC, 2006). It sets out 10 policy objectives in 4 policy areas: biodiversity in the EU; The EU and global biodiversity; biodiversity and climate change; and the knowledge base. Biodiversity strategies and Biodiversity Action Plans have also been implemented in many European countries.

While protected areas continue to play an important role in nature conservation, increasing attention has been placed on conservation in managed landscapes. In forests, for example, retention of dead wood is known to promote the conservation of many species (Christensen et al., 2005; Jonsson et al., 2005; Odor et al., 2006). Managing Fig. 3. The EU Natura 2000 network of designated areas across the main biogeographic regions. dead wood in forests can promote restoration of biodiversity in areas such as Bialow- Source: EEA: Natura 2000 database and Biogeographical regions, Europe 2005. ieza forest in Poland (Bobiec, 2002). More generally, a growing appreciation of the 24 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 25 factors that influence biodiversity in different types of forest can be used for nature there is evidence that the value of ecosystem services diminishes with biodiversity conservation (Larsson, 2001). Research is underway, for example, to restore habi- and ecosystem loss (Balmford et al., 2002; Turner et al., 2003). Furthermore, novel tats damaged by under-planting with non-native species such as Atlantic oakwoods practices, such as genetically modified herbicide tolerant crops, may offer benefits to (Truscott et al., 2004). Although conflicts between the conservation of biodiversity biodiversity within intensive systems (Pidgeon et al., 2004) as may the development and forest management remain (Niemela et al., 2005), forest management plans that of organic agriculture (Cobb et al., 1999; Wilson et al., 1997). help conserve biodiversity are being developed (Cocciufa, this volume; Nilnik and Slee, this volume). Changes in agricultural policy in Europe have led to opportunities for nature conservation. Agri-environment schemes are a notable example. For example, targeted Agricultural areas can play a crucial role in nature conservation. However, although habitat creation under agri-environment schemes has been shown to benefit butter- some areas of farmland can be designated as of high nature value (EEA, 2004) the flies, particularly through the use of pollen and nectar seed mixtures (Pywell et al., well-documented decline in farmland birds across Europe (Donald et al., 2006) dem- 2004). There has, however, been some concern about the value of agri-environment onstrates that the nature value of agricultural landscapes is deteriorating. Neverthe- schemes for nature conservation (Kleijn et al., 2006; Kleijn & Sutherland, 2003) and less, research is identifying habitat requirements of different species (Kosinski & set-aside schemes (Critchley & Fowbert, 2000; Firbank et al., 2003b). Nevertheless, Tryjanowski, 2000; Skorka et al., 2006) and the agricultural practices that have a others have concluded that the development of such schemes can benefit biodiversity negative impact on species such as birds (Chamberlain et al., 2000). Agricultural (Bracken & Bolger, 2006; Bradbury et al., 2000; Vickery et al., 2004). The known practices, such as drainage and weed management, are key to the survival of many benefit of “winter bird crops” or over-winter stubble fields and their management, for species (Cooper et al., 2005; Killeen, 1998; Mauchline et al., 2005). The type of field example, could be incorporated in such schemes (Buckingham et al., 1999; Hend- margin, for example, influences bumblebee diversity (Pywell et al., 2006): bumble- erson et al., 2004; Whittingham et al., 2006) and agri-environment schemes could bee abundance in a two-month period in summer was significantly higher on pollen provide a policy basis for conserving specific habitats (Franco & Sutherland, 2004) or and nectar margins (86 +/- 14 bees per 100 m) compared with wildflower margins (43 for habitat restoration (Thompson et al., 1999; Wilcox, 1998). It has also been argued +/- 14), mature grass margins (6 +/- 14), recently sown grass margins (8 +/- 4) and that schemes designed to encompass large congruent areas are more likely to be suc- the cereal crop (0.2 +/- 0.1). The plant species present in the field margins also affects cessful that a series of smaller habitat patches (Whittingham, 2007). Agri-environ- bumblebee presence (Pywell et al., 2005b). Field margins have less of an influence ment schemes together with provisions under the Water Framework Directive could on other taxa such as Coleoptera and spiders, which benefit more from hedgerows also, for example, benefit farmland birds by reducing the impact of diffuse pollution (Pywell et al., 2005a), although recent research highlights the potential for managing (Bradbury & Kirby, 2006). field margins to promote beetle diversity (Woodcocket al., 2007). Another feature of agricultural landscapes, green lanes (unmetalled tracks between fields, either below or Although agricultural and forest habitats have the greatest potential for promoting above field level, with grass banks, hedgerows or stone walls on either side) promote nature conservation in Europe, other managed habitats can contribute significantly to butterfly diversity (Doveret al., 2000). More generally, habitat heterogeneity appears biodiversity, e.g. urban gardens (Gaston et al., 2005). to be the key to promoting biodiversity conservation in agroecosystems (Benton et al., 2003; French & Dolmans, 2002; French & Picozzi, 2002). Agricultural practices, Nature conservation cannot be considered in isolation: conflicts between conserva- such as manure application, can also promote dispersal of high conservation value tion and human activities occur in all ecosystems (Niemela et al., 2005; Young et al., species (Edwards & Younger, 2006). 2005), including the Ukranian Carpathians (Soloviy et al., this volume). Manage- ment of conflicts may be landscape-based (Sowińska and Chmielewski, this volume) Clearly, the promotion of high nature value agriculture and forestry means that or species-based, although the two approaches are intimately linked, as the next ex- environmental (and perhaps social) goals are prioritised over short-term economic ample shows. goals. Nevertheless, there may be situations where high biodiversity leads to agricultural benefit. In a study of herbage production, for example, yield was greater in An example of a species-based approach to managing conflicts is that developed hay meadows grown from seed mixes of 25-41 species compared with 6-17 species for endangered birds of prey in the UK. In the UK, hen harriers Circus cyaneus and (Bullock et al., 2001). In another study, the risk of bovine tuberculosis was found to peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus prey on an important game bird, the red grouse be lower on farms considered to be favourable to wildlife conservation (Mathews et Lagopus lagopus scoticus, reducing the size of its populations and the number of al., 2006). Agricultural yields are, however, more often likely to be reduced by prac- birds killed by shooting (Redpath et al., 2004). Large numbers of hen harriers may tices that promote biodiversity (Marriott et al., 2004). Nevertheless, more generally, lead to significant loss of income from land used for grouse shooting, potentially 26 Allan D Watt, Juliette C Young Nature conservation in the EU and the DPSIR framework 27 leading to a change in land use to an increase in sheep farming, deer management 5. Conclusions or commercial forestry. Not only might the conservation of birds of prey suffer from this change in land use but other species might be lost as a result of a decline in the Nature conservation is based on ecological knowledge of species and habitats, to- heather-dominated moorland habitat that supports grouse. In addition, abandonment gether with an assessment of their status. We know, for example, that the Spanish im- of grouse moors threatens the livelihoods of certain land managers. Large numbers perial eagle Aquila adalberti is a vulnerable species. Ecological research on sensitive of birds of prey therefore present a conservation dilemma (Redpath et al., 2004). In species such as this identifies conservation options such as defined vulnerable zones a novel approach to managing this conflict, research on the hen harrier demonstrated around nesting sites (Gonzalez et al., 2006). that supplementary feeding may be used to reduce the number of grouse chicks taken by these birds of prey (Redpath et al., 2001). Effective nature conservation also requires an understanding of the drivers and pressures affecting biodiversity. Climate change, for example, is an increasing threat to In other cases, threats to rare species can be managed by compensating land manag- biodiversity: strategies for adapting to climate change are therefore needed (Brooker ers for the actual or potential income lost as a result of those species. This has been et al., 2007a; Hulme, 2005). Conflicting demands on the natural world provide the put in place in some countries, such as Estonia, where farmers can be paid compensa- primary drivers of biodiversity loss (Niemela et al., 2005). We therefore need to tion for losses incurred by migrating birds feeding on agricultural land. This approach understand public attitudes to biodiversity and its conservation (Fischer & Young, has now been implemented in several countries (Herzog et al., 2005; Vickery et al., 2007) and to adopt interdisciplinary approaches to conserving nature such as those 1994) discussed above and elsewhere in this book (Fischer-Kowalski and Singh, this volume; Kaljonen et al, this volume). A multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary approach is clearly needed for successful nature conservation. Although ecological knowledge provides the basis of nature To be sustainable, nature conservation needs to be based on ecological science, conservation, many other disciplines play an important role. Remote sensing, for be cost-effective (Ulbrich et al., 2008) and socially acceptable (D’Arcy et al., 2006; example, can provide information on the ecological condition of different habitats Marzano et al., 2006; Young et al., 2005). (Fedoriv, this volume). Economics provides a framework for evaluating different conservation options (Watzold & Drechsler, 2005; Watzold & Schwerdtner, 2005). References Social sciences are also crucial to the development of sustainable nature conservation. Research on the great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo illustrates this. Over the Arroyo, B. & Razin, M. (2006) Effect of human activities on bearded vulture behaviour and last 30 years, this species has expanded both in abundance and geographical range in breeding success in the French Pyrenees. Biological Conservation, 128, 276-284. Europe as a result of increased protection, particularly from the Birds Directive, the Baillie, J.E.M., Hilton-Taylor, C., & Stuart, S.N. 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1. Introduction Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management: The European Long-Term Recent reports on the state of environment at global and regional (European) Ecological Research Network’s (LTER-Europe) scales emphasize the fact that the way community has organized itself and its in- role and perspectives terplay with nature in the past finally brought us to a point where we urgently need to find solutions to a set of hardly manageable, persistent and complex environmental problems. Many of them, even if started to be dealt with by currently Michael Mirtl1, Kinga Krauze2 1 Federal Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt), available means, may lead to uncertain consequences in the future. Others create Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090 Wien, Austria conflicts between human demands and nature protection. Therefore, there is a need E-mail: [email protected] for building a close interaction between scientific work and management, and ad- 2 International Centre for Ecology PAS, Tylna 3, 90-364 Lodz, Poland dress newly emerging targets: i) strengthening the knowledge flow between science E-mail: [email protected] and policy, to increase credibility and relevance of both, ii) identifying drivers of environmental change, and understanding relations between those drivers, devel- Summary opmental challenges, and responses (DPSIR framework, EEA, 1999 a,b), iii) im- The outcomes of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2004), Global Environmen- proving quality, quantity and interoperability of data and information, overcoming tal Outlook (2007) and reports of EEA (2007, 2005) on the state of European environ- sectoral divisions as far as possible, increasing accessibility of information and its ment clearly showed that the future of nature management depends on changing the way availability for detecting threats to environmental security, iv) enhancing national individuals think about the environment and its impact on human well-being, decision- capacities for development of synergistic monitoring and research, and v) improv- makers consider and treat environmental values, scientists communicate their findings, ing co-operation and synergy between different actors, interest groups, networks, and financial resources are mobilized and allocated to solve environmental problems. etc. (GEO 4, 2007). Whereas according to the EEA “Late lessons from early warn- Thus an important step, in both science and management, was to understand that com- ings” report (2001), management and policy in Europe still lacks strong support plexity and persistence of environmental problems emerge from continuous interplay from comprehensive, interdisciplinary research, covering relevant temporal and between nature and society. These two entities ought to be considered as one, highly special scales and able to overcome deficiencies in the analysis and synthesis of dynamic, and to a certain extent unpredictable system. In consequence, new approaches principally available information and in the communication of results to decision to nature conservation and management need to refer to interdisciplinary, long-term, and makers and to the public. multi-scale research, incorporating traditional knowledge and taking into account the Recognizing this gap, the two European Long Term Ecological Research Net- potentials of eco-technologies and ecological engineering to achieve sustainability. They works (LTER) – the Western European and the Central and Eastern European ones also need to address a variety of drivers to environmental change and provide tangible - joined their efforts and merged in 2007, forming one entity – “LTER-Europe” results that could be implemented through regional consultancy and local participation. - currently the strongest regional group in the global LTER (ILTER). Established These new demands formed part of the framework for the development of the in the 70-ies LTER networks were mainly focused on ecological phenomena that European Long-Term Ecological Research Network (LTER-Europe) and its formal could be investigated at the local level (site-level), but contributed to the interpreta- foundation in 2007. tion of larger scale processes. To support fundamental research on ecosystem proc- The paper elaborates upon the role of the emerging network in facilitating devel- esses, the selection of sites favoured natural or semi-natural ecosystems with core opment of new strategies for environmental research and monitoring, integration of study topics being primary production, population ecology, biogeochemical cycles, existing approaches, exchange of know-how and expertise. The aim is also to discuss organic matter dynamics, disturbances and biodiversity. The recent shifts in the its perspectives as catalyst of applied socio-ecological research and as a platform for ecological research and management paradigms were considered and incorporated generating policy and technology solutions. in the design of the emerging LTER-Europe as a “next-generation network” which will consist of traditional LTER sites (local level) and LTSER platforms (Long- Keywords term socio-ecological research). LTSER platforms are proposed as hot spot regions - LTER-Europe, LTSER, platforms, socio-ecological research, environmental man- for socio-ecological research and its implementation aimed at efficient nature con agement servation and management. 38 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 39 2. Challenges to nature management – developing context for LTER-Europe tion human presence within and outside the areas of interest, related to use of space research and implementation initiatives and resources. That imposes a need to consider conservation, economic or social objectives simultaneously, reconciling some of them, and to evaluate a range of choices Increasing awareness that traditional methods applied for nature conservation, for determining the basis for action, each with different cost and benefit implications and focusing on species and habitats protection, no longer suffice under the global for different actor groups. change and escalating human pressures, brought scientists and decision makers Both dealing with uncertainty and risk, and reconciling different objectives, require back to the question of how to structure and organize environmental management adjusting management alternatives to the temporal dynamics and the character of in order to maintain, recover and/or enhance ecosystem resilience. In this con- transitions of both social and ecological systems. Therefore the recently emerging text, areas of nature conservation have been included and considered part of bigger issue has been a collection of long-term baseline data that includes information on systems and a component of their adaptive capacity, while the main problems of a number of historical legacies: social, ecological, engineered, and institutional, but environmental management became: i) recognizing the real drivers of environmen- also urgent need for development of coherent database system. It has to ensure ac- tal change, ii) identifying thresholds to ecosystem resilience (adaptive capacity) cessibility and availability of sociological, ecological and economic data at relevant before it is exceeded, to secure delivery of goods and services, iii) addressing both scales. with research, policy, and technology (especially eco-technology and ecosystem engineering). 3. Adding a structure and working environment for the next-generation Consequently, it has been raised that traditional approach of ecological science ecological research to LTER and management focused on assessment of environment state should be supplemented with studies of societal and economic drivers and pressures on environ- In the first decades since its establishment in the 70-ies, LTER mainly focused on ment and a feedback to society and economy they produce (Fischer-Kowalski, phenomena that could be investigated on the local level (site-level, size range of Weisz 1999; Haberl et al. 2006). Thus co-evolution of natural and man-made sys- hundreds of hectares). To support fundamental research on ecosystem processes the tems and the adaptive cycles including growth, restructuring and renewal they selection of sites was biased in favour of natural or semi-natural ecosystems with core undergo, attracted special attention (Gunderson, Holling, 2002, Holling, 2001). topics being primary production, population ecology, biogeochemical cycles, organic Another consequence of the new perception of nature was the acceptance that matter dynamics, disturbances and – implicitly – biodiversity. Thus, the characteris- such socio-ecological systems, due to their dynamics, feature a level of uncer- tics of the LTER-sites as well as the disciplines involved in research do not suffice to tainty (Holling, 2000) nowadays amplified by global change. Hence it needs to appropriately investigate the above addressed socio-ecological systems (Redman et be considered and accepted in management strategies. In that way the new ap- al., 2004). Even in studies designed to address complex interactions between society proach gained a more precautionary character, involving greater willingness of and natural resources mismatches of the observed spatial units and the related spatial the society to acknowledge the possibility of surprise, to search for innovative and scale of management as well as the level of political actions were detected (Dirnböck interdisciplinary solutions, and widely assess their pros and cons. That contradicts et al. 2007). traditional approaches targeted at maximizing control of processes, either through strict exclusion of valuable areas from human activities or through application of This resulted in the request for a “new-generation LTER”, considering the human engineering and technology regardless of broad-scale ecological and often socio- dimension in a scale- and level-explicit way as recently requested by several concep- economic effects. tual papers (Haberl et al. 2006, Dirnböck et al. 2007), bridging local problems, needs However under the condition of uncertainty, the adequate theoretical basis for as- and experiences with policy and decision-making on the regional and national level, signing risk may not suffice. Hence the gathering of all the available knowledge, in- and able to tackle urgent political questions such as the sustainable use of ecosystem cluding traditional one, and wide consultations, which additionally provides a bridge services, and the effects of Global Change on performance of socio-ecological sys- between experts, stakeholders and the public, and prevents conflicts aggravation re- tems (Hobbie et al. 2003). sulting from lack of attention to public perspectives and values. Also knowledge dissemination and awareness building become crucial as a decision-making process is In response to this challenge, conceptual efforts in the USA and Europe resulted often laden with subjective assumptions, although techniques such as safety factors, in convergent solutions, in Europe developed under the working title “LTSER- scenario or sensitivity analysis can still be useful. Platforms” or “Multifunctional Research Platforms” (Mirtl, 2004). The develop- Communication and knowledge dissemination are also indispensable in the devel- ments in Europe were fostered by the European Commission within ALTER-Net, opment of more realistic strategies for nature conservation that take into considera- inter alia intending to overcome fragmentation in the field of ecological research 40 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 41 and to build the European LTER network (LTER-Europe) on existing facilities, us- on-site supporting institutions). LTER-sites (“traditional” LTER-sites) are LTER- ing biodiversity as a topical trigger. Amongst the major objectives of ALTER-Net facilities of limited size (1-10 km²), comprising mainly one habitat type and form ranks, the achievement of the critical mass needed to start the process towards this of land use. Activities are concentrating on small scale ecosystem processes and new design across disciplines, institutions, countries and bio-geographical regions. structures (biogeochemistry, selected taxonomic groups, primary production, dis- To better co-ordinate and streamline this process throughout the network the over- turbances etc.). LTSER-platforms are modular LTER-facilities (clusters) consist- arching goal “LTER-Europe” was established. This marked the transition towards ing of sub-sites which are located in an area with defined boundaries. Besides this a combination of Long-term Socio-Ecological Research or LTSER (Haberl et al. physical component LTSER-platforms provide multiple services like the network- 2006, Singh et al. in press) and the traditional LTER under one common umbrella, ing of client groups (e.g. research, local stakeholders), data management, com- LTER-Europe (Fig.1.). munication and representation (management component). The elements of LTSER platforms represent the main habitats, land use forms and practices relevant for the broader socio-ecological region (100-10000 km²) and cover all scales and levels relevant for LTSER (from local to landscape). LTSER-platforms should represent economic and social units or coincide/overlap with such units where adequate information on land use history, economy and demography is available to allow for socio-ecological research.

Simultaneously, the network structure, research scope, information management, and emphasis on harmonizing existing facilities and their tools are aimed at developing a new strategy for synergistic environmental research and monitoring, and ensuring applicability and wide implementation of generated knowledge.

4. LTSER platforms: structure and potential

LTSER platforms are designed and managed for long-term research and monitoring from the site to the landscape scale level, focused on: i) the dynamics of major aspects of biological and ecological diversity – composition, structure and functioning – under the influence of both natural and human drivers and pressures, ii) human perceptions, attitudes and participation related to conservation issues and ecosystem management, iii) spatio-temporal relationships between socio-economic systems and the components of biodiversity; iv) the development of appropriate methods and tools for analysing driver, pressure, state, impact and response interrelations (DPSIR operational model) and adaptive management (Furman et al. 2005).

At network level LTSER sites are a tool for building socio-ecological research capacity across Europe, participating in assessment and forecast of changes in biodiversity, structure, functions and dynamics of ecosystems and their services, and de- Fig 1. The structure and hierarchy of LTER facilities. fining the socio-economic and socio-ecological implications of those changes. They are also to define and address key management issues according to complex local Both kinds of LTER require appropriated facilities, “LTER-sites” and “LTSER- and regional settings – cultural and social values and expectations, economic condi- platforms” respectively, which are spatially and administratively harmonized. tions and / or constraints, inherent biophysical capacities, natural values, impacts of LTER-facilities are the umbrella term for wherever LTER might take place (lo- internal and external factors and processes. Finally, they are perceived as platforms cation) and whatever might facilitate LTER-activities (e.g. logistics, laboratories, helping in communication and dissemination of knowledge. 42 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 43 LTSER platforms feature 3 functional layers: • Physical infrastructure comprising in situ research sites, technical infrastructure, laboratories, monitoring networks, collections, museums, visitor centres, data- bases etc.

• Pro-active involvement of the research community on the regional, national und international level and,

• Integrative management serving as interface between all above elements. The management cares for an open communication space including the implementation of trans-disciplinary and participatory approaches necessary to adopt research agendas to regional and local needs and for achieving access to and involvement of the regional population, key stakeholders and decision makers, all of whom can be seen as beneficiaries of the knowledge produced. Moreover the management stands for a modern data policy and quick data exchange based on cutting edge IT solutions for data integration (ontologies, tools for semantic mediation, disperse data sources).

The required elements of LTSER platforms are firstly derived from the need to represent functionally and structurally relevant scales and levels. Secondly, they depend on the characteristics of individual regions with regard to their landscape, occurring ecosystem types and administrational structures as well as within economic, social and natural gradients. Ideally, we propose to distinguish between (i) site-level activities representing in-depth ecological research in quantitatively relevant habitat types, (ii) intermediate scale elements such as national parks, biosphere reserves or investigated meso-catchments and finally (iii) the region as such. Nested designs from the site to the landscape levels and step-wise harmonised sampling and parameter sets will allow for systematic assessment of the representativeness of individual points for their vicinities. Elements belonging to bigger scale activities, including national and international monitoring schemes, should be functionally linked for further up- and downscaling and crosswise validation (e.g. biodiversity indicators) (Fig.2.).

The current intention is to set up a European network of LTSER platforms which represents entire regions in the sense of cultural, land-use, historical, natural, administrational and economic units, comprising all relevant agents. Once these criteria have been met, together they will allow for quantitative research in socio-ecological interactions. The implicit long-term commitment of LTER guaranties complementary consideration of involved time scales, which have so far been even more neglected than spatial aspects.

Regarding the question of what LTSER-platforms can represent in terms of probabilis- tic sampling in the European context, the general understanding is that the role of LTER is to gather basic knowledge on the functioning and driving forces of complex systems Components of LTSER platform and their possible contribution to nature conservation management. Fig.2. Components of LTSER 44 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 45 by providing a network of open field laboratories. This in-situ network of research hot dients. However, to ensure that LTSER will be able to contribute to regional and spots has to be linked with areal monitoring networks on the national and European level local nature management with ecologically effective, economically efficient and to inter alia validate and further develop indicators and surrogates they are applying. socially acceptable mitigation strategies, several common thematic lines for in- To address this the distribution of European LTER-facilities should cover the ma- formation gathering were recommended. These include: economic diversity, con- jor European biomes. Given the strong focus on socio-economic issues to be tack- servation-relevant policy, local conflict, demography, land use and cover (Tab.1.) led, especially at LTSER-platforms, it was underlined that existing classification sys- and were suggested as providing a minimum set of data describing major drivers tems of bio-geographical regions are of limited value to judge the representativeness of ecosystem change: economic and population growth, market changes, global of LTER facilities with respect to sociological and economic gradients. The ongoing trade etc., and related pressures: industrial and technological development, urban- stratification of the European socio-ecological regions, expanding existing ecologi- ization, water uptake, pollution etc. (Ohl et al. 2007). If the main focus is nature cal regions by including economic and demographic strata, will create the basis for conservation management, LTSER sites are advised to concentrate especially on: establishing a network of LTSER platforms where characteristic phenomena of the i) human use of area: habitat diversity, use and harvest of natural resources, rec- major socio-ecological regions can be investigated in an exemplary way. It will also reation, cultural traditions, industry, need for resources, ii) human impact: waste, support achieving an international division of labour between countries and institu- pollution, erosion, iii) attitudes: ecological awareness, educational resources and tions across Europe. activities, follow-up of media rhetoric, voluntary contribution and iv) management information: existing policies, management strategy and participation in manage- 5. Facilitating synergy between the next-generation ecological research ment. and environmental management Information should derive from three levels: i) low-level activities in quantitatively Considering monitoring, research and management challenges to be addressed relevant habitat types, ii) intermediate scale elements - national parks, biosphere re- by platforms, defining the actors to be involved in individual LTSER platforms, serves or investigated meso-catchments and finally iii) the entire LTSER regions, and is based on comprehensive analyses of key interest groups, stakeholders, institu- be linked to international data and recommendation sources. tions and decision makers in economy, policy, management, regional development, education, culture, research and monitoring on the regional and local level. All Tab. 1. Main monitoring and research themes proposed for LTSER platforms (Ohl et al., 2007) the actors are actively approached and informed of the platform building process and invited to pro-actively contribute their concerns and needs which are grouped, THEME DATA prioritized and boiled down into research themes. The management of LTSER plat- Economic Income data available for the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors is to ensure forms initiates and maintains a “communication space” by appropriate techniques diversity internal linkages of local economy sectors. (workshops, WEB portals, open-space technology) as a basis for the development Site-specific policies (linked to primary, secondary and tertiary sector) address- of research projects, their participatory implementation and the dissemination of Conservation- ing biodiversity issues implemented and governmental or private investments in results. relevant policy biodiversity conservation and accompanied with data on improvement should be present.

That opens a door for broader involvement of stakeholders and development of a Information on local conflicts that have a potential effect on biodiversity (e.g. self-reflective research process explicitly considering the perspectives of citizens, Local conflict investments in new infrastructure versus investments in conservation) and the scientists, and managers, and the dominant narratives of each of these groups, thus socio-economic profile of a community. a second order observation approach (Furman et al. 2005). Consequently, LTSER Long-term demographic trends (of at least 50 years) and the demographic struc- has become able to address processes of perception, valuation, communication, and ture of the site population with a focus on existence of migration or mobility, i.e. Demography response, and – contrary to other research-conservation-management platforms (e.g. immigration into/emigration out of the site and/or movement of people within national parks, biosphere reserves), it is capable to tackle, at both research and imple- the site. mentation level, different elements within DPSIR framework. Data (land use and land cover) on three different land use/cover types have to Land use - be found: (1) at least one natural/semi-natural land type; (2) at least two types of A profile of LTSER platform activities derives from the need to represent char and cover acteristics of particular regions with regard to their landscape, occurring ecosys- agricultural land use and (3) at least one urban or suburban land type. tem types and administrational structures, within economic, social and natural gra- 46 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 47

Networkwide thematic lines

Information on vulnerability across platforms and sites due to biodiversity changes, link between ecosystem services and socio-economic development, Vulnerability i.e. the dependency of economic sectors or populations on a limited number of species or ecological processes.

Local trade The relation of total resources locally produced or extracted – either for local use relations or export from the site – to resources imported from outside the site.

Inclusion of two differing types of economies (in terms of income levels) in areas Economic with similar resource endowments in each European region (North, Mediterra- development nean, Central Europe, Western Europe).

6. Examples of best practice by use of the new research environment

In general LTSER platforms are balancing between drivers regions are exposed to and the regional research demand, and given paradigms and foci of research frameworks. The impact of global, regional and local drivers and pressures generate regional demand for knowledge. Usually the process of detecting, formulating and communicating regional research demand (sociological, economic, environmental) is not facilitated. Nor are research results translated into immediately applicable information for regional and local decision making. Consequently, existing research frameworks randomly or only partly comply with research demands. By mediating between the above components, LTSER platforms combine bottom up and top down approaches, thus meeting crucial requirements like participation and trans-discipli- narity. As a result, research frameworks are adopted according to real needs, research projects are offered with ideal locations for implementation and national and international efforts are effectively merged wherever possible (Fig. 3.).

Austria The implementation of the first Austrian LTSER platform “Eisenwurzen” started in 2004. After two years of intensive promotion, communication, general and actor group-specific meetings and workshops, a major step towards formalisation was taken by the adoption of a Memorandum of Understanding. It was up to now signed by 35 parties across all involved actor groups, ranging from municipal to regional development institutions, environmental monitoring agencies, management-oriented structures such as national parks and wilderness areas, and academia. The emerging communication space enabled and supported by the management of the LTSER Fig. 3. The role of LTSER platforms i) in mediating between the regional needs, experiences, and - - initiatives emerging from and targeted at regional socio-ecological drivers and the research de platform created a situation of growing mutual knowledge about one another’s activi mand, given paradigms and foci of existing research frameworks, and ii) in facilitating of research ties, fields of expertise and data, resulting in first signs of the establishment a com- frameworks adoption and implementation according to real needs and embedding research projects munity with a specific regional research identity and continuously working on the into national and international efforts. 48 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 49 development of a common language. This common language enabled a significantly solutions to a problem of the water quality deterioration in the Sulejowski Reser- increased competitiveness of the group while research calls required regionalisation voir and the Pilica River, affecting drinking water supply for several cities, including of scientific projects. On the other hand, international projects were given access to 1million Lodz agglomeration, recreation and thus regional economy, and the state of actors in the region of the LTSER platform, which require a regionally-based inter- environment. The initial aims were continuous monitoring of the reservoir and river face with international perspectives (language, understandable and acceptable trans- towards the assessment of the risk of toxic blue-green bacteria blooms and aquatic lation of scientific goals and requirements). About 10 LTER and LTSER projects are biodiversity changes, identification of related drivers and pressures and addressing currently ongoing. them with measures based on research on the one hand and dialogue with interested parties on the other. The platform occurred to be a space for development of sound International example: In the case of the IP SENSOR (FP6) the European scale science but also applied research and a tool for capacity-building in terms of expert project required regions featuring the transition from former mining to other eco- and traditional knowledge. The generated results significantly contributed to the de- nomic sectors. The LTSER “Eisenwurzen” was mainly chosen because IP SENSOR velopment of the theoretical and empirical background of the ecohydrology approach could rely on the already networked actors and an excellent overview of existing data (Zalewski 2000, 2002, 2004) which was adopted as a core of the UNESCO IHP Eco- holders and data, including the basic agreement on free data access and exchange hydrological Programme. contained in the Memorandum of Understanding. One of the work packages of SEN- The platform in its current state was launched officially as the UNESCO and UNEP SOR used regional information from all over Europe to develop scenarios for the Pilica Demonstration Project on the “Application of Ecohydrology and Phytotech- production and use of bio-energy. These scenarios needed to be presented and dis- nology for water resources management and sustainable development” in 2002 on cusses with local/regional actors and stakeholders. Capitalizing on the strength of the the basis of cooperation between UNESCO-IHP, UNEP-DTIE-IETC, researchers LTSER platform the manager of a local commercial and industrial centre acted as a centered in two long-term ecological research sites of the University of Lodz and contact point to select and invite appropriate participants for the evaluation process. local authorities. The formalization of the platform helped to extend the scope of The international project utilizes local/regional knowledge and judgment on feasibil- the conducted research to other water and landscape-related issues, with the explicit ity and acceptances whereas the local/regional actors gain knowledge which will be objective to implement, demonstrate and disseminate the use of ecohydrology and disseminated through their communication channels. The latter helps bridging the phytotechnology in integrated watershed management, through: i) creation of an op- gap between research, management and local/regional decision-making. portunity for integrated co-operative research, demonstration activities, dissemination and exchange of scientific knowledge; ii) creation of a platform for the exchange National example: A national project in the sustainability research frame proof technical and policy relevant information; iii) generation of scientific and tech- gramme proVision elaborated a combined agent-driven and biogeochemical model. nical information for environmental education; iv) elaboration of problem-solving In a participatory process on the municipality level all major groups of actors (so- approaches and dissemination of operational procedures to be implemented at the cietal, economic, professional) developed scenarios for the municipal development regional scale in support of sustainable development; v) disseminate the results of taking a wide range of local, regional and global factors into account. Based on a the case study for reference and or replication (adapted) in other basins. It also ap- complete data base of land use and related environmental, economic, management peared to be crucial in attraction of key decision makers, obtaining broader public and societal parameters, the agent-driven model translates the predicted land use support for environment-focused initiatives, building awareness, but also opened the changes according to defined scenarios into changes of the biophysical compartment door for implementation of, and searching for, innovative approaches, methods and (matter and energy flows). Without the framework of the LTSER platform good parts technologies (e.g. polymer energy technology). of the funding would have needed to be used only to investigate the local/regional The results of the project arose broad interest in launching other demonstration structures, approach-related actors and acquire, transform and assess the vast range sites that could demonstrate coupling of monitoring, research and management in of data/information required by the project. Crucial data holders such as the Austrian various (complementary) land forms and/or climatic settings, possibly including BRs National Forests provided raw data for research purposes for free, according to the (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001474/147490e.pdf, http://typo38.unesco. Memorandum of Understanding. org/en/about-ihp/associated-programmes/ecohydrology0.html)

Poland 7. Conclusions The proposed Polish LTSER platform „Pilica” emerged in 90s as a platform for co- operation of regional decision-makers, stakeholders, scientists and numerous local Considering the above challenges, the LTER-Europe network with its emerging communities. The backbone for the initiative was a need for development of feasible platforms for socio-ecological research (LTSER) can substantially contribute to the 50 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Developing a new strategy for environmental research, monitoring and management... 51 development of new strategies for environmental research, monitoring and manage- EEA, 2007. Europe’s environment – the fourth assessment. State of the environment report ment. No 1/2007, European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen. Fischer-Kowalski, M., Weisz, W., 1999. Society as a hybrid between material and symbolic The synergy of long-term, comprehensive monitoring and advanced research at realms: toward a theoretical framework of society-nature interrelation. Advances in Hu- sites and platforms offers an unique opportunity to validate methods and parameters man Ecology 8:215-251. for assessment of the state of the environment as well as pressures and responses, Furman, E., Adamescu M., Papp, M., , White, R., Olsthoorn, A., Ivask, M., Varjopuro, R., hence facilitates sound science. On the other hand, coverage and scale (temporal and 2005. Opportunities for long term socio-economic research: identification of potential spatial) of research and observations conducted by platforms enables identification of uses of LTSER sites to facilitate implementation of biodiversity conservation options. AlterNet Report WPRA4-2005-09, www.alter-net.info. best practice, policy and legislation, and spreading of excellence on the national and Gunderson, L., Holling. C.S., (Eds.) 2001. Panarchy: understanding transformations in human the Community level. and natural systems. Island Press, Washington DC. Haberl, H., V. Winiwarter, K. Andersson, R. U. Ayres, C. Boone, A. Castillo, G. Cunfer, M. Catalysing trans- and interdisciplinary research through active involvement and Fischer - Kowalski, W. R. Freudenburg, E. Furman, R. Kaufmann, F. Krausmann, E. communicating of different parties, creation of new scientific job profiles and matrix Langthaler, H. Lotze-Campen, M. Mirtl, C. L. Redman, A. Reenberg, A. Wardell, B. Warr, functionalities and promoting of information flow, LTSER platforms and the LTER and H. Zechmeister 2006. From LTER to LTSER: conceptualizing the socioeconomic network have also potential to become a powerful tool for development and wide dimension of long-term socioecological research. Ecology and Society 11(2): 13. [online] application of scientifically verified technologies. Finally, networking on the local, URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol11/iss2/art13/ regional and global scale, streamlined towards identification of key environmental Harremoës, P., Gee, D., MacGarvin, M., Stirling, A., Keys, J., Wynne, B., Guedes Vaz, S., problems, standardization of methods, development of relevant tools (observation (eds.). 2001. Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle 1896–2000. systems, data bases, communication channels), exchange of expertise and link to Environmental issue report No 22, European Environmental Agency, Copenhagen. other global organizations (UNESCO, GTOS, UNEP), makes LTSER one of the rare Hobbie, J. E., S. R. Carpenter, N. B. Grimm, J. R. Gosz, and T. R. Seastedt. 2003. The U.S. initiatives/ projects able to search for workable solutions for the emerging environ- Long Term Ecological Research Program. BioScience 53:21-32 mental problems before they reach irreversible turning points. Holling, C. S. 2000. Theories for sustainable futures. Conservation Ecology 4(2): 7. [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol4/iss2/art7/ Acknowledgments Holling, C.S., 2001. Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems 4: 390-405. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and human well being – Synthesis. 2005. We would like to thank Terry Parr, Eeva Furman, Helmut Haberl, Simron Jit Singh, World Resources Institute, Washington DC, USA. Mark Frenzel and Sander van der Leeuw, and the working groups of FP6 NoEx Al- Mirtl, M. 2004. LTER in Austria: implementing multifunctional research platforms (MFRPs) terNet, especially teams of the workpackages RA1, RA4, I2 and I3 that contribute to for LTER. ILTERN Coordinating Committee Meeting 7–9 July, Manaus, Brazil. Available the development of the concept, scientific background and structural framework of online at: http://www.ilternet.edu/meetings/. LTER-Europe. Ohl, C., Krauze, K., Grünbühel, C., 2007. Towards an understanding of long-term ecosystem dynamics by merging socio-economic and environmental research Criteria for long-term socio-ecological research sites selection. Ecological Economics 63:383 – 391. References Redman, C. L., Grove, J. M., Kuby, L. H. (2004). Integrating Social Science into the Long- Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network: Social Dimensions of Ecological Change Dirnböck, T., Bezák, P., Dullinger, S., Haberl, H., Lotze-Campen, H., Mirtl, M., Peterseil, and Ecological Dimensions of Social Change. Ecosystems, 7, 161-171. J, Redpath, S., Singh, S., Travis, J., Wijdeven, S.M.J. 2007. Critical scales for long-term Singh, S.J., Haberl, H., Gaube, V., Grünbühel, C.M., Lisivieveci, P., Lutz, J., Matthews, R., socio-ecological biodiversity research. To be submitted to Ecology and Society. Mirtl, M., Vadineanu, A., Wildenberg, M.. Conceptualising long-term socio-ecological EEA, 1999a. Environment in the European Union at the Turn of the Century. Environmental research (LTSER): Integrating socio-economic dimensions into long-term ecological re- Assessment Report, vol. 2. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. search. Journal of Nature Conservation. In press. EEA, 1999b. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Overview. Technical Report, vol. 25. UNEP, 2007. Global Environmental Outlook. Environment for Development GEO4. United European Environment Agency, Copenhagen. Nations Environmental Programme, Valetta, Malta. EEA, 2005. The European Environment. State and outlook 2005. European Environmental Zalewski, M., 2000. Ecohydrology. The scientific background to use ecosystem properties Agency, Copenhagen. as management tools toward sustainability of water resources. Guest Editorial. Ecol. Engng.11 16, 1–8. 52 Michael Mirtl, Kinga Krauze Zalewski, M., 2002. Ecohydrology – the use of ecological and hydrological processes for sustainable management of water resources. Hydrol. Sci. J. 47(5), 825-834. Zalewski, M., 2004. Ecohydrology as a system approach for sustainable water biodiversity and ecosystem services. Ecohydrol. Hydrobiol. 4 (3), 229-236 Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges

Minna Kaljonen1, Eeva Primmer2, Geert De Blust3, Maria Nijnik4, Mart Külvik5 1 Finnish Environment Institute, Research Programme for Environmental Policy, P.O.Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Finnish Environment Institute, Research Programme for Environmental Policy, P.O. Box 140, 00251 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: [email protected] 3 Research Institute for Nature and Forest, Department of Ecosystems, Kliniekstraat 25, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium. E-mail: [email protected] 4 Socio-Economic Research Group, Macaulay Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, Scotland, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected] 5 Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia. E-mail: [email protected]

Summary Integrating biodiversity conservation objectives to local level practices takes place in rural areas where land and natural resources are managed for multiple functions. Insti- tutional arrangements in these local contexts will necessarily need to adapt to respond to evolving environmental conditions as well as social expectations and opportunities. In- stitutional capabilities to deliberate across policy sectors and levels include open communication channels, systems of learning, facilitation of actors and technical interfaces as well as ability to communicate across borders. Cross-sectoral communication that serves the identification and integration of the multiple functions of natural resources and land is enhanced when different actors trust each other, learn and work together, and share targets. In this article, we draw on experiences from three empirical cases in which different kinds of institutional arrangements have been developed to address the challenge of multifunctionality in rural land use, agriculture and forestry. In studying these cases, we make an effort to identify the institutional contexts where the case processes developed, as well as the development and application of shared capabilities to deal with multifunctionality and biodiversity across policy sectors and levels. We con- clude by making the statement that while we can identify successful trails of crossing sectoral borders and integrating biodiversity conservation to land and natural resource management, greater attention to multifunctionality is required when planning and participating in natural resource management and biodiversity conservation decisions. Keywords Multifunctionality, institutional capabilities, agriculture, forestry, land use, policy integration 54 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 55 1. Introduction for Sustainable Forest Management (MCPFE 2002) are an important European-level formalization of the integration of economic and ecological functions of forests. In this article we argue that, for biodiversity conservation to become a meaningful The quest for multifunctional management practices has gained momentum also niche in current natural resource management practices, the multifunctional char- within nature conservation policies. The conflicts encountered in the implementa- acter of rural land use must be a starting point. Rural areas are the grounds where tion of regional ecological networks and the overarching Natura 2000 network in the production of food and raw material is combined with generation of a diverse range European Union have forced authorities to develop more integrated and participatory of benefits and services. Agriculture and forestry are multifunctional by their very approaches for the management of the protected areas (e.g. Bogaert & Gersie 2006; nature. In addition to food and timber, they produce recreational opportunities, aes- Ledoux et al. 2000; Hiedanpää 2005; Suskevics & Külvik 2007). Increasing interest thetic values, local entrepreneurial opportunities, rural livelihoods and wellbeing as in adaptive ecosystem management is also one indication of the emerging paradigm well as ecological integrity and biodiversity. Ecological functions do not represent a shift (Folke et al. 2004, EC 2006). minor service but are often the crucial precondition for all other production (Folke et The multiple functions of agriculture and forestry are in the focus of much aca- al. 2004, Chapin et al. 2000). demic debate (e.g. Evans et al. 2002; Marsden 2003; Mather et al. 2006; McCarthy A frequently cited definition of the OECD has termed the following as the key ele- 2005; Wilson 2004), while at the same time the governance structures in rural devel- ments of multifunctional production systems: i) the existence of multiple commodity opment and natural resource management are changing (Pierre 2000; Rhodes 1996). and non-commodity outputs that are jointly produced, and ii) the fact that some of the This political process requires sensitivity from institutions and novel institutional non-commodity outputs exhibit the characteristics of externalities or public goods, capabilities. The multifunctional use of resources and landscape will require a much with the result that markets for these goods do not exist or they function poorly more diverse set of skills and systems than management for a single output – e.g. (OECD 2001: 13). Characterised in this way, multifunctionality is, in the first place, nature conservation areas (Wolf & Primmer 2006). an economic concept capturing economic and policy characteristics of the production In this paper we elaborate the institutional challenges for enhancing integration of process. We, however, argue that multifunctionality is, in essence, a political concept. biodiversity policies into local multifunctional land use practices. We will explore The relative societal weight of the multiple functions of agriculture or forestry and institutional capabilities supporting or constraining multifunctional governance. Like their contribution to rural livelihood evolve over time; as does the range of actors Healey et al. 2003, we look at the processes which allow [or hinder] institutional ca- participating in defining these functions. pability development. We posit that institutional capabilities are continually emergent Lately, the discussion on multifunctionality has accelerated as the European Union and produced in an interactive context (Hajer & Wagenaar 2003). As such they entail (EU) has adopted the notion when defending agricultural subsidies within the World knowledge resources and skills, social and relational resources (including trust) as Trade Organisation (WTO) negotiations concerning the liberalization of the agricul- well as mobilization capabilities (Healey et al. 2003). The latter refers to resources to tural trade (e.g. Potter & Burney 2002). EU has taken an active role in integrating act collectively, capture external attention and to make difference. We argue that the environmental and rural development considerations more prominently into agricul- full recognition of multifunctionality provides new opportunities for sectoral integra- tural policy (e.g. Buller et al. 2000). The most relevant policy changes, in this respect, tion and for the development of capabilities in planning. It can also contribute to refor- have been the de-coupling of agricultural support from production, and support for mulation and mobilisation of interests and shift in power, as the focus reaches across agri-environmental and rural development measures. policy sectors and levels. Multifunctionality entails a potential for empowerment. In forestry, the discussion on multifunctionality has focussed on how to manage We draw on experiences gained from three case studies, in which different kinds of forests for multiple purposes. Integration of conservation and timber production on institutional arrangements have been developed in order to better acknowledge the mul- the one hand (Lindenmayer & Franklin 2002), and recognition of the broad range of tifunctional character of natural resource use. We will first shortly introduce the case benefits on the other (Bowes & Krutilla 1989; Hyttinen et al. 2000; Cubbage 2006), studies and analyse how the capabilities have been produced in practice, and then pro- have been the main streams of development towards multifunctional forest manage- ceed to comparative analysis, and further, to conclusions about the status of institutions ment. This reflects a demand-driven policy with societal expectations that increase and capabilities that support multifunctional land use and biodiversity conservation. in range (Rantala & Primmer 2003; Nijnik & Mather 2006) and are expressed by an expanding number of groups in society for an ever growing area of forest concerned 2. Case-studies on multifunctional governance (Konijnendijk 2000). Multifunctional forestry has also become institutionalized in European Union policy and more specifically in, for instance, Flanders (Belgium), The processes we describe are about implementing biodiversity policy. The first Finland and United Kingdom where forest legislation rests on the principle of inte- case focuses on the collaboration challenges confronted in the implementation of grated management for multiple benefits from the forests. The criteria and indicators a regional ecological network and the preparation of management plans for Natura 56 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 57 2000 sites in multifunctional landscapes in Flanders, Belgium (Bogaert 2004). Our objectives. This information, displaying eventually also knowledge gaps, would form second case is about grounded general planning as a tool to overcome the gap from the basis for all further decisions as it defined the limits to be respected by a sector in individual to collective action in agro-biodiversity management in Finland (Kaljonen order to attain its policy objectives. 2007a; Härjämäki & Kaljonen 2007). Third, we analyse practices around a Collabo- The original conditions and the general objectives were then operationalized as rative Networks project which aimed at deriving multiple benefits from voluntary specific objectives and conditions for the project area. Then, the potential impact of biodiversity conservation and local collaboration in the very traditional and institu- river and flood control measures on the crucial ecosystem characteristics of the area tionalised forest sector in Finland. (Primmer & Keinonen 2006).1 In studying these and the legal aspects that determined the functioning were defined and analysed. cases, we make an effort to identify the institutional contexts where the case proc- Finally, to have a reference for the importance of the area, every sector evaluated the esses develop, as well as the development and application of shared capabilities to present characteristics of the project area in relation to the desired objectives and had deal with multifunctionality and biodiversity across policy sectors and levels. to express possibilities for alternative ways to realise their goals. Building institutional capabilities with this type of planning process would only 2.1 Conditions and institutional capabilities for biodiversity action plans, involve civil servants of relevant administrations and authorities. Further success was learning from participatory river basin management gained when the procedure put emphasis on equivalence of the parties involved and transparency of the rationale that had led to the decisions. Direct involvement of On several occasions the closed character of nature policy arrangements has ren- stakeholders in the planning and management processes required another approach. dered it impossible to reach the agreed objectives. This has been the case in Flanders, This became clear in river catchment planning where stakeholders, economic and Belgium (Bogaert and Gersie 2006). In order to ensure the successful implementation public interest groups, government bodies and experts worked together to achieve an of nationwide biodiversity conservation initiatives and action plans in multifunctional integrated valley development plan that could be the start for appropriate flood pre- regions, such as Natura 2000, and to facilitate the effective elaboration and adoption vention measures and accompanying nature conservation and development (Ridder of associated management plans, such as Nature Directive Plans, an appropriate strat- et al. 2005; Tàbara, 2005). egy that acknowledges the multi-actor setting and interests is required. A successful The prerequisites to yield proposals that are endorsed by the stakeholders concern strategy enables the concretisation and assessment of general objectives in local cir- group arrangements as well as the personal skills of the participants (Craps & Prins cumstances. The conditions and institutional capabilities required can be exemplified 2004). The presence of a skilled and independent convenor, accepted by all partici- through collaborative planning processes in complex situations, for instance in our pants and able to guide the process, is a first condition. In practice, this is not always case on river basin management. easy to achieve. In the process studied by Craps and Prins, the convenor was also Planning and managing the complex interrelations between biodiversity, land use the initiator of the project, a public officer the other participants initially strongly and ecosystem functions, and at the same time involving the public and stakehold- identified with a particular interest. In such a case, it was difficult to avoid combin- ers to the full, requires an integrative way of working that synthesizes a wide range ing roles; a person could not be a convenor and an advocate of nature interests at the of information and knowledge. Traditionally, this is achieved by involving different same time. Today, this is one of the most important constraints in the preparation of policy sectors that link with particular ecosystem functions and services which, at the the Nature Directive Plans for Natura 2000 and comparable complex conservation same time, represent the interests and stakeholders related to these particular func- sites in Flanders. tions. In order to achieve integration in a balanced and transparent way, every deci- Openness about and willingness to share information and basic data are important sion formulated in the plan should be made with full and expressed knowledge of the also for the legitimacy of representatives. This is possible through regular feedback to consequences of that particular choice for the characteristics of the whole system and their constituencies. The latter requires a well established structure of the stakeholder for the future development of its different functions. organisations, adequate procedures of internal communication and punctual repre- One way to integrate functions is through a plan elaborated along successive phases. sentatives. Collaborative and participatory planning in this project was found to be This has been applied for instance for the management and flood control of rivers (De time consuming. This can be a considerable burden for people who take up this task Blust et al. 1990). In the first phase of this case, all participating sectors defined their in their free time. Hence there is a risk of withdrawal. To overcome this, authorities “general objectives”, the corresponding ‘general prior conditions’ (spatial, environ- should provide adequate incentives to support the participation of stakeholders. mental, legal), and the conditions which were a prerequisite for reaching the stated Craps & Prins (2004) have found that in larger groups and in complex projects, preparatory activities often take place in separate groups. When different groups,

1 The empirical data and technical analysis are described elsewhere. Please consult the detailed case study reports, however, function as official or as informal working groups there is a risk that the first indicated in the references. would lag behind while in the latter the social learning process develops quickly. As a 58 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 59 consequence, the information and mutually agreed decisions that are passed from the all relevant local actors and interest groups were represented. Two general meetings informal to the formal groups might not always translate well. were also organized for the farmers, where they could ask questions, comment on the plan and bring up their own ideas about potential sites. 2.2 Regional agro-biodiversity management planning As environmental officials hold a marginal position in the farming community, they are compelled to create good arguments to justify their actions and to develop tools The agri-environmental schemes of the European Union have significantly changed that enable co-operation between different actors. The regional biodiversity manage- the Finnish agri-environmental policy through offering novel policy measures and a ment planning proved to be a powerful tool for this, the results of which could be significant amount of resources for enhancing the multifunctional character of ag- directly seen in the numbers of SPS contracts made in the planning areas (Härjämäki riculture. The European policy is based on the idea that farmers should be paid for & Kaljonen 2007). According to our analysis, the planning offered conditions for providing environmental services. The Finnish model consists of general and special local learning. It managed to take into account the locally varying environmental protection schemes (GPS and SPS) (MAF 2006; EC 2005). The GPS was built to conditions and to use the farmers’ experience-based local knowledge which has been compensate for the decline in farm income caused by EU membership since 1995. central to their relationship with nature (see also Kaljonen 2006). It managed to do Largely due to the importance to farm income, some 90% of Finnish farms are con- even more: it enabled a flexible interchange between the different scales. It allowed a tracted to GPS (MAF 2004). The SPS was built to address particular environmental thorough exchange of detailed ideas of how one particular site could be managed and protection needs and it consists of more focused actions for e.g. biodiversity manage- funded, together with a broader perspective on the rural environment. ment. The agricultural and environmental administrations are together in charge of Despite the potential for local learning, the room of manoeuvre offered for farm- the implementation of the policy. Also advisors take part in the practical guidance ers was still rather limited. The ways in which the sites are associated with farming and planning. The policy implementation has established a co-operational routine activities is critical to the farmers’ ability to manage the sites and to help the biodiver- between the two sectors and helped to create a shared understanding of the agri-envi- sity recover. Through planning, the societal effects of changes in agricultural produc- ronmental problems and their possible solutions (Kaljonen 2007b; Kröger 2006). tion come back to farms as ecologically valuable or potentially restorable sites. As a In terms of biodiversity conservation, the implementation of the schemes has, how- meadow gains a status of an ecologically valuable site, the farmer should accordingly ever, encountered a two-fold institutional ambiguity (Hajer 2003). Firstly, the main change his/her practices, and to comply with the scheme conditions, clear the thicket, emphasis of the Finnish programme has been on water protection, and biodiversity mow the grass and let the animals graze the pasture. The farmer must rearrange his/ is only slowly gaining more attention (Jokinen 2000; Yliskylä-Peuralahti 2003). Sec- her farming practices and create a new set of associations that enable the management ondly, the biodiversity management contract areas have been sporadically distributed of the meadow in a traditional way. Active farmers, who are investing intensively in in an otherwise intensively farmed landscape. This has not allowed conditions for the production, have difficulties in associating the management of valuable ecological dispersion of populations from one area to next (Kuussaari et al. 2004), which is a key sites and traditional practices with their farming activities. By contrast, those farm- condition for the recovery of biodiversity. The contracts should be allocated to ecologi- ers who have been able to associate biodiversity with bringing direct added value to cally valuable areas and to a large enough group of farms. Resolving these ambiguities their businesses have succeeded better with the management. These farms include calls for collective action and re-assessment of scale in the implementation of policy. e.g. meadow meat producers, tourist farms or small part-time farms that gather their As a response to these problems, more than fifty regional biodiversity management livelihood from many different sources. Regional planning has supported these farms plans have been carried out throughout Finland (Härjämäki & Kaljonen 2007). The in starting up with biodiversity management and diversifying their livelihood. goal of the planning has been to increase the amount of SPS contracts, to allocate Paradoxically, the more biodiversity is subject to management, the more it is demar- them to the most valuable areas, to enhance co-operation and to build a relation- cated from the sphere of agricultural production. Regional biodiversity management ship of trust with farmers. The Regional Environmental Centres have mainly been in planning has not been able to challenge the boundary between productive space and charge of the planning. In practice, planning consists of field and map work as well nature created by the modern intensive agricultural systems. Although the primary as participatory meetings. In Vehmaa, in south-western Finland, for example, intense goal was the opposite, the associations built around ecologically valuable sites have field work and farm visits formed a central part of the planning (Kaljonen 2007a). perhaps even strengthened this boundary. Biodiversity might be considered a feature During the farm visits, the planners not only surveyed the plant species and potential of the past and be protected on the ecologically valuable sites, while agricultural management sites but also had a talk with the landowners, heard about the land use production continues to intensify elsewhere. Although the aim of the planning was history and discussed available management options. The farm visits had a strong to blaze a trail for biodiversity management in agriculture, it has ended up enforcing guiding role. In Vehmaa, there were also attempts to involve additional stakeholders the current rather limited interpretation of biodiversity management and the identity in the planning in various ways. The planning relied on a large advisory board, where of an environmental manager as provided by the agri-environmental schemes. In this 60 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 61 respect, the multifunctional character of agriculture still faces the challenge of trans- through ties of information input and output. The ties within the networks and with lation from policy rhetoric to daily practice and basis of livelihood. other actors tightened only slightly during the project when measured by frequency of contacts, but the value placed on communication grew. Participants in the network 2.3 Collaboration for biodiversity conservation in a network project organisations appreciated the collaboration within their network and found the ties to other actors increasingly useful as the project progressed. Learning from and about Finnish forest sector has ambitiously developed multifunctional forestry, and each other generated the highest added value. There was a better understanding of particularly conservation practices in commercially managed forests, through different interests, which allowed the gap between the two positions – the conserva- the inclusion of biodiversity conservation in norms, guidelines, planning and ex- tion oriented and the forestry oriented – to grow smaller. tension. This is partly a response to the proportion of forest area conserved in As the inter-organizational communication deepened and the organizations’ mu- Southern Finland being extremely low, ranging between less than one percent tual acceptance increased, the different compositions of organizations in the four and two percent in different regions. In addition to the conservation void, the projects gathered experiences on collaboration and information exchange to accumu- growing demand that has emerged for increased conservation is due to changes late knowledge. The strengths of the different actors were successfully utilized in the in citizens’ values (Horne et al. 2004), consumer values reflected through markets networking. Biological knowledge about nature in the environmental organizations (Kärnä 2003; Halme 2002), and international biodiversity conservation commit- was a key in evaluating ecological merits of the sites and in training forestry profes- ments. As a majority of the productive forest area is owned by several hundred sionals. On the other hand, existing ties between the forestry organizations and land- thousand non-industrial private forest owners, legitimacy of conservation is a owners made initial contact and negotiation easy, as there was mutual trust among the significant challenge for relevant policy design. The legitimacy crisis is rooted in negotiating parties. These competencies were mutually developed through training a practice where forestry administration has a close connection with land owners and through social learning in operational work. due to shared preferences and objectives focussing on timber production, while The collaborative network projects made 51 conservation contracts, covering an environmental administration carries out conservation programme implementa- area of 265 hectares, during the first two project years. There was a clear connection tion through negotiation and land takings. These differing practices have led to between these conservation results and information dissemination. While informa- a steep polarisation between the two positions in the society (Hiedanpää 2002; tive activities such as training and consultation produced conservation results in the Rantala & Primmer 2003). short time span, investment in development work limited resource allocation to these As a response to coinciding urgent needs to increase forest conservation in South- activities. This suggests that communication efforts were required for reaching the ern Finland, and to identify new conservation mechanisms, the Finnish Government large group of forest owners. Research and development work, on the other hand, did passed a Decision-in-Principle on the so-called Southern Finland Forest Biodiversity not contribute to rapid contracting. Its value was in that it promoted the pilot work at Programme in 2002 (METSO). This Programme has initiated new conservation in- a general level, through furthering information management, evaluation, and incen- struments in the form of pilot projects which have further been considered for nation- tive systems, as well as broadening the network. wide application (Horne et al. 2007). One of the pilots was the so called Collabora- The network projects could conserve such sites that the forest owners had been tive Networks. The four network projects were chosen through a two-round competi- willing to set outside economic use; or the ownership of which the forest owners were tive selection process. The network organisations included forest and environmental prepared to give up. In this system, the regional forestry and environment authorities authorities, educational organisations, forest owners’ organisations and nature NGOs carried out the administration. This created no or few costs to national level adminis- in varying combinations. tration. A political cost saving was generated through avoidance of conflicts. The network projects varied in terms of socio-ecological contexts: forest nature, The participating organizations placed high value on the learning and development socioeconomic ties to forests, and the histories that framed the forest and nature con- of new modes of collaboration. In the historically polarized institutional environment servation discourse in the areas. The pilot project objective, shared by all networks, of forest biodiversity conservation, the development of acceptance and trust was cer- was forest biodiversity conservation at a local level, based on voluntary, landowner- tainly valuable. But, how does a project form of activity support this integration proc- driven principles, where authorities, NGOs and other collaborating actors could par- ess further? Conservation of biodiversity got a boost through pilot projects, and the ticipate. Landowner collaboration was emphasised. learning experiences will be valuable when policy is further developed. However, the We found that all the networks were based on long-term inter-organisational col- projectification of conservation ran a risk of establishing a “status of exception” for laboration, with only a couple of actors having entered the network for this par- these efforts. The organizations involved expected compensation for their network- ticular project. Hence, the pilot did not establish new connections. The organisations ing efforts, and the networks established clear boundaries between the implementing were also connected with a large set of other actors (external to the network project) network organizations on the one hand and “other local collaborators” on the other. 62 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 63 These challenges of creating institutional adaptability and sustainability remain with and are therefore highlighted by those who have participated in projects where new the Southern Finland forest biodiversity conservation process. The conclusion can be situations with various stakeholders are faced, and where new collaborative practices drawn that local adaptation is important in bridging resource use and conservation are developed. Social learning is dependent on the presence of multiple actors with interests. Vertical guidance does not resolve the polarisation with similar success as variation in backgrounds. Favourable development in interpersonal relationships and does a common effort at the local level. The different actors can relax their sometimes trust contribute to social learning. opposite positions through shared targets, and a shared project. Social learning in multifunctional governance implies horizontal co-operation between different policy sectors and actors. In all our case studies the institutional 3. Institutional capabilities for multifunctional governance development was characterized by an apparent shift from a rather polarized or sec- torally divergent situation to actively promoted horizontal co-operation. Collabora- The three case studies highlight the institutional challenges of horizontal and vertical tive planning was developed and eventually appreciated by the different administra- co-operation in multifunctional governance. Facing these challenges requires novel tive sectors. The actors from environmental, agricultural and forestry sectors learned cognitive, social and relational as well as mobilization capabilities from the partici- that they needed to exchange resources [money, expertise and information] in order pating actors (Healey et al. 2003). In the following we will discuss those capabilities to achieve their objectives in the policy generating process. Here we can witness which we have identified as crucial, either due to their apparent positive influence in the form of governance Rhodes (1997, 660) has introduced: organisations are in- the process, or due to a lack of capabilities that has led to limitations in integrating terdependent, they take part in game-like interactions, the interactions are ongoing biodiversity conservation in natural resource management. We will then compare the and there is some autonomy from the formal state. The achievement of policy goals identified institutional capabilities and discuss their relevance in a wider policy set- through the practice of governance requires specific resources for networking and de- ting. We have summarized the dimensions of institutional capabilities in Table 1. velopment of social capabilities. The increased understanding and shared definitions were built on an integrated (or at least integrating) cognitive base which could be Tab. 1. Dimensions of institutional capabilities for multifunctional governance (modified from rather purposefully developed or technically facilitated through, for example, physi- Healey et al. 2003, 65) cal tools or training. In collaborating to gain concrete utility, the representatives of different sectors would apply a narrow rationale but as their positive experiences The range of knowledge resources, explicit and tacit, systemized went beyond gaining benefits, towards shared definitions and objectives, the collabo- and experiential Cognitive capabilities The capacity to absorb new ideas and learn from them ration led to collective reformulation of institutions (Vatn 2005). - Flexible and mutable tools enabling different interpretations and While the cases included positive experiences of overcoming sectoral or institu spatial manifestations of multifunctionality tional boundaries, these were dependent on connections between actors who trusted each other initially, or on facilitators or convenors that could support communication The range of stakeholders involved in the policy process Social and relational capabilities between traditionally distant actors. This finding is very common in collaborative Thickness and scope of the networks natural resource management studies (Forester 1999; Hiedanpää 2002; Healey et al. Room of manoeuvre; institutional inheritance 2003; Schusler et al. 2003). The risk with this kind of a governance model is that it Mobilization capabilities Horizontal and vertical policy structures and resources available may lead to co-operation only in those fields where agreement already exists and issues of conflict are left aside. Open discussion on conflicts is easily seen as a risk for 3.1 Horizontal co-operation the trustworthy relationship that has been developed between the different sectors. This is evident also in our case studies. The practice of consensus seeking is especial- Our case studies exemplify the ways in which different sectoral organisations have ly typical for the implementation phase and conveys incremental changes (Kyllönen made significant investments in the development of new skills, cognitive resources, & Raitio 2004; Kaljonen 2007b). Reaching practical results implies co-operation and and planning tools or hardware for multifunctional governance. These, together with compromises. experiential learning, depict paramount investments and development in cognitive The practice of consensus seeking raises questions about power relationships be- capabilities. Conscious investment in human capital and organizational resources re- tween the different actors and their ways of framing the problem. This relates to flects strategic thinking where future successes are expected to depend on learning mobilization capacity. Our case studies indicate severe imbalance in the problem now (Wolf & Primmer 2006). But as our case studies have shown, learning is not only framing. The notion of multifunctionality would imply a much more thorough hori- strategic; it takes place in negotiations and through routines (Simon 1997). Experien- zontal integration than what was witnessed in our case studies. Biodiversity manage- tial learning, social learning, and learning through conflicts contribute to legitimacy, ment issues are still to a great degree dealt with disjointedly between sectors and, 64 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 65 at the same time, economic activities undermining ecological integrity and natural allocation of the resources and a re-scaling of policy could really take off (Kaljonen resource-dependent livelihoods are handled in segregated processes. In the forest 2007b). The mobilisation capability is restrained by the institutional inheritance of biodiversity conservation networks, the high expectations for business and liveli- the particular governance model. hood development have not realised due to a lack of actors with this type of focus. For local communities to gain more autonomy and initiative in developing solu- The projects have focussed their technical solutions around conserving sites, learning tions for sectoral integration and multifunctional natural resource management, they about biodiversity conservation, and developing strategies that serve these ends, pos- would either require some level of a political mandate to do so or, alternatively, they sibly due to the professional division of labour. The experiences gained from regional should accumulate a will and an organised attempt towards that end. In the case of agro-biodiversity planning in Finland indicate the same problem. forest biodiversity conservation networks, there has been an identifiable tendency to Capability to mobilize a new policy frame is closely related to cognitive resources frame the collaboration patterns right from the outset. Some of the framing has been and ways in which different forms of knowledge are utilised in policy practice. Just done at the national level, which limits local initiatives. For mobilisation capability like the perceptions of ideal status of nature, also changes in landscape generate dif- to develop, space for locally embedded solutions is paramount. While all our cases ficulties for policy makers because the natural living environment is distanced and contain some elements of local initiatives and solutions in combining existing eco- objectified when transferred to policy processes. This tends to produce abstract space nomic activities with new conservation efforts, these are very strongly limited by the and nature and purify the associated norms in such a manner that science focussing centrally led problem framing. Vertical gaps are perhaps most critical in nature con- on biodiversity conservation gains the privilege of dictating how natural resource servation policy: the strict conservation targets of Natura 2000 which are set out at management should be modified, e.g. which period of history with a particular im- the European level lay down a rather strict framework for establishing management pact of land use on biodiversity should be taken as a reference. This association can options at the local level. distance the practitioners from their experience-based knowledge. While biodiversity experts are assigned to deal with conservation, those holding other knowledge will 4. Discussion adhere to their territory, and sectoral boundaries are reinforced. The traditional approach to nature conservation, i.e. the setting aside and exclusive 3.2 Vertical co-operation and empowerment management of specially designated sites can no longer be the solely applied methods in biodiversity conservation. Large managed areas that provide multiple benefits Resources allocated to local processes frame the outcome of the processes (see also to society are essential for ecological integrity. The coverage of these areas where Bruce 2006). As resources come with policies and guidelines, this involves a lot of biodiversity has to be maintained forces authorities to adapt policies and procedures institutional framing from top to bottom. Learning and transferring institutional ca- and to take multifunctional land use seriously. pabilities from the local level to higher policy levels are also of importance for policy When traditional monofunctional concepts of countryside fade and the importance learning and for the outcome of the processes. of multifunctional land use is embraced, the externalities and uncertainties pose nu- The case studies revealed considerable gaps in vertical co-operation and learning. merous challenges to policy makers and practitioners. Multifunctionality reinforces a The co-operative modes of action created conditions for local learning and in so do- need to develop planning and collaboration. Adaptive institutions with active public ing supported the social conditions for biodiversity management. While the local col- involvement in controlling the tenure, management and production of multiple public laboration in our cases was very much adapted to the particular context, it is obvious goods become increasingly influential. The traditional division of labour and respon- that generalising from local to e.g. national level was not straightforward. Sectoral sibilities between the policy sectors and levels is ineffective in addressing the issues policies are even more divergent at the state-political level. put forward in the integration of environmental protection and production concerns. In our case studies, on the other hand, the organisations explicitly employed some The need for cross-sectoral co-operation and participative planning arises expressly tools in order to facilitate the interpretation of local experiences upwards. Biodiver- from the necessity of simultaneously dealing with multiple objectives and multiple sity conservation was illustrated and transferred between policy actors and levels framings. This type of change requires innovation, learning and new capabilities. through maps, planning tools and evaluations. The experiences from Finnish agri- Also the deliberating context of mutable and flexible policy measures, planning tools environmental policy, for example, show that although the regional planning practice and technologies need to be given special attention. has helped the environmental sector to gain more resonance to their policy goals at Politics and policy making are not simply about finding solutions to pressing prob- the local level, it has not been able to proceed with reframing at the national level. lems but are as much about finding arrangements that generate trust among mutually At the national level the interests of safeguarding the continuation of Finnish agri- interdependent actors. If problems cannot be solved within the preconceived scales cultural production have been so strong that a discussion on environmentally based and sectors of governing, new practices of policy making will be needed to secure 66 Minna Kaljonen, Eeva Primmer, Geert de Blust, Maria Nijnik and Mart Külvik Multifunctionality and biodiversity conservation – institutional challenges 67 problem solving without the back up of a shared constitution. In this case, politics Folke C. Carpenter S., Walker B., Scheffer M., Elmqvist T., Gunderson L., Holling C.S. 2004. is also about defining what a legitimate political institution is (Hajer 2003). In de- Annual Review of Ecology. Evolution and Systematics; 35:557-81. veloping institutional capabilities for multifunctional governance, this latter notion Forester J. 1999. The Deliberative Practitioner. Encouraging Participatory Planning Proc- deserves careful elaboration both from policy and research practice. esses. The MIT Press; Cambridge, Massachusetts. Hajer M. 2003. Policy without Polity. Policy Analysis and the Institutional Void. Policy Sci- Acknowledgements ences; 36:175-195. Hajer M., Wagenaar H. [eds.] 2003. Deliberative Policy Analysis: Understanding Governance This article was launched at the AlterNet workshop ‘institutional capabilities for in the Network Society. Cambridge University Press; Cambridge. Halme M. 2002. Corporate Environmental Paradigms in Shift: Learning During the Course of translating biodiversity goals’ held in Helsinki in February 2006. We wish to thank Action at UPM-Kymmene. Journal of Management Studies; 39:1087-1109. all the workshop participatns for stimulating discussions, and in particular Eeva Fur- Härjämäki K., Kaljonen M. 2007. From meadows to a map and then to practice - Impacts of man for encouraging and supporting us in compiling this work. In addition, thanks regional planning for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes in Finland. 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All European countries have a large number of protected nature areas. Natura 2000 is the important European nature network. The Dutch Natura 2000 areas are part of The organization of nature compensation a larger network: the National Ecological Network (Ecologische Hoofdstructuur). The sites belonging to this network can have several protection standards. In all sites Janneke Vader, Pim Roza and Aris Gaaff interventions that may have significant negative effects on nature values are not al- LEI-Wageningen UR1 lowed. There is, however, room for exceptions when the intervention has reasons of PO Box 29703, 2502 LS The Hague overriding public interest and alternatives are absent. The damage inflicted must then E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] be compensated for. The nature compensation principle has been in effect since ten years. For the Natura 2000 sites, the principle is laid down in art. 6 of the Habitat Directive [EU, 1992]. Nature compensation for areas outside the Natura 2000 sites Summary obeys a similar, but not identical regulation. Recent evaluations and research on the observance of the compensation regula- - In the Dutch National Ecological Network a nature compensation principle is in ef tion in the National Ecological Network show that compensation is often applied fect. This means that interventions that may have significant negative effects on nature incorrectly or not at all, and sometimes is not even embedded in spatial plans. There - values are not allowed, unless there are reasons of overriding public interest, alterna are four main reasons for the shortcomings. First of all it is difficult, expensive and - tives are absent and inflicted damage will be compensated. The Dutch Ministry of Ag time-consuming to identify and acquire a location for the compensation measures. riculture, Nature and Food Quality wants the compensation practice to be improved and Secondly, the compensation principle is very complicated, and initiators often lack is interested in learning points from the compensation system in other countries. the necessary expertise. Furthermore, inspections and monitoring are minimal, for After a quick scan of a number of countries, the system of nature compensation, its there are not many enforcement mechanisms and no organisation feels explicitly re- - organisation and implementation mechanisms were analysed in more detail in Ger sponsible for it. Finally, compensation is relatively expensive for the initiator and many and England, which both have a national compensation regulation. does not give him/her much profit, while the risk of sanctions is small [Gjaltema and A number of important learning points for the Dutch system are found. In England and Burgering, 2006; Netherlands Court of Audit, 2007]. Germany consultation of third party (Natural England and Untere Naturschutszbehörde, The Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality wants the compen- respectively) is compulsory to ensure that nature interests are taken into account. In sation practice to be improved. The ministry and other governmental parties have England the agreed compensation measures are linked to the permission and laid down recently developed an integrated policy framework for the National Ecological Net- in a written agreement, often under private law to ensure the realisation. From Germany work, in which the instrument of nature compensation is incorporated [Ministry of it can be learned that a good registration system is necessary, like a compensation land Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality et al., 2007]. As input for the framework the registry. Interesting experiments in some German States might also have potential in the ministry wanted to know how the compensation principle is applied in other coun- Netherlands. One of them is the development of compensation banks (Flächenpools) tries, and requested LEI to analyse this. which means that a reservoir of compensation land is being purchased in anticipation of This chapter is a brief description of that analysis (see Vader et al., 2007 for the future building activities. Administrative and physical measures can then be realized in research report). In section 2 the research questions and methodology are described. advance and contiguously, preventing the development of ‘compensation islands’ and Section 3 sketches the nature compensation principle in the Dutch National Ecologi- resulting in higher nature quality. Another example is the so called incorporated nature cal Network. Section 4 describes a quick scan of nature compensation in some Euro- protection without functional change, for instance on agricultural land. pean countries, which is followed by more detailed case studies (section 5). Section The Dutch Ministry used the results of the case studies as input for a new integrated 6 presents a short discussion of the role of nature compensation in spatial planning. policy framework for the national Ecological Network. The chapter ends with conclusions and learning points. Keywords 2. Research questions and methodology Nature compensation, national ecological network, nature policy, spatial development, interest assessment The central questions that were investigated are: • 1 LEI participates in AlterNet as an associate of ECNC. How is the system of nature compensation arranged in other countries? 72 Janneke Vader, Pim Roza, Aris Gaaff The organization of nature compensation 73 • How do the accompanying mechanisms work? E.g. implementation in the ad- individual goal. There is no specific definition of the concept of ‘reasonable alterna- ministrative system; implementation in practice; embedding in spatial planning; tive’. In most cases alternatives consist of potential developments on different loca- monitoring and enforcement; registration and administration. tions, adjusted designs and/or a different construction. What is reasonable is mainly considered from the point of view of the initiator and the goal of the intervention. First a quick scan of the principle of nature compensation was made for a small This has often to do with financial and time aspects. In any case negative effects must number of countries/states: Germany (focus on North Rhine-Westphalia), United be mitigated and to the extent that this is not possible, compensation must be applied Kingdom (focus on England), France, Denmark, Sweden and Belgium (Flanders). for the damage done. At all times, the initiator (public or private) must prove overrid- This selection was based upon a certain similarity with the Netherlands with regard ing public interest and arrange for compensation. to public administration and/or urban pressure. The language aspect was also taken The nature compensation principle has a number of old and new conditions. There into account. Because of the fact that the United States have one of the oldest com- should be no net loss of nature values, be it in quality, quantity and coherence; compensation principles (in the Clean Water Act), this country was also involved in the pensation must be near the site in question or spatially connected to it; if the vicinity quick scan. requirements cannot be fulfilled, then qualitative or off-site compensation is accept- The quick scan consisted of a number of inventory aspects: able; when neither physical nor qualitative compensation is possible, financial com- • The presence of national nature protection policy and the existence of a nature pensation is required, and decision-making about the project and the compensation compensation principle in policies and/or regulations2; measures must be simultaneous [Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality • Implementation of compensation in practice; et al., 2007]. • The functioning of the administrative system. 4. The quick scan The quick scan was done by desk research and additional telephonic interviews. - Next, two countries were selected as case studies for further focus. Extensive ques There appeared to be little written information about nature compensation in the tionnaires were made, which were discussed with a number of key persons in the selection of countries and the knowledge was limited to a number of key persons. The respective governments and nature organisations. The research was done between results of the quick scan can be summarized as follows: July 2006 and February 2007. Results relate to that period. - All countries have nature protection laws and/or regulations; 3. An introduction to nature compensation - Only Germany and Flanders have an ecological network policy comparable to the Netherlands; The Dutch National Ecological Network is a network of existing and planned na- - Germany, England, France, the United States and Flanders have a nature com- ture areas. The relevant policy aims to protect, maintain, connect and develop the pensation principle; designated areas [Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment et al., - The need for compensation regulations differs per country and depends on the 2005]. The network is protected by spatial planning regulations, the zoning schemes. quantity and quality of existing nature areas, urban pressure, the presence of de- These zoning schemes are formulated and decreed by the municipalities, the lowest velopment, and cultural traditions; administrative level. The compensation principle is part of the spatial protection re- - In Flanders the principle exists, but is not yet being implemented. gime which is called the ‘no, unless’ regime. ‘No, unless’ means that interventions that may have a significant negative influence 5. The case studies on nature values are not allowed, unless they have reasons of ‘overriding public interest’ and there are no reasonable alternatives. Reasons of overriding public interest On the basis of the quick scan, Germany and England were selected as case stud- can be diverse, but are always of social, economic, environmental, or human health ies. Germany has much experience with nature compensation and some states have or public safety nature. The reasons can differ per situation. The development of a many similarities with the Netherlands. Also England has similarities, for instance residential area can in one occasion be considered as a large public interest, while in with regard to protection via spatial planning policy; it is also convenient in terms of other occasions this may not be the case. An example of an overriding public interest logistics and language. can be dike improvement. However, a public interest can never exclusively serve an We analysed how the system of nature compensation in both countries is organised and how the implementing mechanisms work. Attention was paid to the administra- 2 Only national compensation regulations were explored, not compensation within the framework of the European Habitat Directive. tive level rather than to physical compensation. The German case is more extensive 74 Janneke Vader, Pim Roza, Aris Gaaff The organization of nature compensation 75 than the English one, for in Germany nature compensation has a longer history and is Federal Nature Conservation Act (Bundesnaturschutzgesetz). This is a framework more common. The focus is on the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. law and has, except for some articles, no direct effect. Its regulations are translated into nature conservation laws at state level. The states (Länder) are also responsible The English case study for the identification of protected areas. England has a large number of protected nature areas and all have a long tradition In 2002 the Biotopverbund was created. This is an ecological network made up of of nature protection. Nature is protected in two ways: by law and by spatial planning. core areas, connection areas and connection elements. Just like the Dutch National At the national level, the so-called Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) are im- Ecological Network the Biotopverbund aims to preserve, restore and develop na- portant. In the SSSIs, nature compensation is part of the spatial planning regulation, ture. just as it is in the Netherlands. Germany introduced the principle of nature compensation as early as in 1976 in the Damaging activities must be avoided in SSSIs, but exceptions can be made for intervention regulation (Eingriffsregelung), which is part of the Bundesnaturschut- interventions that have reasons of overriding public interest for which there are no zgesetz. It is the main instrument in German legislation with regard to interventions alternatives. In these cases, mitigation and compensation are required. in protected nature areas. There is a large difference with the Dutch and the English There is no official guideline for nature compensation with regard to quantity, compensation regulation, for in Germany the regulation applies to all elements of quality, timing and execution. Compensation agreements are the result of a nego- nature and landscape inside and outside established protected nature areas. An inter- tiation process between the parties involved. These are the initiator, the planning vention in a protected area first requires an exemption before the Eingriffsregelung authority and Natural England. This latter organisation is the independent supervi- can be applied. For an intervention outside a protected area (Normallandschaft) com- sor unit with regard to nature and landscape in England3. By law4, the planning pensation under the Eingriffsregelung can be applied immediately, and under less authority (usually the local council) is obliged to consult Natural England when strict conditions. potentially damaging activities in SSSIs are involved. If Natural England disap- In Germany there is a distinction between the system of spatial planning inside proves the activity and/or the proposed compensation measures, the permission and outside built-up areas. Within the built-up area building planning is in force, cannot be granted. The agreed compensation measures will be linked to the permis- while outside the built-up area sector planning is active. In building planning the sion and laid down in a written agreement, often under private law. The initiator is principle of nature compensation is already incorporated in the building legislation responsible for the ecological research, the elaboration and the realization of the (Baugesetzbuch) and therefore no separate assessment of nature interests accord- compensation measures. The planning authority is responsible for monitoring and ing to the Eingriffsregelung takes place. In sector planning (e.g. road planning) control. The authority has enforcement instruments at its disposal, but bringing the principle of nature compensation (as laid down in the Eingriffsregelung) is a them to bear is at its own discretion. separate part of the decision-making process, which means that the Eingriffsrege- Since 1996 (the year that the Planning Policy Guidance came into force), and es- lung is directly applicable and should be adhered to. The conditions of the German pecially after the implementation of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act in 2000, nature compensation regulation are as follows. First, avoidance should be strived SSSIs are well protected. Although there is no compensation registration, interview- at, if possible. When avoidance is not possible, compensation must be similar to the ees believe that nature compensation is quite rare, even in areas with urban pres- nature values lost: the same nature values, at the same place or as near as possible. sure. Damaging interventions are mostly avoided, whenever alternative locations are When similar compensation is not possible, compensation must be equivalent: the available. In those cases where compensation is involved, it works well, according same nature values elsewhere and/or qualitative comparable compensation at the to the interviewees. Mitigation, however, is not always realized the way it should be. site or elsewhere. Finally, when physical compensation is not possible, financial Control and enforcement are often lacking, for the responsibility for this task is not compensation is the last option. well established in the organisational structure and there is no sense of urgency with regard to mitigation. The approval of interventions and compensation plans takes place at the level of the district (Kreis) or municipality. Large projects, however, are approved by the regions The German case study (Bezirke). In North Rhine-Westphalia the nature protection departments at district Germany has several national categories of protected nature areas, with different level must be consulted. In most cases, however, decision-making power rests with protection status; hence overlapping may occur. The categories are defined in the the district government. The responsibility for the realisation of the compensation lies with the initiator. 3 Formerly English Nature and parts of DEFRA (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) The responsibility for control and enforcement depends on the level of the com- and the Countryside Agency. 4 The Countryside and Rights of Way Act. pensation project. This can be the regional, the district or the local government. The 76 Janneke Vader, Pim Roza, Aris Gaaff The organization of nature compensation 77 higher the level, the better control and enforcement. The implementation of compen- society is becoming more and more dynamic, the national government envisages a sation in large projects on a regional level works relatively well. The districts and planning system with more room for regional and local government, private enter- municipalities might face 1,000 projects per year where compensation is involved. It prise and civil society. The wish for a more development-oriented spatial planning is impossible to check them all. system and a rearrangement of responsibilities is embodied in the National Spatial Registration of compensation measures and implementation takes place at several Strategy of 2005 (Nota Ruimte). Although planning in the National Ecological Net- administrative levels. The Nature Protection Department at state level publishes an work is still permission-oriented, the protection regime becomes more flexible and update every three years. In North Rhine-Westphalia since 2000, the districts keep a integrates development-oriented aspects. Important aspects are the possibility to shift compensation land register (Kompensationskataster) and the municipalities register boundaries of protected areas and the so-called ‘balance approach’. This allows for compensation projects in a land book (Grundbuch). This book gives insight in the the realisation of a set of building activities which, seen in isolation, have no over- location of the piece of land, the ownership, the designation and the obligations. riding public interest, but which can be combined with nature extension and nature The money available for establishing protected nature areas has declined over the improvement activities [Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment et years. As a result the nature compensation regulation became more important, for it al., 2005]. Nature compensation will also most certainly gain a more prominent role has a restraining influence on spatial developments. However, in recent years nature in development planning. compensation has been the subject of policy changes in the government of North Although the nature compensation principle fits into the permission planning phi- Rhine-Westphalia. In this period other interests, like economic interests, gained in losophy, it can also be regarded as a more development-oriented instrument. In Ger- importance and there were political shifts. The government tries to make the regula- many the compensation instrument is also seen as an instrument that makes building tion more flexible and less impeding for building activities, by shifting the focus from activities possible. The instrument prevents protected nature areas to be ‘locked’ for quantitative to qualitative compensation. In North Rhine-Westphalia urban pressure spatial development [Vader et al., 2007]. is high, which makes it difficult to find suitable and affordable compensation land. Of course both planning orientations will be of importance in the future. The way The objective is to use fewer new parcels of land and upgrade the quality of nature nature compensation will be used depends very much on the circumstances in each values in existing protected nature areas. individual situation, such as present nature values; to what extent lost nature values Also, more use is made of measures where more space is given to nature, while can be compensated for; the interest of the intervention; and the actions of nature the land keeps its original use, for instance extensive agriculture. This is also called organisations and other actors. incorporated nature protection without functional change and it keeps the costs low. In North Rhine-Westphalia, and also in other German states, experiments are 7. Conclusion: learning points and recommendations for Dutch policy taking place with a new concept called compensation banks (Flächenpools). A reservoir of compensation land is being purchased by municipalities and districts in Concerning the development and implementation of the compensation principle, anticipation of future building activities. Compensation measures can then be re- the Netherlands compares favourably with other European countries. In many other alised in advance and contiguously, preventing the development of ‘compensation countries the compensation principle has not been developed as far as in the Nether- islands’ and resulting in higher nature quality. The initiator does not have to spend lands. However, a number of aspects in the English and German case studies could time on finding a suitable compensation location and negotiations and can out- be taken into account when improving the Dutch regulation. source the nature management. And besides that, land can be bought when time is best, which can make compensation less expensive in the end. Compensation banks Nature authority can make the process of compensation easier and result in better compensation In England and Germany, consultation of a third party (Natural England and Untere nature. But as has been said before, in most cases the initiator remains responsible Naturschutzbehörde) is compulsory. In England, Natural England must agree or per- for the realisation of the physical compensation. New legislation might change this mission is not granted. This ensures that nature interests are taken into account. In the in future. Netherlands there seems to be a need for such a ‘nature authority’. The establishment of an independent supervisory unit, which will be consulted in 6. Discussion: nature compensation, an orientation towards permission or the permission negotiation to look after ecological interests and which is responsi- development planning? ble for monitoring and enforcement, can improve the realisation of nature compensation [Vader et al., 2007]. Such an organisation can examine plans and realization Spatial planning in the Netherlands has been based upon permission planning for of compensation measures much better with respect to content than for instance the a very long time. Land use plans were the basis for spatial developments. But since Council of State generally does. The nature authority can have additional roles such 78 Janneke Vader, Pim Roza, Aris Gaaff The organization of nature compensation 79 as expertise centre for nature protection, mediator, registration office, etc. [Kisten- References kas and Schmidt, 2006]. EU, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habi- More certainty for implementation tats and of wild fauna and flora (original text).OJ L 206; 22.7.1992: 7. The certainty of implementation can be further approved by laying down the en- Gjaltema, D., Burgering, M.A.J., 2006. The implementation of the compensation principle in gagements in an agreement under private law [Vader et al., 2007]. In the new line spatial interventions in the National Ecological Network (in Dutch). National Planning of policy for the Dutch National Ecological Network, such an agreement, combined Inspectorate Report, Arnhem: 1-47. with a bank guarantee, will be a compulsory part of the compensation regulation Kistenkas, F., Schmidt, A., 2006. A national nature authority? (in Dutch) Public Management; [Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality et al., 2007]. However, the com- 16, 11: 38-40. petent authority must show political will for enforcement and must have enough staff Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment, Inter Provincial Consultative organisation, 2007. Rules of play National to control and enforce. Ecological Network (in Dutch). VROM Report; The Hague: 1-53. A first requirement for enforcement is a good registration system, linked to a geo- Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Nature graphical database. In Germany there are several registration systems at different and Food Quality, Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Ministry levels. A registration system can contain various data such as ownership, date of of Economic Affairs, 2005. National Spatial Strategy, Space for development, part 4 (in purchase, compensation obligations, measurements and nature values realised. It Dutch); The Hague: 1-200. can also be extended with protected locations, their protection status and suitable Netherlands Court of Audit, 2007. Protection of nature areas (in Dutch). Report; The Hague: compensation lands. The system must be public. Such a registration book can also 1-66. provide insight into compensation practices for initiators and other actors. An annual Vader, J., Roza, P., Selnes, T.A., Gaaff, A., 2007. Nature compensation abroad; an analysis of report of compensation projects is part of the new policy in the Netherlands. nature compensation in other countries (in Dutch). LEI report No. 6.07.15; The Hague: 1-104. Compensation banks Compensation banks, together with compensation brokers, can make it easier and less expensive to identify and purchase suitable compensation land. Such land, of good quality and spatially contiguous, can be purchased in advance and at relatively low cost. In the Netherlands the provincial level would be suitable, but even national compensation banks are feasible.

Agri-environmental schemes as a compensation measure Certain types of farm land can be suitable for particular types of nature compensation while they maintain their agricultural designation and use. This can be cost-cutting, since the land does not have to be purchased and it will continue to yield some profit. The obligation for nature management must nevertheless be linked to this designation in the land title and be safeguarded for future changes of ownership. The same holds for the financial obligation of management.

Compensation inside and outside protected nature areas As the German case shows, the compensation instrument can also be applied outside protected nature areas. This does not mean that spatial development is excluded. It forces the actors involved to always take nature and landscape values into account and incorporate them into their plans. A software tool for designing cost-effective compensation payments for species conservation 81 eral relevance and wide application of this instrument, there is little knowledge on how to design cost effective compensation payments. This is not straightforward as it requires the consideration and combination of both ecological and economic aspects of conservation management. At the UFZ an ecological-economic modelling proce- A software tool for designing cost-effective compensation dure has been developed to quantitatively estimate cost-effective compensation pay- payments for species conservation ments (Johst et al., 2002, Drechsler et al., 2005). The procedure was tested using the example of the conservation of two endangered Large Blue butterflies in the region of Landau, Germany. It was implemented in the software EcoEcoMod which is avail- Martin Drechsler, Karin Ulbrich, Frank Wätzold, Karin Johst, Josef Settele able on the web (www.macman.ufz.de/tool). The aim of this paper is to describe the Contact address for all authors: software and its purpose. UFZ – Centre for Environmental Research, Permoserstrasse 15, D – 04318 Leipzig, Germany 2. Conservation problem and modelling procedure E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] The two species Maculinea teleius and M. nausithous are highly endangered in Europe and strictly protected by the EU Habitats’ Directive. They inhabit agricul- Summary turally used grasslands, and their survival depends on two resources: Great Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis) plants for egg deposition and larvae foraging and meadow Compensation payments to farmers who apply species-friendly farming activities ants for pupation in the ant nests (Elmes et al.,1998; Thomas et al., 2001). Mowing are a common instrument to reconcile nature conservation with agriculture in Europe. influences these butterflies in two ways. First, vegetation structure and thus the abun- However, there is insufficient knowledge on how to design cost-effective payments, dance of plants and ant nests on the meadows depends on the mowing frequency and i.e. payments that achieve maximum conservation for a given budget. Therefore, an second, mowing between mid-July and mid-August causes severe mortality in the ecological-economic modelling procedure was developed which is able to determine eggs and larvae on the plants (see Johst et al., 2006 and references therein). The con- cost-effective compensation payments as a function of the budget. This procedure is ventional mowing regime, i.e. the time and frequency of mowing, which the farmers implemented in the software EcoEcoMod. The software is available on the web and prefer for economic reasons, is often detrimental to the butterflies. Butterfly-friendly consists of a descriptive part and a simulation tool. It illustrates how the procedure mowing regimes, however, lead to profit losses for which the farmers have to be works on the example of the conservation of Large Blue butterflies. The user can se- compensated. lect a conservation budget and a conservation measure (various mowing regimes) and The modelling procedure integrates the available ecological knowledge on the simulate the ecological outcome of that choice. Comparing the ecological benefits of population dynamics of the butterflies (see Thomas and Settele, 2004) and the a given budget, the user can identify the cost-effective mowing regime and the cor- available economic knowledge on the profits of farmers from different mowing responding compensation payments for that budget. The software can serve as a tool regimes (Drechsler et al., 2005). The modelling procedure is able to determine for education, for demonstration, and for decision support and can stimulate further how the survival of the butterfly species in a certain region depends on the choice discussions about cost-effectiveness in conservation management. of mowing regime and the available budget, and which compensation payment has to be offered to farmers to implement this mowing regime. Comparison of the ecological outcome of different mowing regimes for a given budget allows the identi- Keywords fication of the cost-effective mowing regime and the corresponding compensation payments. Ecological-economic model, simulation model, Habitats Directive, software tool, biodiversity conservation, Maculinea, biodiversity, cost-effectiveness, decision support 3. Description of the software

1. Introduction The software EcoEcoMod consists (1) of the descriptive part dealing with the conservation problem and the modelling procedure, and (2) of the simulation tool. Compensation payments for measures to protect endangered species have become In the descriptive part, the section “Background” contains information about the a central instrument of European biodiversity conservation policy. Despite the gen- ecological and economic factors that need to be considered in the design of cost-ef- 82 Martin Drechsler, Karin Ulbrich, Frank Wätzold, Karin Johst, Josef Settele A software tool for designing cost-effective compensation payments for species conservation 83 fective compensation payments for butterfly-friendly mowing regimes. This section also presents the study region on which the simulation software is based. It is an area of 10 by 6 kilometres west of the town of Landau in the Rhine valley in Rhineland Palatinate with approximately 800 ha of grassland. The section “Model” contains information about the structure of the ecological-economic model which consists of an economic and an ecological module (Fig. 1). The economic module determines the compensation payment that is required to implement a particular mowing regime in a particular meadow. The ecological module calculates the survival probability of the butterflies if a certain number of the meadows in the region are mown according to this specific mowing regime (in the following called ‘promoted mowing regime’). The ecological-economic model was implemented in the simulation tool and equipped with a user-friendly interface which can be downloaded in the section “Simulation”.

Fig. 2. User interface for data input and simulation (www.macman.ufz.de/tool)

The ecological simulation starts after defining the number of runs and the time hori- zon. The meadows containing butterflies at the end of the simulation are displayed on the map. A diagram shows how the meadow area occupied by the butterflies under the selected mowing regime develops over time. By comparing the ecological output of Fig. 1. The economic-ecological model different mowing regimes for a given budget the most cost-effective mowing regime can be identified. The interactive simulation tool requires a number of inputs from the user and provides output of the economic and ecological modules (Fig. 2). As the first user input, 4. Purpose of the software the promoted mowing regime has to be selected from scroll-down menus. The user selects the mowing frequency (e.g. every year), the time of the first cut (e.g. the last The software presents an ecological-economic modelling procedure to design cost- week of May), and the time interval between the first and the second cut (e.g. six effective payments for conservation measures and applies the procedure to Macu- weeks). A total of 112 different mowing regimes may be analysed. The potential linea conservation. Therefore, it is targeted at users with an interest in cost-effective costs for applying this regime instead of the conventional one appear in a table which conservation management as well as at users with an interest in Maculinea conserva- contains the attributes of all meadows (e.g. position, area, humidity, and soil index). tion. The software allows individual learning about the relevant issues including uni- Next, the budget for compensation payments for the entire region has to be chosen versity teaching but it may also be used in consultation processes with stakeholders and compensation payments per hectare are calculated that are required to induce the (cf. e.g. Mysiak et al., 2005). Potential users include public administration, NGOs, promoted mowing regime in the landscape. The areas with the promoted mowing researchers, teachers and students dealing with conservation, as well as interested regime are determined and marked in the table. The user can press a button to display individuals. The software is meant as a decision support tool to stimulate discussions these areas on the map of the study site (Fig. 2). about the choice of management measures and to help in estimating their conse- 84 Martin Drechsler, Karin Ulbrich, Frank Wätzold, Karin Johst, Josef Settele A software tool for designing cost-effective compensation payments for species conservation 85 quences in terms of cost-effectiveness and effect on butterfly populations. However, References as concerns of cost-effectiveness are not very widespread in the conservation debate (Wätzold and Schwerdtner 2005), the software is also meant to increase awareness Curtis, R., Goodger, B., 2001. The quality and isolation of habitat patches both determine about the need for cost-effective conservation which contributes to the reduction of where butterflies persist in fragmented landscapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of conflicts between conservation and agriculture. London B, 268, 1791–1796. In order to reach the target audience, an article (Wätzold et al., 2006) has been Drechsler M, Wätzold F, Johst K, Bergmann H, Settele J (2007), A Model-based Approach published in the journal “Natur und Landschaft” which is widely read among German for Designing Cost-effective Compensation Payments for Conservation of Endangered conservationists. Furthermore, a small brochure describing the software is being dis- Species in Real Landscapes. Biological Conservation 140, 174-186. tributed by the software developers at national and international conservation-related Elmes, G.W., Thomas, J.A., Wardlaw, J.C., Hochberg, M.E., Clarke, R.T., Simcox, D.J., 1998. conferences and workshops. The ecology of Myrmica ants in relation to the conservation of Maculinea butterflies. Journal of Insect Conservation, 2, 67–78. In order to reach an international as well as a German audience, the software is Johst, K., Drechsler, M., Wätzold, F., 2002. An ecological-economic modelling procedure to available in English and German. It can be used free of charge; but before the simu- design effective and efficient compensation payments for the protection of species. Eco- lation tool can be downloaded the user has to accept a license agreement not to use logical Economics, 41/1, 37-49. it for commercial purposes and to fill in a form with a few simple questions regard- Johst, K., Drechsler, M., Thomas, J.A., Settele, J., 2006. Influence of mowing on the per- ing his or her motivational background and geographic origin. This information is sistence of two endangered large blue butterfly species. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, helpful for the software developers in assessing the potential impact of the software. 333–342. Furthermore, users are invited to provide feedback via e-mail which may suggest Mysiak, J., Gipponi, C., Rosato, P., 2005. Towards the development of a decision support improvements to the software. system for water resource management. Environmental Modelling and Software 20/2, 203-214. 5. Concluding remarks Settele, J., Thomas, J.A., Boomsma, J., Kühn, E., Nash, D., Anton, C., Woyciechowski, M., Varga, Z. (2002) MACulinea butterflies of the habitats directive and European red list as The software responds to the demands that management decisions should be found- indicators and tools for conservation and MANagment (MacMan). Verhandlungen der ed on a prognosis based on current knowledge - however limited it may be - rather Gesellschaft für Ökologie, 32, 63. than on gut feeling (Ulbrich et al., 2005). The immediate threat to many species Thomas, J.A., Bourn, N.A.D., Clarke, R.T., Stewart, K.E., Simcox, D.J., Pearman, G.S., Cur- requires active management that should be based on an understanding of population tis, R. & Goodger, B., 2001. The quality and isolation of habitat patches both determine dynamics and of economic considerations as well. Educational and support tools al- where butterflies persist in fragmented landscapes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of low the early and continuing involvement of stakeholders and increase the awareness London B, 268, 1791– 1796. among natural resource managers how this knowledge can be used to improve man- Thomas, J.A., Settele, J., 2004. Butterfly mimics of ants. Nature, 432, 283–284. Ulbrich, K., Drechsler, M., Johst, K., Wätzold, F., Bergmann, H., Settele, J., 2005. A support- agement. Located at the science-society interface, the software aims to contribute ing tool for decision-making in Maculinea management. In: Settele, J., Kühn, E., Thomas, to the development of natural resource management tools related to conservational J.A. (eds.). Studies on the Ecology and Conservation of Butterflies in Europe, Vol. 2: issues. Species Ecology along a European Gradient: Maculinea butterflies as a Model. Pensoft, Sofia/Moscow. pp. 245-246. Acknowledgements Wätzold, F., Drechsler, M., Johst, K., Bergmann, H., Settele, J., 2006. Ein modellbasiertes Verfahren zur Entwicklung ökonomisch effizienter Kompensationszahlungen für Maß- The authors wish to thank Götz Nübel who helped in the programming of the simu- nahmen zum Schutz gefährdeter Arten. Natur und Landschaft (in press) lation tool. Wätzold, F., Schwerdtner, K., 2005. Why be wasteful when preserving a valuable resource? The study was partly funded by the European Commission within its RTD project A review article on the cost-effectiveness of European biodiversity conservation policy. MacMan (EVK2-CT-2001-00126; Settele et al., 2002). Biological Conservation 123, 327 - 338. New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 87 ing to the degree of genuineness, the interest of the nature conservationists has focused predominantly on the well-preserved, genuine geo-ecosystems. In terms of genuineness, rare and extraordinary biotopes, as well as aesthetically impressive associations (e.g. rock associations, carst biotopes, high-mountain biotopes) have obviously enjoyed New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic the highest interest among nature conservationists. Their protection can evidently be seen as a positive step. However, a consequence of this approach can be neglect and omission of other – ecologically and from services point of view important geo-eco- Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós systems with the assertion that “there is nothing to protect“. From the ecological point Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences of view such an approach is unacceptable and contradicory with the principle where Štefániková 3, 814 99 Bratislava. life conditions and forms preservation as well as with principle that the object of nature E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] protection should not be a randomly selected part but the landscape as a whole. The aim of modern environmental policies, often represented as sustainable development, is to preserve suitable conditions for life of mankind, as the biological, social and Summary economic species (anthropocentrism), but at the same time to preserve suitable conditions for life of all living organisms and the ecosystems (biocentrism). Conditions for the life of The paper presents a new concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic1. The mankind can only be sustainable if the conditions for life of all other species are preserved. concept is based on evaluation of the potential and real representative geo-ecosystes This requires the preservation of the natural functions and relations between all – includ- (REPGES). Geo-ecosystems are particular objects and bearing elements of geo-ecodi- ing nonliving – components of the landscape sphere (geo-biocentrism). According to the versity. They represent a certain landscape-ecological unit – the geo-ecosystem. Indi- ecological principles, species or associations are endangered if (Odum 1977) conditions vidual types of the REPGES have been determined on the basis of zonal (bio-climatic) for their life are not satisfactory, or they are spatially (geographically) isolated. conditions, most often represented by the vegetation zones in a landscape, and azonal These premises are the starting points for the basic principles of modern nature conditions: primarily quaternary geological ground and relief, secondarily soils and protection formulation. If we want to preserve maximal possible diversity of the liv- levels of underground water. We determined a total of 120 types of the REPGES in the ing systems – biodiversity – we will have to preserve also the maximum possible Slovak republic. They were evaluated on the basis of their current state of maintenance, diversity of the conditions of their life. The following principles should be explicitly endangerment and protection. It can be derived from the above that each territorial unit expressed: Conditions and forms of life –what should go first? If we preserve the has a representative geo-ecosystem, and each type of geo-ecosystem is somewhere conditions for life forms it follows that life will certainly also be preserved. However the representative one (i.e. a certain territorial unit exists with the representative oc- this does not work vice-versa! currence of the given type of geo-ecosystem). The strategic aim of the representative geo-ecosystem is to determine a representative geo-ecosystem for each territorial unit 2. Theoretical-methodical point on the given hierarchical level – the regional principle, and to determine a representative occurrence for each type of the geo-ecosystem – the typological principle. Concerning the traditions of nature protection in the Slovak Republic this criterion has been adopted as a compromise of both approaches and both models are therefore Keywords used in the new concept of nature protection (Miklós, Izakovičová, et. al. 2006) :

Representative geo-ecosystems, nature protection, ecological network, manage- 2.1 Model of natural heritage - natural, cultural and historical approach ment of protected areas, nature protection In fact, it is a traditional approach to nature protection. According to this model the 1. Introduction geo-ecosystems worth to be preserved and needing to be preserved are especially those geo-ecosystems which have retained their original and half-original state, rare biotopes, The traditional criterion and answer to the question “what should be protected?” has rarities, endemic associations, endangered associations, however, the geo-ecosystems been the degree of genuineness (originality) and the type of a geo-ecosystem. Accord- significantly affected by man are not considered to be worth of preservation. This approach is largely based on the assessment of the real state of biota, i.e. forms of 1 This contribution has been financially supported by GP 2/5071/27- Evaluation of the agricultural landscape in transitive economy life, while the main criteria are originality and natural character, rarity, degree of threat 88 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 89 and other traditional nature conservation criteria. Thus the most important question – medium protected “parks“ (national parks and landscape protected areas) with is “what the given geo-ecosystem is? and “what type of geo-ecosystem is it?” Nature some information centres, hiking trails, regulated amounts of visitors and regu- scientists consider primarily the geo-ecosystems with more or less genuine (original) lated recreational use in compliance with the above tenet, “parks for people“, forest and grass cover as worth preserving, but still only those possessing cultural and – free or regulated protection – a cultural landscape with agro-tourism but with the historical values. This is a model of selected real geo-ecosystems preservation. preserved territorial system of ecological stability. Note: As we have already emphasized, we do not judge this model as a negative Generally, the following model target states and target development of ecosystems one, as it may develop into new forms (e.g. ecomuseology). can be acceptable: – Natural development without interference of man with an anticipated change of 2.2 Landscape-ecological model the state being a result of successive processes. This target state can be applied to different current stages of protected areas development, e.g. primeval forests, In a real landscape the geo-ecosystems necessary for life of man, with vegetation where the development of forest ecosystems is predictable, but also meadow as- cover considerably affected or totally changed (e.g. agro-ecosystems, urban systems) sociations that, through progressive succession, are being transformed to forest exist. From the point of the life conditions assessment, they are considered very impor- ecosystems, wetlands associations, which can be changed by, for example, a dry tant with significant productive, soil and water protective, hygienic and climatic func- earth advance, etc. tions, having important influence on the surrounding geo-ecosystems (eco-stabilisa- – Conservation of a current natural state means preservation of the current unal- tion function), and other, so-called social-ecological, productive and cultural functions tered natural state which requires to fight against natural processes, e.g. mainte- (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2001). The criterion is therefore the functioning nance of not forested landscape of the carst plains requires to fight against natu- of a whole system, i.e. how it is able to fulfil its functions. That is why geo-ecosystems ral air semination, grazing, cutting the grass and wood, etc. with changed biota are also considered to be worth of preservation and should be pre- – Preservation of semi-natural ecosystems of nature and semi-natural landscape served. This is a model of whole-area preservation of potential geo-ecosystems. structures is the target state often characterized as „cultural landscape preser- Note: In comparison to the model of real geo-ecosystems preservation or the tra- vation“. This model state requires the restoration of original ways of landscape ditional approach to nature protection, the model of potential geo-ecosystems pres- management, e.g. terraced field farming, meadow-pastures farming, traditional ervation is an approach of the modern whole-area nature and landscape protection, viticulture, etc. where the landscape-ecological approach dominates. Apart from that, the preser- – Preservation of ecological stability of agro-ecosystems and of intensively used vation of a certain type of potential geo-ecosystems enable development of a great forest ecosystems, especially the case of intensive agricultural and forestry pro- number of types of real geo-ecosystems. duction requires the introduction of some complementary eco-stabilising compo- Although the level of nature protection in terms of number, area and quality of pro- nents to the landscape and adherence to eco-stabilisation measures. tected areas in Slovakia can sustain even a worldwide comparison, after the methodo- – Preservation of ecological stability of artificial systemsand of good environment logical scheme of representative geo-ecosystems application to the current system of especially in build-up areas requires specific management and frequent interven- protected areas, it has been found out that many representative geo-ecosystems are tions, e.g. maintaining favourable state of parks and verdure in towns and villag- not protected at all. Still the protection of “attractive” types (carst or high mountain es, securing their gradual transition into, or interconnection with, the surround- types) dominates over “ordinary” types although there has been a significant shift ing landscape. towards the systematic ecological approach. The list of types of representative geo- ecosystems should serve as an ecologically based systematic framework for new 3. Methodology protected areas (according to the analysis of insufficiently protected representative geo-ecosystems) designation, as well as for methodical proposals of biocentres of On the basis of the representative geo-ecosystems (REPGES) a concept of nature the ecological network (in the Slovak republic ecological network is called territo- protection in the Slovak republic was elaborated (Miklós, Izakovičová et. al. 2006). rial system of ecological stability) on the regional level. The specification of suitable The list of types of representative geo-ecosystems should serve as an ecologically management of the protected areas and elements of the territorial system of ecologi- based systematic framework for new protected areas (according to the analysis of cal stability creates a basic par of this new concept of nature protection. In general, insufficiently protected representative geo-ecosystems) designations, as well as for an area can be managed differentially, such as: methodical proposals of biocentres of the territorial system of ecological stability – strictly protected, not interfered with areas (use for research, education, only ed- on the regional level. Geo-ecosystems are particular objects and bearing elements of ucational trails as a maximum of admissible interference), geo-ecodiversity. However, the definition of criteria for determination of representa- 90 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 91 tive geo-ecosystems is a very complex problem. Individual types of the REPGES in was taking place at the time of collectivisation under the socialist regime with typi- the Slovak Republic have been determined on the basis of: cal deforestation, drying-up and ploughing-up of the land. Progressive use of heavy – zonal (bio-climatic) conditions, most often represented by the vegetation zones machinery resulted in erasure of verdure, which created a deforested, monotonous, in a landscape. They are characterized according to the bio-conditions which are intensively agriculturally used landscape and unstable landscape. in their complexity expressed in 9 zones of potential vegetation. Apart from the deforestation, another serious consequence of intensive agriculture – azonal conditions, primarily quaternary geological ground and relief, second- was the extinction of some REPGES, especially in the geographical regions with ary soils and levels of underground water which are divided into 37 types. In a favourable nature conditions for agricultural development, with lowland and flatland real landscape, these conditions are expressed in a very complex way and they relief prevalence and occurrence of the most fertile soils and favourable climatic cannot be separated. The zonal conditions in a region cannot be changed at all, conditions (warm climate). while azonal – soils, water forms and relief – can, through investment of a cer- Urbanization, together with industrialization, has also played an important role in tain amount of energy, be partially changed or affected. the change of the REPGES natural structure, the negative impacts of which have been not only the expansion of man to natural ecosystems, but also production of pollut- In the Slovak Republic, by territorial synthesis of azonal and zonal conditions (have ants, noisiness, dustiness, radiation, etc., which also influenced the natural develop- been determined) altogether 120 potential REPGES types. The REPGES types have ment of many ecosystems. the character of potential geo-ecosystems, because they have been determined based From the spatial point of view, the mountain geo-ecosystems with the high rate of on abiotic conditions which represent a certain potential for the development of geo- natural ecosystems are regions with the highest ecological quality and high rate of ecosystems and are characterized on the basis of potential vegetation. original natural ecosystems. On the contrary, the least favourable ecological quality Many potential REPGES have been considerably changed when their poten- of spatial structures is in lowland areas, such as the Podunajská rovina Flatland, Po- tial vegetation has been replaced by either agro-associations, urban ecosystems dunajská pahorkatina Highland, Východoslovenská rovina Flatland, Juhoslovenské or eventually secondary forest. The next step for specification of the real geo-ec- kotliny Basins, Dolnomoravský úval Dell etc., where the large- area plough land or osystems is the evaluation of this current state of the potential geo-ecosystems, urbanized areas are the dominant elements of the landscape structure. The negative their maintenance and endangerment. The assessment of the overall alteration of ecological quality of spatial structures is also typical for basin regions (Zvolenská, REPGES was based on the synthesis of an index of ecological quality of spatial Turčianská, Žilinská, Žiarská, Pliešovská Basins, etc.), where the rate of eco-stabiliz- structure which reflects the rates of natural, semi-natural and anthropogeneously ing components does not exceed 30% of the total area. created ecosystems and their landscape-ecological significance, and an index of In terms of the index of originality of flora associations, some regions with a high originality of flora associations which reflects the rates of natural associations in rate of forest cover have a low rate of the index because the current forest cover is the studied area. a secondary forest with considerably changed species composition - the Považské podolie Basin, Turzovská vrchovina Uppland, Podbeskydská vrchpovina Upland, 4. Results the Borská nížina Lowland, Horehronské podolie Basin, Oravské Beskydy Moun- tains and Kozie chrbty Mountains, Moravsko-Sliezske Beskydy Mountains, etc. The evaluation of the REPGES was aimed at: The REPGES 13 has over 50% rate of natural ecosystems which, in a majority cas- – evaluation of the current state of the potential REPGES es are situated in montane out-of-reach areas, especially in the Vysoké Tatry Moun- – evaluation of the current state of the protection REPGES tains, Nízke Tatry Mountains, Veľká Fatra Mountains, Branisko Mountains, Krem- – evaluation of the position of the REPGES in the ecological network (in the Slo- nické vrchy Hills, Levočské vrchy Hills, Skorušinské vrchy Hills, Oravské Beskydy vak Republic the concept of ecological network is represented by the concept of Mountains, Oravská Magura Mountains, etc. the territorial system of ecological stability Protection of REPGES Current state of potential REPGES Based on the REPGES protection assessment and analysis of the rate of NATURA During the historical development, man has significantly influenced the structure 2000 components in the individual REPGES, the following general conclusions have of the REPGES, which has been manifested mostly by expansion of man to origi- been made: nal forest ecosystems resulting in their deforestation and subsequent transformation a) Among the lowland types of REPGES, no protection is provided for some domi- into agricultural land, especially arable soil. A massive intensification of agriculture nant types, in terms of area, ecology, production and economy, such as loess ta- 92 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 93 blelands, and highlands, terraces and proluvial cones. Of these types, areas proof habitats (Jongman 1996:, Nowicki et al. 1996:, Bunce et al. 1996:, Bailey 1995]. tected with the degree 4 and 5 of protection can be found rarely. Often this is not The TSES represents a whole-area structure of mutually interconnected ecosystems, caused by the protection of some characteristic structure of the type, but more of- their components and elements, which ensures diversity of conditions and forms of ten because of the occurrence of different curiosities and anomalies. This is be- life in the landscape. A backbone of territorial system of ecological stability, consist- cause these areas are intensively used for agriculture, and therefore not particu- ing of biocentres, biocorridors and interactive elements, represents the basis of the larly interesting for the “traditional” nature protection. term of ecological stability (TSES). In 1992, the EU established a European Ecologi- b) With regard to lowland types of REPGES, the most often protected areas are wet- cal Network, called Natura 2000, as part of the EU Habitats Directives. In 1995, 53 lands, alluvial forests, sand dunes and plains, which traditionally have been at- European countries established the Pan-European Ecological Network as part of the tractive for nature protection. Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy. REPGES must represent c) The last declared Landscape Protected Area (Dunajské Luhy Flood-Plain For- the core areas of the Ecological Network. ests) is located on lowland. This is evidence that the former “lack of concern” At the selection of the priority REPGES, in terms of nature and landscape protec- for these territories is hopefully the matter of the past and suggests a shift of nation and TSES creation, the following information should be considered in the order ture protection from the traditional cultural-natural-historical approach to the as they are presented: ecological one. a) the rate of the protected area of the REPGES d) Up to now, no individual basin has been declared as a protected territory. Some b) the index of the REPGES protection private “protected” basins have become protected as a product of national parks planning, thanks to the legislation which gives the same degree of protection to Among the types of REPGES not containing protected areas and having the zero in- buffer zones as to landscape protected area. It is necessary to say that such pri- dex of protection are indiscriminate upland plains with oak-hornbeam forests, plains vate basins are very important geographical units of Slovakia. in volcanic hilly regions with fir-spruce forests, indiscriminate hilly plains with beech e) Upland and hilly types of REPGES are quite well incorporated into the network forests and with fir-spruce forests, loess table-lands with oak-hornbeam forests, bro- of protected areas. Traditionally, karstic types enjoy the largest and best protec- ken lower hilly landscapes on the crystalline rocks with fir-spruce forests. tion. Because of the broadminded concerning the area of protected territories de- c) the overall area of REPGES occurrence claring, the flysch REPGES types on virtually the whole verge of External Car- d) the number of areas of REPGES occurrence pathian Arch have a very good protection, including klippen zone, where the individual klippen can be protected in the degrees 4 and 5 (the higest degree of na- Attention should be focused on the protection of the types of REPGES with the ture protection in the Slovakia). lowest number of sites of REPGES occurrence and at the same time with the lowest f ) Traditionally good protection is also typical for the REPGES types of mountain area of occurrence – in this respect the most endangered is REPGES - broken flysh, and high-mountain types, particularly in the degree 3 of nature protection (na- higher hilly landscapes with the dwarf-pine, the other severely endangered REPG- tional parks). ES are: hilly plains with the dwarf-pine, Karst plains with fir-spruce forests, plains g) Although the types of REPGES such as lower hills and uplands, submontane up- in volcanic hilly areas with fir-spruce forests, broken higher hilly areas on various lands and foreland of rolling country have lower degrees of protection, from the Mesozoic rocks with oak-mossy oak forests, extremely broken Karst slopes in higher ecological point of view they are very important in terms of the area and biopro- highlands with fir-spruce forests and extremely broken Karst in alpine mountains duction. with dwarf-pine. h) A similar situation has been observed in the case of the components of NATURA In the process of designation of the priority geo-ecological regions in terms of na- 2000, where protection is also predominantly focused on attractive forms of bi- ture and landscape protection, the following data should be considered in the order ota – endemic, rare, endangered, and similar types, reflected in the high overlap- as they are presented: ping with the current network of the protected areas. g) the index of ecological quality of spatial structure REPGES h) the index of originality of flora associations of REPGES Position of the REPGES in the ecological network - territorial system of ecological stability (TSES) In the projects of territorial system of ecological stability, attention should be focused on overall reinforcement of the ecological stability of the individual REPG- The European Ecological Network is the backbone of Europes nature, connecting ES. When selecting the components of the TSES (core areas, bodies and buffer ecosystems and species populations in Europe that are threatened by fragmentation zones), localities with original species composition should be preferred. If the men- 94 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 95 tioned localities are missing, new localities with natural original vegetation should The locality of the model settlement biocentre Suchá nad Parnou is the part of the be proposed, so that all types of REPGES have their representation and in every proposed supraregional biocentre Suchovský háj representing the newly proposed region the representative geo-ecosystem is preserved. Currently, there are 6 types biocentre in the Podunajská pahorkatina highland. The biocentre is situated in the of REPGES where new components of TSES are proposed to be created. From the northern part of the intravillain of Suchá nad Parnou. It includes the surroundings of regional perspective new TSES components have also been proposed to be created the church of St. Martin with adjacent garden and monument (Figs. 1-2). It is an area in the 97 geo-ecological regions, in 10 of which planting of natural and original of park character. associations has been proposed.

Realisation in practice – example of good practice

The creation and realization of the model elements of TSES (biocentre and biocorridor) on the basis REPGES was carried out in 2000-2002 on the example of the agricultural landscape of the cadastral areas of Suchá nad Parnou and Zvončín. These cadastral areas from the viewpoint of spatial ecological stability are the least stable areas in Slovakia. They are typical rural settlements with intensive agricultural production. The monofunctionally used large-block arable land is the dominant position in their present land use structure. Oak forests with quercus cerris, and oak-hornbeam forests of loess tables and oak forests with quercus cernis of loess hill lands are dominating in the study area. Specifically two model elements were realized – biocentre and biocorridor. The selection of localities for the model elements of TSES was influenced by more factors and was based on the following facts: • The area is located in an agriculturally intensively used area showing extremely low degree of ecological stability. The creation of TSES elements can be considered as a priority. • Plantation of the model elements is realized in connection with the realization of model ecological projects of regional TSES and landscape plan. • Willingness to give plots as well as human potential for the realization of the proposed elements of TSES. This factor is especially important because the property-legal relationships frequently complicated the realisation of the TSES. The owners of the plots for biocentre were the municipality and the church. The plot for the biocorridor was contractually agreed with the private farm Agropo, Ltd. Fig. 1. and 2: Urban bio-centre in the village Suchá nad Parnou and Hunting Association • Interest organizations (hunting association, school, church) want to participate in its realization and maintenance not only theoretically but also actively. It can be The present organization and the tree species composition was typical for the period a decisive factor of the creation of the functional networks of TSES as well as the of its foundation. The trees are more than 50 years old. Also unsuitable species (pine, implementation of sustainable development in practice. thuja) have been planted. The composition, spatial diversity and base for optimum species composition was absent. The proposed biocentre is the social zone of the Two model elements of TSES were realized together with the Hunting Association municipality and simultaneously it is to be a settlement biocentre. It was necessary Zelený háj Suchá nad Parnou, parish office and primary school in Suchá nad Parnou. to accommodate the requirements to these two basic facts. The basis of the proposal It was carried out in accordance with the Realization project of creation of the model of the biocentre was the analysis of the present state, spatial and species composi- elements of TSES in Suchá nad Parnou and Zvončín, elaborated by the Institute of tion of the tree vegetation as well as the gardening value of the trees. The aim of the Landscape Ecology SAS (Štefunková et al. 2001). proposal was to improve the spatial and species diversity of the tree vegetation of the 96 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós New concept of nature protection in the Slovak Republic 97 biocentre. Many trees were too old and it was necessary to cut some of them and to their growth. Optimal is to alternate the quickly growing tree species with basic long- thin out the dense vegetation and to create space for planting of long-lived species. It lived trees or to alternate them in groups (2-3 individuals together). Fast-growing was also necessary to cut the younger non-perspective species (pine and fir) planted and less shading species can be combined with slowly-growing long-lived species in a dense canopy of higher conifers. demanding light (Fig. 3.). In the suggestion for species composition the deciduous trees dominate. They should In order to ensure functionality of the TSES elements it is unavoidable to perform have a natural or traditional appearance for the given landscape-ecological and func- their maintenance. It will be carried out on their own finances and will include mainly tional-operational conditions including fruits and flowers attractive for birds and bees the cutting and shaping of shrubs, lawn care and maintenance, regular irrigation, of the area. At the same time they can serve as a hiding place and nesting place for do- chemical and physical care etc. It is necessary to mention the willingness of pupils mesticated bird species. The biocentre is also a significant settlement point of the mu- actively participating in the creation and care of the biocentre. So they took part in the nicipality (surroundings of the cultural monument – church of St. Martin). From this campaign of the Environmental program UNEP. viewpoint there appeared certain spatial-operational limits as well as higher aesthetical requirements to be respected (use of the original and introduced species of orna- 5. Conclusions mental deciduous trees or introduced attractive species or smaller tree species, plants with special requirements of parameter, planting and maintenance). Nature protection in its deep nature is conservative itself. However, the result is The area of the biocorridor from the viewpoint of potential vegetation belongs to rather unsuitable protection of the regions and different types of geo-ecosystems. the unit of oak-hornbeam Carpathian forests (Carici-Pilosae-Carpinenion betuli). The modern nature protection on world scale has to become one of the tools of Therefore the basic proposed stand in the open landscape was oak (English, sessile), sustainable development and that is why it looks for ways to bring together the lime and maple with the undergrowth of original shrubs with a mixture of quickly heritage of the traditional with modern tools, such as integrated approach with growing trees (poplar, cherry tree, willow). For waterlogged areas willows, poplars territorial planning, overall-area landscape protection, protection of functioning and alders were proposed. From spatial aspect the tree planting ought to be in a dis- of all, not only traditionally selected ecosystems, emphasizing preservation of tance of 2-3 m and to plant among them shrubs in a distance of 1-2 m according to conditions not only of forms of biota, by preservation of geo-biodiversity, not only of biodiversity. To meet this objective we have elaborated a concept of representative geo-ecosystems, i.e. geo-ecosystems, which in the specific landscape and on given hierarchical level we consider both worth and necessary to be preserved in spite of their have not been protected so far according to the traditional approaches. Geo-ecosystems can be characterized on the level of topical (local), choric (regional) and planetary dimensions. Therefore, the above criteria should be judged on a specific hierarchical level of the territory. For example, within a studied basin the geo-ecosystem occurring only in this basin within the whole country, or even if it is an endemic one, it can be considered the representative one for this basin. The key criterion for the definition of a hierarchical level of a geo-ecosystem is its spatial landscape ecological relevance, i.e. there has to be a spatial expression at least on the topical level (in other words, they have to have a map scale expression). The determination of the hierarchical level is a basic step of defining the representativeness of a geo-ecosystem. It is obvious that each part of a landscape, each natural or administrative territorial unit, each region have its representative geo-ecosystem. In general, • the same type of a geo-ecosystem can be representative for several territorial units (including neighbouring ones), without losing its representativeness, • the same type of geo-ecosystem can in different (bio) geographical regions, get certain specific features (especially different elements of flora and fauna) which Fig. 3. Biocorridor Suchá nad Parnou – Zvončín – Ružindol third year after its realization could have decisive influence on geo-ecodiversity of the landscape. 98 Zita Izakovičová, László Miklós It can be derived from the above that each territorial unit has a representative geo- ecosystem, and each type of geo-ecosystem is somewhere the representative one (i.e. a certain territorial unit exists with the representative occurrence of the given type of geo-ecosystem). The strategic aim of the representative geo-ecosystem is: • to define a representative geo-ecosystem for each territorial unit on the given hi- Part 2 erarchical level - regional principle, • to define a representative occurrence for each type of the geo-ecosystem – typo- Nature conservation management logical principle. and sustainable development The concept of representative geo-ecosystems has been elaborated on world- scale level in a map scale 1: 500 000 although the information has been derived from long-term and more detailed researches. This gives a scope for further research – a specification – to prepare a more detailed study of the regions and geo-ecosystems, which would later serve for specific plans and projects of the territorial development of Slovakia.

References:

Bailey, R.G., 1995: Description of the ecoregions of the United States. 2nd ed. rev. and expanded. Misc. Publ. No. 1931 (rev.). Washington DC. USDA Forest service: 1-108. Bunce, R.G.H., Watkins, J.W., Brignall, P., Orr, J., 1996: A comparison of the environmental variability within the European Union. [in:] Jongman, R.H.G., ed., Ecological and landscape consequences of land use change in Europe ECNC publication series on Man and Nature, 2: 118-126. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro July 3rd-12th 1992: 1-15. Jongman, R.H.G., 1996: Research priorities: scientific concepts and criteria. [in:]: Perspec- tives on ecological networks. European Centre for Nature Conservation, series Man and Nature, vol. 1: 151-160. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2001. Millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx. Milós, L., Izakovičová, Z., et. al., 2006: Atlas of the representative geo-ecosystems of the Slo- vak republic. ILE SAS, Ministry of Environment SR, Ministry of Education SR: 1-22.

Nowicki, P., Bennet, G., Middleton, D., Rientjes, S., Wolters,R., ed., 1996: Perspectives on Photo: T.J. Chmielewski ecological networks. European Centre for Nature Conservation, series Man and Nature, vol. 1: 1-192. Odum, E.P., 1977: Základy ekologie (Fundamentals of Ecology - Czech translation). Academia, Praha: 1-733. Štefunková, D., Izakovičová, Z., Špulerová, J., 2001: Realizational project of creation of the model elements of TSES in Suchá nad Parnou and Zvončín. Institute of Landscape Ecol- ogy, Slovak Academy of Sciences: 1-32. A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation

Cristiana Cocciufa Italian Forest Service, conecofor Office.V ia G.Carducci, 5 – I00187 Rome, Italy, E-mail: [email protected]

Summary

The Italian Academy for Forest Sciences has developed valuable guidelines for sustainable forests management both in protected and non-protected areas in Italy: scientific as well as ethical issues have been taken into account to outline a technical framework for best practices in forest ecosystems. Moreover, from the legal point of view, national Legislative Decree no. 227/2001 “Orientamento e modernizzazione del settore forestale” (Orientation and modernization of forestry sector) clearly addresses sustainable exploitation of forest resources in order to promote long term management based on conservation of ecological processes, pushing Italian Regions to follow the same within Regional related rules. These documents represent an effective reference background for protection of forests at national level, also with a view to the main European scientific and legal trends. Nevertheless, a gap is to be found in the scientific, conceptual and pragmatic flow from experts to actual final nature conservation effects and stakeholders and users of public real benefits. “Bosco Castello” is a Quercus cerris forest in Central Italy, located within a wide countryside and included in the upper Mediterranean zone. Traditionally managed and cut on an annual basis by the local public Administration, it has been recently supplied with a fifteen-year Management Plan which can be considered a recent attempt of transfer from legal guidelines to actual forest management, according to Legislative Decree No. 227/2001. In this paper, the Management Plan is analysed in order to single out if and how it matches some requirements set at national and international level: an evidence for the positive influence of the evolution of rules on forest conservation is provided, but weaknesses are also stressed, as lack of integration of the wood Management Plan with surrounding landscape patches and the impact of economic issues against protection of ecological traits. 102 Cristiana Cocciufa A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation 103 Constraints also depend on the strict top-bottom approach and poor focus on in- Resolutions coming from the MCPFE process; a broad scientific ecological approach, volvement of final stakeholders and public participation through the whole process, coupled with an ethical development of the awareness of relationships between hu- from the design of the plan until the beginning of its implementation: participatory mans and the environment. aspects may effect expected results in forest conservation. The aim of the present paper is to study a current local Management Plan and the way it fits the actual natural status of the wood it applies to, to find out whether it actu- Keywords ally helps in the preservation or improvement of forest biodiversity or simply matches mandatory requirements set by national Laws and scientific authorities advice. Management plan, national law for forestry, Quercus cerris, forest conservation, Italy. Guidelines and suggested best practices by the Italian Academy for Forestry Sci- ences as well as Laws in force at national and local level have been taken into account and studied in order to check if a specific Management Plan (“Bosco Castello”, 1. Introduction Paliano, Province of Frosinone, Lazio, central Italy) complies with the current legal, scientific and technical background. A long lasting rural tradition linked Italian forests and people strongly depending on them for their sustenance, until the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other side, along decades, farming widely took up woody areas, where the characteristics of soil were suitable for agriculture, at appropriate altitudes. Already in the sixteenth century, local authorities in Veneto (North of Italy) gave off strict rules for the cutting of trees: that was the first spreading centre of forestry, although older regulations, prohibitions and draft management and cut plans were already in force in the thirteenth century in other parts of Italy (for example, in the Siena territory). In management plans of past centuries, bare hints at ecological issues can be found: utility of wood and forest products are the main objectives of stakeholders, together with protection from disorders of slopes. Management was also aimed at the conservation of forest productivity and at its maintenance in the long period. Later, in the last mid-century, with the development of modern industrial economy, farming and agriculture decreased considerably as people moved downward in search for easier life conditions available at lower altitudes and in towns. According to the last National Forest Inventory (INFC, 2005), nowadays 34.7% of Italian territory is covered by forests (including thin woods or fields and pastures Fig. 1. with scattered trees). Hand-made tables by Paolini, attached to a Venice forest Code from 1600. They clearly show a changing mountain landscape following human farming intervention (M.Cappelli, 2000) Such a percentage of wood coverage, which is expected to show a growing trend in the next future, can be also considered the result of decades of abandonment of mountains and countryside, so that forests undisturbed could partly extend again over farming areas. 2. Materials In 1923, the Italian Royal Legislative Decree no.3267 “Riordinamento e riforma della legislazione in materia di boschi e di terreni montani” (Rearrangement and re- 2.1 Guidelines by the Italian Academy for Forestry Sciences form of legislation concerning forests and mountain territory) was issued: it is the first true legal tool at national level for the management of rural lands and forests, for The Italian Academy for Forestry Sciences is one of the Italian qualified Institutions the protection from hydrogeological disorders, control of wood resources exploita- providing scientific and cultural background and guidelines for sustainable forestry at tion, caves and furrowing. This law is still valid. national scale, also collecting the best international experts’ opinions. The Italian Forest Service, since the beginning of its activity (1822), matched its The value of forests related to human needs is called “instrumental value”, that work with the management of forest public resources exploitation. traditional forestry usually refers to (Barbati A. et al. 2001). Many years have passed and forestry in Italy has evolved according to a double The instrumental value can be divided in four categories: goods, like wood, fruits and approach: a top-down political approach, following in most recent years the agreed other forest food products, cork etc.; services, as protection from floods, landslides, 104 Cristiana Cocciufa A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation 105 disasters, oxygen production and air quality preservation, carbon sequestration etc.; 2.3 Lazio Regional Law No. 39/2002 information, mainly meant as genetic biodiversity resources to be preserved and eventually used for humans wellness and health; platonic value, as source of psychological The Regional Law taken into account in this paper is the one adopted for Lazio, that restoration for people. The instrumental value identifies with the economic value of is Regional Law No. 39/2002 “Norme in materia di gestione delle risorse forestali” the forest, even when “indirect use” figures are provided (like oxygen production). (Rules on management of forests resources). Here is a list of relevant Paragraphs On the other side, forests could be assigned an “intrinsic value” which is of course regarding forestry: totally set apart from the instrumental one because it cannot be divided into catego- Paragraph 7 – It concerns forest management planning and requests a Regional ries, it is the value of the forest in itself and not merely targeted to the production of Forestry Plan to be adopted. goods or services for humans. Paragraph 13 – It gives guidelines for local Forestry Plans, covering not less than When only an instrumental value is attributed to the wood, exploitation is plausible fifteen years each. and/or necessary; but this is not true if the forest is considered as a living being with Paragraph 17 – It compels local public Administrations and Municipalities to adopt intrinsic value: in this case, the user must prove that the exploitation of the forest re- Management Plans for forests under public property (those plans mentioned in Para- source has no impact on its survival and ecological balance or cannot expect to use it graph 13), within five years from the coming into force of the Law (2002). at all. This ethical point of view necessarily upsets political approach and decisions. Paragraph 18 – It regards forests under private property, for those a Management Given the above considerations, a conflict between ecological and economic re- Plan is not compulsory but highly desirable. In this case, a “multi-annual cutting quirements remains. Sustainable development requires two different but complemen- Plan” is also possible, being a kind of Plan that is less strict than a Management Plan tary actions: the first one regards tree plantation, yet aimed not only at production of and mainly targeted to trees cutting rotations. direct or indirect instrumental issues, but also at the conservation of genetic diversity Paragraph 26 – It refers to the completion of “ecological Networks” like Natura2000 and conservation of species; the second one concerns natural and sub-natural for- Network, requiring that at least 10% of forest resources belonging to the Region has est ecosystems and matches with systemic forestry and forest management planning to be dedicated to biodiversity conservation, including genetic biodiversity. (Ciancio O. et al. 2000). According to the last Italian Forest Inventory (INFC, 2005), 32,4% of wood surface in Italy is under public property and is expected by law to be submitted to Manage- 2.2 National Legislative Decree No. 227/2001 ment Plans.

Forest management in Italy relies on Legislative Decree No. 227/2001 “Orienta- 2.4 „Bosco Castello” Management Plan mento e modernizzazione del settore forestale” for the implementation and promotion of forestry at national level. The legal framework is completed by rules produced Bosco Castello is a 180 ha forest of public property, belonging to the local Paliano by each Region and regulations adopted by local public Administrations, hierarchi- Municipality (Province of Frosinone, Lazio, central Italy). cally organized. Compared with previous Rules, Legislative Decree No. 227/2001 has some new topics which in many cases comply with other countries’ national legislation and international obligations: Paragraph 1 – Environmental and socio-economic issues regarding forests are considered as a priority, according to the MCPFE process which is specifically cited. Commitment to conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development is also mentioned. Paragraph 2 – A harmonized and agreed definition of forest is given, with measures of minimum surface and coverage admitted (minimum surface 2000 square metres, minimum width 20 metres, minimum canopy coverage 20%). Paragraph 3 – Planning of national forest resources exploitation is prescribed, based on forests management plans. Paragraph 6 – It regards suggested sustainable sylviculture practices and support the Fig. 2. Geographical location of the study site in conservation of old hollow trees, deadwood and animal species depending on them. central Italy (Lazio, Province of Frosinone). 106 Cristiana Cocciufa A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation 107 Bosco Castello is an oak and mixed broadleaved coppice forest, with 60% of Quer- expected by 2017: 36 ha in each 4-year period on average are going to be harvested, cus cerris, followed by Q.ilex and Q. frainetto (30%) and Q.pubescens and Q.petraea 9 ha per year on a regular basis. (10%) in the dominant layer, while in the lower layer the main species are Fraxinus Bosco Castello Management Plan is a mandatory commitment prescribed by Law ornus and Ostrya carpinifolia. (see above Paragraph 17 of Regional Law No. 39/2002). It is included in the inward upper Mediterranean zone, located within a wide countryside, with average altitudes of about 300 m a.s.l. and is not fenced, with clear Table 1 – Abstract from Bosco Castello jogging plan for first and second period [Piano di Asses- natural borders mainly outlined by the wood edges. Farming is widespread in the tamento Forestale del Comune di Paliano, 2004. Translated and modified]. surrounding landscape, with villages and small towns, sparse houses and viability of Ist PERIOD 2005-2008 at least three levels, from freeways to paths entering the forest. Before being provided Surface Age at Age at cutting Toponym Patch Tree population Cutting year with a Management Plan in 2004, Bosco Castello was traditionally cut on an annual (Ha) 2004 time basis by the local Municipality without specific planning: the whole forest surface Quercia Lepre 14 Q.cerris coppice 10,20 21 22 2005 was simply divided in 12 patches, about 15 ha each, mainly designed according to Quercia Lepre 15 Q.cerris coppice 9,78 21 23 2006 ground discontinuities or natural barriers but with no regard to ecological traits and Colle Quattrini 16 Q.cerris coppice 14,35 18 21 2007 numerated from 1 to 12, approximately following a criterion based on decreasing 2008 trees mean age (patch No.1 as the eldest one, patch No.12 the youngest). The harvest- 34,33 nd ing method adopted was “clear cut” with saving of few standards and was uniquely 2 PERIOD 2009-2012 Surface Age at Age at cutting Toponym Patch Tree population Cutting year aimed at production of firewood. Every year, one patch with trees having achieved (Ha) 2004 time the mean age of 18 years (minimum length of logging rotation prescribed by Law Val d’Inferno 12 Q.cerris coppice 12,64 20 25 2009 for oaks), was subject to cutting. As a consequence, the cutting program in Bosco Via Anagni 13 Q.cerris coppice 13,40 18 24 2010 Castello was inconsistent: the number of subsequent annual cuts requested to close Valle Ferrara 17 Q.cerris coppice 8,94 16 23 2011 a complete logging cycle (12 cuts) was lower than the minimum age for cutting al- 2012 lowed (18), so a gap of 6 years occurred at the end of each 12-year period, which 34,98 compelled local managers either to wait for trees to grow till the minimum age allowed for clear cut or perform alternatively a selection cut or thinning. This approach, in a long term perspective, strongly affected the wood productivity and the economic income expected from the exploitation of the forest by the Mu- nicipality engaged. Moreover, the impact of dry seasons in the Region, an increasing lack of seed trees, a severe forest fire (in summer 1999) and phytopathological events (Biscougnaxia mediterranea attacks) produced an impoverishment of stand structure complexity and tree species mix and diversity (with an increase of xerophytic species) and a decrease of seed regeneration. The Management Plan especially produced for Bosco Castello is going to be in force since 2005 until 2020 (Piano di Assestamento Forestale del Comune di Pal- iano, 2004). The wood area has been divided in 18 patches, according to two main criteria: 1) natural borders and 2) clustering of trees with similar age within a maximum interval of 4 years (also including, if necessary, parts of contiguous patches of the former logging programme). Patches surfaces range from 6,09 to 14,35 ha and are numerated counter-clockwise. Logging is performed annually according to a “seed tree system” and leaving 60 seed trees per patch. Logging rules set by this Management Plan Fig. 3. clearly have a long term objective to harmonize tree age intervals among patches and Map of patches arrangement in Bosco Castello, according to the Management Plan regularize annual harvesting interventions for firewood production and so ensure a (Piano di Assestamento Forestale del Comune steady income for the local Municipality. The settlement of the plant population is di Paliano, 2004). 108 Cristiana Cocciufa A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation 109 Bosco Castello Management Plan also takes into account ecological and biodi- Specific Rules exist in Italy regarding protected areas Management Plans, protec- versity aspects: appropriate studies have been performed on soil and geology, fauna tion from water and air pollution, conservation of fauna, hunting control etc., but for diversity and deadwood amount. The most important geological features of Bosco the aim of this paper it has been decided to consider only the above mentioned legal Castello are: slopes with high gradient, even if maximum altitude is 400 m a.s.l.; documents and, based on those, the analysis of the “Bosco Castello” Management incoherent ground layer, due to sandstone and volcanic sediments and widespread Plan has been performed. Results necessarily may reflect the author’s point of view, superficial water flow. This set of geological conditions together with high precipita- who was able to work in the open field on this forest as National Forest Service of- tion density (about 1100 mm per year) are regarded as potentially affecting the stabil- ficer, before and after the adoption of the Management Plan. ity of hill sides. On the other hand, local climatic figures, as monthly occurrence of precipitations, usual summer aridity and frequent sudden changes of temperature, are 3. Results and discussion regarded as facilitating a long lasting vegetative period with trees growth outbursts, resulting in potential high annual increment and standing volume. Bosco Castello Management Plan is an absolutely new and relevant technical Act So, the harvesting method and time schedule suggested in the Management Plan is for Bosco Castello, derived from the coming into effect of the Lazio Regional Law targeted at avoiding slope disorders by lightening the trunks total weight through the for forestry. It has to be stressed that it is a very important example of „land use plan- adjustment of number and density of trees and selection of diameters, but is also aimed ning tool”, in a place where no other conservation or management plan has ever been at reaching higher productivity saving reproduction faculties of the wood population: available before: changes in the planning are possible, including changes in land use, it means that protection from landslides and production of wood are still regarded as but they have to be submitted to and approved by the Regional Administration, pro- the most relevant forest functions; they are “instrumental values” (goods and serv- vided that they don’t affect the meaning of the Plan as a whole and its final objectives. ices), not so different from usual outcomes expected from traditional sylviculture. This is of great importance where no other conservation priority is on demand and in An in-depth study has been performed regarding fauna, especially birds: this is ac- areas historically exploited massively like this study site. tually a new feature for Management Plans resulting from the application of Regional The Management Plan is to be intended mainly as a Forestry Settlement Plan and Law No.39/2002. will achieve the final outcome of harmonizing and regularizing the exploitation of Among avian species, tawny owl (Strix aluco), sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), the forest and ensure a steady income for a local Municipality whose economy is still scops owl (Otus scops) and nigthjar (Caprimulgus europaeus) have been observed, mainly rural. With this Management Plan, Forest biodiversity traits have been intro- the latter two being particularly widespread in freshly cut areas (and in coppice woods duced in a planning tool for the first time in the Region. in general), due to the larger availability of low flying insects these birds feed on. Nevertheless, the studied Management Plan shows those shortcomings depending As far as necromass is concerned, presence of deadwood and old trees strongly de- on the relevance attributed to economic aspects (and so instrumental values) of a for- pend on the intensity of sylviculture actions and the way they are carried out. Dead- est in comparison with ecological ones. Even though fauna and vegetation diversity wood quantities in managed forests are considerably lower than in forests left to are cited and studied in the Plan, there is no suggestion or practical obligation on how evolve naturally: it has been estimated that only 2 to 30% of the deadwood found in to achieve a better status of forest biodiversity in Bosco Castello. non-managed forests occurs in managed ones. Therefore, in the interest of conser- As it is usually agreed that sylviculture is an activity with high costs and low profits vation, attempts are being made to increase woody necromass in productive areas and it is not possible at the moment to reduce costs further in forestry [Ciancio O., [D.Travaglini, F.Mason, M.Lopresti, F.Lombardi, M.Marchetti, G.Chirici, P.Corona, Corona P., Marchetti P., 2000], the main point seems to be the need for short rotation 2006]. Legislative Decree No. 227/2001 mentions the relevance of woody necromass lengths or rotation lengths much shorter than tree species longevity. On the contrary, and old trees in Paragraph 6. trees ageing could solve several of the problems affecting a strongly exploited forest The section dedicated to fauna aspects in Bosco Castello Management Plan also like Bosco Castello, without significantly eroding wood production in the long term. refers to the relevance of old trees and deadwood, suggesting standing dead trees or Among seed trees left after a cut (60 per patch in Bosco Castello Plan), about 1/3 debris to be left on the ground for nesting birds and saproxylic invertebrates. Nev- should be left ageing, at least a few plants standing for indefinite ageing. Aged trees ertheless, throughout the document ageing of trees is regarded as a potential threat and old hollow trees can ensure seed regeneration mechanisms, create diversity niche for disorders of slopes and parasitic attacks (especially Biscognauxia mediterranea), for birds, saproxylic organisms and other invertebrates, helping complexity to evolve and even if, following a pros and cons dissertation, it is admitted that older trees may and forest ecological functions to restore. enhance ecological functions of the forest and help to better afford parasitic attacks, it Regarding the level of involvement of stakeholders, it has to be stressed that Bo- is also stated that ageing could meanwhile reduce the increment expected in the long sco Castello Management Plan has been compiled as a mandatory Act requested by period without bringing, on a counterpart, suitable health recovery. national Laws and has come into force in a top-bottom process, with no involvement 110 Cristiana Cocciufa A plan for best forest management in Italy: from theory to real effects on nature conservation 111 of probable stakeholders, like local inhabitants. There is no local past experience on 4. Conclusions involvement of possible stakeholders in the drafting of a land use planning tool and of course much work should be done in this direction, considering that in several Eu- Bosco Castello in the new Management Plan is considered mainly for its instru- ropean countries (e.g. Finland) a careful sharing of rights and duties in the planning mental value, and concerning economic aspects, pure direct use is pursued. Biodi- process since its very beginning can help to stem constraints after the coming into versity conservation, deadwood, public participation are new features for a Manage- force of the Plan (especially concerning prohibitions or restrictions). ment Plan in Paliano Municipality, referred to a non-protected area and even though Available services provided to people by the forest (apart from ecological functions a planning tool should represent a transfer from theory and legal background to best addressed to the general public) are: recreation, hunting, fruits and mushrooms har- practices applied, much work is still expected to be done in order to find scientific vesting, wood production and biodiversity at landscape level. and legal guidelines actually implemented on the territory. In this latter sense, the integration of Bosco Castello in the surrounding landscape features (mainly countryside) has not been taken into suitable consideration in the Management Plan: as shown in Figure 4, the border (green line) between the two References Municipalities (Paliano and Anagni) covering the area goes through the forest from North to South dividing it in two parts, only the Western largest one being subject to Barbati A., Corona P., Marchetti M. (a cura di), 2001. Definizione delle linee guida per la ges- the Plan. No mention is to be found to ecological relationships with the non-managed tione ecosostenibile delle risorse agrosilvopastorali nei Parchi nazionali. Completamento wood section nor with countryside patches (cultivated fields, bushes, ways, villages): del quadro metodologico e conoscitivo. Ministero dell’Ambiente, Servizio Conservazione harmonizing of contiguous landscape patches could only be overcome by participa- della Natura, Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali. Firenze, 88 pp. tion among local public managers and administrators. Cappelli M., 2000. Selvicoltura generale. Edagricole, Italy, pagg., 2000. Ciancio O., Corona P., Marchetti P.( a cura di), 2000. Definizione delle linee guida per la gestione ecosostenibile delle risorse agrosilvopastorali nei Parchi nazionali. Relazione tec- nica. Ministero dell’Ambiente - Servizio Conservazione della Natura, Accademia Italiana di Scienze Forestali. Firenze, 177 pp. Inventario Nazionale delle Foreste e dei Serbatoi di Carbonio – INFC 2005. www.corpoforestale.it MCPFE and EfE/PEBLS, 2004 – Ad hoc Working Group on Development of the pan Europe- an Understanding of the linkage between the Ecosystem Approach and sustainable Forest Management. Outcome of the session held in Krakow, Poland, 19-21 April, 2004. Milito F., Fagioli R., Vercelli C., Trento S., 2006 – Piano di Assestamento Forestale del Comune di Paliano. Travaglini D., Mason F., Lopresti M., Lombardi F., Marchetti M., Chirici G., Corona P. – As- pects of biodivesity in the CONECOFOR plots. V. Deadwood surveying experiments in alpine and mediterranean forest ecosysetms. Third report of the Task Force on Integrated and Combined (I&C) evaluation of CONECOFOR programme. Annali Istituto Sperimen- tale per la Selvicoltura, Special Issue, Volume 30-Supplemento 2 – 2006:112pp.

Fig. 4. Orthophotograph including Bosco Castello and showing Municipalities borders (green line) and surrounding landscape [taken from S.I.M. Siste- ma Informativo della Montagna (Mountain Informatic System), National Forest Service, Italy]. Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 113 1. Introduction

Definitions of sustainability have emerged from long running debates, starting from those of Smith, Malthus, Ricardo, Mill and other economists of the late 18th – early Towards Sustainable Development and mid 19th centuries. Economic growth in the second half of the 20th century meant an expansion in use of natural resources, including forests. Their increasing con- 1 of Scottish Native Woodlands sumption was seen as a consequence of rational private economic behaviour, but was nonetheless environmentally damaging - compromising the interests of both present and future generations. Negative consequences of economic growth, such as loss Maria Nijnik and Bill Slee of biological diversity, deforestation and its consequences have provoked growing Socio-Economic Research Group environmental awareness among scientists and policy-makers. The Club of Rome The Macaulay Institute, Craigiebuckler, report and the United Nation Environmental Programme of the early 1970s were fol- AB15 8QH, Aberdeen, the UK lowed by the World Commission on Environment and Development, the Brundtland E-mail: [email protected] Commission report “Our Common Future” (WCED, 1987), and by the World Con- servation Strategy. All these reports shared a core concern about the need to sustain environmental quality. According to the ecological ideas of the Caring for the Earth Abstract document (IUCN/ENEP/WWF, 1991), sustainable development means that the exploitation of natural resources, including forests, should be within their capacity for Scotland was deforested early and extensively. The substantial area of largely un- renewal. The Caring for the Earth report also highlighted the necessity to “halt net broken dense forests progressively disappeared under anthropogenic influence, with deforestation, to protect large areas of old forest and maintain a permanent state of only 4.5% of the land covered with trees at the lowest point. Deforestation in Scotland modified forest”. Overall, the acknowledged interdependency of conservation and was followed by private tree-planting initiatives in the 18th and 19th centuries, when development has resulted in the term “sustainable development”, and since the early private planting of exotic species was widespread, and in the 20th century by further 1990s, this officially adopted notion has become recognized as a prerequisite for con- planting of exotics by the state forestry authority. The UNCED (1992) conference tinued societal existence (Nijnik, 2002). that resulted in the Non-Binding Forest Principles served as a catalyst for change, The social and environmental dimensions and challenges of forest sustainability, bolstering existing foundations of native woodland activity. In the last twenty years had, however, emerged long before. The concept of sustainability was formulated in there has been a major turnaround in thinking about forestry in Scotland, with a more German forestry literature, and as far back as in 1804, when Hartig recommended conscious espousal of multi-functionality and a greater emphasis on native woodland that “every wise forest director has to have evaluated the forest stands without los- restoration. Although today conifer plantations predominantly of exotic species dom- ing time to utilize them to the greatest possible extent, but still in a way that future inate (Warren, 2002), the Scottish Forestry Strategy (SFS, 2006) takes sustainability generations will have at least as much benefits as the living generation” (Schmutzen- as its overarching principle, and native woodlands are acknowledged as offering a hofer, 1992). The term “human benefit sustainability” was introduced into the US wide range of benefits to people, the economy, and the environment. Considering the forestry practice in 1960, when the principle of multifunctional forest use was ap- current economic, social and environmental incentives for and constraints on forest proved by the Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act. The Act acknowledged timber, fish expansion, this chapter outlines the possible futures of Scotland’s native woodlands and wildlife, recreation, range, fodder and watershed protection benefits from forests and the particular challenges of achieving their sustainable development. as most important (Wiersum, 1995). The ideas of multiple forest benefits and of forest sustainability have thus become dominant over time, although they have evolved Keywords substantially since then, adjusting to the requirements of time and place. Moreover, starting from the late 1970s, the concept of “social forestry” has gained prominence Forestry, native woodland, sustainable development, multiple forest functions, in much of the developed world, and this has led to the shift from a forest-centred to Scotland a more people-centred forest development paradigm (Hobley, 1996). Apart from scientific debates going back to 18th and 20th centuries, the issue of sustainable forestry, however, was given modest attention at either single state or 1 This chapter is dedicated to the memory of Professor Dr Alexander Mather, the Department of Geography and Environment, University of Aberdeen, in recognition of his splendid contribution in forest research. international policy level. The First Ministerial Conference on the Protection of 114 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 115 Forests in Europe that took place in Strasbourg, in 1990, was an important step for- pendula, Betula pubescens and Betula nana) and juniper (Juniperus communis) dom- ward. It acknowledged the necessity of a balanced management of forests by taking inated under the more extreme conditions. Scotland, however, was deforested early into account their role as a life supporting system, as well as of their role in meeting and extensively (FC, 2001). “For a country once predominantly covered by natural the human needs of present and future generations for forests and their products, woods, Scotland had become a country largely barren of its tree cover by the start of without threatening forest capacity for renewal. By the time of the UNCED confer- the 17th century. Large tracts of surviving woodland remnants still existed, particu- ence in Brazil (UNCED, 1992), quite a few countries had developed principles for larly in the remoter Highland glens, but the lack of woods and trees often drew com- sustainable forestry. The principles were discussed at the Rio conference, and the ments from travellers” (House and Dingwall, 2003). The unbroken dense forests had statement that “forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to disappeared, with only 4.5% of the land covered with trees at the lowest point, and meet social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual human needs of present staying around 5% until the beginning of the 20th century (Smout, 2003). The early and future generations” has become a guiding document, aiming to sustainable and severe deforestation occurred as a result of the normal forces related to economic development, management and conservation of all types of forests. At a national growth and of scant attention paid to environmental values.2 level, an emphasis was put on developing woodland inventories and protecting Deforestation in Scotland, as in some other countries, such as Ireland and Denmark, woodlands, with the involvement of local communities in forest policy and man- occurred rapidly because land was accessible, interest rates were high, rural wages agement (Nijnik et al., 2002). were low and there were opportunities for trade. The low stumpage fees contributed A principal agreement about the concept of sustainable forest management has now to the transfer of woodland into agriculture since even the modest rates of return that been reached by politicians. However, attaining sustainability in forestry in opera- were expected from agriculture compared favourably to forestry at low stumpage tional terms has not been easy. Goldin and Winters (1995) stress the importance of prices (Nijnik and Hill, 2005). Industrial development contributed to deforestation the interrelationship between economic policy, growth and environmental impacts, as well, first with charcoal making and then through providing timber for the extrac- with the link between sustainable resource use and growth remaining the key factor. tion of coal, on which heavy industry depended. During the first World War, when Equity issues both between and within generations have been discussed extensively importing timber from Norway or the Baltic States became difficult, any remaining in Dasgupta and Heal (1979). At the other side of the spectrum, some ecological ap- woodlands were heavily depleted as well (Nijnik and Mather, 2007). proaches put much more emphasis on environmental protection and on keeping the Deforestation in Scotland was followed by private tree-planting initiatives in the resource base in good environmental condition. 18th and 19th centuries, when private planting of exotic species was widespread, This chapter provides further insights into sustainability in forestry, with a particular and in the 20th century, by further planting of exotics by the state forestry author- focus on native woodlands in Scotland. The idea is to explore the operationalization ity. Such conifer plantations, predominantly of exotic species, dominated planting of sustainable forestry within a framework of economic, environmental and social until the 1980s (Warren, 2002) and remain the greatest component of the stock of processes taking place in rural areas in Scotland. Considering sustainable forestry forests in Scotland. Only in the native pinewoods of Scotland is a predominantly as a concept, which is to be workable, we investigate policy drivers and changes, productive native forest sustained. Elsewhere, residual native woodland was often as well as the changes in institutions and in stakeholder involvement in sustainable under-planted by faster growing exotic species. The creation of commercial conifer multi-functional development of Scottish native woodlands. Although the compo- plantations was encouraged by state planting and grant-aided support to private nents of multi-functional forestry vary greatly from one forest to another, the multiple forestry. In terms of increasing tree cover the programme that has been implement- socio-economic and environmental functions of woodlands are at the centre of moves ed by the Forestry Commission (FC) since the 1920s was remarkably successful. towards their proper integration with other land uses in rural landscapes. This chapter The forest area in Scotland trebled during the 20th century (Fig. 1). However, the presents an analysis of the multiple functions of Scottish forests and of the particular combination of an emphasis on timber production, with environmental constraints challenges of achieving their sustainable development. on species selection, alongside a desire to retain better quality farmland resulted in afforestation occurring predominantly in remote upland locations. New forests 2. Scottish woodlands: historic overview have often become disconnected with the urbanised population, and were often not regarded as making significant provision to ecosystem services, wildlife or recrea- At their maximum extent 5,000 years ago, forests comprised about 75% of Scot- tion. land’s land area. The good soils of the lowlands were covered by such native tree species as oak (Quercus robur and Quercus petraea), ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and elm (Ulmus glabra) forests. The poorer uplands were inhabited by Scots pine (Pinus 2 According to FAO and IGBP definition, deforestation is a 10% or more decline of forest crown cover anda sylvestris) and hazel (Corylus avellana). rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), birch (Betula conversion of the former wooded areas to another land use (IBN-DLO, 1999). 116 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 117 dependencies exist, because of long growth cycles. In forestry, “the sins of the fa- thers… live for a long time and the recent forest enlightenment will not bear visual fruit for many years to come” (Lister-Kaye, 1995, p.61). Policy continuity is vital for the long-term planning in forestry, where many dimensions are to be taken into account, including various climatic, environmental and policy drivers (Warren, 2002). In Scotland, therefore, despite the success of reforestation which has been followed by the shift towards sustainable forest management, forestry contributes only 0.5% of the GDP (FC, 1998), and the majority of this relates to non-native softwood timber production. The share of coniferous species in forests managed by FC exceeds 81%. In the main, 70% of Scottish forests are coniferous (Fig. 2), with the prevalence of Sitka spruce. Fig. 1. Change in woodland cover through time

Due to the early and extensive deforestation, forest culture as manifested in folklore, literature and art is almost non-existent in Scotland, where historically, the public was not encouraged to visit forests which were viewed as the personal domain of landowners. The class-based ownership of forests had added a social gulf to already existing by then geographical gulf between people and woodlands (Mather, 2003). The Forestry Principles (UNCED, 1992) and the emergence of international institutions and agreements have led to changes in dominant views on forests. With the adoption of the EU forest strategy in 1998, sustainable forest management and the multi-functional role of forests have become the overarching common principles. Na- Fig. 2. Total area of Scottish forests by species composition tional forest programmes have become the main instruments for implementing these principles, and the importance of taking global and cross-sectoral issues into account Source: FC (2001) in forest policy design has increased (EC, 1998). An increased importance of the provision of environmental and social services Historically, Scotland’s natural woodlands have played an important role in characterise forestry in Scotland at the turn of the 21st century. Scottish forestry aims providing shelter, cover for game and timber for harvesting. Within Europe there at meeting multiple and dynamically evolving social and economic requirements, is a tendency for the more natural value forests to be associated with lower tim- which reflect public preferences for multi-functional forestry, and necessitate their ber values and higher non-timber values (Slee, 2005). The value of benefits from satisfaction in a sustainable manner. Sustainable forestry concerns the delivery of a native woodlands to the economy of Scotland in commercial terms is tiny. Nev- socially acceptable distribution of benefits from forests, and suggests the creation of ertheless, native woodlands support a growing industry and produce a range of opportunities for more people to enjoy trees and forests, and helping rural communi- wood commodities. This is encouraged in Scotland by product and market de- ties to benefit from them (Nijnik and Hill, 2005). The newly adopted SFS, built on velopment, including local markets, as well as by planting of native species, the extensive consultation with the public, recognises a broad range of forest benefits, importance of which to the people and environment goes much beyond their mar- with growing recognition of the importance of climate change mitigation in forest ketable economic benefits. Native woodlands in Scotland are primarily valued policy initiatives. These multiple forest functions include: open access recreation and for their natural and cultural heritage values. Over and above the modest direct leisure activities; landscape, amenity and countryside characterisation; biodiversity revenues from semi-natural woodlands, such forests provide a green infrastruc- and valuable habitats; benefits in physical and mental health; carbon sequestration; ture of considerable importance to Scottish tourism. Their iconic status in some absorption of air, water and noise pollutants; management of water resources; protec- of Scotland’s main tourist areas and the wildlife and visitor attractions in the tion of archaeological features and historic sites; and the provision of opportunities forest create a context for much tourist activity. These values are more often ex- for education, community activities and social inclusion (FTA, 2004). tolled (Mason, Hampson and Edwards 2004) than measured, although techniques Today’s forests, however, are a product of the past. Forestry is a specific sector have been devised to estimate such benefits from an economic perspective (Slee of the economy, where the realisation of change is not an easy task and strong path 2004). 118 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 119 3. Native woodlands of Scotland

Natural forest is a contentious concept and no consensus has been reached on its definition. Biological scientists often consider natural forests synonymous with virgin. The location, vegetation, composition and structure of forests then are to be determined exclusively by natural location and environmental factors, without human influences present or visible. Another definition of natural forests is historical, when natural forests are considered as those forests which have not been planted or sown by man for the past two centuries. This definition is widely accepted even though it has never been formally established in laws or regulations. The position of WWF on natural forests is closer to “virgin”, while “semi-natural” means affected by man but conserving a high degree of purely natural elements (WWF, 1994). Natural woodlands therefore represent one end of a spectrum of types of forestry that ranges from virgin woodlands that have been largely uninfluenced by man, through semi-natural forests common in much of Europe to exotic even-aged stands of completely unnatural forests (Slee, 2005). In Scotland, the anthropogenic influence and the practice of forest management in the past have created an absence of virgin forest. Ancient woodlands are defined as areas that have been continuously wooded since 1750, the date when reliable records have started. The area of ancient woodland in Scotland is about 150,000 ha, or 2% of the total land area. Ancient woodlands are represented by semi-natural woodland (89,100 ha) and plantations on ancient woodland sites (59,100 ha) which still retain some of the native flora. Other semi-natural woodlands cover 44,000 ha. Ancient semi-natural woodlands are among the richest sites in biodiversity terms and are important as part of national heritage (FC 2001). Scottish native woodland is defined as Fig. 3. Semi-natural and ancient woodlands woodland where at least 50% of the canopy cover is site-native species. Widespread deforestation, accompanied by the reforestation of non-native species has seen Scot- Source: FC (2001) land’s native woodlands reduced to its current area of about 300,000 ha (Chart 3), with its major types shown in Table 1. Tab. 1. Major types of native woodlands of Scotland The native Caledonian Pine woodlands are emblematic for Scotland. „More people native enjoy trees, woods and forests” over the last decade (SFS, 2006), and large numbers Area, Habitat woodland, Description thous.ha of people visit wooded sites, such as Abernethy Forest and Glen Affric. Visitors come % area there to enjoy the beauty of wooded landscapes and see species of plants and animals Downy birch dominates in the north-western and silver Upland birchwoods 64 42 that are now relatively rare in Britain. Glen Affric contains the third largest remnant birch in the central and eastern upland woodlands of the Caledonian Forest which still survives in Scotland. This remnant is the largest Upland oakwoods 30 20 Characteristic of the west of Scotland and the uplands. area of least disturbed pine woods, and the glen has the longest history of restoration Native pinewoods 30 20 Scots pine predominates; pine is often mixed with birch. for the recovery of such forest, all of which make it an important site for biological Upland mixed diversity. 12 8 Mainly confined to gullies and fertile damp ground. ashwoods As in may other places around the world, the future of Scotland’s native woodlands, however, remains a matter for concern. Despite recent efforts at restoration Wet woodlands 12 8 Dominated by alder, willow or birch Lowland mixed Native oak predominates with ash and elm, with a birch and some degree of legal protection, the prospects for native woodlands continue to 3 2 be threatened. Whilst deforestation and land use change have been the major causes broadleaved woods and hazel underwood. of the native woodland decline, the main threats to existing and regenerating native Source: FC (2001) 120 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 121 woodland is through their overgrazing by sheep and deer (Nijnik and Hill, 2005). netic material associated with a particular area of native forest or a more accommo- There are currently 6.2 million sheep in Scotland, whilst the management of the red dating definition based on broader species, but also there is a need to recognize that and roe deer population for sport continues to place pressure on native forests. The sustainable development is not so much about optimized solutions but about a series grazing of large numbers of animals often leads to soil compaction, vertical slippage of complex trade-offs in an arena where public goods and market goods sit uneasily and horizontal corrugation of the soil and vegetation. It is now widely recognised that alongside each other and where local development might sometimes be compromised grazing levels must be reduced. Another threat to native woodlands is the invasion by limitations imposed by environmental policy. The better understanding of these of non-native species. Although the widespread under-planting of non-native tree trade offs lies at the heart of multifunctional forestry. Scotland’s native woodlands species such as Sitka spruce in the Caledonian pine woods is no longer practiced, are a unique oceanic version of boreal forest ecosystems, which survive precariously seedlings are already in the soil and will continue to grow. Invasive species such as as tattered fragments (Worrell, 1996), but which demand management, protection Rhododendron also affect Scotland’s forests in places, particularly on the West Coast. and enhancement under the general framework of sustainable multi-functional (Slee, The IUCN considers the invasive species as “one of the greatest threats to the eco- 2006) forest policy. logical and economic well being of the planet” (McNeely et al., 2001). The concepts “nativeness” and “naturalness” that are attached to ethical ideas of 4. Managing woodland “nativeness” nature conservation are very important, indeed.3 Today, however, the “anti-exotic” feeling in Scotland is beginning to decline (Warren, 2002). A recently popular envi- Native woodlands are an important part of Scotland’s cultural and natural heritage. ronmental idea that human influence degrades the “naturalness” is critically revised Although there is no “rational, objective criterion, by which native woodland can be towards seeing nature conservation within the framework of sustainable multi-func- distinguished from non-native (Brown, 1997, p. 197) and the concepts of “native”, tional forestry and sustainable integrated rural development. The idea of complete “natural” and “semi-natural” cannot always be defined, they are useful when it comes “naturalness” is criticised, because few, if any parts of Scotland have remained unaf- to describing woodlands and setting management objectives, even if it simply means fected by the 9,000 years of human habitation. Humans have affected the environment to proceed from less to more natural along a complex and continuum combination for so long that the distinction between “natural” and “unnatural” is as unhelpful, as of species, which are exotic5, recently arrived6, naturalised7, locally non-native8, for- it is illogical (Tapper, 1999). Wilderness is far from being separate from humanity merly native9 and native10 (Usher, 1999). The principle that native woodlands should (Oelschlaeger, 1991). Moreover, many of the highly valued landscapes e.g., heather be encouraged is widely accepted nationally and internationally. It is likely then moorlands in Scotland are created and maintained over the millennia by utilitarian that the importance of native woodlands in Scotland will grow (Warren, 2002). In human use, yet they still possess high ecological values (Kirby et al., 1997). practice, for semi-natural woodlands, the management options are twofold: either to Furthermore, recent work reveals that long-maintained plantations of Norway maintain the existing mix of native species, or bring back elements of the past. For spruce are often sustainable and contribute to nature conservation (Evans, 1999; Pe- the restored native woodlands the choice is between regulated or unregulated succes- terken, 2001). It is recognised that some conifer habitats have substantial conserva- sion (Peterken, 1996). tion value, and that “extended rotations of exotic conifer can be correctly seen as The creation, restoration and sustainable management of native woods provide eco- interesting, valued and diverse ecosystems” (Warren, 2002, p. 258). Human influence nomic, environmental and social benefits both now and into the future. Since 1985, a is, therefore, not always and not inevitably negative for nature. „Man has not spoiled broadleaved woodlands policy has been supported by FC, which aims at increasing the Garden of Eden; maybe he was responsible for helping to create that garden in of the area of broadleaved woodland. In time, the development of more mixed forests the first place” (Quelch, 1998, p. 20). Hence, although the restoration of the “Great is, therefore, expected, with a higher share of native tree species included.11 This is Wood of Caledon”4 to its original glory is a challenging goal, it is to be approached encouraged on public, and also on private lands through various grants and schemes with the realization that the woods are an expression of mankind as well as of nature currently available in Scotland (SE, 2002). Among the instruments employed in this (Peterken, 1996). Thus there can be no neat and unambiguous solution to the sustainable development of native woodlands in Scotland. Not only is the very subject matter debatable, in that 5 Species introduced by humans, either deliberately or accidentally. there are both purist definitions of nativeness, based on maintaining the specific ge- 6 Species colonising as a result of human activities. 7 Species introduced by humans long ago. 8 Species introduced by humans beyond species natural geographical range. 3 The list of trees and shrubs native to Scotland is available in Smout (2003, p. 225). 9 Species no longer present but which occurred naturally during post-glacial time 4 Caledonian forest is used to describe the original prehistoric woodland cover, prior to significant disturbance by 10 Species which have arrived since the last glacial period without human aid. people or during Roman times, and describe the native pinewoods (Smout, 2003). 11 However, these may not all be classified as “native woodlands”. 122 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 123 new policy climate are Woodland Grant Schemes (WGS)12. The development of na- form of conservation designation.13 Some of the sites are state-owned, but most are owned tive woodlands is supported by subsidies which provide 60% of costs when plans in- privately and managed by SNH through management agreements (Table 2).14 clude removal of non-native vegetation, deadwood management, essential thinning, and small scale felling to encourage regeneration (FC, 2004). While conifer planta- Tab. 2. Nature protected areas in Scotland tions dominated almost totally until the 1980s, the shift in the FC policy on public lands, together with an introduction of grants to encourage broadleaved planting on Designation Number Area, ha Summary Description private lands have resulted in an improvement of aesthetic values of forested rural Sites of special Special for their plants, animals, habitat, geology, landscapes. Today, broadleaved species comprise 17% of the wooded area (Fig. 2), scientific interest 1,458 990,809 geomorphology or combinations. Cover 12.6% of and further success of sustainable woodland development depends on “getting the (SSSI) Scotland, mostly on private land. National nature Cover 1.4% of Scotland. All NNR are also SSSI. One- right trees in the right places for the right reasons” (Warren, 2002, p. 68). 71 114,271 reserves (NNR) third of their area is owned by state. The SFS (2006) sets out priorities for action, addressing the strategic objectives Classified under the EU Birds Directive for Special protection of native woodlands restoration, and proper integration with other land uses in rural 113 + 391,234 protecting the habitat of rare, threatened or areas (SPA) landscapes. About 10,000 ha of new woodland are currently being planted, and for migratory species Special areas of Designated under the EU Habitats Directive for the restocking and expansion programmes, about 50% of trees planted in Scotland 134 + 717,862 are broadleaves, with 15% of Scots pine and 35% non-native conifers (SE, 2002). In conservation (SAC) protecting biodiversity of flora and fauna Sites of special local natural interest; valuable for comparison, in the 1970s to 1980s, when annual new planting averaged 20,000 ha per Local nature reserves 30 9,309 commercial conifers comprised 98% of the total (FC, 1999), (Fig. 4). education and recreation Sites for studying human influence on the natural Biosphere reserves 9 28,768 environment. Most also NNR. Conservation representatives of European flora, Biogenetic reserves 2 2,388 fauna and nature for bioresearch Natural and cultural sites of global significance (St World heritage sites 1 853 Kilda) Nationally important areas of beauty. Cover 12.7% National scenic areas 40 1,001,800 of Scotland Regional parks 4 86,160 Extensive areas for informal recreation Country parks 36 6,481 Small areas near towns for recreation

Source: FC (2000)

The designated wooded areas include the following: 22,100 ha – SAC; 38,000 ha – SSSI; 4,000 ha – National Trust for Scotland; 8,600 ha – Scottish Wildlife Trust; Fig. 4. Broadleaved new planting as percent of total new planting in the UK. 3,700 ha - Woodland Trust and 4,600 ha- Royal Society for Protection of Birds (FC, Source: FC (2003a). 2000). Whilst the biodiversity value of native woodlands is high and is recognized in Scotland, it could be increased further, if the woodlands were more extensive to protect plant and animal species under threat. To enrich wildlife values, Forest Nature Re- 5. Nature conservation serves were initiated in 1988. Today, there are six of them, covering 3,700 ha, together with eighteen Caledonian Forest Reserves, with a total area of 15,974 ha (FC 2000).

Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) was established in 1991 as a government agency The established network of protected natural heritage areas contributes to the working to conserve and enhance the rich inheritance of Scotland’s wildlife, habitats and preservation of the non-substitutable resources of native woodlands. These multiple landscapes. At the turn of the 21st century, almost 20% of Scotland was covered by some

13 There is, however, much overlap and confusion in with categories of these various designations, their acreages and 12 Following publication of Forest Strategy in 2000, the Woodland Grant Scheme (WGS) and the Farm Woodland management. Premium Scheme have been reviewed in Scotland, resulting in the new schemes – the Scottish Forestry Grants 14 Not included here is the area of Cairngorm and Loch Lomond & Trossachs National Parks (2003), and + means that Schemes (SFGS) and Farmland Premium (FP): http://www.forestry.gov.uk an enlargement of the area was under consideration. 124 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 125 forest resources and benefits could be seen to constitute, according to economists’11 Sustainability of native woodland systems can be assessed, and thus properly man- ideas, the so-called critical natural capital. It includes various endangered species and aged, in terms of four properties. They include productivity, measured in terms of habitats ideas,on which the so-called human critical and naturalplanetary capital. life It includesultimately various depends. endangered Where species irreversible and yield or net income; stability of yield or net income; sustainability of yield or net adverse habitatschanges on might which humanoccur, and or planetarywhere there life ultimately are major depends. uncertainties Where irreversible about adverse income and equitability in terms of income distribution. environmentaladverse effects, changes mightit is argued occur, or that where a precautionary there are major uncertainties approach aboutshould adverse be adopted to ensureenvironmental that critical effects, natural it is capital, argued that i.e. a nativeprecautionary woodlands approach of should Scotland, be adopted is not to eroded 6. Governance ensure that critical natural capital, i.e. native woodlands of Scotland, is not eroded or or damageddamaged (Slee, (Slee, 2005). 2005). Putting Putting even even strongerstronger constraints constraints on economicon economic growth growth than than this ideathis of ideastrong of strong sustainability, sustainability, the the ecologist’secologist's concept concept of the of conservation the conservation of native of na- Interest in the biodiversity of native woodlands in Scotland has been building up tive woodlandswoodlands relates relates their sustainability sustainability to resilience to resilience (Robinson, (Robinson, 1993). Resilience 1993). of Resilience an for years. This country has a well established nature conservation movement, with ecological system means its integrity and the ability to maintain production of of an ecologicalecological systemservices, meansaccording its e.g. integrity to the criteria and presentedthe ability in Chart to maintain 5. production of numerous institutions in place which conduct a multitude of initiatives driven both ecological services, according e.g. to the criteria presented in Fig. 5. by the public sector and by NGOs (Evans, 1999). Many sustainable forest policy Chart 5: Sustainability Criteria initiatives recognise the values of native woodlands for biodiversity conservation, Desirable Undesirable for recreation and tourism, but there has been increasing emphasis on developing yield the livelihoods of the rural population, in maintaining cultural distinctiveness and in high building local capacity to adapt to the changing market place. Therefore, in Scottish productivity low native woodlands, there is a need to zone forests into areas in which the biodiversity values are given the highest priority, through buffer zones, into protection zones ` where multi-functional management should be practiced in ways that support sus-

time tainable development of local communities (Slee, 2005). time Given the wide range of conflicting demands and the competing discourses of sus- unstable system tainability and native woodland management, it is unsurprising that native woodland yield stable system management should be a contested arena. The following principles are, therefore, suggested as a basis for forest policy design (Nijnik and Hill, 2005): stability • System approach: each native woodland is to be considered as a subsystem of a time time higher unit in the hierarchy of Scottish forestry; whilst the forestry in Scotland is to be seen as a subsystem of British, and of the global forestry; yield sustainable stress • Comprehensiveness: all factors of forestry development: economic, environmen- non-sustainable stress tal and social, and their proper interaction should be considered at different lev-

sustainability els of forestry development, i.e. at local- regional-national-global; • Objective principle: priority objectives for each level of forestry development, starting from forest enterprises, through forestry sector, to the economy, should time time be identified; relatively equal distribution unequal distribution • proportion of Perspective development: the long-term social interests should be addressed, population starting from most recent, through present, and to most distant in time objectives, taking into account also those of future generations. This necessitates dy-

equitability namic optimisation of “Human-Environment” interrelationship. • Carrying capacity (Ciriacy-Wantrup, 1968): the rates at which forest resources

income income are to be used must be less than the available flows. The resources must not be driven to extinction – a safe minimum standard of conservation should prevail. Fig. 5: Sustainability Criteria • Ethical principle: this advocates the equitable distribution in space and in time of Source: adapted from Conway (1985)15 all costs and benefits of forest related activities. • Precautionary principle (Bodansky, 1994): full scientific proof of a possible adverse 15 Conway (1985) developed this idea for agricultural systems, and it is likely relevant also for native woodlands. environmental impact is not required before action is taken to prevent that impact. 126 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 127 • Participatory approach: public involvement in decision-making and policy im- the full range of multifunctional benefits may be modest and who, in many situations, plementation concerning native woodlands is to be promoted. may be unable to capture them as a market good. There are, however, many good examples of the resources being applied to the sus- Some of the above principles are already in use in forest policy planning in Scot- tainable management and conservation of native woodland and of successful outcomes land. Being an active signatory to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Scot- obtained. It is important that the FC WGS has been extended and revised to offer dis- land is a key partner within the UK Biodiversity Action Plan process. Three types cretionary funding for the improvement of woodland biodiversity. The Woodland Ex- of Action Plans, i.e. Species, Habitat and Local Biodiversity Action Plans (LBAP), pansion Challenge Fund has encouraged the planting of native trees in the Forest of have been developed in the UK to set priorities for nationally and locally important Strathspey and the Deeside Forest. The European LIFE Fund has been used to good ef- habitats and wildlife. The LBAP process ensures effective delivery on the ground as fect, all involving woodland restoration e.g. of Caledonian pinewoods (mostly in Glen well as raising awareness of local biodiversity. The LBAP initiative is based on the Affric), and of oakwoods (near Loch Sunart and various west of Scotland sites). Resto- premise that everyone has a stake in their local environment and the quality of life ration and expansion of native woodlands, as well as the protection of their biodiversity, it supports. There are 27 LBAP areas throughout Scotland. Each LBAP works on involve a whole range of tasks. Some of these tasks, however, are major challenges in the basis of partnership to identify local priorities and to determine the contribution themselves, requiring technical and advisory support and adequate funding. they can make to the delivery of the national Species and Habitat Action Plan targets, including the addressing of specific problems of biodiversity conservation in native 7. Challenges and opportunities woodlands. The plans contain a number of targets, with deadlines for their completion, and with a list of complementary actions. Nature conservation activities do not A discernible recent shift has been observed in public allocation of funds from typically mean the re-creation of the past wilderness. Rather, they mean our learning favouring woodland expansion towards one where stewardship is given a higher pri- from the past to construct a more sustainable development of Scottish woodlands in ority, with particular emphasis on forests and deer management. In 1892, Nairne ob- the future. The HAP targets usually involve: served that “natural reproduction can never go on in… forests where deer are present, • Protection of woodland from further destruction, misuse or neglect; as they destroy the young trees with avidity” (Smout, 2000, p. 58). This equally con- • Improvement of woodland condition and conservation status; cerns the current state of native pine and oak woods in Scotland. Public funding will, • Restoration of those woodlands which have been adversely affected by the intro- therefore, be used to support the long term strategy for wild deer (Deer Commission, duction of non-native species; 2001). The focus on deer management is deemed to slow the decline of existing na- • Alleviation of the effects of fragmentation through woodland enlargement, pref- tive woodlands. Funding constraints are a major barrier to new planting, and the solu- erably by natural regeneration onto adjacent sites, or by the development of new tion to financial problems pertaining to the restoration and further expansion of native native woodlands, including through the restocking of former ancient woodland woods largely lies in further raising of funds through EU LIFE Fund, the Landfill Tax sites after the removal of exotic conifers (Nijnik and Hill, 2005).16 and the Heritage Lottery Fund, in addition to available support from FC. With regard to international financial assistance, rural Scotland has benefited sub- Many nature conservation actions are generic, and apply to many native woodland stantially from the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and European Structural plans. However, some actions apply only to specific locations. This, for instance, is Funds. However, on the one hand, attempts to develop Europe’s peripheral regions the case in the updating of the Caledonian Pinewood Inventory; identifying large run the risk of damaging the environment, and on the other hand, the protection and scale sites for the creation of flood-plain forests; or the establishment of grazing re- regeneration of the nature are often regarded by local communities as unwelcome gimes in senescent wood pastures in order to rehabilitate them. To achieve the targets constraints of the development. Solving the problem „jobs versus nature” is problem- the plans suggest and often quantify practical measures to do with land-use policies, atic (Warren, 2002). Changes in the CAP will be likely to enhance native woodland planning, development and regulation, which will necessarily draw upon the com- protection by reducing the numbers of sheep currently grazing in the hill upland bined resources and skills of a number of public bodies. This calls for co-operation areas, where many of Scotland’s native forests are located. Therefore, although the between owners, and between major stakeholders to produce integrated plans for forest policy aims at the development of native woodlands, the shortage of funds and sustainable management of native woodlands, as part of local land-use strategies. rural policy drivers suggest that the protection and consequent natural regeneration of In practice, however, undesignated native woodlands will be almost entirely at the native woodlands, rather than their expansion through tree-planting could be foreseen mercy of the land management decisions of the landowner, whose understanding of in the near future (Nijnik and Hill, 2005). However, the increase in native woodland through expansion around existing woodland blocks may fail to deliver the full range 16 As seen at: http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk or http://www.treesforlife.org.uk of multifunctional benefits that might be the product of a more strategic approach. 128 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 129 Interest in native woodlands protection and restoration has been growing in the last 8. Conclusions decade. There are several organisations involved in woodlands restoration and biodiversity protection. Highland Birchwoods was established in 1992 as a partnership Native woodlands and their management present several challenges to forest scien- initiative to promote and stimulate the development of a local woodland economy tists and practitioners, and in addition to the challenges presented in previous section, and culture in the Scottish Highlands. Reforesting Scotland is a networking organisa- they include conceptual challenges, and the challenges imposed by risks and uncer- tion of those active in the ecological and social regeneration of forests in Scotland. tainties, including the uncertainties pertaining to the changing climate. The first chal- The John Muir Trust was formed in 1983 to protect and conserve wild places and to lenge of a conceptual concern is whether or not “nativeness” has value in itself, or increase awareness and understanding of the value of such places. The Trust works only because, associated with that “nativeness” products, services and benefits do not closely with local communities. It believes that sustainable conservation can only be exist or are scarce in other types of forests. The second major challenge is to establish achieved by recognising special qualities of wild places and understanding the human and to value the relative importance of the range of benefits associated with native factors and other aspects which contribute to the natural landscape. The Scottish For- forests which, because of their multi-functionality, are likely to be considerable and est Alliance is a collaborative network between British Petroleum, Forest Enterprise, highly spatially variable (Slee, 2005). the Woodland Trust Scotland and Royal Society for Protection of Birds. It has set up Moreover, when traditional mono-functional forest use for timber is rejected and its objectives, including the regeneration and expansion of native woodlands and its ‘sustainable multi-functional use’ of woodlands is embraced, the externalities and contribution to the UK targets for woodland biodiversity. Scottish Native Woods is a uncertainties pose numerous challenges to forest policy and management specialists charity dedicated to the conservation of native woodlands. It does not own land, but on what sustainable development of forests actually means, and how this goal can helps others to manage their woodlands. Like many other not-for-profit organisations, be achieved in each and every forest under consideration, and in Scottish forestry it depends on external funding, and is supported by Government grants, funds from in general. Furthemore, alongside the pressures to manage native woodlands multi- the European Union, and many private and charitable trust donations from Scotland, functionally and sustainably, there is a need to recognise the very considerable chal- and the rest of the UK. The Caledonian Partnership is a partnership of voluntary con- lenges raised by global warming and by the need to develop forestry strategies which servation organisations and government forestry, conservation and research agencies confront those challenges. It seems highly probable that forests will play a significant aimed at native woodland restoration and conservation. The Scottish Wildlife Trust role in sequestering carbon and providing biofuels and the mix between native wood- is Scotland’s leading voluntary group working for the conservation of all forms of lands and exotic species may need to be reconsidered in the light of these compelling wildlife. It is actively involved in the Caledonian-Partnership projects. The last, but new demands on woodland resources. not the least example of the Scottish conservation charity dedicated to the regenera- Considering the above said, we suggest the following main preconditions for suc- tion and restoration of the Caledonian Forest in the Highlands of Scotland is Trees for cessful implementation of sustainable forest policy plans: Life. The principles of ecological restoration their activities are based upon include: – flexibility of the policy, for making it possible to incorporate additional decisions mimic nature wherever possible; work outwards from areas of strength, where the or to involve more, or some other actors, under conditions of the changing situa- ecosystem is closest to its natural condition; pay particular attention to „keystone” tion, i.e. of the changing climate; species; utilise pioneer species and natural succession to facilitate the restoration – the concreteness of the documents; process; re-create ecological niches where they have been lost; re-establish ecologi- – their acceptability by the public; cal linkages etc.17 – horizontal tuning of the plans, by means of correlation of the forest policy with These various organisations are the institutional dimension of a marked shift in other nature and resource management plans, such as agricultural, physical plan- attitude which, over the last fifty years has seen a shift in attitudes to native wood- ning and nature conservation; land, with the exception of native Scots pine, were seen as having little interest to a – vertical tuning of the policy when executive structure of institutions have to re- narrowly based production forestry community. Instead, influenced in part by endog- spond to the policy structure; enous actions by native woodlands activists who drew succour from new interna- – feasibility of the policy and management plans, concerning their targets and im- tional approaches, and in part by an emergent paradigm of multifunctional forestry, plementation resources; a resurgence of interest in the many benefits derivable from Scottish native wood- – task orientation, with clear and enforced definition of responsibilities between all lands can be seen. This provides a platform upon which strategies for sustainable actors involved in practical application of sustainable forest policy decisions (Ni- forest management must be built. jnik and Hill, 2005). At this stage of forestry development (which often is considered as post-produc-

17 as seen at: http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/ tive, see Mather et al.) and considering the necessity of proper integration of forestry 130 Maria Nijnik, Bill Slee Towards Sustainable Development of Scottish Native Woodlands 131 with other land uses in rural landscapes, the role of good institutions (Shleifer and Forestry Commission, 1998. The UK Forestry Standard: the Government’s approach to sus- Vishny, 1998), with active public involvement in controlling the tenure, manage- tainable forestry, FC, Edinburgh. ment, and production of multiple public goods of woodlands is becoming increas- Forestry Commission, 1999. Annual Report and Accounts, FC, Edinburgh. ingly important. People and local communities eventually implement all institutional, Forestry Commission, 2000. Forests and Water Guidance, FC, Edinburgh. environmental and economic changes in rural areas, including those of sustainable Forestry Commission, 2001. Forestry Statistics, FC, Edinburgh. management of biodiversity, because people need the environment in which „they Scottish Forestry Commission, 2003. Forestry statistic, FC, Edinburgh. feel at home, motivated and committed” (Vink, 1999). Today, therefore, much de- Forestry and Timber Association, FTA, 2004. Fast Forwarding Forestry: Manifesto Action pends on public opinion of, and on public involvement in various issues pertaining to Group on Climate Change and Non-Market Benefits, FTA, Edinburgh. Goldin, I. and Winters, L., 1995. Economic Policies for Sustainable Development. In: The sustainable development of native woodlands and the protection of their biodiversity Economics of Sustainable Development, Goldin and Winters (eds.) Cambridge, New York (Nijnik et al., 2007). and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press: 1-15. Nothing can be achieved without public support. Public involvement in native Hobley, M., 1996. Institutional Change within the Forestry Sector. Overseas Development woodlands protection and restoration in Scotland is and must remain a central feature Institute: working paper 92. London: 1-50. of the implementation of sustainable forest policy and should be deepened wherever House and Dingwall, 2003. A Nation of Planters: Introducing the New Trees, 1650-1900. In possible. Forest policy-makers, practitioners, stakeholders, environmentalists and the Smout T. C. (ed.) People and Woods in Scotland: A History: 128-158. general public must recognise the full array of forest policy issues in their importance IBN-DLO, 1999. Resolving Issues on Terrestrial Biospheric Sinks in the Kyoto Protocol, and complexity (Nijnik and Hill, 2005). They must accept that forestry is naturally Dutch National Research Programme on Global Air Pollution and Climate Change, Wage- linked with various other land-users, and that economic, social and environmental ningen, the Netherlands. dimensions of forest policy must dovetail with other land-use interests to fit with the IUCN/ENEP/WWF, 1991. Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainable living, Gland. general strategy of rural development in Scotland. This should lead to greater empha- Kirby, K., Latham, J and Hampson, A., 1997. The case for native trees and woodland for na- sis on the wise use and the protection of native woodlands and to the implementation ture conservation and the merits of non-native species, in: Ratcliffe, P. R. (ed.), Native and of more joint and effective efforts toward managing sustainability successfully in the Non-Native in British Forestry, Proceedings, University of Warwick, 31 March-2 April, Scottish forestry sector. 1995, Edinburgh: 160-70. Lister-Kaye, J., 1995. Native pinewoods and sustainable development of the Highlands, in: Aldhous, J. R. (eds), Our Pinewood Heritage. FC/RSPB/SNH: 60-3. References Mason, W.L. Hampson A. and Edwards C., (eds.), 2004. Managing the Pinewoods of Scot- land, Forestry Commission Edinburgh. Mather, A., 2003. The future’, in: Smout, T. C. (ed.), People and woods in Scotland: a history, Bodansky, D., 1994. The Precautionary Principle in US Environmental Law. In O’Riordan T. Edinburgh University Press: 214-224. and J. Cameron, eds: Interpreting the Precautionary Principle. London: Earthscan Publs.: McNeely, J., Mooney, H., Neville et al., 2001. A Global Strategy on Invasive Alien Species, 203-228. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Brown, N., 1997. Re-defining native woodlands.Forestry 70: 191-8. Nijnik, M., 2002. To Sustainability in Forestry, Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Cannell, M. and Milne, R. (2000). Kyoto, carbon and Scottish forestry. Scottish Forestry Nijnik, M., Hill, G., 2005. Native Woodlands of Scotland: Some Implications for Sustainable 54(1): 11-16. Forestry. In: Commarmot and Hamor (eds) Natural forests in the temperate zone of Eu- Ciriacy-Wantrup, S.V., 1947. Capital returns from soil conservation practices. Journal of rope–values and utilisation, Swiss Federal Research Institute publs.: 345-353. Farm Economics 29: 1181-1196. Nijnik, M. and Mather, A., 2007. Analysing institutions and public perspectives to identify the Conway, G., 1985. Agroecosystems Analysis. Agricultural administration 20: 31-35. future of British forests. In K. M. Reynolds (eds): Sustainable Forestry: From Monitoring Dasgupta, P. and Heal, G., 1979. Economic Theory and Exhaustible Resources. UK: Cam- and Modelling to Knowledge Management and Policy Science, CABI publs: 171- 188. bridge University Press. Nijnik, M., Miller, D., Nijnik A., Morrice, J., 2007. Multifunctional Landscapes in Scotland. Deer Commission for Scotland, 2001. The Long Term Strategy, Inverness. In: Pedroli, van Doorn, de Blust et al. (eds) Europe’s Living Landscapes, KNNV publs.: European Commission EC, 1998. Communication from the commission to the council and 105- 123. European parliament on a forestry strategy for European Union. COM(1998)649, 03/11/ Oelschlaeger, M., 1991. The Idea of Wilderness: from prehistory to the age of ecology, Yale 1998, Brussels University Press, New Haven. Evans, J., 1999. Sustainability of forest plantations: a review of evidence and future prospects. Peterken, G., 1996. Natural Woodland: Ecology and Conservation in Northern Temperate International Forestry Review 1 (3): 153-62. Regions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. FAO, 2001, as seen on the website www.fao.org 132 Maria Nijnik and Bill Slee Peterken, G., 2001. Ecological effects of introduced tree species in Britain. Forest Ecology and Management 141: 31-42. Quelch, P., 1998. An open letter to the Scottish Woodland History Discussion Group. Native Woodlands Discussion Group Newsletter 23(1): 20-1. Roberts, D., Chalmers, N., Crabtree, B. et al. (1999). Scottish Forestry: an input-output analy- Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable sis, Macaulay Institute, John Clegg & Co. and the University of Aberdeen. mountain development and nature conservation in the Robinson, J., 1993. The Limits of Caring: Sustainable Living and the Loss of Biodiversity. Ukrainian Carpathians Conservation Biology, 7: 20-28. Schmutzenhofer, H., 1992. IUFRO birthday. IUFRO News 21 (1-2): 3. Scottish Forest Service, 2006. Scottish Forestry Strategy. Press Edinburg. Maria Nijnik1, Ihor Soloviy2, Albert Nijnik3, Anatoliy Deyneka4 Scottish Executive, 2002. Scottish Planning Policy: The Planning System. http:// www.scot- 1 land.gov.uk/library/planning/spp1.pdf The Macaulay Institute, Craigiebucker, Aberdeen, United Kingdom; E-mail: [email protected] Shleifer A., Vishny R., 1998. The Grabbing Hand: Government Pathologies and their cures. 2 Institute of Ecological Economics, Ukrainian National Forestry Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. University, Lviv, Ukraine; E-mail: [email protected] Slee R. W., 2004. A new approach to the estimation of the total value of native pinewoods on 3 Environmental Network Ltd, United Kingdom; E-mail: [email protected] rural development, Conference presentation, Aviemore. 4 Regional Forestry Administration, State Forestry Committee Slee R. W., 2005. Socio-economic values of natural forests, Forest Snow and Landscape Re- of Ukraine, Lviv; E-mail: [email protected] search, 79 (1/2): 157-159. Slee, R. W., 2006. Social indicators of multifunctional rural land use: The case of forestry in Summary the UK. Agric., Ecosyst. and Environ. 120 (1), 31-40. Smout, T., 2000. Nature Contested: environmental history in Scotland and northern England Almost fifteen years that elapsed after the Rio Summit (1992) demonstrated the excep- since 1600. Edinburgh university Press, Edinburgh. tional importance of the principles of sustainable development for the global environment Smout, T., 2003. People and Woods in Scotland: A History. University of St Andrews and economic partnership all over the world. Ukraine is eager to respond adequately to Tapper, S., 1999. A Question of Balance: Game Animals and their role in the British Country- global challenges and this especially concerns the mountain regions where height, relief side, Game Conservancy, Fordingbridge. and climate create special conditions which influence people’s everyday life (European UNCED, 1992. Agenda 21, Chapter 37, par 1, UNCED, Rio, Brazil. Charter, 1994). The most important problem is the adaptation of the sustainable develop- United Nations, World Commission on Environment and Developmen. (1987). The Brundt- ment concept to the impacts of external and internal factors on socio-economic and envi- land Commission, Report “Our Common Future”. ronmental conditions of the country that is still in transition to the democratic values of Usher, M., 1999. Nativeness or non-nativeness of species. SNH Information and Advisory the modern society and to the market economy. Although the development in a particular Note 112, Scottish Natural Heritage, Battleby. country, such as Ukraine, might be sustainable even if the restructuring and transforma- Vink, N., 1999. The Challenge of Institutional Change. Royal Tropical Institute, the Nether- tion of the forms of property in forestry has not finished, a crucial task is to advance lands, p. 84. forestry reforms. Sustainable forestry is an important part of sustainable development of Warren, C., 2002. Managing Scotland’s Environment, Edinburgh University Press. remote mountain areas. Hence, the main goal to ensure the policy reforms that focus on Wiersum, K., 1995. 200 years of sustainability in forestry: lessons and history. Environmental preservation of natural forests, conservation of biodiversity and landscape values should Management 19 (3): 321-329. - Worrell, R., 1996. The Boreal Forests of Scotland, Forestry Commission Technical Paper 14. be complemented with well-targeted measures to enlarge the efficiency in timber produc WWF, 1994. The Status of Old-Growth and Semi-Natural Forests in Western Europe, Euro- tion and provide more opportunities for local communities living in remote rural areas. pean Forest Campaign, World Wide Fund for Nature, Switzerland. Sustainable development of Ukrainian forestry is seen in the view of further enlargement of economic and institutional changess which will promote economic efficiency and welfare maximisation for the communities to be able to balance economic, social and environmental components of sustainability in mountain areas..

Keywords

Sustainable development, mountain communities, forestry, biodiversity, nature conservation policy, Ukrainian Carpathians 134 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 135 1. Introduction and less productive than lowland or urban areas. National governments often give privileges to the assets which spread the use of resources located in mountain areas The World Commission on Environment and Development, tagged the Brundland more widely, but are not always interested in raising of the welfare of mountain region Commission, emphasized perceived complementarities between economic growth inhabitants and in sustaining their social, economic and environmental conditions. If and the environment in its report Our Common Future (1987). It emphasized the they are interested, the resources are usually scarce to solve all of the existing prob- importance of sustainable development as a prerequisite for continued societal exist- lems. Physical isolation from more densely populated and more economically devel- ence. In this paper we focus on the Ukrainian Carpathians and consider sustainability oped territories alienates mountain communities from the possibilities accessible in as the main requirement for socio-economic development of mountain communities other regions (Hrycyshyn, 2003). Inadequate accessibility to various socio-economic where sustainable forest management is seen as an important part of policy measures gains considerably limits self-governing capabilities of mountain communities and to sustain social, economic and environmental development in the area. their capabilities to defend their social, economic and environmental interests. It also limits opportunities of mountain region inhabitants to be heard, even in centers of the The European Charter interprets mountain regions as localities, where height, relief remote areas where they live. and climate create special conditions which influence people’s everyday life (Eu- ropean Charter, 1994). One in 12 people - around 700 million individuals - live in 2. Focus of the Study mountain regions. In most cases mountain regions worldwide, including the Ukrain- ian Carpathians, are characterized with strengthening of marginalization processes In this paper, sustainable development of the Ukrainian Carpathians and the role of and with decreasing of biodiversity and worsening of the quality of natural resources. forest management to attain this purpose are under consideration. Firstly, background Depopulation, the loss of ethnically related cultural traditions and a comparatively information is provided, so that specific problems related to sustainable development low level of living standards, deforestation, water erosion and the increasing number of mountain areas and the proposed strategies to solve these problems can be bet- of natural catastrophes are common characteristics of nearly all mountain regions. ter understood. This background information concerns mountain areas in general, In the conditions of economic globalization, goods produced in mountain areas are and the Ukrainian Carpathians in particular. In the section that follows, we describe often unable to compete on markets with goods produced in other territories. Fur- the role of natural resources, especially forests, for the sustainable development of ther, mountain populations are often inadequately represented in central authorities mountain areas. Considering sustainable forest management practices, we describe of many countries, and their influence on decision-making and planning of the de- the main forest characteristics and its users, and we analyse the significance of the velopment of mountain areas remains insufficient (European Charter, 1994). This Carpathian forests for biodiversity and nature conservation, with the main stream of especially concerns countries „in transition”. the most recent economic and political changes taking place in Ukraine.

Mountain areas have huge economic and natural resources potential. Mountain Knowing the problems mountain communities are faced with and the state of the tourism now accounts for almost one-fifth of global tourism revenues, or about US affairs in forestry, and concerning forest biodiversity in particular, we introduce ad- $70-90 billion annually (European Charter, 1994). However, many mountain com- equate policy responses with the focus on the Ukrainian Carpathians, but with refer- munities do not normally share in the profits in economic terms, nor do they partici- ence to the international context. By analysing these responses and assessing their pate in decisions to grant timber licenses to prevent logging of the remaining 25% capabilities to solve the problems we concentrate on answering the following ques- of the world’s forests growing in upland areas. Mountain communities often have tions. What are major challenges and opportunities of nature conservation in the area? nominal access to legal mechanisms for gaining recognition of their community- What causes the shortcomings of the current policy? Why particular policy actions based property rights, or to education, health care, markets, and especially to having are needed, and which of them are better than others? In the conclusion, we consider decision-making power (Lynch and Maggio, 2002). what conditions must be created to enhance sustainable mountain development and to balance it with more sustainable natural resources management and biodiversity There are various reasons for economic impoverishment of mountain communities conservation. including natural and environmental conditions, and historical, cultural, social and economic factors. Often, among the reasons is the tendency of national governments Besides the main stream of the study, we touch some other questions which could to give less priority to social and economic interests of the people living in mountain be potentially useful for the final responses. Who mainly profits from the mountain areas. Although it is obvious that mountain communities need more support, in the forest management and what is the role of stakeholders, authorities, private persons, public view of many countries mountain regions are often considered to be peripheral and private and governmental companies? How to organise the widespread public 136 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 137 involvement in forest management and in the enlargement of new strategies for sus- commercial forests. There are 70 species of trees, 110 of bushes and 1500 species tainable development of mountain areas? of flower plants in the Ukrainian Carpathians,2 and the area belongs to the country’s most unique and biologically diverse areas in terms of species richness, presence of 3. Sustainability and the development of remote mountain areas rare and endemic species, and unique habitats, as the largest surviving natural remnants of the ancient forests in Europe. The Carpathians are unusually rich in flora After the adoption of chapter 13 of Agenda 21, “Managing fragile ecosystems: and fauna, and their different habitat types occur in overlapping altitudinal belts of sustainable mountain development”, at the 1992 UN Earth Summit (UNSED, 1992), vegetation types. awareness of the importance of mountain ecosystems and their communities has be- The Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains are found at the heart of the European-Medi- come evident. The document admitted that the observed deficit of fresh water and terranean Mountain Mixed Forest, which is among the WWF’s Global 200 Ecore- recreational areas would increase, whereas biological variety would decrease. Sci- gions. The Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians have been inscribed on the entists and experts, therefore, agree that the provision of ecosystem services makes World Heritage List. These forests constitute a transnational serial property of ten mountain territories one of the most important elements of sustainable development. separate components along a 185 km axis from the Rakhiv Mountains in Ukraine to This trend has been reinforced by the designation of 2002 as the International Year the Vihorlat Mountains in Slovakia. The ten sites represent an outstanding example of of Mountains, and by collaboration of partner organizations to shape an International undisturbed, complex temperate forests and exhibit the most complete and compre- Mountain Partnership. People and governments of many countries have realized the hensive ecological patterns and processes of pure stands of European beech across a necessity to support mountain regions and their inhabitants, and the support is in- variety of environmental conditions. The Primeval Beech Forests are unique for the creasing not only because of altruistic considerations. People understand the high research of biological processes in non-disturbed ecosystems. The above mentioned value of mountain resources and the role mountain areas play in the maintenance of beech forests concentrated on the area of 12 kha in the Transcarpathia, are continu- social and political stability of so many countries. Consequently, the need arises not ously and intensively studied by scientists from Ukrainian universities and institutes, only to protect highland environments, but also to ensure the economic and social and by researchers from the United Kingdom, USA, Switzerland, Germany and other well-being of mountain communities. The European Union (EU) and national legis- countries. lations support less advanced mountain regions, and a number of countries within the EU and beyond, including France, Scotland, Italy, Switzerland, Georgia and Ukraine To date, there is no single special law on conservation and sustainable use of all have enacted legal instruments focusing specifically on mountain areas. „These con- biodiversity in Ukraine, but all corresponding issues are regulated by a long list of verging efforts seem to signal an emerging trend towards a progressive increase in active laws and decrees each of which focuses on a specific issue. Among the most mountain law-making in the years to come” (FAO, 2003). important laws are, as follows: “On the Plant Kingdom” (1999) and “On the Animal Kingdom” (1993), “The Forest code” (1994), “On the Moratorium on Entire Felling 4. Ukrainian Carpathians: global and local issues at the Mountainsides in Fir-Copper Beech Forests in Carpathian Region” (2000), “On the Red Book of Ukraine” (2002) and “On the Territories of Nature-Reserve Fund of The Carpathians are remarkable for their biodiversity and it is Europe’s last great National Importance” (2002). wilderness area that supports large carnivores, with over half of the continent’s population of bears, wolves and lynx, and home to the greatest remaining reserve of old 5. Major threats to Carpathian sustainability growth forests outside of Russia. Covering the total area of more than 200,000 square kilometers, the Carpathian Mountains stretch across seven countries. These moun- Human influence on forest ecosystems in the Carpathians, during the 18-20th cen- tains are the place of diverse nations and nationalities with rich cultural heritage. turies, has led to deforestation and forest degradation, and it still impacts the state of The location of the Carpathian mountain forests is highly significant for the densely the environment and challenges the landscape stability. In 1956-1960 the annual vol- populated and highly urbanized European continent.1 ume of timber harvest exceeded the average increment by almost double (Gensiruk, The Ukrainian Carpathians, covering only 4% of the Ukraine’s territory, produce 2002). This resulted in the decrease of water-protective functions of the Carpathian a third of the forest resources of this country, and forests occupy 53.5% of the Car- forests, intensified erosion processes, decreased endurance of spruce stands and con- pathian area itself. Most forests are publicly owned and managed by the state, with tributed to the occurrence of floods and windfalls in the mountains (Nijnik, 2002). In the forestland divided into protected forests managed for environmental needs and the 19th century there were 6 floods in the Carpathians, in the 20th century –17, and

1 See more at http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/europe/ 2 Ukraine biota consists of more than 25,000 species of plants and fungi and 45,000 species of animals (MoE, 2003) 138 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 139 one flood has already caused serious damage in the 21st century. In the last decades, The other side of the problem relates to the high rate of unemployment and migra- direct annual loses from floods comprised nearly € 2.23 Mln, with € 73 Mln in 1998, tion of the population. The processes weaken rural communities and make them un- and € 43.8 Mln in 2001 (Lycur, 2003). able to organize widespread public involvement in forest management practices and in the development of new strategies for sustainable development of mountain areas. Today the tendency is to decrease logging in the Carpathians. However, the forests As a result, many social, environmental and economic problems relate to depopula- are still threatened by poor logging practices, over-harvesting in the past, overgraz- tion of rural areas, job losses, illegal logging and exporting of raw material, and lo- ing, chemical contamination and atmospheric deposition resulting in the decline in cally, to forest degradation (Bihun, 2005). forest health and vitality, in soil erosion, destruction of native vegetation, degradation of wildlife habitat and the subsequent loss of biodiversity. Although recent forest In highlands, the rate of unemployment is much higher than in Ukraine, on average. policy has aimed at restoring forest resources potential, the emphasis has been given The rate of unemployment in mountainous districts is also higher (Ivano-Frankivsh- to the creation of forest plantations which are less stable ecologically. Consequently, chyna, 2006), even in conditions of intensive international migration of labour forces the decreasing increment of monoculture spruce plantations is particularly observed from this country to border lands in Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia. Different eth- in matured and over matured stands. Moreover, intermediate and selective timber nical groups of the Ukrainians (Huculy, Lemky and Boyky) and communities with cuttings often do not respond to the principles of sustainable forest management rich cultural traditions (architecture, clothes, songs, crafts etc) live in the Ukrainian (SFM) (Nijnik, 2004), and the use of manual logging or mechanized extraction with Carpathians. Some have traditionally developed sustainable land use systems, with obsolete equipment often results in systematic damage of natural regeneration and in their lifestyles and knowledge close to nature. However, general impoverishment soil compaction (Bihun, 2005). Some of the threats facing Carpathian forests today results in the loss of traditional knowledge and skills, weakening the balance of Hu- include escalating income-generating pressures that create un-sustainable practices. man-Nature interactions. According to the official data, in 2004, more than 1500 3m were harvested illegally, i.e. 25% more than in 2003 (National Report, 2004). To improve the situation, among other measures, “The Law on the Status of Moun- Forest use in recent years has been strongly driven by short-term financial consider- tain and Human Settlements” (1995) has been adopted. It seeks to protect social ations, whereas overall economic considerations to sustain and enlarge forest resourc- security of vulnerable mountain communities by ensuring economic development es and ecosystem services have not always been taken into account. Environmental of mountain settlements. The law calls for the provision of subsidies, loans, addi- requirements and the needs of local people urgently call for new forest management tional payments to student scholarships and pensions from central government, as practices that will put emphasis on sustainable and multipurpose use of forests, and on well as technical and financial infrastructure development. According to the estab- their proper integration with other land uses into an overall landscape context. lished criteria, the status of mountain settlements possesses 711 administrative units (villages and towns), with 890.5 thousand inhabitants. However, additional payments 6. Social dimensions of sustainable natural resource management and tax breaks are not able to change the situation radically. Political discussion on the changes in the Law is therefore going on between the President of Ukraine and It is impossible to strengthen democracy and to achieve human well-being under the Parliament. the conditions of unstable transitional socio-economic situation that creates various tensions and conflicts in society as a whole. Contradictory information about former 7. Institutional aspects: an international outlook forest tenure (ownership) serves as a source for conflicts within the communities, with an attempt at providing “moral justification” for illegal cutting. It is especially Ukraine has joined many important international agreements on global environ- true in distant mountainous districts of Western Ukraine. mental issues. It is member of 19 international environment protection conventions. It has signed more than 35 bilateral inter-governmental agreements in the fields of en- Moreover, legal conditions for cooperation of stakeholders in the forestry sector in vironment protection. Ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994 general have not been created. It is big state companies that mainly profit from moun- created a new impetus for further development of environmental and conservational tain forest management, but the role of local communities, private persons, house- activities, strengthening inter-agency and government-NGO cooperation at both the holds and private companies is undermined. Different types of conflicts concerning national and local levels. It also promoted the international cooperation, involvement forest and land use therefore arise, and they include the conflicts between individual- and participation of Ukraine in global environmental concerns and actions. National authority, community-authority, individual-community, local authority-regional au- activities in biodiversity conservation are based on the Constitution of Ukraine (1996) thority, business activity-community and business activity-authority. and are implemented in accordance with the existing national legal basis (environ- 140 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 141 mental and conservational legislation), international conventions ratified by Ukraine, aimed at increasing environmental awareness and improvement of public access to as well as the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy. information concerning the protection and sustainable development of the Carpath- In 1997, the Concept (Strategy) for Conservation of Biological Diversity was ap- ians and assisting in educational arrangements and programs. This also includes legal proved in Ukraine, and the National Action Plan for 1998-2015 is being developed. and policy mechanisms for improving well-being of mountain communities by man- The main goals are: dating resource transfer, investment in health and education, reinvestment of profits • conservation, improvement and restoration of natural and disturbed ecosystems, from exploitation of mountain resources, diversification of economic activities, and landscape components, and habitats of some species; incentives for the development of the region. It is foreseen that legally mandated • promoting transition to sustainable, well-balanced use of natural resources; investments in livelihood strategies will strengthen local communities and reduce • minimizing any indirect negative influences on ecosystems, their components out-migration and pressures on fragile resources, such as forests and farmland. and ecological complexes; • strengthening public awareness, improving availability of information on biodi- 8. Development of nature protected areas versity, involving more of local population in conservational activities; • defining and strengthening responsibility for biodiversity conservation, especial- The total number of nature protected areas has increased by nearly double, prima- ly the responsibilities of institutions, organizations, land users, companies and rily because of the creation of protected areas of relatively new types – biosphere individuals that use or affect natural resources (MoE, 1997). reserves, national natural parks and regional landscape parks. Today, there are 7140 nature protected areas in Ukraine, with a total area of 2776 thousands ha (4,6% of The mechanisms of public access to information, concerning the state of the envi- total area), and many of them are located in the Carpathians (Tab. 1). ronment and natural resource management have been developed. However, the procedures are not transparent and do not always provide enough opportunities for the Tab. 1. Core nature protected areas in the Ukrainian Carpathians public to be widely involved in the decision making process. Another weakness of Type of nature protected the existing system of regulation in the field of environmental protection in mountain Name Year founded Area, hectares areas is insufficient control over the quality of environmental protection measures areas and often equally low levels of environmental awareness of the authorities and the Biosphere reserves Karpats’kyi 1968/1992 57 800 communities. The problems are likely rooted in the overall institutional weaknesses Nature reserves Gorgany 1996 5 344 of governance (Nijnik and Oskam, 2004). There is the need therefore to assess exist- National parks Karpats’kyi 1980 50 303 ing capacity and identify capacity building needs for successfully implementing the National Strategy and its action plans for the conserving of biological diversity and Synevir 1989 40 400 balancing Human-Nature inter-relationships. Vyzhnyts’kyi 1996 7 928 As one of the follow-ups of the Concept (National Strategy) of Biodiversity Con- Skolivs’ki Beskydy 1999 35 684 servation in Ukraine (1997), the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Uzhanskyi 1999 39 159 Strategy, as well as the Law of Ukraine “On the state Program of Development of National Ecological Network for the Years 2000-2015” have been approved by the Gutsulschina 2002 32 271 Parliament (2000). In 2004, the Parliament of Ukraine adopted the new act “On the Galytskiy 2004 14 685 Eco-net in Ukraine” which establishes the principles of the creation, conservation and use of the ecological network of nature protected territories. 9. Major policy responses Pertaining to the Carpathians, the government of Ukraine initiated and, together with the governments of Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Rumania, Serbia, Mon- The strategy of sustainable development foresees that the economic system and tenegro has signed the Convention “On the protection and sustainable development of specialization of production must match closely to the natural resources and to pro- the Carpathians” (2003). The parties decided to cooperate for the protection of nature ductive and reproductive potentials of the environment. The most important problem and sustainable development of the Carpathians with the goal to improve the qual- is regional adaptation of the sustainable development concept to the impacts of exter- ity of life, to consolidate local economies and communities, to protect and enhance nal and internal factors on socio-ecosystems of mountain areas, which is conditioned natural resources and the cultural heritage. The parties agreed to carry out the policy by the disparity of tasks and interests of different stakeholders. Concerning forestry, 142 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 143 the economic, social and environmental factors necessitate putting into practice a be employed. Oskam et al. (1998) distinguishes six main groups of instruments: set of policy measures to direct the sector towards its more sustainable development regulation; information, persuasion and awareness; technological and institu- (Tab. 2). The measures focus on balancing the demand and supply sides of produc- tional change; arrangements between governments and organisations; economic tion, as well as on the most appropriate trade-offs between various forest functions. In incentives; and private law instruments. Important tasks are to choose proper the conditions of institutional transformation, such policy measures as private law or policy measures for each specific case and to focus on each objective (target) of formal arrangements between government and organizations, government and com- the policy, as well as to elaborate policy instruments which will ensure effective, panies, government and stakeholders, companies and stakeholders, are not always in efficient, legitimate and feasible policy implementation. Figure 1 presents some place, but should be developed. of our considerations of which instruments are likely most appropriate for forest policy measures. Tab. 2. Policy Measures for Sustainable Forestry Management in the Carpathians Economic Social Environmental Fig. 1. Forest Management in Transition to Sustainability Focus on economic indicators Focus on human Focus on physical indicators, of sustainability, e.g. prices, dimensions and social e.g. wooded area, standing economic rents, costs indicators of sustainability, stock, MAI, species composition, and benefits. Economic e.g. public involvement, and health and vitality substantiation of timber employment, welfare of of forests, protection of rotation ages. rural communities. biodiversity.

Institutional transformation, Changes of informal redefinition of property rights Afforestation, reforestation and rules, upgrading of social and development of private forest regeneration. capital, capacity building. sector of the forest economy. Development of recycling, Structural reconstruction saving and cleaner Technological modernisation, with respect to social technologies, LCP3, alternative rising of economic efficiency conditions, development sources of energy and waste of infrastructure utilization. Extension of regional Creation of new jobs, Multi-functional use of forests, economic relations and enhancing of social environmental focus toward international co-operation, security mountain development development of joint projects

Demonopolisation, structural Extension of information Upgrading of the network of reconstruction and functional and education, including natural reserves, creation of the differentiation in forestry distance education joint system of protected areas

Source: Nijnik (2002)

Restructuring in rural areas and transformation of the forms of property and economic activity in forestry has already started, and an important task is to advance the changes. To make this process feasible, the forest legal documents have to redefine and enforce property rights for forest resources and land, and Source: developed by Nijnik (2002) on the basis of Krott, M et al., 2000. stakeholders have to receive the right to use forest resources for their benefit. The application of policy measures presented in Table 2 requires policy instruments to To ensure sustainable multi-functional development of the forest sector in the Ukrainian Carpathians, policy reforms that focus on preservation of natural forests 3 Life-cycle production. and conservation of biodiversity and landscape values should be complemented with 144 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 145 well-targeted measures to enlarge the efficiency in timber production and to provide The proposed key policy measures to enhance the transformation of forestry and more socio-economic opportunities for local communities living in remote rural ar- mountain communities towards sustainability are: definition and as insurance of eas. Since forestry policy is faced with market failures, improper institutions and rent property rights; incorporation of more balanced trade-offs between market changes seeking, governmental intervention in terms of public environmental and social poli- in forestry and preservation of unique natural and cultural assets in the area; restruc- cies is justified and even welcome. It is foreseen that administrative regulatory forest turing of the economy; promotion of the collective public action; enhancement of policy instruments will remain strong. However, the focus will be gradually shifting social capital and capability development. It is obvious that the transition to sustain- to the development of economic-financial incentives for sustainable use of forests, able development which will provide ecosystem restoration and improvement of the towards the progress in the legislation pertaining to forestry, and first of all to that, quality of people’s lives will require a holistic and participatory vision of new poli- concerning the assurance of property rights on land and of forest tenure, as well as cies and strategies. towards the advance in knowledge extension and in the raising of public awareness To develop a common strategy for sustainable development of mountain regions and in capacity building. tested pilot cases can serve as models. The Carpathian Biosphere Reserve situated in Rakhiv district, Transcarpathia, is such a model territory in the Carpathian re- The strategy for the development of mountain regions has to take into account tra- gion. During the last few years the area, which is a part of International network of ditional mentality of the people living there and rich cultural heritage of the mountain biosphere reserves of UNESCO, has increased from 12.7 to 53.6 thousand ha. The communities. The leading principles of environmental and economic policy are as Reserve is involved in solving numerous social-economic problems in the region follows: and in the protection of ecosystems and preservation of their biodiversity. During • new institutions must provide publicity and transparency to ensure stakeholder the last few years the Reserve administration has created 200 new jobs, has built a involvement, their open access to information and their engagement in the proc- building for 15 families of staff members. The wood processing unit is taking care of ess of making most of the important decisions in the area where they live and 171 km of forest roads and 368 km of mountainous pathways which are used for the work; needs of local population and for tourism development. Each year thousands of cubic • the economic system must be adequate to balance “demand-supply” sides in for- meters of wood are allocated by the Reserve for the local people. The pastures are estry and must ensure sufficiency for local communities production; offered for 10 thousand sheep and 600 cows; 456 families receive the haymaking for • scientific and technical achievements should add value to the protection of natu- their households. The Reserve administration is also taking care of the overhaul of ral resources and environmental/cultural values; the local village school. Nature protection activities in the Reserve are based on the • the social system is called to take off existing tensions in the area; research of mountainous ecosystems and on the elaboration of scientific proposals • the technological system has to stimulate permanent and effective research for for sustainable use of natural resources and the precaution of catastrophic disasters, better decisions to prevent and alleviate pollution and minimize waste; such as floods or wind throws (Gamor, 2003). This local concept of environmen- • formal rules must be flexible and allow politicians to collaborate more effective- tally-oriented sustainable development of mountainous regions and communities has ly with a wider community (adapted from Hrycyshyn, 2003). served as a basis for the Ukrainian Government Decree “On State Support of the Comprehensive Programme of Ecological, Economic and Social Development of the Sustainable development can easily remain a distant theoretical idea if it is not con- Mountainous District for 1998-2005” (1997). nected with everyday life problems. In mountain areas people face problems every The main socio-economic goal of the Programme is focused on increase of employ- day. However people can merge their interests, organize their actions, often agree ment opportunities and of the wealth of local communities, on information and edu- on aims and come to a relative consensus for the benefit of positive changes in their cation extension and on the decrease of depopulation rates in remote rural areas. The own locality. It is hard to solve national problems of transformation in the society. trade-offs between the production function of forestry and its social and environmen- However, local communities give people more possibilities of meeting face-to-face tal demands add additional significance to the efforts to be taken towards the building for the establishment of a common mind about a more sustainable future for them- of a new institutional system and towards the strengthening of local economies in the selves. The main idea, therefore, is to enhance the changes in institutions that govern Ukrainian Carpathians. It is anticipated that the following efforts will assist in meet- the system and to allow local end-users to become an important part of the reforms. ing “social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future The changing motivations of local policy actors, directing them in support of the re- generations” (UNCED, 1992) living in mountain areas: forms and increasing their capacities via uprising of their commitment and trust will § recognition of the unique ecological value of the Carpathians and its important substantially enhance sustainable forest policy outcomes and promote more balanced role in maintaining viability of local communities by improving existing policy Human-Nature interrelationships in the area. and laws, and regulations that govern mountain areas; 146 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 147 § development of a conceptual framework for the governance of mountain areas changes, changes in objectives in legal and institutional frameworks and also in the under the new political and economic conditions by taking into account specific attitudes of local communities towards the common interests of maximizing inter- regional issues and meeting preferences and demands of various stakeholders; temporal social welfare and preserving natural and cultural heritage. § re-establishment of the role of Ukraine’s State Committee of Forests to an organization that retains leadership in the most important political and professional ar- The inherited current mechanisms of decision-making are not adjusted to the eas pertaining to the strategy of sustainable forestry development (which in the present and future conditions for sustainable development in forestry, social devel- Carpathians means economic and social development, and the protection of cul- opment and environmental protection. Today, adequate financial and capital inputs tural and natural heritage); are not yet available, and the changes must be introduced into the forest sector to § creation of a transparent system of budgeting and accountability based on finan- address sustainability through an enhancement of economic and environmental cial, environmental, and social benchmarks for forestry performance to monitor roles of forest, improvement of forest resources potential, as well as enlarging the the results in achieving sustainable development objectives for mountain com- wealth of mountain communities. The concepts of biodiversity conservation and munities and forest enterprises located in the area; of sustainable development in forestry related to the mountain areas are to be sup- § development of environmentally efficient economic activity oriented also on so- ported by social and environmental components of sustainability, and forest sus- cial and economic sustainability of local communities, with compensation for ec- tainability has to be measured concurrently in economic, social and environmen- ological restrictions on the limits of economic activity and payments for ecosys- tal (also in physical) terms. The way to sustainability in remote mountain areas tem services. lies in environmentally sound development of modern infrastructure, internalizing § harmonization of forestry and socio-economic practices with international envi- of the most important externalities in rural areas and through the changing of in- ronmental legislation standards and guidelines. stitutions towards capacity building and active involvement of local communities in decision-making and sustainable policy implementation. The development of 10. Conclusions highlands requires mountain-specific focused strategies, based on mountain-specific focused research and on both deep local and traditional knowledge of the prob- There is a real challenge to maintain proper sustainable development and environ- lems related to the remote rural areas, where biodiversity conservation is among mentally friendly practice combined with human development and economic growth the priorities. in the Ukrainian Carpathians. The forest sector policies and practices must be consistent with the dynamics of a market economy, the values of democratic governance that the United Nations Development Programme is helping to establish4, and with the References principles of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use embodied in the Conven- tion on Biological Diversity, to which Ukraine is a Party. Bihun, Y. (2005). Principles of Sustainable Forest Management in the Framework of the Region- al Economic Development. In: Visnyk Lvivskogo Universytetu. Seriya Geografichna.32, Sustainable forestry is an important component of sustainable development of re- 19-32. mote mountain areas. Economic sustainability in forestry, however, has not been paid Decree “On the Animal Kingdom” (1993). http://www.rada.gov.ua enough attention, and public involvement in the decision-making processes on the Decree “On the Eco-net in Ukraine”(2004). http://www.rada.gov.ua Decree “On the Moratorium on Entire Felling at the Mountainsides in Fir-Copper Beech For- sustainable development of mountain areas, especially within the local communities, ests in Carpathian Region” (2000). http://www.rada.gov.ua is undermined. Decree “On the Plant Kingdom” (1999). http://www.rada.gov.ua Decree “On the Red Book of Ukraine” (2002). http://www.rada.gov.ua Sustainable development of Ukrainian forestry is seen in the view of economic and Decree “On the Territories of Nature-Reserve Fund of National Importance” (2002). http:// institutional reforms which will promote economic efficiency and welfare maximis- www.rada.gov.ua ation for the communities to be able to balance economic, social and environmental Decree “On State Support of the Comprehensive Programme of Ecological, Economic and components of forest sustainability. The role of institutions is therefore essential in Social Development of the Mountainous District for 1998-2005”, (1998). http://www. realising sustainability as a goal and also as a strategy. Transition to sustainability rada.gov.ua means the transition to a market economy which requires economic and institutional European Charter of Mountain Region, Council of Europe (1994). Conf/CHAM 15, Art. 2

4 For more information see http://www.undp.org.ua/ 5 Of course, that still brings up the question of how to balance these different aspects. 148 Maria Nijnik, Ihor Soloviy, Albert Nijnik, Anatoliy Deyneka Challenges and potential policy responses towards sustainable mountain development... 149 FAO, (2003). Towards a GIS-based. analysis of mountain. environment and populations. An UNSED, United Nation (1992). Agenda 21 - a programme for global action in all areas of sus- FAO contribution to the follow-up activities of the International Year of Mountain. ftp:// tainable development. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Chapter ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/Y4558E/Y4558E00.pdf 38: International Institutional Arrangements, United Nations Conference on Environment Gensiruk, S. (2002). Forests of Ukraine. Lviv, Ukraine: Scientific Society named after & Development. http://www.habitat.ing.org. Shevchenko (Ukr). World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), (1987). Our Common Fu- Gamor, F. (2003). Carpathian Biosphere Reserve: conservation and sustainable utilization, ture. (Brundtland Report) Report of United Nations Commission. 30-37. In: Commarmot and Hamor (eds) Natural forests in the temperate zone of Eu- W WF, (2007). Working for the environment in Europe. http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/ rope–values and utilization, Swiss Federal Research Institute Publication. where_we_work/ europe Hrycyshyn P.M. (2003). Principles of Sustainable Development for Carpathian Region: View of Publicity. http://kyiv2003.mama-86.org.ua/pub/grytsyshyn.htm. International Convention “On the protection and sustainable development of the Carpathians” (2003). http://www.rada.gov.ua. Ivano-Frankivshchyna, Ukraine, World. Yearly Statistical Data Collection. (2006). Ed. Kolim- brovskiy M.M. Main Office of Statistics in Ivano-Frankivsk Region. Ivano-Frankivsk. Krott, M., Tikkanen, I., Petrov, A., Tunytsya, Y., Zheliba B., Sasse V., Rykounina I. and Tunyt- sya T. (2000) Policies for sustainable forestry in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. Brill, Lei- den-Boston-Koln. Lycur M., (2003). Forest Resources of the Carpathians in the System of Environmental an Economic Security). Thesis of the Dissertation to obtain Candidate of Science Degree in Economic Science. – Kyiv: Board of the Productive Forces of Ukraine, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Lynch, O. and Maggio, G., (2002). Mountain Laws and People: Moving Towards Sustainable Development and Recognition of Community-Based property Rights. Center for Interna- tional Environmental Law. Washington DC, USA. MoE, (1997). The Concept (Strategy) for Conservation of Biological Diversity was approved in Ukraine, and the National Action Plan for 1998-2015. MoE, (2003). Kyiv resolution on biodiversity. Fifth Ministerial Conference. ‘Environ- ment for Europe’, Kyiv, Ukraine, 21–23 May 2003. UN/ECE (2003). www.ieep.eu/ 20CAP%20and%20Biodiversity%20(2007)%20Report.pdf National Report: On the State of the Natural Environment (2004). Ministry for the Protection of Natural Environment, Kyiv, pp. 155. Nijnik, M. (2002). To Sustainability in Forestry. Wageningen University press, The Nether- lands. Nijnik, M. and Oskam, A. (2004). Governance in Ukrainian Forestry: Trends, Impacts and Remedies. International journal Agricultural Resources, Governance and Ecology, 3 (1), 116-133. Nijnik, M. (2004). To an Economist’s Perception on Sustainability in Forestry-in-Transition. Forest Policy and Economics, 6 (3-4), 403-413. Oskam, A., Vijftigschild, R. and Graveland, C. (1998). Additional EU Policy Instruments for Plan Protection Products, Wageningen Press. The Forest Code (1994). The Ukraine’s Laws, as seen on website: http://www.rada.gov.ua The Law on the Status of Mountain and Human Settlements (1995). Bulletin of the Parlia- ment of Ukraine (Verhovana Rada), 1995, N 9, p. 58. The Law “On the state Program of Development of National Ecological Network for the Years 2000-2015” (2000). Website: http://www.rada.gov.ua United Nation Development Programme in Ukraine (2007). http://www.undp.org.ua/ Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 151 – signing of an agreement concerning environmental protection in communes situated in the region of the Polesie National Park and its buffer zone; – improvement of the environment quality and sanitary state thanks to development of a system of technical infrastructure; Nature conservation management system – realization of 3 wetland restoration projects; in the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve – organization of first elements of local environmental monitoring system; – development of methods of local nature conservation management. (mid-eastern Poland) Keywords

Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management, biosphere reserve, West Polesie Agricultural University in Lublin, Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature Dobrzańskiego 37 St., 20-262 Lublin, Poland; E-mail: [email protected] 1. Introduction

1.1 The environmental conditions and nature conservation system in Poland Summary before its accession to the EU

In social opinion, the top-down formulated programs of nature conservation in many Poland is situated in Central Europe at the intersection of two great physiographic cases turn out to be non-effective. In this situation individual regions and even indi- units: the Extra-Alpine Western Europe and the East-European Lowland. It is also the vidual communes in Poland take up more and more numerous bottom-up initiatives of region of mixture of the Atlantic, the boreal, and the eastern-continental climate influ- nature and landscape conservation. One of the best examples of this type of actions is ences. On the eastern side, there is a biome of boreal coniferous forest, on the western the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, created in mid-eastern Poland in 2002. side – a biome of deciduous forest of the moderate zone, on the south-eastern side – a The first concrete project of spatial organization and Biosphere Reserve borders biome of steppe and forest-steppe (Starkel, ed. 1991; Weiner 1999). About 99.7% of delimitation was prepared by four Province Nature Conservationists in 1996, basing Poland is included in the basin of the Baltic Sea. The three major rivers in Poland are: on earlier environmental documentations elaborated at a Lublin scientific centre. This the Vistula, the Odra, and the Bug. idea was met with high approval of local NGO’s which started campaign for project Characteristic of the Polish landscape is the strip-like, latitude-oriented system of branding within the community. From the very beginning NGO’s started close co-op- the main types of natural landscape. In the northern area there is the lowland land- eration with local communities, preparing for the inhabitants popular science semi- scape (late-glacial and early-glacial), in the middle area – the highland landscape nars, ecological workshops, excursions, youth competitions, folklore events etc. In (loess, aliminosilicate and carbonate-lime), and in the southern area – the medium effect the local community started to feel as an integral partner of the project and and high mountain landscape (Richling, Solon 1996). considered it as a chance for trans-boundary co-operation and international promo- In the structure of land use, the dominant form is agrocenosis – 59.3%. Forests con- tion of the natural, health and recreational values of the region. stitute 28.7%; water – 2.7%; peat, bog, steppe, and sand dune areas – 1.5%; and urban Just after the official establishing of the Biosphere Reserve, within Lublin sci- areas – 7.8%. The average population concentration is 120.8 inhabitants per sq. km. entific centre work on sustainable management of natural resources of this region Almost 40% of the population are farmers, which causes the spatial pattern of arable started. The results of this work were accepted by local communities. It was agreed fields and meadows to be fine-mosaic and differentiated. that the nature resources management system in the Biosphere Reserve should be All the above features make Poland, as compared to other European countries, a based on 4 interconnected subsystems: diagnosis, planning, decision-making and country of great biological and landscape diversity and in many regions extreme control. After 5 years of common work, among the main effects of realization of ecological values have been preserved right up until the beginning of the 21 cen- this idea should be listed: tury. – development of scientific research and better understanding of local ecological In the years 1950 -1990, about 30% of Poland was subject to significant environ- processes; ment pollution and degradation of natural values (Kassenberg, Rolewicz 1985). As – creation of local nature conservation policy and elaboration of nature conserva- in the whole of Europe, the ecosystems most endangered were the bogs, peat land, tion plans for the most valuable zones of the Biosphere Reserve; small lakes and rivers. 152 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 153 In the years 1990-2002 the rate of environmental pollution was significantly re- changes just before the accession was the establishment of a new nature conserva- duced. Dust emission were reduced by 75,7%, sulfur dioxide emission by 54,6% and tion act. It was done on 16th April 2004. According to this act, the most important NOx emission by 37,8%. At the same time water abstraction was reduced by 24% and element of nature conservation system in Poland is Natura 2000 network. However, total amount of communal and industrial waste waters were reduced by 21,3%. Albeit the conditions for the establishment and functioning of the network were not properly since 2003 more and more natural resources exploitation indexes as well as environ- prepared. This still causes a lot of problems (Chmielewski red. 2004). mental pollution indexes began to increase again (Grzesiak, Domanska eds. 2005). By the end of 2004 on the Polish territory 184 Special Areas of Conservation and 72 Poland has good achievements in the field of nature conservation system develop- Special Protection Areas were proposed, covering 3,8% and 10% of country territory, ment. In 1976 the first draft of the project of ‘Ecological System of Nature Protection respectively. Most of this sites, however, overlap with already existing protection Areas’ [ESOCh] (Gacka-Grzesikiewicz 1976, Gacka-Grzesikiewicz, Rózycka 1977) areas and with all national parks, some nature reserves and with parts of many land- was prepared. It was a prototype of ECONET network introduced in European Union scape parks. In effect total area covered by various forms of conservation increased 25 years later (Bishoff, Jongman 1993, Liro red. 1995). from 28,5% do 32,5% of the country`s territory. According to Natura 2000 barometer The ESOCh concept is still consequently developed in Poland. According to the Poland is on the last place in EU regarding percent of the country area covered by Nature Conservation Act from 1991, main links in the ESOCh system are formed by: proposed sites of community interest. According to the members of National Council national parks; nature reserves; landscape parks; landscape protection areas. Struc- of Nature Protection and many other experts, proposed Sites of Community Interest ture and functionality of this system were completed by small scale forms of nature network should cover 10 – 11% of Poland, and Special Protection Areas at least 15% protection known as: ecological grounds, natural landscape complexes, documentary of the country. plots and nature monuments (Nature Conservation Act 1991). Most of those areas are Management plans should be prepared for the Natura 2000 sites. The first regula- cross linked forming a spatially comprehensive network. Each of these legal nature tion of the Ministry of Environment setting up the framework and methods of such conservation forms fulfills different tasks and shows different limits in land use and plans preparation was strongly criticised by the academics, conservation bodies and the different purposes. All of these forms together create a very wide group of steps to NGO’s. Also the first pilot project of the management plans for nine Natura 2000 sites realize nature conservation aims in practice. in Poland did not succeed. Right now (2007) new regulations are in preparation. In the end of 2003, the nature conservation system included 23 national parks, Conditions of nature conservation after accession of Poland to the European Union are which occupy 1% of the territory of Poland, 1385 nature reserves, constituting about regarded as difficult if not even very difficult. Social needs are biased mainly into fast 1% of the country’s area, 120 landscape parks (about 8,5% of the country’s area) economic development, new investments and creation of new workplaces. Basic param- and 445 landscape protected areas (about 18% of the country’s area). Other forms eters of environmental quality were achieved at the end of the 1990`s, but protection of of nature conservation covered in total c.a. 1% of the country area, but most of them biological diversity and landscape remains in the shadow of other more basic needs. were situated among other above mentioned forms. Up till the accession of Poland With the economic growth, most of the indexes of environmental degradation are to European Union the total area of any forms of nature conservation system covered increasing. Especially acute is forest resources exploitation. Logging increased from 28,5% of country`s area (Grzesiak, Domanska eds. 2005). 22 hm3 in 1996 to 30 hm3 in 2004, i.e. by 26,7% within 8 years (Grzesiak, Domanska In the Nature Conservation Act from 1991 emphasis was put on protection of sus- eds. 2005). After the big flood in 1997 very strong pressure exis on the regulation of tainability of structure and function of ecological systems regarded in time in spatial rivers and streams which is linked with wetland degradation. Establishing of Natura scale, due to different methods of active protection of nature. For the most important 2000 network was questioned mainly in the river valleys, many of them still having types of nature protection areas, such as national parks, landscape parks and nature natural and semi-natural character. Very high growth can be noted in urban processes. reserves, a compulsory requirement of management plans preparing was introduced New developments are generally scattered and rapidly, in a chaotic way, encroach on by law (Nature Conservation Act 1991). First management plans for national parks farmland and natural areas. were prepared within 1993 – 1996 (Chmielewski 1997). To the end of 2003 all na- Only in 2004 – 2005 developed area increased by 22 000 ha, i.e. by 9,4%, and in- tional parks, 40% of nature reserves and c.a. 30% of landscape parks had prepared dustrial area by 13 000 ha, i.e. by 6,8% (Grzesiak, Domanska eds. 2005). and approved management plans. Because the top-down formulated programs of nature conservation in many cases turn out to be non-effective, individual regions and even individual communes in 1.2 Nature conservation in Poland after entry to the EU Poland take up more and more numerous and more and more productive bottom-up initiatives of nature and landscapes protection. One of the best examples of this type Poland has been a European Union member since the 1st May 2004, after 10 years of actions is the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, created in mid-eastern Poland in of intensive transformation of the legal and economic system. One element of these 2002 (Chmielewski ed. 2005). 154 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 155

Fig. 1. 156 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 157 2. The West Polesie Biosphere Reserve

Up to March 2007, 507 objects all over the world have been conferred the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve status, including 9 in Poland. The youngest and second in size in Poland is the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, situated in mid-eastern Poland, in Lu- blin Region. It was created in April 2002 on the area of 139.917 ha, in the most west part of Polesie. In 2002 analogous reserve: „The Shatsk” was created in the Ukrain- ian part of the Polesie Region and in 2004 – a third similar reserve: „The Pribuzskoe Polesie” was established in the Belarusian part of this region (Fig. 1). The West Polesie Biosphere Reserve includes almost the whole physiographic sub- region: Leczna-Wlodawa Lakeland and small fragments of three other subregions. It stretches from the River Bug below Wola Uhruska village in the south-east to Stawy Siemien (Siemien Ponds) in the Tysmienica River valley in the north-west. In terms of administration BR “Polesie Zachodnie” is wholly situated within the Lublin voivodship on the territory of 19 basic provinces (gminas), belonging to 5 administrative districts. One of the most important reasons for this biosphere reserve creation was the unique variety of nature in this part of Polesie and its location on the border of contrasing physiographical and ecological structures, the abundance of lakes, bogs, moors and Photo 1. Usciwierz Lakes Cluster (T.J. Chmielewski) forests, the presence of many relict and rare species and the unique importance of this region in the ecological structure of Europe. Forests (59,6%) and fields (25,23%) dominate in the land use structure, but a meaningful share is taken by meadows (7,79%), moors (4,54%), lakes, ponds and rivers (2,84%). The Leczna-Wlodawa Lakeland is a single region in Poland which include lakes occurring outside the areas formed by last glacial morphogenesis of the last glacia- tions. The flatness of the terrain and shallow-lying first level of ground waters cause that considerable parts of the Lakeland are permanently or temporarily water-logged. Lakes are a particularly characteristic element of the landscape (Photo 1). It is estimated that they are 11.300 years old and their origin is described by several hypotheses (Wilgat ed. 1991). The majority of them are characterized by inconsiderable maximal depth, small surface and little shore accessibility. The east and mid-west part of the Lakeland is ecologically most precious and only insignificantly transformed (Chmielewski, ed. 1989). Until present day 61 lakes with the surface over 1 ha have survived∗. Particular lakes are in various stages of succession and contain water of different trophy. Next to the lakes with hardly any plants and mesotrophic waters (e.g. Lake Piaseczno) there are reservoirs slightly eutrophic and strongly eutrophic as well as dystrophic (Radwan, ed. 1995, 1996). Microflora of the lakes is rich and very interesting. On the whole 341 algae species were identified in the lakes of the region. Land and water assemblies of macrophytes are extremely interesting. Parts of this area are a miniature of European tundra and forest-tundra which is here the farthest advanced to the south-east in Europe (Fijalkowski, ed. 1960). This is the area of

∗ In 1954 T. Wilgat referred to 68 lakes with the surface over 1 ha (Wilgat, ed. 1954). Since then five Photo 2. “Staw” peatbog (T.J. Chmielewski) of them have completely disappeared and surface of two other lakes decreased below 0,7 ha. 158 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 159 unusual variety of highmoors, transitional moors, lowmoors and – in some places – very unique carbonate moors (Photo 2). Large collection of northern plant species (150 species) and simultaneous presence of many plants from Atlantic zone (25 species), east continental zone (43 species) create a curiosity on the European scale (Fijalkowski, ed. 1960, 1986). In the region of the Leczna-Wlodawa Lakeland there appear 1466 species of vascular plants, including 12 species from European CORINE list and 10 species from “Polish Plant Red Data Book” (Chmielewski, ed. 1999, on the basis of Zarzycki, Kazmierczakowa, ed. 1993). The mosaic arrangement of forests, peatbogs, grasslands, waters and cultivated fields is the source of great biological and landscape variety of this region. The animal life is also abundant here. In the lakes 350 species of water non-ver- tebrates was indicated. In the freshwater 35 ichtiofauna species were registered. The curiosity among the reptiles is the mud turtle (Emys orbicularis). Its population in the Leczna-Wlodawa Lakeland is the most numerous in Poland and one of the largest in Europe (Holuk et al.., 1998). Amphibians, which are dying out in other parts of Europe, are here fairly numerous. Avifauna, represented by at least 150 breeding species, is also very valuable. Among mammals otter, wolf and elk are worth mentioning. 98 species of the region’s fauna are listed on the European CORINE list and 25 are in the “Polish Red Book of Animals” (Chmielewski, ed. 1999, on the basis of Glow- acinski ed. 1992). Central part of the Biosphere Reserve constitute the Polesie National Park. It is surrounded by 3 landscape parks: Leczna Lakeland L.P in the west, Polesie L.P. in the center and Sobibór L.P. in the east, joined together with the Polesie Landscape Protected Area. Two new landscape parks are proposed in this area: Wlodawa For- ests Landscape Park and Parczew Forests Landscape Park. There is also a project to substantially enlarge the Polesie National Park. Moreover, in the Biosphere Re- The zones of A and B category are surrounded and joined by zone C (91.477,5 ha) serve structure there are also 13 sanctioned nature reserves. There is a project to thus forming a unity. The population density in this region is 37 people per sq. km and create 10 new nature reserves. since 1978 has diminished by 3%, but in 1985 – 2005 the number of holiday-makers Following the UNESCO principles, the area of the Biosphere Reserve has been and tourists increased here over 3 times. This zone has the greatest opportunity for divided into zones of different ranges of nature protection and land use (Fig.2). balanced development of its major settlement areas as service centres for the whole The category A includes 6 regions of total area of 5.225,5 ha. All areas included in West Polesie Biosphere Reserve (Chmielewski, ed. 2005). category A are uninhabited by men. They are mostly swamps and forests already under the highest degree of protection. Important research and nature protection projects 3. Creation of local nature conservation policy and a protected areas will be realized in this area. management system in the Reserve 5 regions of total area of 43.215 ha were classified as zone B. Population density in the regions included in zone B is 10 people per sq. km and it has diminished by The initiative of establishing a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve on the area of Western 8,8% within the years 1978-2005. But over 1985-2005 the number of holiday-makers Polesie protected areas arose in 1991, during an international meeting of scientists and tourists increased here by 75%. Villages situated in this area will have a chance and conservation bodies of the region for Polish-Ukrainian co-operation in the field to develop agro tourism and service sector. They will also have the priority in the of Polesie nature conservation. The first concrete project of spatial organization and development of technical infrastructure (sewage system, gasification, improvement Biosphere Reserve borders delimitation was prepared by four Province Nature Con- in waste management) and improvement in technical condition of buildings. Here, as servationists in 1996. well, a series of national and international nature protection, agriculture, forestry and This idea was met with high approval of local NGO’s which started the campaign research projects will be realized. for building an agreement between nature conservation staff and local communities. 160 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 161 Especially active was the Ecological Club UNESCO from small town Piaski near 2) Planning subsystem, the main element of which was working out the nature Lublin. Soon the Polesie Society joned them – an NGO established for the promotion conservation plans for the national park and the landscape parks as well as the of the Biosphere Reserve, protection of its natural values, sustainable development sustainable development strategy for the communes of the West Polesie. Nature of the region and co-operation with Ukrainian Polesie inhabitants. From the very be- conservation plans were worked out by the governmental nature conservation ginning both NGO’s started close co-operation with local communities preparing for service. However, also local government representatives took part in the proc- the inhabitants popular science seminars, ecological workshops, excursions, youth ess of their preparation. In the process of working out the nature conservation competitions, folklore events etc. In many of them Ukrainian guests took part, who plan for the Sobibór Landscape Park, all-day workshops were organized, dur- later prepared similar meetings on the other side of Bug border river. The new local ing which the chairmen of the local communities together with the authors team journal called „Wonderland Polesie”, popularizing this region and new initiatives (planners and scientists) were working out the general policy of wildlife and started to be issued. landscape conservation strategy for this park. In 2000, over the process of meetings and discussions gathering scientists and NGO 3) Decision-making subsystem, where – on the basis of plans’ resolutions – the volunteers, „The Biosphere Reserve West Polesie Decalogue” was worked out and proper entries to the local spatial management plans were introduced. Using during a ceremonial all parties conference, in the township of Wlodawa, it was unani- these two types of plans, the administrative decisions concerning conservation mously declared: actions for specified types of ecosystems were issued. These include for exam- 1. Protect this which is valuable and particularly characteristic for the region. ple: water damming, stand reconstruction, moors plant succession control, and 2. Enrich this which is impoverished. also decisions concerning architecture objects building, tourist facilities, creating 3. Restore what is ecologically degraded and revitalize what is culturally and mor- tourist routes and educational paths, etc. ally neglected. In the case of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, realization of several 4. Minimize the conflicts. wetlands’ restoration projects was particularly important, including the Piwonia 5. Solve the problems in harmony. river and the Nadrybie – Bikcze – Ciesacin lake complex restoration, with the to- 6. Counteract the threats. tal area of 600 ha. This was a pioneer project in Poland, realized in 1992 - 1995 7. Use the potentials in a better way. (Chmielewski, Krogulec 2003). 8. Support and develop local initiatives. Functioning of the decision subsystem has not been satisfactory in this re- 9. Look for the external financial support for the overlocal tasks. gion so far, while many decisions - particularly concerning the new economical 10. Promote the values and harmonic development of the region on the country, Eu- investments, neglect the ecological conditions or marginalize them. rope and world scale (Chmielewski ed. 2000). 4) Control subsystem which combines, among others: building inspection, environment quality control and nature monitoring. All these three links of this sub- At the same meeting, a logo of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve was accepted system do not work in Poland properly, and the nature monitoring is still in the (see Fig. 2). organization stage (Chmielewski 2003). In effect the local communities started to feel as integral partners of the project and considered it as a chance for trans-boundary co-operation and international promo- The co-operation of the services managing the Biosphere Reserve West Polesie tion of the natural, health and recreational values of the region. Biosphere Reserve with universities and research institutes, and also with Scientific Councils of Pole- targets proved to be common with local community expectations. The need to estab- sie National Park, Chelm Landscape Parks and Lublin Landscape Parks, plays the lish a Biosphere Reserve was included into the Western Polesie communes develop- main role in the functioning of the subsystem of diagnosis. The co-operation has ment strategy. been developing very well, especially in the case of the Polesie National Park. On At the same time, within Lublin scientific center, works on sustainable management the area of the Biosphere Reserve numerous national and international research of natural resources of the region started. Results of the works were presented to the programs are being realised. Only in the Polesie National Park each year from 27 local communities. It was agreed that a nature resources management system in the to 38 research programs are realised. During the 15 years of Polesie National Park’s Biosphere Reserve should be based on 4 interconnected subsystems (Chmielewski, existence, research carried out on its territory triggered the writing of 9 PhD theses Domagala 2005): and over 300 MSc theses from 130 scientific units in the country and abroad (Pi- 1) Subsystem of diagnosis of the space condition, relying on ecosystems and their asecki 2005). Owing to that, the area of the Biosphere Reserve West Polesie is one landscape compositions inner-processes. The key role to by played by the Lublin of the well studied ecological landscape systems in Poland (Chmielewski ed. 2000, scientific center. Radwan ed. 2002). Good scientific recognition of ecological processes occurring 162 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 163 on the area under protection is the basis for correct management of resources and Park did the same. Positive results of these projects’ realisation became an inspiration natural space values of the region. and model for analogous actions in other regions of the country (Chmielewski 2001b, A decisive role in the functioning of the planning subsystem play the following: Chmielewski, Krogulec 2003) [see part of this article concerning wetland restoration]. • concerning the area of a national park – the Director of the National Park, In the decision-making process and investments’ realisation, harmonious co-opera- • concerning landscape parks and nature reserves – Chief of the Province tion of a national park and landscape parks nature conservation services with local (Voivode) governments has particular significance. The beginning of this co-operation was dif- • concerning all communes – individual local governments. ficult in West Polesie, because people were afraid of economic bans and restrictions Co-ordination of planning works dealt with by the above individual units is real- connected with the introduction of various forms of nature protection, especially with ised by a system of mutual agreements and opinions. It is not an easy task and here the creation of a national park. Practice, however, showed that the national park con- often divergent intentions and conflicts of interests happen. A joint working out of tributed to great promotion of the region and significant improvement of the inhabit- the “Strategy of nature conservation and sustainable development of the Biosphere ants’ life conditions. (Chmielewski, Krogulec 2007). Many key investments for the Reserve” would be a good solution to the problem for all parties. Up till now com- region were realised by communes together with the national park [see part of this munes of the West Polesie have drawn up their strategies of sustainable development article concerning cooperation with local governments]. by themselves, which are not fully compatible with the plans of the national park's The control subsystem is till now the most problematic, especially the con- and landscape parks' nature conservation plans, as well as with the requirements of trol of spatial development plans realisation and the monitoring of environmental the Natura 2000 sites management in the region, (Chmielewski, Krogulec 2007). transformation, although this situation is improving gradually. In particular it is In accordance with the criteria specified in the Habitat Directive and EU Birds Di- necessary to organise a network of biodiversity and landscape diversity monitoring rective, on the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, 6 habitat sites covering as well as urban monitoring urgently. It is also necessary to systemize gathering a total area of 92792 ha and 9 birds sites with a total area of about 45000 ha should of these data, by common introduction of Spatial Information Systems based on be created, but most area of the sites will cover the already existing forms of nature advanced computing technologies. Such systems are one of the key instruments protection. Interactions between the competence concerning the Natura 2000 sites facilitating effective protection and sustainable management of resources of areas management and other, already existing, protected areas of the region and the plans of unique natural values on a world scale. But these systems are only beginning of special development of communes are not legally settled. It causes a lot of prob- to be created in the richest regions of Poland. In the meantime Biosphere Reserve lems for regional and local authorities of nature protection. Solving this problem is West Polesie is situated in the poorest region of not only Poland but also the whole not, however, the duty of the commune or province authorities, but that of the Eu- European Union. Technical equipment and training of personnel for the creation of ropean Commission and the government of the Republic of Poland, (Chmielewski, the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve Spatial Information System is one of the tasks Krogulec 2007). which should be organised within the confines of the programs of support for the In the present situation scientists and nature conservation authorities are trying to poorest regions of European Union, (Chmielewski, Krogulec 2007). work out the best methods of nature conservation planning, in harmony with sustainable development of the region, based, among others, on the latest achieve- 4. Selected results of the policy ments of landscape ecology and on the results of interdisciplinary diagnostic studies (Chmielewski 2001a, 2005) [see part of this article concerning nature conservation 4.1. Designing nature conservation plans plans]. Local governments play the main role in the functioning of the decision-making In Poland, there is an obligation to prepare nature conservation plans for 4 cat- subsystem concerning the way of area development, using the resources of waters, egories of areas of special natural values: national parks, landscape parks, nature peat and local rock resources deposits, and in the scope of green areas protection reserves and Natura 2000 sites. Till the middle of the year 2005, on the territory of and planning. Decisions concerning the economy of state forests are issued by forest the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve the nature conservation plans were elaborated managers, and in private forests – a local government. However, the main authority for: Leczna-Wlodawa Lakeland Landscape Park with its buffer zone (Radwan et concerning the biodiversity protection belongs to the Chief of Province (Voivode), al. ed. 1998), Polesie National Park (Radwan ed. 1999), Sobibór Landscape Park and on the territory of a national park – to the park’s Director. functional area (Chmielewski ed. 2002), and for 5 nature reserves. Altogether about On West Polesie in 1992 the Provincial Nature Conservator, as a representative of 75% of zones A and B of the Biosphere Reserve were included in the protection the Lublin Chief of the Province (Voivode), made a decision to start a pioneer wet- plans. A majority of these works was based on uniform methodological guidelines land restoration project in Poland. Two years later the Director of the Polesie National elaborated by Chmielewski (Chmielewski 1994, Chmielewski ed. 1994). 164 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 165 Work on the nature conservation plan should begin with determining the area which 1997), the Poleski National Park (Radwan ed. 1999) or the Sobibór Landscape will be included in the plan (the protected area itself, the protected area together with Park (Chmielewski ed. 2002). its buffer zone, the functional area of the park or reserve) and with determining a list Amongst numerous diagnostic studies for the needs of nature conservation plan- of objectives which have to be attained on a given area. It is important for the area ning, a method of integrated values, problems and potentials analysis may be par- under protection to be treated as (currently or potentially) a coherent and interactive ticularly recommended (Chmielewski 2001a). Its main advantage is simultaneous, ecological system, introduced into the composition of a broader natural and cultural mutually conditioned considering of the studied area concerning: landscape context. The formation of strategic objectives of the plan should be a clear • its natural, cultural and economic values, presentation of a holistic structure and functioning vision of a given fragment of • threats to these values and problems with their protection, natural space. • potentials which the nature, culture and economy the studied area has. With respect to hydrogenic landscapes which dominate on the area of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, protection of the whole system of hydrological feeding, Results of the analyses may be recorded in the form of a table or a series of soil, river-beds as well as shores and basins of lakes, ponds and old river-beds de- maps. terioration prevention, protection against eutrophisation and unification of habitats, Work on the conservation actions project should start with drawing a so called securing conditions for good functioning of a network of ecological knots and cor- zonation map, reflecting a general strategy of nature and landscape conservation of ridors, spatial management planning in harmony with the natural ecological structure the analysed area. This process assigns zones (bnsu groups) with diverse forms and and physionomical values of the landscape, will be of key importance. methods of nature and landscape conservation and with a diverse level of economic Drawing up of a nature conservation plan project should be preceded by really good utilisation and tourist access of the area. It also indicates possible corrections of ad- recognition of: ministrative boundaries of the protected area. In the project of Sobibór Landscape • processes occurring in the natural environment and spatial management of the Park nature conservation plan, a mosaic of 85 natural spatial units was organized studied area for a few previous decades, into 6 zones: indigenous natural, indigenous cultural, buffer foresty, buffer mosaic, • current natural, cultural and landscape values, transit and suburban. For each zone the main directions (mutually conditioned and • threats and problem areas, supporting) of ecological and spatial policy were specified. General protection deci- • ecological, social, cultural and economic potentials, sions and principles of landscape planning were linked to a set of 21 physiocenoses • connection between the studied area and the natural and cultural environment. (local bnsu groups). Detailed protection decisions and guidelines concerning the way of spatial management were addressed individually for each of the 85 natural spatial A key to correct formulation of conservation tasks is recognition and understanding units (Chmielewski ed. 2002). of the causes of changes in the natural environment and the physionomy of the stud- Thanks to that the achievements were as follows: ied area, i.e. retrospective studies. A frequently recommended technique is compara- • conformity of detailed decisions with the general policy for the whole analysed tive analysis of aerial photographs or satellite images, taken in 2-3 time intervals. For area, hydrogenic areas also an analysis of changes in water conditions, topoclimatic condi- • hierarchy of the plan's arrangements, tions, trophy changes and habitat pollution is of key importance. Owing to the retro- • precision in addressing the plan's arrangements to specific places, being relative- spective photointerpretation analysis the process of very fast disappearance lakes and ly uniform/ homogenous spatial structures, peatbogs of the Polesie National Park and the Sobibór Landscape Park was proved • clarity and a logical structure of the plan's text. (Chmielewski 2005). These data were very important for working out the strategy of nature protection of these regions. A crucial element of the nature conservation plan should be a map of the main One of the basic operations recommended in the process of ecological struc- conservation decisions, showing what actions have to be taken in individual territo- ture analysis is identification of so called basic natural spatial units (bnsu), i.e. rial units. Such a solution was applied in the nature conservation plans of the Pole- structures with relatively homogeneous characteristics of all the components of sie National Park and Sobibór Landscape Park (Radwan ed. 1999, Chmielewski ed. the natural environment and the way of land utilisation. These units later become 2002) (Fig. 3). constant reference systems for all further analyses and retrospective, diagnos- Drawing up and approving the nature conservation plan helps in creating a substan- tic and predictive studies (Chmielewski 2001a). Such methodical approach was tially well established, legal basis for the realisation of a system of varied conserva- applied, among others, in the nature conservation plans of some outstandingly tion tasks. valuable hydrogenic areas of Poland: the Kampinos National Park (Chmielewski 166 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 167 4.2 Wetland restoration in the Biosphere Reserve

Over the second half of the 20th century, about 70% of the area of the present West Polesie Biosphere Reserve was under strong anthropogenic pressure. To evaluate the scale and type of landscape transformation, the method of retrospective air-photo analysis was used. It was noted that in the years 1952-1992 a total of 12800 ha in the investigated area dried up, which is over 61% of the area previously covered with waters and wet habitats. In many basins of small lakes and peat land, the loss of those habitats exceeded 80% . Some of the dried peat lands were ploughed and made into grassland, some of them underwent natural forest succession. As a result, only 2% of the peat flora survived in a relatively unchanged form to the end of the 20th century. At the same time, many of the weakest arable areas were artificially afforested. From 1952 to1992 the forest area increased by 7484.8 ha and the woodiness of this region increased from 9.1% to 21.3%. The greatest scale of those changes occurred in the centre of the investigated region – in the area where the Polesie National Park was established in 1990. In the years 1952-1992, urban areas increased in the Reserve area from 1009.7 ha to 1568.8 ha (by 55.4%), mainly due to the development of summer cabins around the lakes. In the years 1985-1998, summer vacation tourism grew 4 times. At the end of that period it exceeded 20,000 tourists per day. At the same time, however, in a dozen particular basins which included areas with big share of peat land, sedge areas and forests, a decrease of urbanized areas was registered. That phenomenon was related to the regression, and in several cases with the fact that some villages were totally abandoned by the inhabitants. Since the beginning of the 1990s land drainage has ceased and in several basins there has been an increase in water surface area and wetland, which indicated the local mobilization of restoration processes. This, together with the loss of urbanized areas and arable land and with the increase in forest area, gives us a picture of the local de-economization of the region. Fig. 3. Nature Conservation Plan for the Sobibór Landscape Park To support these trends and to re-build lost biodiversity, in the end of 20th century Main course of action in natural-landscape units system three wetland restoration projects were realized in the area of this region. 1. The border of Sobibór Landscape Park 15. Agriculture-settlement-forest mosaic: prevention of settle- The location of the first experimental wetland restoration project was selected to be 2. Plan to broaden the extent of Sobibór Landscape Park borders. ment scattering 3. The border of Sobibór Landscape Park protection zone 16. Mixed function: forest administration, railway service, a fragment of the upper part of the Piwonia river basin in the southern part of the Lec- 4. Plan to broaden Sobibór Landscape Park protection zone bases, storehouses zna Lakeland Landscape Park. The main actions included the following lakes: Bik- 5. Preliminary concept of the new landscape park border (ad- 17. Agrotourism, introduction of regional architecture patterns ditional studies are necessary) 18. Development and arrangement of recreation management; cze, Nadrybie, and Ciesacin, the surrounding peat land and that part of the Piwonia 6. Areas selected for the rank of “NATURA 2000” sites improvement of recreation standard 7. Reserve protection zone 19. Multifunctional resort – a plan for balanced development is river running between them. The basins of Lakes: Rogózno, Brzeziczno, Piaseczno, 8. Spring protection zone needed and Usciwierz nearby, were selected to be objects of supplementing research. 9. Forest economy 20. Restructuring of industry 10. Agricultural economy, protection of landscape interiors, open- 21. Liquidation of pollution and threats to the environment The main purpose of the project was to decrease the rate of drying up of the ter- ings and panoramas, protection of nature-agriculture mosaic 22. Prioritized environment protection technical infrastructure 11. Stabilisation of water conditions 23. Examination of archeological stands – possible didactic path rain, make retention more effective, and stabilize the water level in the lakes them- 12. Ecosystem restoration 24. Renovation of historical objects selves and in the surrounding peat land. This process was to be accompanied by 13. Natural enhancement of landscape (afforestation, tree and 25. Management of the place of martyrdom shrub planting) 26. Arrangement of scenic points restoration of the natural character of the Piwonia River valley (turned into a drain- 14. Prevention of forest succession onto bogs, meadows and psammophilic vegetation Elaborated by T. J. Chmielewski, March 2002 age ditch in the 1960s) (Photo3a, 3b) and by enrichment of the adjacent meadows 168 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 169 and peat land in at least a dozen of the plant species which had previously inhabited this area. The basic field work was done in the late autumn 1992. The effects observed for over 6 years from the beginning of the project are described in Box 1.

Box 1. Ecological effects of wetland restoration project observed after 6 years from the beginning of intervention (Chmielewski, Radwan 1999).

1. Thanks to the hydrotechnical equipment prepared, a gradual increase in the level of surface water occurred and deviations decreased in Lakes Bikcze and Ciesacin and in the surrounding peat land. 2. In 1998, the water level in Lake Bikcze was 64 cm higher, on average, than in the nearby improved river- bed of the Piwonia River, at yearly amplitudes of 30 cm in the lake and as high as 85 cm in the river. It was also the highest and most stable water level in this lake since 1992. 3. In 1992, prior to restoration, Lake Ciesacin was dry for 4-5 months each year. Since 1995 it has had a water surface all year long. 4. In the entire region studied there is a process of gradual eutrophisation of the water. In the years 1995- 1998, this process was most intensive in the improved river-bed of the Piwonia River, and least intensive in the re-naturalized river-bed and in Lake Bikcze. The moderate speed of the eutrophisation of water occurred in Lake Ciesacin. The effect of the lower eutrophisation speed occurred clearly in the third year of the restoration project. 5. Biocenoses of the aqueous micro-organisms reacted to changes in the water level. Most changes were Photo 3a. Pivonia river before restoration [1992] (T.J. Chmielewski) observed in the biocenosis of Lake Bikcze, with a slight majority of features indicating de-eutrophisation processes. In the years 1992-1997, there was an increase in the number of mesoeutrophy indices and a significant decrease in eutrophy indices in algae. In Rotatoria, the number of mesotrophy indices remained unchanged, while the number of eutrophy indices differed, with a slight tendency to decrease. Simultaneously there was a significant growth of the dystrophy indices. In Cladocera, there were deviations of the mesotrophy indices, with a maximum in 1995. There was also a clear decrease in the number of eutrophy indices. In Copepoda, small deviations of eutrophy indices were observed, the minimum being in 1995 (Chmielewski, Radwan 1996). 6. Elevation of the water level in the lakes and in the restored Piwonia river-bed lead to the processes of gradual regeneration of the hydrophilic habitats in the surrounding peat land. The first symptoms of those processes appeared as early as in 1994. However, it was not until 6 years from the hydrotechnical measures that they made a clear change. The main tendencies were: • increase in the range of underwater macrophyte habitats and decrease in the quantity of some of the rush species, caused by an increase in the water depth in the littoral zone of Lakes Bikcze and Ciesacin; • disappearance or regression of those habitats which are characteristic of the final stage of the lake being covered by water plant growth; • expansion of extremely hydrophilic species in peat flora habitats, including Equisetum fluviatile, Andromeda polifolia, Carex rostrata; • strengthening of the local populations of Drosera rotundifolia in peat land near Lake Ciesacin and Salix lapponum in peat land near Lake Bikcze; • some limitation in the dynamics of several bush and tree species and lower speed of peat land succession towards bush and forest habitats. 7. Six years after introduction, 65% of the areas of rare plant species, which additionally enrich the wetland biocenose, remained. Many areas require further active protection measures. 8. Also positive were the results of the esthetic improvement of the landscape in the Piwonia river valley. Photo 3b. Pivonia river after restoration [1997] (T.J. Chmielewski) 170 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 171 Thanks to the positive experiences from the realization of this first, pilot project, Box 2. Initial results of wetland restoration project in the Polesie National Park (Chmielewski, more wetland restoration projects were provided in the area of the Polesie National Krogulec 2003). Park in 1994 – 2004. Due to strong drying of the surroundings of the Park in previous decades, restoration of the lost water retention is considered a priority in the protec- 1. The raising of the water level in the river valleys and in some of the peat land decreased the rate of the nearby lakes being covered by plant growth. For example, in the years 1952-1992, tion measures in this area. The first undertakings concentrated on putting dams on the area of water in Lake Lukie was decreased by 0.57 ha/year on average, while between the artificial outlets from the Lukie and Moszne lakes, and then on restoring water 1992-1997 - by 0.36 ha/year. In Lake Moszne, this index changed correspondingly from 0.13 retention in the ponds in Stary Brus. to 0.09 ha/year, whereas in Lake Dlugie - from 0.11 to 0.034 ha/year (Chmielewski, Krogulec In 1994, the Polesie National Park was extended to almost twice of its previ- 2003). ous size, reaching a total area of 9647.73 ha. Included in the Park were: the 2. Water-logging of the meadows established 25-30 years ago in the dried and ploughed peat extremely rare and large peat land reserve, the so-called „Bagno Bubnów”; the land leads to the formation of bogs with high water trophy. Those ecosystems are much richer in terms of natural values than the reclaimed meadows. However, they are not the same - complex of degraded ponds near the village of Pieszowola; and several thou ecosystems as the ones that were here before reclamation. Moreover, such created objects sand hectares of highly improved post-agricultural land. Restoration measures may have a eutrophic effect on the neighboring peat land not yet degraded. focused on: 3. The creation of shallow water reservoirs in the post-agricultural areas from the mosaics of • temporary damming of the water outflow from the “Bagno Bubnow” bog; forest sections in the surrounding landscape increases the number of species and the quantity • local elevation of the small Mietiulka watercourse in order to restore water re- of the population of birds. The fewer the species subject to water-logging in the ecosystem, tention in former ponds in Pieszowola and water-floods in the river valley mead- the greater the scale and speed of increase of biological diversity in bird species. ows; • afforesting a part of the higher situated post-agricultural land. 4.3 Co-operation of environmental services of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve with local governments In 1999, a nature conservation plan for the Polesie National Park was elaborated (Radwan, ed. 1999). It included a complex program of wetland and post-agricultural The creation of the Polesie National Park took place at the same time as the forma- land restoration. This program provides the following tasks: tion of local governments in Poland. Among the 7 most important tasks included in • restoration of wetland and increasing the biological diversity in „Bagno Bub- the Act on Municipal Governments are tasks concerning environmental and natural now”, plus re-naturalization of the upper part of the Wlodawka river; protection as well as water economy. • improvement of the water conditions in the area of the Moszne, Dlugie and Du- When the Polesie National Park was created, a majority of the communes’ inhabit- rne Bagno wetlands; ants – mainly farmers – expressed their disapproval, manifesting their discontent. • re-naturalization of the Mietiulka River, as well as the post-agricultural land in Ignorance of legal regulations, partly heard slogans and their facile analysis did not its valley, the group of ponds in Pieszowola, and the post-agricultural land with- favour a friendly adoption of new protection structures in this region. in the former state farm „PGR Zienki”; The newly-arising municipal government which was equipped with broad compe- • re-naturalization of the Piwonia River, as well as the meadows, peatland, and al- tence and rights, partly financially independent, very quickly understood what ben- der area near Lake Lukie (Radwan, ed. 1999). efits may be connected with the existence of a National Park on the territory of their commune, or in the vicinity. That is why group and individual discussions began with In the years 1994-2000 in the Polesie National Park, the water-floods and wa- the local inhabitants concerning the function of the Park, its tasks, competence and ter-logging sites to a total area of 2125 ha were restored. It has been, so far, the relationship with the existing economic, agricultural and social reality. It was stressed greatest undertaking of such a kind in Poland, and one of the greatest in Europe. that the Park is a golden opportunity for all-Polish and even worldwide promotion of This project is not yet over (it will be continued until 2010), and therefore it is natural, scientific, didactic and tourist values of the region, and also creates significant impossible to fully evaluate its ecological results. The initial results are presented preferences in communes’ efforts in gaining funds for environmental protection and in Box 2. improvement of the inhabitants’ life conditions. These actions, supported by friend- liness, help and understanding of the Park’s staff, especially its board, significantly attenuated the first distrustful impression. During meetings of the communes’ administrators with the Director of the Polesie National Park, the Park’s opponents become convinced that nature conservation is showing and offering benefits which can be gained from the existence of an area 172 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 173 of so high protection rank on their territory. The local government understood that In all of these activities communes could always depend on the favour and good operating according to the statutory activities of a national park the commune may opinion of the Polesie National Park authorities which many times supported these more efficiently perform many of its own tasks, defined in the Act on Municipal tasks, treating their execution as fulfilling their own statutory duties. At the mo- Governments. The result of these meetings and talks was the agreement concerning ment all communes – signatories of the Agreement have a sewerage network in their environmental protection in communes situated in the region of the Polesie National premises and even in smaller localities (eg. Dubeczno). Park, signed by 8 communes from 2 provinces. This document was later named: PNP The example of a solution to the problem of wastewater and strong pressure caused Commune Agreement. The president of the Agreement was Marek Kopieniak – the by the existence of the Park was followed by further pro-ecological investments, such administrator of Hansk commune. The agreement posed the following goals: as individual, domestic sewage treatment plants. They were built in many households • protection of waters against pollution, in Hansk, Stary Brus, Ludwin and Sosnowica communes. This solution became re- • rationalisation of water economy in the economic sense, ally popular on the areas of scattered and settlement housing. It is estimated that dur- • limitation of dusts and pollutants emission into the atmosphere, ing the next few years from a few hundred to even a thousand of such mini-treatment • soil protection, plants will be built (Kopieniak 2005). • improvement of public utilities, Wonderful natural values and the initiated promotion of the region by the creation • green areas conservation of the Polesie National Park stimulate investment operations towards agro-tourism. • increase of the region's woodiness. Several tens of this type of households already exist, especially in Urszulin, Sosnow- ica and Stary Brus. Communes began to use the natural values of the region building The priority tasks were: tourist and cycling tracks, roofings and parkings copying the tourist and educational • improvement of water conditions, activities of their partner – The Polesie National Park. Concentrating on natural and • improvement of the sanitary state of communes, including building a wastewater agro-tourism may be a chance for the region to develop and prevent economic mar- treatment plant, ginalization of the area. It also creates many new work places which is a matter of • building water supply systems with a collective water intake (Kopieniak 2005). great importance for this, up till now, poor region. Taking into account environmental protection as well as the economy, communes Soon each commune made a list of pro-ecological tasks and next, in the form of began to close down small, but arduous for the nature coal-fired boiler plants, replac- appeals to various institutions, including the National and Provincial Environmental ing them with modern ones or changing them into a system of furnace oil or propane- Protection Fund, the Minister of the Environment, Eco-fund, Chiefs of Provinces butane gas heating. Gas heating may and should be a prevalent solution, when a gas and other organs, submitted them with a request for subsidisation. The first organised pipeline will be supplied there. At the moment communes are talking to Gas Plants appeals of this type, followed by working meetings, were received warm-heartedly supported by a ready concept of gasification of the whole Wlodawa district and Cy- and with understanding. After the applications and arrangements followed significant cow and Wierzbica communes from the Chelm district. Supplying network gas could financial means. We can say openly that some important investments for communes enable better air protection, another precious value of our region. and the Park would never take place if it was not for the favouritism of the authorities A problem which caused a lot of trouble for years was waste management. It was of the Polesie National Park, especially concerning investments realised with the par- particularly intense at the beginning of the 1990s., when the amount of used packag- ticipation of the National Environmental Protection Fund. Firstly, communes began ings increased. Communes are trying to sort out waste disposal by organising village building water intakes and water supply systems. Those were realised at the begin- waste collection banks and their disposal to properly prepared and controlled landfill ning in the commune towns and villages and later also in smaller village settlements sites. A considerable number of KP-7 type containers were bought, and in some com- and in groups of recreational built-up areas. munes (Urszulin, Hansk) waste separation began. The target solution of the problem While sorting out water supply, there was a problem of an increasing amount of will be an introduction of a common Waste Treatment Plant for the whole Wlodawa wastewater. Owing to the priority status the Polesie National Park had with the dis- district and a target common, selective waste collection. This solution will contribute posers of financial means, new wastewater treatment plants were built in Ludwin, to a radical decrease of illegal waste dumps, particularly troublesome in forest areas Puchaczow, Sosnowica, and the already existing ones in Stary Brus, Hansk, Urszulin, and post-peatbog wasteland. Wierzbica and Cycow were modernised. Collective sewerage systems were built. An It should be stressed that communes also supported the activities of the Polesie important support was the co-operation with the Agency of Treasury Agricultural National Park, appealing to the authorities for enlarging the Park, writing posi- Property which participated in the costs of sorting out the water supply and sewage tive opinions about parks` nature conservation plan or regional spatial manage- disposal in the former centres of socialistic Collective Farms. ment and environment protection plan. Co-operation between communes and PNP 174 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 175 has always been characterised by mutual respect, kindness and understanding. On 6. Experience collected in the course of functioning of the system should be em- the other hand, the communes’ achievements concerning environmental protection ployed for the development of methods and techniques of: would not be so effective without a constant, friendly and fruitful participation of – nature conservation planning, the National Park in every undertaking important for the life quality of the inhabit- – enrichment of rare species populations, ants of this region. – ecosystem (especially wetland) restoration, – strengthening of landscape ecological structure, 5. Directions for nature conservation policy at the local level – cultural heritage revitalisation, – monitoring of changes in landscape systems, All activities concerning nature conservation policy in the area of the West Polesie – socioecology and environmental education. Biosphere Reserve should be focused on: 7. West Polesie Biosphere Reserve is a good example of practical implementation of 1) common use of landscape ecology methods and techniques in the diagnosis proc- such a system. ess of changes in ecosystems and their landscape complexes and in the evaluation of interrelations between biological diversity and the ecological structure of landscape; References: 2) improvement of nature conservation planning methods by means of: - evaluation of ecological effects of previous protection plans; Baranowski M., Makomaska-Juchiewicz M. 2004. Network of Nature 2000 Sites in Poland - organization of workshops and seminars with participation of local author- in the context of situation in this field in European Union Countries [In:] Chmielewski T. ities focusing on the establishment of administrative decisions based upon J. ed. The problems of organisation and functioning of a habitat sites Natura 2000 system deep understanding and respect of the rules of nature functioning; in Poland. Polish Academy of Science, Man and the Environment Committee Scientific - development and support of NGO activities, which status aim is promotion of Issue, vol. 38; Warsaw - Lublin: 35-50 (in Polish, English summary). sustainable development and life style in the harmony with pristine nature; Bishoff N. T., Jongman R. G. H. 1993. Development of rural areas in Europe: the claim for 3) organization of a well-working system of nature and urban monitoring and de- nature. Preliminary and background studies. The Hague: 1-206. velopment of social control methods for maintained standards of environment Chmielewski T. J. (ed) 1989. Polesie National Park – scientific documentation. Institute of Spatial Planning and Municipal Economy, Lublin – Warszawa: 1-151 (in Polish, English quality. summary). Chmielewski T. J. 1994. Nature Conservation Plans for Landscape Parks. Methodological In- structions. Ministry of Environment Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry, Warsaw: 6. Conclusions 1-45 (in Polish). Chmielewski T. J. 1997. Nature Conservation Plan for the Kampinos National Park: meth- 1. Local bottom-up nature conservation initiatives are good solution for building an odology, objectives and tasks. Man and Environment: 21, 1: 33-55 (in Polish, English effective sustainable development management system. summary). 2. Large-scale biosphere reserves could be good training areas for testing this Chmielewski T. J. (ed.) 1994. Nature Conservation Plans for National Parks. Methodological idea. Instructions. Ministry of Environment Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry, War- 3. Good cooperation of research workers and nature conservation staff with local saw: 1-230 (in Polish). communities and NGOs plays the crucial role in achieving success. Platforms of Chmielewski T. J., Radwan S. 1999. Wetland restoration project in the Leczna – Wlodawa this cooperation should be built very early, at the beginning of local nature con- Lakeland: ecological effects 6 years after. [in: Zdanowski B., Kamiński M., Martyniak A. servation initiatives. eds.: Functioning and conservation of water ecosystems in the protected areas]. Freshwa- 4. The main elements of local nature conservation management system should be: ter Fishery Institute, Olsztyn: 41-58. – sub-system of diagnosis, Chmielewski T. J. (ed.). 2000. The West Polesie Transboundary Biosphere Reserve – nature – planning sub-system, and culture harmonisation project. Polesie National Park, Lublin Province, Lublin – Urs- – decision-making sub-system, zulin: 1-120 (in Polish, English summary). Chmielewski T. J. 2001a. Spatial Planning System Harmonising Ecology and Economy. Lub- – control sub-system. lin University of Technology, vol. 1-2: 1-294 + 1-146. 5. In all these four sub-systems, special attention should be paid to building harmo- Chmielewski T. J. 2001b. Scale and directions of landscape transformation on the Leczna- ny between natural and cultural heritage. Wlodawa Lakeland: from degradation to restoration [In: Roo-Zielinska E., Solon J. (eds.): 176 Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Nature conservation management system in the West Polesie biosphere reserve... 177 Between Geography and Biology: Environment Transformation Research]. Institute of Kassenberg A., Rolewicz C. 1985. Spatial diagnosis of environment conservation in Poland Geography and Spatial Management. Polish Academy of Science. Geographical Studies, (in Polish, English summary). Studia KPZK PAN, t. 89. PWE Warszawa: 1-125. vol. 179. Warsaw: 103-116 (in Polish, English Summary). Kopieniak M. 2005. Activity of local authorities of Polesie National Park for building har- Chmielewski (ed.) 2002. Nature Protection Plan for the Sobibór Landscape Park. NAVIP mony between nature and economy [In:] Chmielewski T. J. ed. 15 years of the Polesie Na- Lublin, vol. 1-3: 1-388. tional Park). Ministry of Environment, Polesie National Park. Warsaw - Lublin [in press] Chmielewski T. J. 2003. Implementation of sustainable development methods in the West (in Polish, English summary). Polesie Biosphere Reserve. [In: Ciecko Z. (ed.) Engineering, nature and economic condi- Liro A. ed. 1995. Country Ecological Network concept: ECONET-Poland. IUCN-Poland tions of sustainable development]. Monographs of Environmental Engineering Commit- Foundation. Warsaw: 1-102 (in Polish, English summary). tee, Polish Academy of Sciences, vol. 17: 133-148 (in Polish, English summary). Nature Conservation Act from 16th October 1991. Journal of Law 1991, No 114, site 492 (in Chmielewski T. J., Krogulec J. 2003. Ten years of experience in implementation of environmen- Polish). tal engineering in the protection of biodiversity. The case of Lublin region (CE Poland). 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The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 179 1. Introduction

In 1995, during the The International Conference on Biosphere Reserves (BR), the Seville Strategy was drawn up. This document defines three main goals of these The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and protected areas: Local Development Strategies: the case of the Roztocze 1. Use the biosphere reserves (BR) to conserve natural and cultural diversity (im- – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve plement the goals of Convention on Biological Diversity); 2. Utilize the biosphere reserves as models of land management and of approaches to sustainable development; 3. Use the biosphere reserves for research, monitoring, education, and training. Barbara Sowinska1, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski2 Moreover, the biosphere reserve is intended to fulfill three complementary func- Agricultural University in Lublin, Department of Landscape Ecology and Nature tions: Dobrzańskiego 37 St., 20-262 Lublin, Poland - a conservation function (preserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] and landscapes); - a development function (foster sustainable economic and human development); Summary - a logistic support function (support demonstration projects, environmental education and training, research and monitoring related to local, national This article presents the results of comparative analysis and evaluation of realizing and global issues of conservation and sustainable development) (The Seville the conclusions drawn at The European Landscape Convention upon the strategies Strategy for Biosphere Reserve1995). for regions and communes development – the areas where the designed Roztocze To meet this standards, the research activities on biosphere reserve area should be – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve is situated. linked to regional policies on conservation and sustainable development. In these documents, regulations on landscape protection refer mainly to land man- The Seville Strategy also underlines that local community should participate in the agement and issues associated with protection of the environment and historical in- planning and management of biosphere reserves. According the Seville Strategy, the heritage. The documents also give a list of main threats for Roztocze and Solska biosphere reserve should be used as an experimental area for the development and Forest landscape, as well as indicate the most important directions of activity for their testing methods and approaches for the evaluation and monitoring of biodiversity, removing. sustainability and quality of life of its inhabitants. The strategies do not define means necessary to realize the landscape policies. Nei- A need for establishing the landscape quality objectives as an important element of ther do they define who and how should undertake such activity. Problem of experts life at local and regional level was formed at The European Landscape Convention training and education within the range of landscape protection and management was on October 20, 2000. This convention only describes the landscape quality objec- also neglected in the strategies. tive as “the formulation by the competent public authorities of the aspirations of the The performed analysis allowed for formulating conclusions on wide introduction public with regards to the landscape features of their surroundings” (The European the issues of landscape protection and strategic design. Special attention was paid Landscape Convention 2000). The biosphere reserves should be very good areas for to the needs and methods for landscape quality objectives (LQO) setting. Biosphere testing this idea. reserves should be the areas for which such works would be done at first. Therefore, the planned Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve was the first Worldwide network of biosphere reserves may be a useful forum for experience training ground on landscape quality objective identification in Poland. exchange on that subject. Establishing this Biosphere Reserve is proposed in the south-east of Poland, on the area of 264 796 hectares. Similar reserve is designed in the Ukrainian part of the Keywords Roztocze region, on the area of 38 830 hectares (Chmielewski ed. 2004). These two Reserves are located within two large European structural units: The European Landscape Convention, landscape quality objectives, strategic planning, East-European platform consolidated in pre-cambrian era and orogenical Palaeo- development strategy, biosphere reserve, Roztocze, Solska Forest zoic structures of western Europe. The Roztocze region is also the European water division splitting Vistula River system (the catchment area of the Baltic Sea) from 180 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 181

Photo 1. The characteristic field mosaics of West Roztocze (Tadeusz.J. Chmielewski) Photo 3. Traditional, regional cottage in Middle Roztocze (Tadeusz.J. Chmielewski)

Photo 2. The old oaks – nature monuments in Middle Roztocze (Tadeusz.J. Chmielewski) Photo 4. A riverside chapel in Middle Roztocze (Tadeusz.J. Chmielewski) 182 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 183 Dniestr River system (the catchment area of the Black Sea). Through this region, the ridge of secondary level river basins passes: of San River, Wieprz River and Bug River. It is also one of the most important water source regions in Poland. Accord- ing to a field inventory of 1994, 350 sources were registered in Roztocze, including 284 active springs and 66 non-active springs. The characteristic feature of the region is also a very low density of the river system and a small number of natural water basins (Michalczyk 1986). The landscape of Roztocze is unique in Europe due to the varied mosaic of forest, peat-bog, meadow and steppe ecosystems. The characteristic multi-stripes field mosaic divided by numerous balks, the plentiful of springs and clean rivers, the natural state and the great varieties of forests are very important part of the Polish natural inheritage. Also many examples of traditional, wooden architecture have been preserved in rural settlements (Photo 1-4). Environmental protection in this region began in Poland at the end of 16th century, when the middle part of the Reserve was included in the Zamoyski Estate. The first in Poland „animal enclosure”, which nowadays corresponds to Bukowa Góra protection zone (the part of Roztoczański National Park), was established in Zwierzyniec. Thanks to Zamoyski’s activity, the tree stand existing today has retained much of its original natural character. Nowadays, the unique richness of nature and culture inheritage and the variety of landscape is protected in: 1 national park, 4 landscape parks, 15 nature reserves and 2 protected landscape areas (Fig. 1). About 10% of the area of the Bio- sphere Reserve was nominated to be given the status of Natura 2000 habitat sites (Chmielewski et al. 2003) Landscape quality objective identification project conducted on this area in 2006, 1. National park – existing/ planned; 2. National park’s buffer zone – existing/ planned; 3. Nature reserve – existing; 4. Nature reserve – planned; 5. Landscape park – existing/ planned; 6. Landscape allowed to establish the gradation of landscape features which – in public opinion park’s buffer zone – existing/ planned; 7. Protected landscape area – existing/ planned. Natura 2000 – determine the special character and the unique values of this region. The gradation Ecological Network: 8. Bird species sites ratified by Ministry of Environment in 2004; 9. Bird spe- of landscape threats was determined too. This list became a basis for the elaboration cies sites suggested by WZR; 10. Habitat sites suggested by WZR. Ecological lands: 11. existing; 12. of needs and rules of landscape conservation in this region (Chmielewski, Sowińska planned. Monuments of nature: 13. trees, rocks; 14. alleys; 15. springs. Other objects of high natural 2006). values: 16. springs not ratified as monuments of nature; 17. borders of International UNESCO Bio- For the authors of the project, the accordance of opinions about the landscape fea- sphere Reserve; 18. rivers; 19. ponds; 20. retention reservoirs. tures and threats between local society and experts was surprising. Comparison between Polish researches and other projects which were realized 2. Methods in the UE countries allowed to elaborate the proposal of Polish methodological approach to landscape quality objective identification (Sowińska, Chmielewski, Comparative analysis of The European Landscape Convention acts as well as re- 2007). sults of studies upon LQO with established regulations of regional and local impor- Afterwards, the question: How did the European Landscape Convention require- tance that have a considerable effect on landscape transformations within biosphere ments reflect the current development strategies for Biosphere Reserve?, has been reserve along with protection conditions of its characteristic features, was carried out. tried to be answered. The comparison included: - Local development strategy of the Lubelskie Voivodship - Local development strategy of the Podkarpackie Voivodeship - Local development strategy of the Zamojski District - Local development strategy of the Biłgorajski District 184 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 185 Then the following conclusions were drawn, which referred to: 1. Postulated role of landscape protection and shaping in strategies of regions and communes development. 2. Need to make corrections of the above documents in reference to the requirements of the European Landscape Convention. strategy of the strategy Biłgorajski DistrictBiłgorajski 3. Results development Local Participation of different of different Participation social and professional in representatives groups the strategy creating Maintaning the land and cultural management landscape protection No characteristics of the landscape; no commune’s of positives analysis broad of natural and negatives environment and cultural Achieving the constant the constant Achieving social and economic through development of geographical utilization as a platform localization with cooperation for Western and Eastern countries European Natural, rural and urban rural Natural, well, outstanding, areas; degraded everyday, landscapes of Biłgorajski county. 3.1. The landscape conservation policies in regional development strategies – nowadays

The Seville Strategy and the European Landscape Convention underline that protected areas, in particular biosphere reserves as areas of international value, District should be included in regional development policies and in regional land-use Local development development Local

planning projects. This landscape policy means an expression by the competent of the Zamojski strategy Participation of different of different Participation social and professional in representatives groups the strategy creating Maintaining the cultural Maintaining the cultural inheritage in the protection region No characteristics of the landscape; no commune’s of positives analysis broad and of natural and negatives environment cultural Development and re-Development structurization areas of rural and local infrastructure; of initiatives development the and achieveing investments public authorities of general principles, strategies and guidelines. Those docu- and urban rural Natural, well, outstanding, areas; degraded everyday, landscapes of Zamojski county ments should guide and harmonise social, economic, enviromental and landas- cape changes. According to the Convention, landscape planning means strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscape. That task should be done – at regional level (The Voivodeship Seym) – Strategies for Regional Development as well as Commune Development Strategies set at local level. The main purpose of regional strategies is: to maintain values of cultural and natural environment taking into account the needs of further generations as well as to Local development strategy of strategy development Local the Podkarpackie Voivodeship the Podkarpackie Participation of different of different Participation groups social and professional the in creating representatives Opportunity of social strategy. consultations Maintaining the biological and Maintaining the biological as as well landscape diversity the landscape and maintaining inheritage valuable cultural areas. land out the Regional Working plan management Defining all positives and Defining all positives and natural of cultural negatives some to refer that environment landscape elements Increasing the domestic and competitiveness international by economy of regional of its innovativeness, increase would that thus effectiveness wider for make conditions and higher income employment, lifestyle inhabitant’s shape and maintain the land management (Decree from 5 June 1998 on regional urban and rural, Natural, outstanding, suburban areas; degraded everyday, well, landscapes of Podkarpackie voivodeship administration). As a mission of Lublin region strategy, it was accepted: to mobilize multi-directional development processes making possible a durable and sustainable development of the region that contributes to improving the inhabitants’ lifestyle quality and welfare. The analysed document also sets the superior goal formulated as: to achieve the constant and sustainable social and economic development in Lublin region through increasing the competitiveness of the region and optimum utilization of its internal potential (Local development strategy of the Lubelskie Voivodeship - Voivodeship the Lubelskie

2005). The aims for Podkarpacie region development strategies were similarly for of strategy development Local Participation of different of different Participation groups social and professional the in creating representatives Opportunity of social strategy. consultations Formulating rules for region’s region’s rules for Formulating Maintaining landscape shaping. and solidifying the natural, diversity. landscape and cultural land out the Regional Working plan management Defining all positives and Defining all positives and natural of cultural negatives some to refer that environment landscape elements Maintaning the cultural and Maintaning the cultural values environment natural the needs taking account into of further as well generations the as shaping and maintaining land management Natural, rural, urban and rural, Natural, suburban areas; everyday, well, outstanding, landscapes of degraded Lubelskie voivodeship mulated (Tab. 1).

Records on the protection of landscape virtues were not included within superior aims of both regional strategies. Issues of landscape beauty protection are not important in these documents, despite of the fact that both regions are distinguished by extremely great landscape features. To establish To for procedures the participation public, of general local and regional authorities To establish and To landscape implement policies To recognize recognize To landscape To promote promote To landscape protection, and management and to planning, European organize co-operation on landscape issues Natural, rural, urban rural, Natural, and peri-urban areas; well, outstanding, degraded everyday, landscapes

The ELC postulates to work out the landscape policy for particular countries and Convention regions. There is not a word on such policy in studied development strategies of both regions. Declarations on guiding by sustainable development and land management Landscape European The Scope means General General rules may be only indirectly associated with the ELC’s main aim that is formulated as Main aims The level of main provision’s realization of the European Landscape Convention in local development strategies. The level of main provision’s 1. Tab. 186 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 187 follows: to promote landscape protection, management and planning from a perspec- The ELC underlines that not only natural elements, but also virtues of cultural tive of sustainable development. heritage being a result of many-centuries co-existence of man and nature should be The ELC underlines that planning and managing the landscape should be a result taken into account during the process of characteristic landscape features identifica- of dialogue between local government and representatives of various groups, thus tion. Cultural antiques often determine a region’s uniquity, and increase its value. joining and coordinating activities of independent subjects tending to the quality im- The cultural heritage of Lublin region was named in the strategy for The Lublin provement of surrounding landscape, therefore lifestyle quality of inhabitants. voivodeship as “unique at the European scale”. Rich resources of architectonical ob- Representatives of different social and professional groups participate at works jects and arrangements, unique character of regional building, sometimes of extreme upon creating the regional strategies in Poland, with domination of branch economic historical value, as well as their multi-cultural character most strongly underlined interests of the whole region, namely interests of its main centers. Organizations and by sacral buildings such as Catholic, Orthodox, and Jewish churches that are aften persons acting for sustainable local development, good recreation conditions, natural localized one next to another, were also emphasized. Old City in Zamość (recorded and cultural heritage protection, are only a small group. Local diversity of virtues and on a list of worldwide cultural heritage the UNESCO) as well as monuments of Jew- conditions of rural and touristic areas is still attenuated not enough. ish culture and memory sites that are numerously localized in Biosphere Reserve The ELC suggests that works upon landscape planning should be preceded by de- are significant on the national scale (Local development strategy of the Lubelskie tailed and multi-level analysis of chances and threats (SWOT). Such analysis is also Voivodship 2005). an introduction of the regional strategies working out in a voivodeship and commune Also the strategy for Podkarpacie region development underlines great virtues of ranges. cultural landscape of that region resulting from many-centuries penetrating of cul- As a first stage of landscape policy, the ELC considers the identification of charac- tures and religions through one another (Local development strategy of the Podkar- teristic features of the landscape typical for particular sub-regions and reflecting their packie Voivodship 2006). natural and cultural heritage. SWOT analysis contained in strategy for Lublin and The ELC underlines that along with the identification of characteristic landscape Podkarpacie voivodeships development considers great virtues of natural environ- features, also factors that contribute to nits degradation should be recognized. A ment as strong points of whole regions, but at the same time it assumes protection general description of landscape threats is contained in both studies of a regional requirements as threats or limitations for economic development of some cities as range. Among them, negative influence of dispersed colonization forms and eco- well as for development of domestic and regional technical infrastructure. nomic activities that often decreased the landscape esthetics, is one of the most In a view of strategy for Lublin region, following traits of natural environment dangerous. In opinion of both regional strategies’ authors, spatial disorden, chao- within The Roztocze and Solska Forest that determine the landscape shape are tic building and spontaneous management of touristic areas along with insufficient among others: low level of anthropogenic transformations, bio-diversity of natu- equipment decrease the natural and recreational virtues of the region. At the same ral environment, natural status of rivers, good condition of national forests, and time, the strategy for Lublin region indicates minute opportunities of the main- numerous mainstays of rare fauna and flora species. They are a chance for tour- tenance of unique features of the cultural landscape within Lublin region, which ism development and health food production. Besides, diverse landscape was in- mainly result from low level of material and financial resources as well as the lack cluded among general attributes of the region’s competitiveness: high quality of the of funds for renewal and conservation, which in turn contributes to degradation of environment and landscape harmony distinguishes that regions among others and the antiquities. It is a helplessness strategy that is unacceptable from a point of view are some kind of its “visiting card” (Local development strategy of the Lubelskie of regional interests, social needs and ELC’s guidelines. Voivodship 2005). According to the ELC, it is necessary for extremely culturally valuable areas to set The strategy for Podkarpacie region, among its extreme natural and landscape re- The standards of landscape quality objectives (LQO) that must be met and then to set sources, lists diverse land sculpture, unique plant communities, as well as flora and directions of protective, reclamation, re-vitalizing, and creative activities on the scale fauna species resources. It also underlines that hitherto activity directions in the range of particular landscape units. Strategy of such activities is a key element of works of natural and landscape resources protection are insufficient, and it is necessary to upon the achievement and maintenance of assumed LQO’s. realize integrated prophylaxis and protective activities within all economy sectors, In regional development strategy, aimes that are planned to be reached by a region namely on agriculturally utilized areas (Local development strategy of the Podkar- within the field of landscape protection and shaping should be set, regions that are packie Voivodship 2006). intended to be the priority for LQO setting should be indicated, key programs for A poll made in the designed Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve revealed the improvements and terms for their realization should be set, as well as appropri- that spring abundance, purity of natural rivers along with diversity and multi-species ate serving stuff responsible for these tasks realization along with main financing character of forests were assessed highest. resources should be also indicated. 188 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 189 Protection and utilization of cultural, natural, and landscape virtues, natural and 3.2 The landscape conservation policies in subregional development strategies cultural landscape protection, improvement of land management of colonization – nowadays units as well as improvement of building esthetics and quality in rural areas were included in aimes of both regional strategies, but for majority of above targets there Commune strategies devote less attention to issues associated with the protection of are no specific programs and indication of instruments allowing for their realiza- landscape and natural virtues than regional ones. tion. Representatives of all local (commune) governments take part in work upon the For instance, in the strategy for Lublin region, the following was given as one of commune development strategies; therefore they should well know the needs and ex- the operational aims: To maintain and strengthen the natural, landscape, and cul- pectations of these areas inhabitants. However, mostly needs related to the develop- tural diversity of Lublin region to achieve environmental standards and protective ment of neglected technical infrastructure and providing the inhabitants of naturally requirements in accordance with domestic law regulations as well as EU directives, rich but economically poor sub-regions with new workplaces are taken into account. program CORINE, network NATURA 2000, and ECONET-PL. Unfortunately, reali- The issue of beauty protection and landscape harmony associated with the resources zation of the ELC’s conclusions was not described here. of intact nature remain only at the level of generalized declarations. The following rules of the region’s space shaping were defined as a way to that aim However, the results of the project realized by University of Agriculture in Lublin achievement: and referred to the defining the LQO for the Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere - To improve the air, water and ground surface purity; Reserve revealed that it is a different situation. Preferences of various local social - To strengthen the bio-diversity within the environment; and professional groups in relevance to the landscape they would like to live in were - Pro-ecological changes in land management (building and technical infrastructu- investigated. Eight key social and professional groups were polled (education staff, re concentration, gradual decreasing the press onto the building-up of naturally farmers, forest workers, tourists, local administration, teachers, students, and nature valuable areas); protection service – 240 persons in total). Differences in their preferences and opin- - To improve the ecological management (improvement of sanitary conditions and ions were recorded. The poll revealed that the landscape quality and status of natural recreational attractiveness of the voivodeship, improvement of functional man- environment gained higher and higher ranks in inhabitants and tourists opinions. agement within colonization structures and communication tracts by arrange- Analysis of weak and strong points of the region is focused on the assessment of ment of city building in a view of esthetics and functionality) (Local develop- various economy branches and initiative sphere. Records on natural and cultural en- ment strategy of the Lubelskie Voivodship 2005). vironment virtues are not numerous and often generalized. Following items were considered as strong points of natural environment in com- In the strategy for Podkarpacie region, there is a record on the need of reducing munes within the Biosphere Reserve limits: diversity of natural environment, large the environment degradation and protecting the biological and landscape diver- forest areas, good status of natural environment components as well as valuable and sity resources through the realization of such tasks as maintaining the species di- numerous cultural heritage antiquities (namely sacral architecture resulting from many- versity and habitat protection, supporting the activities referring to re-naturaliza- centuries of co-existence of different cultures) with no explanations to these records. tion of damaged ecosystems and natural habitats (Local development strategy of The strategy for Biłgoraj commune also focused on great landscape virtues with- the Podkarpackie Voivodship 2006). There is indicated the need for maintaining in the region, but with no precise general features of that landscape. Zamość com- the geographical and cultural landscape virtues to organize artistic locations, or mune strategy pays special attention to the beauty and uniqueness of chapels and competitions for innovative forms of management of particular areas, creating architectural inheritage of Ordynacja Zamojskich (Local development strategy of the centers of rural tradition cultivation in the form of heritage museums, tradition Zamoyski District 2007). rooms etc. Analyzed document also underlines that helping the activity on archi- Nevertheless, the closer to particular spatial solutions and investment plans, the less tectural designs associated with regional building character is a very important important and more generalized protection of these values becomes. issue. The threats for landscape are formulated in general forms in commune strategies. In the case of both regional strategies, there are records obviously insufficient in In the sphere of nature, they refer to problems associated with environment degrada- relation to the ELC’s requirements. tion, including water and other abiotic environment components pollution. The issue Comparison of activity ranges, leading aims, and specific means contained in the of dispersed building and bad condition of historic objects is also mentioned. There ELC and both analyzed regional strategies, is presented in Table 1. is not a word on beauty protection and shaping the landscape harmony. Strategy for Biłgoraj commune includes the improvement of land management, cultural landscape protection and development of touristic and recreational basis un- 190 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski The European Landscape Convention versus Regional and Local Development Strategies ... 191 der conditions of natural and landscape full protection to the priorities (Local devel- Works upon LQO’s and the policies that should be achieved, should be started from opment strategy of the Biłgorajski District 1999). Program propositions associated biosphere reserves as links of a worldwide network of areas wth the greatest natural with the protection of landscape virtues refer to recreational areas. They are: building virtues and well restored characteristic landscape features. up the touristic infrastructure, touristic management of river Tanew as well as build- Studies upon LQO of Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve tend to set the ing and modernization of water reservoirs. However, such activities more often con- aims to be reached in a process of conservation and active landscape shaping in ac- tribute to the degradation of landscape virtues than their protection. cordance to particular standards (protection, reconstruction, revalorization, renatural- The strategy for Zamość commune does not mention activities that can positively ization, structure and function changing, etc.). The last stage of these works consists affect the region’s landscape. Among priority tasks within natural environment pro- in formulating the goals for plans of land management and working out the list of tection branch it only refers to protection of cultural heritage and afforestation of priority tasks for particular subjects managing a given area. The tasks in future should wastelands. Ground consolidation and bulding the road network on rural areas are be taken into account in strategies of regional development of voivodeships and com- listed as primary. Within the Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Resreve area, these munes where projected reserve would be localized. activities would contribute to a decrease of landscape and natural virtues of the re- Compliance with LQO’s may efficiently counteract landscape threats mentioned in gion, rather than their improvement. They are also contrary to LQO’s set for the development strategies. It would also arrange the list of tasks necessary to do in order region. to restore or achieve assumed landscape quality. Introduction of records on LQO’s into the local plans of land management in the 3.3. The landscape protection and design in development strategies – form of ecological-landscape and architectonic-landscaspe guidelines is a key for proposition for the area of biosphere reserve practical realization of landscape strategy. The project of such guidelines introducing into the system of land management plans in Poland was formulated by T. J. Realization of regions and communes development strategies has detrimental influ- Chmielewski in 2001, i.e. a year after publishing the European Landscape Conven- ence on landscape character and virtues. Thus, requirements defined in Paneuropean tion (Chmielewski 2001). LQO’s can be also an important reference for the designing Strategy of Biological and Landscape Diversity as well as in the ELC should be an of newly built architectural objects as wll as developing the technical infrastructure. integral element of development strategy at domestic, regional, sub-regional, and local levels. 4. Conclusions Acoording to the ELC, works on the landscape protection and design strategy should include following stages: Issues of landscape protection and design in Poland were neglected in the system • to recognize landscape: its natural and anthropogenic structure and functions, nat- of strategic planning. Therefore, such situation requires to be quickly and completely ural and cultural heritage, values, threats and objectives (expected standards); changed. • to establish and implement landscape policies aimed at landscape protection, Performed analysis allowed for evaluating the level of the ELC’s regulations reali- management and planning; zation within the branch of development strategies of voivodeships and communes • to establish procedures for the participation of general public, local and regional where the projected The Roztocze – Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve is localized. authorities in landscape protection and design; In those documents, records on the landscape protection refer mainly to the ques- • to integrate landscape into its regional and town planning policies. tion of land management and issues associated with environment and cultural heritage protection. The documents also list the main threats for the Roztocze and Solska Paneuropean strategy for biological and landscape diversity considers natural land Forest landscape and indicate general directions of activities towards their remov- sculpture and associated geomorphological forms visible e.g. in intact river systems, ing. dunes, rocks etc. as the landscape element that requires to be protected. Therefore, However, the strategies do not define the means necessary to realize the landscape also records on geo-diversity protection should be included within the landscape policies. They neither define who and how would be involved in such an activity. strategy (Kozłowski 2005). Also the problem of experts training and education aspects upon landscape protection Standards for Landscape Quality Objects (LQO) should help in working out the and management was neglected in the strategies. It is worth mentioning that coopera- strategy of local development, namely on areas with extremely great natural, cul- tion of various special and professional group representatives in creating those docu- tural, and landscape virtues. They contain a catalogue of characteristic, unique, and ments is taken into account. requiring maintenance and desired landscape features. That catalogue is prepared by Performed analysis allowed for formulating conclusions on the need of wide im- experts in cooperation with a given region inhabitants. plementing the landscape protection and design issues into the strategic planning. 192 Barbara Sowinska, Tadeusz J. Chmielewski Special attention was paid to the need and method for working out the landscape quality objectives (LQO). Biosphere reserves should be the areas, for which those works would be performed at first. A worldwide network of biosphere reserves may be a useful forum for experience exchange on that subject. Part 3

References Public participation in nature conservation Chmielewski T. J. 2001 – System of spatial planning, harmonizing nature with economy, Lu- blin University of Technology; Lublin, Vol. 1,2: 1 – 294 + 1 – 143. Chmielewski T. J., Kucharczyk M., Lorens B., Pałka K., Sielewicz B., Wójciak J. 2003 – The Project of the European Ecological Net Natura 2000 for the province of Lublin (in: Żelazny L., Buczma J., Strycharz Z., Piekarczyk W., Babkiewicz Z. ed.), The report on the environment state in the province of Lublin in 2002), The Environment Monitoring Library, Lublin: 172-193 (in Polish). Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2004 - Biosphere Reserve Roztocze - Solska Forest Project, Voivode of Lublin, NAVIP, Lublin, unpublished text : 1-154 (in Polish, the English summary). Chmielewski T. J., Sowińska B. 2006 – Landscape quality objective of the future Roztocze- Solska Forest Biosphere Reserve: problems of estimation and protection, (in Wołoszyn W., ed., Culture landscape: Features -Values – Protection; Problems of landscape ecology – Volume XVIII), Department of Environment Conservation UMCS, Lublin: 49-57. European Landscape Convention organized in Florence on October 20, 2000: http://www.coe. int/t/e/cultural_cooperation/environment/landscape/reference_texts/Convention_United- Kingdom.asp#TopOfPage Kozłowski S., 2005 – The future of eco-development, KUL: 1-586. Michalczyk Z., 1986 – The conditions of water occurrence and circulation in Lubelska Up- land and Roztocze, Post-doctoral dissertation, UMCS, Lublin: 1-195 Local development strategy of the Biłgorajski District, 1999 – Starostwo office in Biłgoraj: https://bilgorajski.netbip.pl/bip/ Local development strategy of the Zamoyski District (2007-2020), 2007 – Starostwo office in Zamość: https://zamoyskie.netbip.pl/bip/ Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy 1995 - Council of Europe http:// www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Policies/Biodiversity/ Regional development strategy of the Lubelskie Voivodship (2006-2020), 2005 – Marshal`s Office of the LubelskieV oivodship http://www.lubelskie.pl/um/strategia.php Regional development strategy of the Podkarpackie Voivodship (2007-2020) - Marshal`s Of- fice of the PodkarpackieV oivodship http://www.wrota.podkarpackie.pl/ Sowińska B., Chmielewski T.J., 2007 - The problems of identification of landscape quality objectives: the review of international experience and the first Polish researches, Land- scape architecture, Wrocław No. 1/2007: 44-55 The Seville Strategy for Biosphere Reserves, 1995 - Unesco: www.unesco.org/mab/doc/ Strategy Decree from 5 June 1998 on regional administration, Dz. U. 1998, No. 91, poz. 576, http:// isip.sejm.gov.pl/servlet/ Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation

Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov

University of Aarhus, National Environmental Research Institute Grenåvej 14, DK-8410 Roende, Denmark E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Summary

The use of Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) for participatory model building was applied at a workshop with participation of scientists and of stakeholders of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve in Poland. The purpose of the study was to investigate the usefulness of FCM to facilitate the participatory process, to extract and provide an overview of local and scientific knowledge and store this knowledge in a way suitable for further analysis. All participants found the use of FCM engaging as it stimulated discussion and promoted social learning. The process, however, is not without cave- ats and especially the role of the facilitator is important. The paper shows examples of how to store and visualise FCM and discusses future use of the methodology and needs for improvements.

Keywords

Fuzzy cognitive mapping, modelling, public participation, social learning.

1. Introduction

Public participation has since the 1980s been regarded as necessary to achieve sustainable management of natural resources. The demand for more public participation is expressed on all organizational levels including NGOs, local and regional com- mittees, national governments and the EU. There are numerous examples of projects in which the public has been involved, but the evaluation of these public participation processes generally outlines two types of critique: The first focuses on technical limitations within the process and stresses the need to re-examine the methodological 196 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 197 tools for public participation. The second line of critique highlights the theoretical, tively unstructured knowledge and causalities expressed in imprecise terms (Khan political and conceptual limitations of participation (Cooke & Kothari 2002). & Quaddus 2004). An FCM may represent very complex systems, and can illustrate how complex situations may evolve if some of the initial concept changes, new con- This paper takes up the first challenge by describing and testing a relatively new cepts are added, or if the causal links between the concepts changes and thus verify approach (Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) as a tool to facilitate and analyse the assumptions against empirical data process of public participation. FCM has been used in different contexts (e.g. human medicine (Giles et al., 2007), manufacturing systems (Stylios & Groumpos 1999) An FCM may be analysed in two basic ways: 1) a structural analysis and 2) a dy- and ecosystem conservation (Özesmi & Özesmi 2003)). The cognitive maps are namic analysis. A structural analysis will examine the components of an FCM whose based on expert knowledge in some cases (Tan & Özesmi 2006), but the methodol- variables are included and how they are inter-connected. Graph theory provides a ogy is also used as a tool to facilitate public participation and extract stakeholder number of indices designed to explore the structure of FCMs (Özesmi & Özesmi knowledge (Özesmi & Özesmi 2003). We will here introduce FCM and outline how 2004, Özesmi 2006) including centrality (finding key concepts), density and com- the technique can be used in practice based on experience from a workshop recently plexity. These indices are very useful when comparing FCMs from various stake- held in West Polesie Biosphere Reserve in Poland (Chmielewski 2005) where scien- holders or experts to determine where there are differences or where consensus ex- tists and stakeholders described system components and their dynamics in the West ists. A dynamic analysis can predict the state of the system for successive time steps. Polesie Biosphere Reserve using FCM. Finally, we will sum up some issues related At each time step the values of the previous node exert influence through the causal to the process of creating an FCM and on the model itself and how to improve and links defined in the FCM and after a number of iterations a map will normally con- analyse it. verge to a fixed pattern of node values. Khan & Quaddus (2004) call this pattern the hidden or emergent pattern of that particular FCM. This may be illustrated using the 2. What is fuzzy cognitive mapping? simple FCM in Figure 1. The FCM has two transmitter concepts that determine the final state of the map (‘food intake’ and ‘exercise’): A situation where food intake is A fuzzy cognitive map consists of a number of concepts that may affect each other. high and exercise is low will lead to a state of moderately high well being where the This is graphically presented in Fig. 1 as a network where concepts are represented direct positive effect of eating is somewhat reduced by the adverse effects of obesity by nodes (boxes) and causal events (or interactions) between concepts as lines con- which also reacts positively to too much food. Adding a high value for exercise will necting the nodes. The connections are directional and arrows show the direction of increase well being, according to this FCM, both directly and indirectly by weight the causality. The term ‘fuzzy’ reflects that the system handles degrees of causality reduction. This particular FCM also states that it is possible to balance a high food and an effect may thus be very ‘small and positive’ or ‘large and negative’. intake by sufficient exercising. The dynamic analysis may be used to test ‘what-if’ questions (e.g., how will a given development scenario affect the system in question) and handle feed-back mechanisms which are prominent features of most real-world systems.

3. Methods

A case study was conducted at an ALTER-Net workshop in the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve in Poland in September 2007. The study was conducted in two phases:

(1) Eighteen scientists participated in the workshop and were presented for the concept of fuzzy cognitive mapping and were then divided in two groups each led by an experienced facilitator. Both groups were asked to draw a fuzzy cog- Fig. 1. Schematic presentation of a fuzzy cognitive map. nitive map related to the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve using the central concept ‘unique landscape’ as a starting point. One and a half hour were spent The purpose of an FCM, according to Kosko (1986), is to capture and map the drawing maps and then an hour evaluating the process and planning phase (2) belief system of an expert in a specific domain and is well suited to represent rela- in a plenary session. 198 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 199 (2) Fourteen local stakeholders from the west, central and eastern parts of the West possibilities in the use of fuzzy cognitive mapping. Furthermore, a unified map based Polesie Biosphere Reserve were invited to the workshop. Stakeholders repre- on all five fuzzy cognitive maps will be presented. sented heads of administration, forest services and a few NGOs. The stakehold- Figure 3 shows the fuzzy cognitive map made by the western group. The concepts ers were introduced to the technique and discussed which concepts were most are written inside squares in Polish and afterwards translated to English. The lines important for them in the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve and the key concept show cause and effect connections from one concept to another and are marked with ‘uniqueness and richness of nature’ was decided through a simple majority vote. + and/or – to illustrate a positive and/or negative effect from one concept to another. The stakeholders were separated into three groups, representing the western, cen- One connection is not marked as positive or negative as the influence was undeter- tral and eastern parts in the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve, each group was as- mined by the group. signed a facilitator, a translator and an observer and the groups worked two and a half hour to draw a FCM (Fig. 2). Afterwards, the maps were presented and discussed in plenum.

Fig. 3. FCM for Western Polesie Biosphere Reserve. Concepts are in Polish (black pen) and Eng- lish (red pen) and the lines show the influences from concept to concept with +/- signature to illustrate a positive of negative influence.

Fig. 2. Creating a FCM as a group endeavour. Figure 4 shows the digitized version of the same map. The concepts are here written in the squares together with the strength or value of the concept (in this example Finally, the scientists discussed the process focussing on lessons learnt, possible medium). These values change when the system is set in motion by changing one or improvements and the potential use of FCM to obtain local knowledge for scientific more of the influencing concepts. The positive effects are shown with red lines and purposes and generally facilitate participatory processes. the negative with blue lines and the line from the ‘market changes’ to ‘agriculture’ is black to illustrate the unknown influence. 4. Results

The workshop resulted in five fuzzy cognitive maps showing five different perceptions of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve in regard to the ’unique landscape’ and the ’uniqueness and richness of nature’. Here we focus on the fuzzy cognitive map made by the western group as this map clearly illustrated many of the challenges and 200 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 201 Tab. 1. FCM from western group listed in a matrix, showing the concepts vertically affecting the concepts horizontally either positive (1), negative (-1) of both (-1,1). The question mark illustrated than the affect on agriculture from market change is undetermined by the group. Note that the names of the concepts are to some extent shortened.

Ordinary Recei Transmitter

Cause Effect tourism Uncontrolled tourism Controlled - education Awareness management Water government Local of nat.protection Types management Waste Sewage management Education Uniqueness of nature Agriculture (forestry) Education NGO mining Coal Market changes

Uncontrolled tourism -1 1 Controlled tourism 1 1 Awareness and ecological education of local 1 1 1 1 communities Water management -1 Local government (spatial 1 1 1 1 1 planning) 0rdinary Different types/methods of 1 1 1 1 Fig. 4. Digitalised map from the western group. A box contains the name of the concept and its nature protection value. In this case all concepts are set to medium as a starting point. The positive effects are shown Waste management 1 with red lines and the negative are shown with blue lines. The line from market change is not connected as its influence was undetermined by the group. Sewage management 1 Education 1 Uniqueness and richness

Table 1 shows the fuzzy cognitive map from the western group as a matrix. This of nature is a convenient way to store FCM which makes it possible to identify concepts as

Receiver Agriculture ordinary, receivers or transmitters. Ordinary concepts are both affecting other concepts, but are also affected by other concepts. The receivers are only being affected Education (forestry) 1 1 1 1 and do not affect others. Transmitters may be seen as outside influences that affect NGO 1 Coal mining (landscape -1 the system. changes) Transmitter Market changes ? The five different maps were joined from the respective matrices by analysing all concepts and grouping them after thematic similarities as shown in Box 1 where each new concept is listed in the first column. Similar concepts are grouped together We have calculated the resulting effect of one concept on another as the mean of under the same name. The original concepts are marked according to which group all five FCM. If two groups argued that concept A affected concept B with +1, one they originate from: 1 (scientists group 1), 2 (scientists group 2), C (Central group), group had a value of -1 and the remainder two groups had a value of 0 (no causal E (Eastern group), and W (Western group). relation between concepts), the resulting effect of A and B is set to (1+1-1+0+0)/5 = 0.2. The mean is the simplest way of calculating the unified map, but it is also pos- On the basis of the unified concepts and the strengths of the connections in the sible to weight the results of some groups higher, if they, for example, are supposed five respective maps, a matrix is made for a unified map describing what might be to have a better knowledge of the area (see also, e.g., Giles et al. 2007). Numbers interpreted as the common perception of the West Polesie Biosphere Reserve by all in bold represent cases where a concept affects it self (negative or positive feed- five groups. The matrix is shown in Table 2. back).

202 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 203 Globalisation

Box 1:

Analysis of the concepts from five cognitive maps and thematic grouping into concepts

describing a unified map. Climate changes Climate

Analysis of concepts Market changes Market

Uniqueness of landscape: Unique landscape1,2 and Uniqueness and richness of natureC,E,W. 1 1 change Landscape

Management intensity: Management - the execution , Level of protection and area of conservation status , 2 2 , C

Management , Restoration from hunting associations , Water retention maintenance and restoration , Number Transmitter C E zone Border

of properties with proper infrastructure , Different ways of nature protection , Unsolved problems with sewage

and waste managementE, Water managementW, Waste managementW, Sewage managementW, Different types/ National planning National

methods of nature protectionW.

Influence from economic tools: Funds for conservation1, Size of subsidies1, SubsidiesC. Sec. economic economic Sec.

Living standards: Livelihood2, Infrastructure2, IncomeC, Road networkC, HealthC, Human well beingE, Food 0 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2

E. quality forest with Area

1 0,2 Focus on education and knowledge: The presence and activities of the scientific lobby , Knowledge, research 0,4 0,2

2 C C,W E site and education , Research intensity , Education , Science and education , Awareness and ecological wetlands of State

W W 0

education of local communities , Education (forestry) . 0,2

1 2 Area covered by wetlands: Number and extent of wetlands , Original eco-system structures and functions . culture Traditional

1 2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,4 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,2 Area with intensive agriculture: The area with intensive agriculture , (Economic) natural resource use , 0,2

C C W Local planning Local

Intensity of agricultural production , Size of farms , Agriculture .

Population density: Number of residents1, Number of part residents1, Part residentsC, Population densityC, 0,2 C E tourism - Intensity

Number of employees , Low population density . 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,4 0,4

Intensity of tourism: Number of floating people (tourism)1, TourismC, Number of events, festivalsC, Promotion 0,4 C,E E W W density Population

of the region , Agro-tourism recreation , Uncontrolled tourism , Controlled tourism . 0,2 0,4 0,8 0,2 0,2

Power of local planning: Local policies2, Local government (spatial planning)W. 0,4 Intensive agri. Intensive ?

Prevalence traditional cultural living: Number of traditional farmers1, Cultural identity2, Historic development2, 0,4 0,4 0,8 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,2 0,2

Traditional architectureC, Cultural richness and varietyE, Extensive agricultureE, Lack of industryE, Poor soilsE. Ordinary Wetlands

State of the wetlands: C C E. 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 Water condition , Drainage area , Disturbance of water balance 0,2

Area covered by forest: 1 C E. Increase in forest area , Afforestation , Sustainable forestry Education/know.

2 C 0,2 0,2

Influence from secondary economic resources: Other economy (services, industries) , Hunting , Renewable 0,4

C energy sources . standards Living

0 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 04 0 2 C W 0 0,2 0,4 0,2 0,2 0,4 0,4 0,4 Power of national planning: Higher scale policies , Agricultural policy , NGO . 0,2

E Area in a border zone: . tools Economic

Localisation close to the border

Landscape changes: Coal mining (landscape changes) . 0,2 W Management

Market changes: Market changes . 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,4

Climate changes: Climate changes2. 0,2 2 landscape Unique

1 0 0,6 0 Globalisation: Globalisation . 0

0,2 0,2 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,4 0,2 1,2 0,2 0,8 1,4 0,4 Effect

An FCM can be used to forecast the outcome of various development scenarios by changing the value of transmitter concepts. A certain initial configuration of transmitter concepts can be seen as a scenario (i.e. a possible future situation). In the simple example of Fig. 1, a high food intake and no exercise could be seen as one scenario and moderate food intake combined with a high level of exercise as another. Figure 5 illustrates a preliminary analysis based on the unified map to exemplify the process and shows how an initial setting of the size of various concepts results in a steady Cause state of concept values that represents the output or – in other words – how the FCM forecasts or predicts what will happen based on certain initial conditions. Different settings will lead to different output configurations and may be analysed system- Uniqueness of landscape planning National Landscape changes Management intensity Power of local planning Power Area in a border zone in a border Area Market changes Traditional cultural living cultural Traditional Economic tools Economic Climate changes Climate Living standards The state of the wetlands state The Globalisation Education - knowledgeEducation Area covered by forest by covered Area Wetlands Secondary economic Intensive agriculture Intensive Population density Population

atically to find trends, discover logical errors in the FCM and generally learn more Intensity of tourism Transmitter about the system and its dynamics Ordinary Matrix showing unified fuzzy cognitive map. Numbers in original are positive, and in italic are negative. Numbers in bold are values with which with values are bold in Numbers negative. are italic in and positive, are original in Numbers map. cognitive fuzzy unified showing Matrix 2. Tab. itself. Note that the names of concepts are to some extent shortened. a concept affects 204 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 205 simplistic. Good facilitation of the process, however, may help overcome these weaknesses. A more general flaw, however, is the fact that results are, to a certain degree, subjective and results depend on various factors such as the situation under which the FCM is drawn or the degree of education of the participants. Lastly, the degree to which knowledge amongst participants changes during the process is a very interesting issue that needs to be studied further.

Most participants agreed that the FCM provided a flexible methodology which could be applied in a ‘quick and dirty manner’ or made more complex according to the goals of the specific study. Hence, FCM may be used under many different circumstances and for many different purposes. The method provided opportunities to engage stakeholders in the participatory process, but an interesting outcome of the workshop was the fact that the process may lead to a two-way learning process among participants and between the participants and the facilitator/interviewer. In relation to the actual content of the FCMs, they provide a means to identify and work with different interests and a help to understand potential, latent and/or existing conflicts and thus provide potentially very important information when developing management schemes for a given area.

The facilitator plays a very important role when creating an FCM and must be able to control the process without dominating it and providing participants with his or her own understanding of the system. Poor facilitation could lead to useless or mislead- Fig. 5. The unified FCM with dynamics added. The gray tones represent the strength of a given ing maps. The choice of participants for the process is obviously of high importance concept under the given scenario. for the results and needs to be considered carefully. What kind of knowledge is required and at what point in the process should a participant be involved? Motivation 5. Discussion of participants is another important aspect to consider. How should they be recruited and how may the facilitator keep them engaged throughout the process and contribute The workshop revealed that the use of FCM has its strengths as well as its weak- constructively to the project? nesses. Most participants found the process very engaging and a suitable tool to make use of the stakeholders’ knowledge. The process provides a graphic overview of a Validation of FCM is obviously very important and various interview techniques complex system. Participants have to define and prioritise the concepts they want to may be used to confirm the information obtained from stakeholders. The process of add to the FCM and explain how they affect each other. The process may thus con- interpreting the various concepts provided by stakeholders at this workshop empha- tribute to an understanding of other participants’ perceptions, values and viewpoints sizes a need to create a list of ‘standardised’ concepts which may also be used for and open up for dialogue between participants and help create a common under- validation, for example, by asking the stakeholders to create a new FCM based on standing of the system. There are not many examples of the use of FCM as a tool for standard concepts and compare the new maps to the original ones (see, e.g., Özesmi participatory processes, but similar conclusions were drawn in a recent study on a & Özesmi 2004). Finally, FCMs may be validated dynamically using different start Turkish site (Özesmi & Özesmi 2003, 2004). values for a number of transmitter concepts and see how the FCM evolves. A fit between emergent patterns and empirical data can be regarded as a sort of validation. In the process described here, the FCMs were created as a result of a group process (opposed to maps created by individual stakeholders). Group processes may create 6. Conclusion tensions within the group, especially in the case where the group is very heterogeneous and the balance of power among the participants is unequal. Working in a group Two separate issues will be discussed here: The first issue relates to the process of may have a negative side-effect, if it leads to avoidance of sensitive issues. Lastly, creating a FCM. The second issue focuses on the model itself and how to improve the work in a group may result in co-reflections which are very hypothetical and/or and analyse it. 206 Kirsten Isak Skogoey, Flemming Skov Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping – a model for public participation 207 An engaging process will motivate participants and engage them further. Fuzzy References cognitive mapping has the potential to help creating a culture for participation which may strengthen future public participation in the area and generally promote bottom- Chmielewski T. J. ed. 2005. The West Polesie Biosphere Reserve: values, functioning and up processes. Fuzzy cognitive mapping has a large, hitherto unexploited potential for perspectives for sustainable development. Edited by Polesie National Park and Lublin social learning. This presupposes some level of interaction with other participants, Province Office. Lublin - Urszulin, pp.168. which can take place at different stages in the process. The fuzzy cognitive maps may Cooke, B., Kothari, U. 2002. Participation: The New Tyranny? Zed Books Ltd. London. be created individually and a social learning process can be executed on the basis of Giles, B.G., Findlay, C.S., Haas, G., LaFrance, B., Laughing, W., Pembleton, S. (2007): Inte- these maps (or a unified map) or the fuzzy cognitive maps can be created in groups grating conventional science and aboriginal perspectives on diabetes using fuzzy cogni- simultaneous with a social learning process. The outcome of a social learning process tive maps. Social science & medicine 64, 3: 562-572. may result in deeper and richer FCM describing a given system. Dialogue and social Khan, M.S., Quaddus, M. 2004. Group decision support using Fuzzy Cognitive Maps for causal reasoning. Group Decision and Negotiation 13, 463-480. learning may eventually lead to consensus amongst participants and FCM has a large Kosko, B. 1986. Fuzzy Cognitive Maps. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies 24, potential as a tool to be applied in conflict management. Different interests and per- 65-75. ceptions are identified during the development of an FCM and potential and existing Özesmi, U., Özesmi, S.L. 2003. A participatory approach to ecosystem conservation: Fuzzy conflicts are elucidated on a general concept level and move discussions away from Cognitive Maps and stakeholder group analysis in Uluabat Lake, Turkey. Environmental personal views. A deeper understanding among the participants for other stakehold- Managemet 31, 518-531. ers’ values, and consequently their actions may thus be obtained. Özesmi, U., Özesmi, S.L. 2004. Ecological models based on people’s knowledge: a multi-step fuzzy cognitive mapping approach. Ecological Modelling 176, 43-64. When used as a model, a crucial element in the FCM is its ability to define and Stylios, C.D., Groumpos, P.P. 1999. A Soft Computing Approach for Modelling the Supervi- quantify concepts. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop guidelines on sor of Manufacturing Systems. Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems 26: 389-403. how to identify quantifiable concepts on an equally detailed level. The FCM is a Tan, C.O., Özesmi, U. 2006. A generic shallow lake ecosystem model based on collective very flexible model that may easily be changed during a participatory process. This expert knowledge. Hydrobiologia 563, 125-142. flexibility makes it an important and effective tool in a social learning process, as changes in opinions and perceptions from participants may be immediately tested in the model. FCM has a great potential as a tool to analyse complex ‘what-if’ scenarios. A prominent and relevant opportunity is to create scenarios which run over time. This may contribute to a higher accuracy of the model as many drivers in a system change the strength of influence over time. By setting, not only one, but several transmitter concepts to different values during e.g. 30 years, it will be possible to set up very detailed scenarios and test long term changes within a system.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following members of ALTER-Net from Work packages R4 and R6 who participated in the workshop and created the basis for the work mentioned in this paper: Michai Adamescu (Romania), Peter Bezak (Slovakia), Tadeusz Chmielewski (Poland), Geert De Blust (Belgium), Andrej Halabuk (Slovakia), Zita Izakovic (Slovakia), Minna Kalionen (Finland), Ela Kowalik (Poland), Kinga Krauze (Poland), Mart Kulvik (Estonia), Maria Papp (Hungary), Simron Singh (Austria), Monika Suskevics (Estonia), Janos Toth (Hungary), Allan Watt (GB) and Martin Wildenberg (Austria). And not least, we would like to thank all the local participants from West Polesie Biosphere Reserve who willingly and with great enthusiasms participated in the FCM experiment. Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 209 In approaching this brief, we had to take into account several features of the Aus- trian MAB research landscape. First, MAB research funds come from the federal government and are allocated to ‘research’, while management and routine monitoring in biosphere reserves are financed by the states. It is therefore important to draw Extending BRIM to BRIA: a clear distinction between research and the development of tools on the one hand, Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment and monitoring and management support on the other. Second, the Austrian MAB committee made it quite clear that it wanted to fund research that would be directly related to, and in support of, attaining the goals of biosphere reserves (BRs), as distinguished from simply using these reserves as research sites. While the use of BRs as Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh, research sites is to be encouraged, funding for this should come from other sources. Institute for Social Ecology, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Third, MAB research funds have so far been almost exclusively spent on the natural University of Klagenfurt, Schottenfeldgasse 29, 1070 Vienna, Austria sciences. While there is an openness to and friendly welcome for the social sciences E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; where their research questions link closely to ecological sustainability issues, there [email protected] is neither a tradition nor a surplus of funds to finance a full-scale social science programme. We therefore believed that, unless the social science agenda were specified in a very focused way, integrated monitoring across the ‘great divide’ of natural and Summary social sciences would remain in the realm of wishful thinking. Our goal was not to give answers to research questions; rather it was to develop a The paper elaborates upon the role of social science in Biosphere Reserve Inte- conceptual scheme that would allow us to specify reasonable areas, and reasonable grated Monitoring (BRIM) in the form of a conceptual scheme for coherent monitor- questions, to guide future research and cumulatively contribute to the development of a ing and assessment of BRs towards sustainability. We believe that unless the social coherent monitoring and assessment tool for biosphere reserves into a ‘science plan’. science agenda were specified in a very specific way, integrated monitoring across the “great divide” of natural and social sciences would remain wishful thinking. This 2. The inter-relations between monitoring, sustainability assessment and chapter outlines an integrated conceptual monitoring model based on a core set of in- management dicators that inform of the dynamic interaction between humans and the BR ecosystem, while other variables undergo “non-routine scientific assessment” together with The point of departure for our considerations is the vision spelled out in the Sevilla stakeholder participation. We make a distinction between monitoring, sustainability Strategy (1995). assessment and management that marks a shift from Biosphere Reserve Integrated Biosphere reserves are thus poised to take on a new role. Not only will they be a Monitoring (BRIM) to Biosphere Reserve Integrated Assessment (BRIA). means for the people who live and work within and around them to attain a balanced relationship with the natural world; they will also contribute to the needs Keywords of society as a whole by showing the way to a more sustainable future. This is the heart of the vision for biosphere reserves in the twenty-first century. Biosphere Reserve, integrated assessment, monitoring, society-nature interactions If this is to be a valid vision for biosphere reserves, scientific monitoring and research must be organized so as to support it. This is a far more complex task than 1. Introduction monitoring various features of the state of the environment alone. A much greater range of variables – in both the natural and the social sphere, and their interactions In 2003, the Austrian Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Committee decided to devote – have to be taken into account. It is also more complex with regard to the processes at least part of its research funds to the development of biosphere reserve integrated that monitoring and research have to support: the relevant processes include not just monitoring (BRIM), in support of the international MAB agenda in general and Aus- a diagnosis of the situation and the prospects of future development, but also the trian biosphere reserves in particular. We were given the task to build on UNESCO- specification of shared goals and targets, the identification of adequate management MAB’s so-called Rome Report (Lass and Reusswig 2002), give it a somewhat nar- responses, and the development of communications that will be trusted by insiders rower focus and make it operational for an Austrian research plan. and outsiders concerned with science and biosphere reserves. All this complexity was 210 Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 211

Fig. 1. “From observation to monitoring” Fig. 2. “From observation & monitoring to sustainability assessment & management” fully represented in the Rome BRIM Report (Lass and Reusswig 2002) and visual- (including a happy no-need-to-do-anything option), and it should be communicated ized in Figure 1. to stakeholders to guide their opinions and reactions. But does the design shown here fully serve its purpose? The major distinction drawn In complex cases, where there would be major threats or conflicts of interest, formal in Figure 1 is between ‘observation’ and ‘monitoring’. While observation produces decision support tools could be applied, either qualitative ones (such as mediation data, monitoring starts with indicators and – after a detour across sustainable man- processes, participative organizational development) or modelling-based quantitative agement, goals and targets, and instruments and measures – also produces indicators. tools (such as multi-agent modelling, or multi-criteria analysis). Whether or not such This is not fully satisfactory: is it not clear how data become indicators, nor is there a tools are applied, the assessment would lead to decisions resulting in management feedback loop from management to the natural and social realities that are the basis of interventions that alter some features of the ‘real world’ and are reflected again in ob- observation. Moreover, there is an unusual stretching of the notion of ‘monitoring’ to servations and monitoring. So for the box ‘sustainability assessment and management’ encompass also goal setting and management. We suggest returning to a more com- (right part of Fig. 2) the input would be analysed indicator data and certain goals and mon use of language, and accordingly modify Figure 1 by separating ‘observation targets. The output would be management decisions and practical interventions in the and monitoring’ on the one hand, from ‘sustainability assessment and management’ natural or social sphere in or outside biosphere reserves, but relevant to them. on the other (Fig. 2). This somewhat modified overall design (Fig. 2) makes it clearer where scientific re- The main output from ‘observation and monitoring’ would be indicators (not ‘data’, search and analysis – as differentiated from (routinized) observation and monitoring as above), from both the natural and the social sphere (for more detail see below). – comes into the picture, and which role it has to fulfil. The main tasks of scientific These indicators would be subject to scientific analysis. Scientific analysis, in con- research and analysis can be specified as follows: trast to monitoring, could be defined as non-routine scientific efforts to answer spe- • Indicator development. The development of a scheme of indicators, includ- cific research questions. We feel there is no way in which indicators, without further ing operational guidelines for an observation and monitoring methodology. analysis, could directly provide answers to complex questions or inform manage- For the natural sphere, various conventions have been established already; ment decisions. We rather believe that such an analysis has to take place (performed but there still remains the task of defining a core set of indicators. This is not by scientists from outside or by the management itself), and its results will have to only a question of theory and methods, but also entails organizing a com- be evaluated by the biosphere reserve management in the light of policy goals and mon international process across biosphere reserves to generate agreement targets. This evaluation leads to the consideration of various potential interventions and compliance. The problem of securing the necessary sources of funding 212 Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 213 will still have to be faced. These challenges are interconnected: the more (routinized) observation and monitoring, and the other in the realm of sustainability theoretically well-founded, consistent and agreed-upon the core set of indi- assessment, stakeholder involvement and management decisions. What we will focus cators is, the more easily funding agencies can be persuaded to support such on now is the question of which aspects of the social sphere should be included in a scheme. For work on the social sphere, the path to improvement is even regular observation and monitoring, in order to generate (quantitative) indicators that longer. We will come back to this in the next section. have a direct bearing on the sustainability of the biosphere reserve. In the next section • Data analysis and evaluation. In order to find out whether a biosphere re- we will discuss further aspects of the social sphere in the light of their relevance for serve develops according to its set of goals, the indicators resulting from managerial decision-making. observation and monitoring have to be analysed periodically. In many cas- In our view, it is most important to concentrate observation and monitoring ef- es, this can be done by the biosphere reserve management itself, although forts on those elements of the social sphere that have a direct causal impact on the for specific research questions support from outside scientists to analyse biosphere ecosystem. Such an impact can only be attributed to activities that inter- the data will sometimes be required. This analysis should feed into an eval- vene biophysically in the ecosystem. Ecosystems are not directly sensitive to values, uation of the situation in relation to the goals and targets set, help to keep attitudes, communication and money flows; they can only be directly modified by stakeholders informed and interested, and guide the creation of an ‘option material impacts. From a methodological point of view, there is the advantage that space’ for potential management interventions. At the same time, of course, social activities with direct material impact upon the ecosystem can be readily and access to readily available data can allow scientists to pursue their own re- unambiguously observed and quantified.1 Still, we are talking about ‘social activities’ search goals, using biosphere reserves as convenient sites. Even if such re- which may not only have a material impact, but also a social meaning through the search were unrelated to management problems, it would add to the reputa- actors, intentions and interests governing them. The very same social activity looks tion and institutional status of biosphere reserves. different from the perspective of the ecosystem and from the perspective of the social • Scientific decision support. In complex situations, where critical develop- system, as we try to visualize in Figure 3. ments, conflicts of interests, changing resources or new opportunities play a major role, scientific consultancy can assist management by means of a wide variety of decision support tools. Some of these are ‘soft tools’ developed within management science and organizational consulting, and some are ‘harder tools’ (in terms of quantification and modelling). In response to the challenges of sustainability management, this toolbox keeps expanding towards various forms of stakeholder involvement and participatory arrangements. Since biosphere reserve managers tend to have limited resources and administrative power, management skills, including the ability to organize stakeholder support, will be crucial for attaining the goals laid down. In the third section of this article we will outline some approaches to increasing stakeholder awareness and involvement.

3. Monitoring the ‘Social Sphere’

In our suggestions for the development of social monitoring, our point of departure Fig. 3. A simple model for the interaction social / natural systems is again the Unesco-MAB Rome Report which stated: It is necessary to establish a search process for an integrative framework for Figure 3 distinguishes a natural sphere and a social sphere which are not mutually both natural and social monitoring that is open and flexible enough to adopt exclusive but overlap. If we think of a farm, for example, it is at the same time part new theoretical and empirical evidence. (The) guiding principle should be of the natural sphere (in the sense that many of its processes are guided by natural the search for major human-nature interactions in biosphere reserves and the laws) and of the social sphere (in the sense that many of its processes are guided by hypotheses that social and natural sciences have with regard to them. As we have tried to explain above, the ‘social sphere’ plays a major role on both sides of Figure 2. Equally, social science has two points of entry: one in the realm of 1 For a comprehensive description of the MEFA approach, for example, see Haberl et al. 2004. 214 Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 215 communication, culture, money and so on). The same applies to biosphere reserve of conservation goals. For example, if farmers feel that in the BR they have to work ecosystems: they are always part of the natural sphere, but some aspects of them are harder for less income than elsewhere without any beneficial return, or if manufac- also governed by the social sphere (such as, for example, roads and pathways that are turers and retailers feel their investment in tourism is wasted, or if tourists feel the continuously maintained). Conversely, the social system(s) in the biosphere reserve trip was not worth the effort, then the maintenance of the BR will be threatened. are always part of the social sphere, but some aspects of them are also governed by Equally, if uses exert pressures upon the ecosystems that put the conservation man- natural processes (as are human bodies, or farms).2 date at stake and substantially reduce ecosystem services, then ecological sustain- Many of the interactions between the social system(s) and the ecosystem(s) of the ability is failing. biosphere reserve we can now conceptualize as an exchange process. If the social If we put our proposal into the scheme of Figure 2, social sphere-monitoring system wants to make use of the BR ecosystem, this is typically reflected in a social would be confined to an ‘interaction sphere’-monitoring, relating to users/uses, activity that the social system views as an investment or cost (such as ploughing pressures/services and costs/benefits. All these could be reliably monitored on an the soil, driving or walking into the BR, setting up a tourist information stand); annual basis, with an acceptable degree of reliability and comparability and at rea- from the perspective of the ecosystem, this very same activity can be considered an sonable cost. While, compared to the original list of potential social indicators in environmental pressure (such as soil exposure, sealing of the surface, emissions). the Rome Report,3 a large number of interesting variables has disappeared, the The goal of these social activities, from the perspective of the actors in the social remaining core can be clearly justified theoretically as causally relevant for the system, is some kind of benefit: a harvest, a beautiful view or an income from the ability of a biosphere reserve to monitor its balance of the key mandates of conser- sale of souvenirs. This benefit may be achieved because ecosystems, by their very vation and development. functioning, provide certain ‘services’ (such as soil fertility, beautiful landscapes or slopes for skiing). What we propose is to focus observation and monitoring on 4. Taking Account of Social Processes in Sustainability Assessment exactly these use-related interactions between the social and the natural systems and Management of Biosphere Reserves in biosphere reserves. Thus, a core monitoring scheme should be developed that continuously registers: In the scheme shown in Figure 2, the sustainability assessment and management • uses (such as habitation, agriculture, forestry, tourism) and users (both from in- cycle starts with input from the analysis of indicator (and possibly other) data which side and from outside the territory of the BR), both qualitatively and quantita- are evaluated in the light of policy goals and targets.4 This evaluation, unless every- tively thing is absolutely perfect and in an optimal state of affairs, results in the definition of • pressures (types, and their quantities) and costs/investments (types, and quantity a problem and, thanks to the previous analysis, hopefully some causal explanations in terms of money value and possibly human time investment) for this problem. So a classical problem-solving cycle, well known from standard • benefits (types, and their quantities in money value, and/or user satisfaction) and management literature, is started. The stages of such a cycle are commonly described ecosystem services. in the following way: 1. Defining the problem (and its likely causes). As we have argued above, we feel the core set of indicators to be monitored in 2. Generating options and scenarios for problem solutions. BRs should be directly causally related to their key mandates (conservation and 3. Selecting a preferred solution. development), and provide useful information for managing their sustainability. We 4. Implementing the selected solution. claim that the above obeys these criteria. Conservation and development can be, or even tend to be, conflicting goals: conservation depends on restricting uses, while 3 This list included: ‘basic demographics and well-being of people’, ‘ecosystem use’, ‘socio-eco- development depends on allowing and even supporting uses of BRs. The internal nomic dynamism’, ‘management, participation and governance’, ‘values and attitudes’, ‘informa- sustainability of BRs depends on resolving such conflicts, or at least keeping them tion, education and research’ and the ‘future seen through the eyes of experts and inhabitants’ (Lass at bay. Sustainability from the perspective of the social systems and actors can be and Reusswig, 2002, p. 10). secured if they feel their costs/investments are balanced by benefits. If this is not 4 We have not dealt here with the process of generating policy goals and targets. One could of the case, then actors will try to make a change, and this may well be at the expense course make the model for sustainability assessment more complex by introducing feedback loops to goals and targets. One should not view that too mechanically: whenever a gap between reality and goals/targets is identified, there is the option to modify targets in order to comply with reality: 2 We have explained this epistemological model and the associated idea of social systems being targets may appear as unrealistic or even undesirable in the light of new experiences. So ‘evalu- ‘hybrids’ of the natural and the cultural sphere in more detail in Fischer-Kowalski and Weisz, ation’, in comparing goals and realities, always deals with both sides as candidates for change 1999. through management decisions and interventions. 216 Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 217 For each of these stages there are a number of tools that can be of help, and Fig. 4. Stakeholder matrix for each of these stages social science (and consulting) support may be usefully employed. What perhaps distinguishes sustainability assessment and management from more standard managerial practice is the fact that neither management itself, nor the goals it uses for its guidance, can rely on a pre-arranged, strong, administrative power (backed by ownership, well-established hierarchies and capital, or alternately by elections and a constitution). Most of the processes are subject to negotiation, and have to be strengthened by charisma, networking and alliances.5 This is also in accordance with the philosophy of sustainability management: unless people really participate in creating a more sustainable future, it just will not happen. But in biosphere reserves as anywhere else in society there are interest groups of unequal standing, and the stronger parties can push decision processes very much in their direction. There is little to be done about this except to create a maximum of transparency for the whole decision process. Decision-support tools may provide exactly this. The social sciences can mainly contribute skills in understanding stakeholders. This knowledge often does not come in the form of quantitative data, but rather is a case for qualitative data and their systematic analysis. For Austrian biosphere reserves, the stakeholder matrix shown in Figure 4 proved useful. The matrix classifies stakeholders into three types: users, scientists and decision-makers. Each of these types of stakeholder can be characterized by (a) a specific interaction with the BR ecosystem (b) a certain interest and preference structure, and (c) certain they are – like all social actors – able to communicate. They may for example have resources and competencies.6 In the cells of this matrix, we have entered general ‘indigenous knowledge’ and communicate it to the BR management; they can com- hypotheses of what we suppose the respective features to be. municate their (dis)satisfaction with the BR to anybody willing to listen, and under In our discussion of monitoring, we have already elaborated upon the users of certain circumstances (for example if they are onsite) they can organize to defend BRs and suggested monitoring their interactions with the BR ecosystem (shaded their interests or possibly to fight other user interests. For BR management, it is fields in Figure 4), because, as we noted, they are vital for the internal sustain- vital to have an eye on the major user groups and know about their economic and ability of the BR. As far as their interests and preference structures are concerned, mental state. we characterize them by a desire to have a good balance of costs/investments and Scientists, the second major stakeholder group in Figure 4, sometimes interact benefits. Users will be happy, so we hypothesize, if they get a reasonable return biophysically with the BR ecosystem if their research task requires them to (by on their investment. What they have invested, and what kind and amount of return marking animals or collecting plants, for example), but usually their material con- they expect, depends on the type of use they make: a farmer and a tourist will have tact remains peripheral. Their interests and preference structure are directed at do- very different perspectives. Users are important as stakeholders because of their ing research and gaining knowledge, and this often entails a lively interest in the resources and competencies. Typically, they have a certain amount of control over conservation of their research object. They bring in competencies in the form of the BR ecosystem. They may own part of the land, have rights to roam over various expert knowledge, and usually some funds for doing their research.7 Their major re- areas, inhabit a house there, be entitled to fishing or logging or have a license for a source, though, consists in their capacity to communicate within a potentially large, souvenir business. Besides their ability to control certain aspects of the BR reserve,

7 This can be a very touchy subject. On the one hand, such research funds help to deal with ques- 5 See for example the new book by Berkhout et al. (2003): Negotiating environmental change. tions that otherwise, for lack of resources, could not be tackled. On the other hand, scientists often 6 This classification follows a classical ‘actors’ paradigm’ and specifies those characteristics need all their research money for themselves and request support from practitioners for free. In that usually also enter single and multi-agent modelling. At the same time, it can be linked into many cases both sides are legally obliged to handle the situation in a particular way that does not a social systems perspective (by focusing on the respective contexts in which those actors are seem fair to some of the parties involved. For smooth collaboration between science and on-site performing). staff it is very important to clarify roles and quantities of time and money flows in advance. 218 Marina Fischer-Kowalski, Karlheinz Erb and Simron J. Singh Extending BRIM to BRIA: Social Monitoring and Integrated Sustainability Assessment 219 international scientific community that often also has access to the public media. Acknowledgement So scientists, even if they may sometimes not provide much help to the managerial process of practical problem solving, are invaluable as communicators, and often A version of this chapter was originally presented at the workshop “Global Envi- also as organizers of public support. ronmental and Social Monitoring” held in Vienna, Austria, 9-11 May 2004, and was Decision-makers, finally, do not usually interact directly with the BR ecosystem subsequently published by UNESCO-MAB as conference proceedings. We are grate- at all, but they provide the major framework conditions – legally and economi- ful to UNESCO MAB for permission to reproduce this paper in this book. cally – for its existence. Their interests and preference structures are determined by certain policy goals associated with their particular role. These goals will vary depending on whether they are publicly responsible for, say, a region’s tourism or References for its nature conservation; for the country’s relations with international bodies like UNESCO, for science and research, or for finances. Whichever decision-making Berkhout, F.; Leach, M.; Scoones, I. (eds.) Negotiating Environmental Change: New Perspec- body they belong to, even across the governmental/non-governmental divide, they tives from Social Science. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2003. also strive for a certain public acceptance and popularity (at least within their cli- Fischer-Kowalski, M.; Weisz, H. Society as hybrid between material and symbolic realms: entele). Decision-makers control legal and financial resources. They determine the towards a theoretical framework of society-nature interaction. Advances in Human Ecol- legal status of the BR system, financing modalities, the employment of staff, the ogy, No. 8, 1999, pp. 215-51. substance of and inclusion of the BR into general development plans (or its exclu- Haberl, H; Fischer-Kowalski, M; Krausmann, F; Weisz, H; Winiwarter, V. Progress Towards sion from them). Beyond their capacity to actually make decisions, they are very Sustainability? What the Conceptual Framework of Material and Energy Flow Accounting important communicators within the network of public policy (at various levels), (MEFA) can offer. Land Use Policy 21 (3), 2004, 199-213. Lass, W.; Reusswig, F. (eds.) Social Monitoring: Meaning and Methods for an Integrated and with the public media. So these stakeholders, even when they hardly ever come Management in Biosphere Reserves. Report of an International Workshop. Rome, 2-3 into direct contact with BR ecosystems, are crucial for the ‘external sustainability’, 8 September 2001. Biosphere Integrated Monitoring (BRIM) Series No. 1. Paris, UNESCO, the ability of the BR to survive. 2002. For the management, it is very useful to draw a ‘stakeholder mind map’ for their UNESCO. Biosphere Reserves: The Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework of the BR and keep it up to date. The kind of data outlined in Figure 4 would be very hard World Network. Paris, UNESCO, 1996. to formalize quantitatively (and probably not worth the effort), but can quite easily be collected as qualitative data, updated by occasional interviews or notes from observations. Whenever a more substantial problem arises, it makes sense to invite stakeholders to participate in a second stage of the process: generating options and scenarios for problem solutions. Such an invitation demonstrates to stakeholders that they are taken seriously, and it shows the management and the stakeholders themselves that different groups have very different ideas and that making choices among them is not trivial. How participatory the next stages (selecting an option and implementing it) should and can become is easier to decide on the basis of the experiences with the second stage of the process. At this point, one may also consider experimenting with more formalized decision support tools and calling in social scientists for assistance.

8 In social systems theory terms, one might look upon decision-makers as the crucial social environment for the BR system. Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 221

1. Introduction

Public participation is now considered as one critical factor for the success of na- Assessing the effects of public participation ture conservation initiatives (Stoll-Kleemann 2001a; Stoll-Kleemann and O’Riordan during the designation of Natura 2000 areas 2001). In fact, co-operation and information sharing are found to influence the acceptance of nature conservation measures even more than other factors (e.g. eco- in the Otepää Nature Park area, Estonia nomic incentives) (Shenk et al. 2007).

The idea of public participation is supported by the Habitats Directive which, together Monika Suškevičs and Mart Külvik with the Birds Directive forms the basic framework for biodiversity policy of the Euro- Estonian University of Lite Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 1, 51014 Tartu, Estonia pean Union. More specifically, the implementation process of the Natura 2000 network E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] should take into account ecological as well as economic and social aspects (art 2(3) of the Habitats Directive), public participation should be encouraged during the assessment of implications of proposed activities to Natura 2000 areas (art 6) and educational and in- Summary formational activities on the need to protect species and habitats should be promoted (art 22). However, the actual implementation of the Natura 2000 network is criticised of being The first phase of implementing the Natura 2000 network includes several activi- excessively rigid and therefore not flexible to social, economic and environmental condi- ties to introduce the concept to different stakeholders and to involve them in the tions (Ledoux 2000). During the designation of Natura 2000 areas several EU members decision-making process. A number of EU member states have experienced con- have encountered considerable opposition from different stakeholders (Alphandery and siderable opposition from several stakeholders to the designation of Natura 2000 Fortier 2001; Hiedanpää 2002; Hiedanpää 2004; Stoll-Kleemann 2001b). It is suggested areas. As the next step of the Natura process, management of Natura areas places an that a lack of genuine inclusion in the designation process was the main driver of these increasing emphasis on cooperation with relevant stakeholders, as their knowledge conflicts (Weber and Christophersen 2002). On the European scale, this non-acceptance and willingness to collaborate are of central significance. The study investigates was first recognized as one central obstacle in achieving the goals of Natura 2000 in 1998 the outcomes of public involvement during the designation of Natura 2000 areas at the Bath conference (Natura 2000 and … 1998), and further officially acknowledged concerning two aspects. First, the level of awareness (knowledge and attitudes) in the El Teide declaration in 2002 (Natura 2000: a … 2002). Since then, public participa- about Natura 2000 among landowners, and second, the extent of participation are tion has gained importance as a supportive measure to the implementation of the network. explored. Furthermore, possible hindrances to participation are determined. The re- Foremost, activities to increase the awareness of stakeholders as well as the general pub- sults are based on face-to-face structural interviews conducted with 59 landowners lic about the Natura 2000 network (Natura 2000 Networking Programme, Natura 2000 from one Natura 2000 area in South-Estonia. Considerable lack of knowledge on newsletter, Forum Natura 2000) have been initiated. Nevertheless, the main responsibility the basic topics concerning Natura 2000, a generally negative attitude towards the for designing and carrying out public involvement processes lies with Member States. issue, as well as the significantly low effect of involvement efforts was identified. In the case of supplementary efforts in addition to normative procedures of public In Estonia, public participation during the site designation process was also prin- involvement by the Park Administration, a rise in the knowledge base of landown- cipally aimed at informing the general public and certain stakeholders. Yet, negotia- ers has been noticed. It is suggested that landowners’ low level of interest in the tion with stakeholders was also regarded as a supportive measure to the designation. issue, lack of motivation to engage themselves in the discussion about Natura 2000, Information dissemination was mainly carried out via a website prepared by the Min- limited experience of participation and lack of information about the opportunity to istry of the Environment (MoE) and the press (national, regional and local). Addition- influence the decision-making process, prevented landowners from participating. ally, special newsletters and posters, brochures, as well as two videos and television Keywords 1 Natura 2000 areas in Estonia include also nature conservation areas that were already under pro- Public participation, Natura 2000, evaluation, awareness, legitimization, non- tection at the time of designation. Here, no special efforts were made to involve the landowners because the designation was expected not to affect the landowners’ interests since the main protec- participation tion regulations were already in place. 222 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 223 broadcasts were used to inform the wider public as well as other stakeholders about erle 1999). Awareness is defined as a system of knowledge and positive or negative Natura 2000. In the case of designating new protected areas1, a more target-group judgements (attitudes) about phenomena or objects (Heidmets and Raudsepp 2001). specific approach was employed to involve landowners as one central stakeholder In the case of Natura 2000, the awareness about Natura 2000 among different stake- group in the designation process. Official letters to landowners, exhibitions of maps holders is important in several respects. Foremost, it enhances the communication of Natura 2000 areas, information days, public meetings and an opportunity to sub- between different actors through the development of a shared language. A common mit written claims were at the core of the consultation and information process with knowledge base is also a precondition of co-operation and partnerships in the future. landowners at regional and local level. This is particularly important as the designation process is followed by the management of Natura 2000 areas. Here, if landowners are expected to participate in di- Along with the increasing importance placed on public participation in natural re- rect management activities, the purpose of protection as well as protection measures sources management, a growing body of literature has been devoted to the evaluation of should be understood by all parties. participatory processes (Cote and Bouthillier 2002; Konijnendijk 2000; Leskinen 2004; Primmer and Kyllönen 2006; Rosenström and Kyllönen 2007; Sipilä and Tyrväinen Achieving public agreement has been stated as one of the most desirable goals of 2005). Conversely, the exact criteria for the assessment of public participation proc- public participation (Webler et al. 2001). The concept of public agreement is foremost esses have remained debatable (Rowe and Frewer 2000). One way is to rely on general understood as legitimacy and compliance (Primmer and Kyllönen 2006). Legitimacy benefits from participation delineated in theories of public involvement: e.g. a wider in this sense means that the concerned persons express freely their agreement with the representation of different interests within a community, conflict prevention, promo- decision (Wittmer et al. 2006). Gaining public agreement is also a direct precondition tion of learning processes (Buchy and Hoverman 2000). Tuler and Webler (1999) and to conflict prevention. In the case of Natura 2000, the significance of this goal cannot be Webler et al. (2001) have gone even further examining the criteria of good public par- overestimated, as the designation process is only one step towards the achievement of ticipation processes from the perspectives of participants. On the other hand, the initial favourable conservation status of these areas. The success of practical implementation aims of the public involvement process can also serve as the base for evaluation. of the network depends directly on the degree to which different stakeholders accept the designations and are willing to cooperate in the management of Natura 2000 areas. A framework for evaluating public participation processes as developed by Bei- erle (1999) suggests six goals according to which the success of the processes could 2. Materials and methods be assessed: incorporating public values into decisions; increasing the substantive quality of decisions; resolving conflict among competing interests; building trust in A case study was conducted in Otepää Natura 2000 area which consists of Otepää institutions; educating and informing the public and achieving cost-effectiveness. Nature Park (224 km2; 2300 landowners in total) and Special Conservation Area Public involvement within the designation of Natura 2000 areas was primarily aimed (3,65 km2; 30 landowners in total). Two different approaches to public involvement at increasing the awareness of the public about the idea of Natura 2000 as well as were applied in the Otepää Natura 2000 area. The landowners in the Nature Park creating stakeholders’ support for the areas. Thus, out of the abovementioned goals, were not provided additional opportunities to take part in the designation process building greater awareness and achieving public acceptance are the most applicable since the Nature Park was already under protection (see footnote on page 2). Never- to the public participation process during the designation of Natura 2000 areas. Con- theless, the landowners were expected to obtain information about Natura 2000 via sequently, the research questions of our study were set as follows. general awareness-raising initiatives (press, media, websites, information days). 1) To what extent are the landowners (as one fundamental group of stakeholders in The Special Conservation Area was designated under protection for the first time this process) aware of the idea of Natura 2000? in the framework of Natura 2000. Thus, several opportunities were provided for 2) How effective has the public participation process been in terms of reaching pub- the landowners to take part in the decision-making process before the areas were lic agreement? formally approved (four public meetings including personal invitations in 2003 and Furthermore, as during the course of interviews it became clear that the extent of 2004, information days, official letters and an opportunity to express opinions). non-participation was quite high, the study also explores possible obstacles to participation. A qualitative approach was chosen to study the effects of public participation at a local scale. First, a general overview of the public participation process (on na- Public participation as an awareness-raising tool addresses the importance of cre- tional, regional and local level) was created. Then the content of the main informa- ating environmental understanding among stakeholders. As a minimum, the public tion dissemination materials, to which the landowners were likely to be exposed, should be informed to the extent that enables them to make adequate decisions (Bei- was analysed. Overall, 59 face-to-face structural interviews were conducted (18 with 224 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 225 landowners from the Special Conservation Area and 41 with landowners from the Additionally, there is a lot of confusion regarding several aspects of Natura 2000. Nature Park) in spring 2006. The main interview questions are presented in Table 1. Interestingly, several respondents linked the Natura 2000 concept with concepts like As public involvement in the designation of the Special Conservation Area was more “primeval nature”, “untouched nature”. On the contrary, the content analysis of main comprehensive, the interviews with landowners from the Special Conservation Area information materials revealed that the human role in preserving and enhancing the were more in-depth regarding the attitudes and extent of participation. biodiversity (e.g. in the case of semi-natural habitats) on Natura 2000 areas was highly stressed. In line with this perception, reflections from several respondents indicate Table 1. Interview discussion guide that Natura 2000 areas are perceived to exclude all human activities: Questions for landowners from the Nature Park and Special Conservation Area Walking is the only activity which I can do on my land without coordinating with − Have you heard about the concept of Natura 2000? the Park Administration! (male, 30, employee in glass industry) − What does the concept mean? There are particularly strict restrictions to human activities in Natura 2000 areas. Regu- − What is the purpose of protection on your land? lations within other areas for nature conservation are more lenient. (female, 60, farmer) − Did you know about the public involvement events? Did you take part of them? Why (not)? As the land is designated under nature conservation, you cannot do anything there! Supplementary questions for landowners from Special Conservation Area (male, 30, self-employed tourism manager) − To date, has the designation process had a more positive, more negative influence on your activities or had no influence at all? Still, the comparison of the answers from the Nature Park and the Special Conser- − Is there a need for Natura 2000 areas in Europe? Was it necessary to designate your land as a Natura 2000 vation Area reveals that the respondents from Special Conservation Area are far more area? knowledgeable (Figure 1). − How do you evaluate your knowledge base on Natura 2000? Would you like to get more information on Natura 2000?

The discussion was written down and later transcribed for the analysis. The results were analysed using content analysis. To determine the effects of different approaches on public participation, the results from the Special Conservation Area and Nature Park were compared. The study mainly follows the principles of qualitative research. Therefore the figures presented in the next section are not a result of statistical analysis; they rather aim at providing a condensed overview of the respondents’ knowledge on Natura 2000 and the extent of participation.

3. Results

3.1. Knowledge and attitudes: level of awareness

As to the content of the information, creating a general overview of the idea of Nat- ura 2000 among a wider public was the main aim of the information dissemination initiatives. More explicit information (e.g. concrete goals and regulations of protection) was provided for those landowners whose land was designated under protection As to the attitudes2, interviewees were asked whether they considered the involve- for the first time in the Natura 2000 process. ment of their land in the network to be a positive or negative experience. According to the answers received, the respondents are divided into two categories. Half of the On the whole, respondents were more able to elaborate on general questions. In the respondents did have neither a positive nor a negative attitude towards their involve- case of more specific questions, rather vague answers were received. As one fifth of the respondents had not heard about the concept of Natura 2000 at all and almost half of 2 In the case of landowners from the Nature Park, it was not possible to distiquish between the them could not explain what the concept means or what the purpose of protection on attitudes towards Natura 2000 and towards the protection in the context of Nature Park. Therefore, their land is, the overall acquaintance with the subject can be considered quite low. only attitudes of landowners from Special Conservation Area were studied. 226 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 227 ment. The other half spoke about it very emotionally and perceived their involvement to be a very negative experience. Moreover, most of the respondents stated the need for Natura 2000 areas in Europe but only less than half of the respondents acknowledged the designation of their land into the network. This further illustrates a rather negative attitude towards the issue on a local scale.

3.2. The extent of participation and public involvement as a means to achieve public agreement

Most of the respondents were aware of the opportunities to take part in the site designation process. However, the actual extent of participation has turned out to be rather low (figures 2 and 3). It seems that especially those activities that required extra input (in terms of engagement) from stakeholders, e.g. public meetings and submission of written claims, experienced lower participation rates.

In case of nature conservation issues, as a rule, the decisions are made first and then the opinion of the wider public is obtained. Thus, there’s no point for us to argue, (female, 40, farmer). I have heard that all arguments should be submitted to court. Decision-making in the Natura-process is an undefined process. I think that it is the decision of those, who stand at the top of this process. An application could be made, but does it have any point? (male, 30, employee in glass industry). On the public meeting, I got the impression that we can say whatever we want but Natura 2000 areas are designated anyway! (male, 60, retired). We were only notified that our land will be designated to a Natura 2000 area. Our permission was not asked at all, (female, 40, employee at hospital). It does not change anything – my opinion does not concern anybody. If the decision from above has already been made, then my arguments do not count. To what point can I have my say? (male, 30, public servant at ministry of education and science). Here it is evident that people perceive that their opinion is not taken into account. In The respondents were asked to express their views about the designation and public addition, there is a lot of confusion regarding the rules of the consultation process. participation process. In general, the landowners were rather sceptical towards the public involvement. As several interviewees point out, the participation process was Nature conservation specialists are little trusted in the site designation process. Fur- not perceived as a valid opportunity to influence the decisions: thermore, several respondents accuse nature conservation authorities of ignoring the This is pointless, few enterprisers cannot change decisions made by the Park Ad- knowledge of landowners: ministration. As the Nature Park has decided to widen its borders, then it definitely There was no need to designate my land as a Natura 2000 area because I would does. They are really stuck in their arguments for nature protection. In my opinion, have protected the nature on my land myself. I once saw a rare bird in my forest and the whole Natura 2000 process is like fighting windmills. Natura 2000 in this sense is I immediately stopped the cutting. Besides, to date, I have not clear-cut my forest as really an enforced action on people, (male, 30, self-employed tourism manager). several of my neighbours have, (male, 60, farmer). 228 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 229 What if those species aren’t there at all? They (Park Administration) said that Nat- I am irritated by the special management zone on my land. It was established “be- ura 2000 areas are those where rare species likely occur. But then it is not at all sure hind my back” which I do not accept. Decisions like this should definitely be discussed that those species certainly are there! (male, 30, employee in glass industry). with landowners. First, I want to know the exact purpose why it was established there Those areas haven’t been checked properly in the field. The specialists don’t know and what the aims of these restrictions are. They (Park Administration) should ex- even themselves exactly what Natura 2000 really means, (male, 50, forester). plain their goals clearly and these should be well-grounded (male, 40, farmer).

Some respondents perceive severe communication problems within the designation The study revealed another aspect which is likely to affect the success of communi- process. A feeling that the information about Natura 2000 was presented to landown- cation initiatives. More particularly, landowners and nature conservation specialists ers in a very one-sided manner that left little room for meaningful discussion was have radically different views about some aspects of nature conservation manage- dominant in the responses from several interviewees: ment. Several opinions about forest management in Nature Park illustrate this argu- There’s no point in asking about nature conservation from Park Administration be- ment: cause they don’t say anything new: here are these and these species. That’s all (male, It is not normal that trees are decaying in the forest. The nature park – even the 30, self-employed tourism manager). name “park” indicates it – should be well-managed and clean. (female, 60, retired) We have received all kinds of letters from nature conservation authorities. But This is against common sense – we cannot take even those logs which lie on the nearly all of them are only about the restrictions that have been made, nothing more ground and are decaying. Once I consulted the parks’ nature conservation specialist (female, 60, farmer). in this matter. He explained that those trees are beneficial for tree pests which in turn Protection regulations on Natura 2000 areas should certainly be coordinated with are food for birds. But then we have to create really good conditions for all kinds of the landowner. It is not right to set them one-sidedly. Maybe the regulations are not tree pests to develop! (male, 60, farmer). so restrictive but it’s a matter of principle – this would be an obvious restriction of my The old forest here is so thick that it is almost impossible to go through it. Even the rights! (male, 50, self-employed tourism manager and forester). tourists who visit this place are surprised of this. It is not aesthetical, is it? (male, 60, The idea of Natura 2000 is good but the way it is implemented is wrong. I respect self-employed tourism manager). the laws of nature, but when the restrictions are set by orders from Brussels then it is not right at all! (male, 60, farmer). In the Natura-process, the foresters have not been properly consulted. Actually, this 4. Discussion is a big mistake (male, 50, self-employed tourism manager and forester). It was also pointed out that there is too little coordination between different institu- 4.1 Awareness tions dealing with nature conservation. The results of the current study indicate that public participation can be a useful Nevertheless, in some cases the goal of developing mutual trust between nature tool for building stakeholders’ awareness about the issue at hand. This is well in line conservation specialists and landowners has been achieved: with the findings of Cote and Bouthillier (2002) and Sipilä and Tyrväinen (2005). If the environmental specialists say that the Natura 2000 area should be here, I However, it seems to be true only if more interactive methods in communicating with guess it should be. We are not against it. (male, 40, long-distance lorry driver) landowners are applied. Personal channels are more effective awareness raising tools I think it had been necessary when my land was designated. But I haven’t gone for various reasons, i.e. target group feels more affected by the message (Shenk et deeply into this issue, so I don’t know exactly. Still, it is clear that not only my land al. 2007). Our case confirms this finding, as the awareness among landowners who was designated: others’ as well. Then it must have been necessary (male, 30, land received info via more personal channels (public meetings, personal letters) was far readjustment advisor at local municipality). higher. Even so, it remains debatable to what extent the awareness on Natura 2000 actually determines the acceptance of nature conservation in concrete circumstances. Although the current study primarily aims at highlighting the landowners’ views to Our results do not provide a straightforward answer to this question, as the results are public participation within the designation of the Special Conservation Area, interest- somewhat contradictory: some of the respondents knowledgeable about Natura 2000 ing perceptions about decision-making processes from the respondents from the Na- still held a quite negative attitude towards the issue. ture Park were received as well. The interviewees expressed their frustration with the decision-making process. Here the views of one landowner towards a management In addition to the information channel, the content of the information is another as- zone with stricter regulations are a good example of this dissatisfaction: pect to consider. People show mistrust of information that tends to be overly scientific 230 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 231 (Johnston and Soulsby 2006); therefore the information does not contribute to rising abovementioned topics were perceived to be more general by the stakeholders and of the receivers’ awareness. In the case of the current study, the problem seems not to therefore reaching public agreement through participation was less complicated. On lie in the content of information in terms of being excessively complicated and there- the contrary, previous studies (e.g. Alphandery and Fortier 2001) confirm that, as a fore hard to comprehend. Rather, the respondents perceived the information as being rule, Natura 2000 awakens critical public discussion, which is more difficult to rec- too general and therefore not applicable to the real situation. For example, the purpose oncile. Our case indicates also that, as many landowners are vocal in expressing their of protection on private properties turned out to be a fundamental issue in the Natura dissatisfaction with several aspects of the site designation, the issue can be consid- 2000 debate, since it is the argument on which the designation is grounded. Therefore ered to be intriguing. achieving understanding between different stakeholders in this matter directly affects the acceptance of Natura 2000 by landowners. Practice-based education concerning In searching for the reasons why public participation has not contributed to reaching the natural values on landowners’ property as suggested by Van Gossum et al. (2005) public agreement in this particular case, several explanations can be applied. First, and Uliczka et al. (2004) can help stakeholders to relate the received information di- few landowners actually took part in the involvement initiatives. Therefore, those rectly to the actual biophysical setting. Nevertheless, the ultimate goal of awareness people who did not use the opportunities to influence the decisions could not develop building during the designation of Natura 2000 areas is to prepare an arena for coop- mutual trust, which is found to be one central precondition of reaching legitimate eration between different stakeholders within the management of these areas. Taking decisions (Wittmer et al. 2006). Second, the public involvement initiative, especially forward the notion that knowledge is associated with a variety of actors in diverse con- in the case of the Nature Park, can be considered as lacking interactivity. The partici- texts rather than seen only as a domain of experts (scientists, specialists) (Rydin 2007), pation process was designed more as an information dissemination procedure rather awareness is here seen as an outcome of open debates between a range of stakeholders. than a genuine negotiation. Several landowners from the Nature Park also expressed Consequently, we understand education as a forum for discussion and an opportunity their wish to be involved in debates about management issues in the park. However, to build mutual trust, where learning is a multi-way process between different parties. they were only provided with marginal opportunities to do so. Thus, the process did Foremost, awareness building should initiate exchange of understandings and promote not result in an interactive forum where stakeholders can discuss about their interests stakeholders to take advantage of each other’s knowledge and experience. and perceptions. Third, the opposition between experts and farmers in the Natura 2000 debate has been explained as ignorance of each others’ expertise (Visser 2007). Applying the proposed approach, a multitude of stakeholders with various per- This is likely to be one reason for non-participation here as well. Several respondents spectives is brought together. At this point, different perceptions of the issue are an were very sceptical of the conservation values proposed by park administration as essential aspect to consider as they are found to be one key factor determining the they felt that their own expertise was overlooked by nature conservation authorities. acceptance of nature conservation measures (Shenk et al. 2007). Our case showed that even those landowners who were more knowledgeable about the issue express 4.3 Obstacles to public involvement very different views about Natura 2000 in particular as well as about nature conservation measures in general. Landowners’ views on forest management are one extreme Most of the respondents from the Special Conservation Area were aware of the example of these contradicting understandings. Here, discursive approaches (Fisher opportunities to take part in the site designation process. Thus, not being informed and Young 2007; Soini and Aakkula 2007) would help to gain deeper insight into the about those opportunities was unlikely to be the main reason preventing them from motives behind various positions and understandings, providing a basis for the devel- participating. Rather, the most relevant explanations for non-participation in this case opment of more effective awareness building tools. may be participants’ low interest towards the issue and accordingly not relating themselves to the issue and little experience of public participation. 4.2 The achievement of public agreement First, stakeholders are found to be more willing to participate when the issue The participation process as a tool for achieving public agreement in this particular awakens controversy (Janse and Konijnendijk 2007). Here, the problem is more case has been rather ineffective. Most of the respondents had a very critical view of complex as nearly half of the respondents were very sceptical about the site des- the implementation process at a local level. The results of Primmer and Kyllönen ignation process and also seemed to be interested in engaging themselves in the (2006) support this finding. Conversely, in the views of stakeholders in collaborative discussions about Natura 2000. At the same time, the other half of the interview- forest planning and outlining sustainable development indicators, the risk of conflicts ees were either on a rather indifferent position about it or took a critical view of was significantly reduced by public participation (Cote and Bouthillier 2002; Sipilä the designation, but were nevertheless not ready to get involved. In the case of and Tyrväinen 2005; Rosenström and Kyllönen 2007). It can be assumed that the this group of respondents, their lack of information about the consequences arising 232 Monika Suškevičs, Mart Külvik Assessing the effects of public participation during the designation of Natura 2000 areas ... 233 from Natura 2000 might have been the first obstacle to participation. Stakeholders become even more serious as many landowners are now in a “wait-and-see” position. did not consider the issue to be relevant enough to themselves, which together with These people, currently showing a rather indifferent attitude, may become active op- the landowners’ low level of interest prevented them from getting involved (Weber ponents as the circumstances change (e.g. new regulations on Natura 2000 areas are and Christophersen 2002; Bille 2006). laid down). Therefore, the current situation can be described as a latent conflict where the discussion has only started but not all actors have had the opportunity to have Second, the landowners apparently have only little experience with participatory their say. The main reason for this can be considered to be a low participation rate. In democracy as participatory planning and management has only recently become im- turn, an arena for discussion was provided but not realised. portant in Estonia. A great confusion about the procedural norms prevalent in the views of many landowners further confirms this argument. Additionally, it means The current study indicates that there is a need for wider and meaningful public that being involved requires much engagement and effort from the participants (e.g. involvement not only within the Special Conservation Area but in the Nature Park in terms of time, skills). This may be a serious obstacle to participation but resolv- as well. Otepää Nature Park also belongs to a Natura 2000 area and the goals of con- able through the development of general skills of argumentation and participation servation are hardly achievable as long as the positions of different stakeholders are (Yli-Pelkonen and Kohl 2005). In line with this, our results show that stakeholders ignored. lack trust in decision-makers and hold the perception that their opportunities to influence the decisions are almost non-existent. As the wish to influence the decisions can be considered as one of the main drivers for participation, the feeling of frustration Acknowledgement would be a serious hindrance to participation. The authors wish to thank Ms Eeva Furman for her helpful comments on the manu- Dependence on the local community, more precisely the fear of risking conflicts script and Mr Ilmar Part for the language revision. and of being excluded from the local community, is claimed to be one central reason for non-participation (Buchecker et al. 2000). Our results show that, in the designation process of Natura 2000 areas, landowners seem to form a rather unified group References with shared perceptions towards the issue. Therefore, conflicts within this group, at least in the site designation process, hardly occurred. Consequently, it is unlikely to Alphandery, P., Fortier, A. 2001. Can a territorial policy be based on science alone? The sys- be a significant obstacle to participation in this case. tem for creating the Natura 2000 network in France. Sociologia Ruralis 41(3): 311–328 Bille, R. 2006. Management of biodiversity and participation: elements for stocktaking and reflections. In: Biodiversity and stakeholders. Biosphere Reserves. Technical 5. Conclusions Notes 1: 35-39 Beierle, T. J. 1999. Using social goals to evaluate public participation in environmental deci- Although the awareness among stakeholders as a whole (Special Conservation sions. Policy Studies Journal 3(4): 75-103 - Area and Nature Park) can be considered quite low, more interactive forms of par- Buchy, M., Hoverman, S. 2000. Understanding public participation in forest planning: a Re view. Forest Policy and Economics 1: 15–25 ticipation have proved to be useful tools in informing the landowners about Natura Buchecker, M., Hunziker, M., Kienast, F. 2003. Participatory landscape development: over- 2000. 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Ecological processes research Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park in the 19th and 20th Centuries

Michał Osowiec University of Warsaw, Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies, Krakowskie Przedmieście 30 St., 00-927 Warsaw E-mail: [email protected]

Summary

The analysis of landscape changes focuses on the 19th and 20th centuries since this was a period of heavy anthropopressure in this area, with intensive land reclamation measures and transformation of some of the area’s bogs and forests into meadows and arable fields. The extent of the period under analysis was also determined by the availability of historical cartographic materials. The landscape changes in the period 1839- 2002 were analysed using maps from different moments in time, historical records and bibliographical studies concerning individual components of the natural environment. In addition to that, the author carried out personal observations. The analysis was made using tools offered by the GIS ArcView and ArcInfo software. Despite intensive anthropopressure, the landscapes of the upper Włodawka river basin are characterised by a greater degree of naturalness than other parts of the Polesie region.

Keywords

Landscape changes, Polesie National Park, Polesie Lubelskie

1. Introduction

One of the reasons for the establishment of protected areas such as national parks is to ensure preservation of most valuable natural systems with their non-regener- able components, of ecological systems which are inherently prone to deformation, and of phenomena which are either vanishing or vanished in other areas. Valuable landscapes are protected by ensuring sustainable coexistence of plant and animal life, comprising the most precious remnants of primeval nature, semi-natural systems 240 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 241 which contemporarily play an important role in preserving biodiversity, and abiotic made by Kondracki and Richling, this region is situated in the area of Eastern Europe, characteristics of both natural and cultural landscapes. Creating the conditions for as subarea of East European Plain, province of Western Russian Plain, subprovince of natural as possible functioning of valuable landscapes is possible, provided we can identify Polesie, in the southern part of the macroregion of Polesie Lubelskie (Western Polesie), the detailed characteristics of such functioning, based on the degree of transformation, i.e. mesoregion of Łęczna and Włodawa Lake District (Pojezierze Łęczyńsko-Włodawskie changes that occurred in the area’s landscape. The characteristics of natural functioning - Fig. 1). Polesie Lubelskie is the boggiest area in the old glacial landscape of Poland. can be identified through analysing landscapes with a high degree of naturalness, a feature Hydrogenic habitats account for 42.6% of the macro-region’s area, of which 25% is which can be evaluated by investigating landscape changes. occupied by peatlands (Gawlik, Dembek 2002). This mesoregion is conspicuous for Our analysis focuses on the polygon covering a part of the Polesie National Park its numerous lakes, peatlands and permanently or periodically boggy areas. It is the – the Bubnów and Staw marshes, contained by the boundary of the Upper Włodawka only grouping of lakes in Poland beyond the reach of the last glaciation. river basin (the Bubnowo watercourse). According to the physio-geographic division The research polygon was selected on the basis of two criteria – the maximum possible naturalness and representativeness for the Polesie Lubelskie landscapes. It was assumed that the Upper Włodawka river basin is characterised by an insignifi- cant degree of transformation of the natural systems. The representativeness of the selected fragment of the Polesie landscape is related to the nature of the researched area – a river basin with varied landscape types (lithogenic and hydrogenic) and a considerable share of hydrogenic landscapes (lowland bogs). Lithogenic landscapes are predominantly under agricultural use. The small Wereszczyńskie Lake can also be found in the researched area (referred to as ‘Bąbelek’, the ‘Bubblet’).

2. Materials and methods

In preparing the paper, maps from different times were used, along with historical records and bibliographic studies showing changes concerning specific components of the natural environment. The data on landscape components were compiled on the basis of the materials prepared in connection with the protection plan for the Polesie National Park. The current status quo was also described on the basis of the author’s observations. The following maps were used in the analysis of changes in land use: 1. Topographic map of the Kingdom of Poland, Warsaw 1839-1843, scale 1:126 000. 2. Novaia Topographicheskaya Karta Zapadnoy Rossiy (New Topographic Map of Western Russia), Petersburg 1913 (the so-called ‘two-verst’ map), scale 1:84 000. 3. Base map, Military Geographical Institute – WIG 1932-1933, scale 1:100 000, the Włodawa Chart, 4. Topographic map, Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography – GUGiK, scale 1:25 000, 5. Military Topographic Map, 1994, scale 1:100 000, the Włodawa and Sawin charts, 6. Polesie National Park – tourist map, 2001, scale 1:50 000.

These maps were redrawn on the 1:100 000 scale and calibrated in the 1965 coordi- nate system using ArcView and ArcInfo software. Despite the author’s efforts, minor Fig. 1. Location of the researched area in Poland’s physiogeographic division. inaccuracies could not be avoided due to the fact that the maps were made using dif- 242 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 243 ferent methods and scales (Figures 2-4). With the ArcView software, the surface area of wetlands and forests and the length of watercourses was calculated, which was followed by determining the percentage share of such areas in each of the maps. The status quo was assessed using contemporary maps and the author’s knowledge of the researched area. The author’s analysis of changes in boggy and forest areas and in the length of the watercourses in the researched river basin was made for the following periods: 1839- -1913, 1913-1933 and 1933-2002. In addition to that, changes in the area covered by Lake Wereszczyńskie were investigated. The time intervals were determined on the basis of the available maps. The identified changes are shown in Table 1 and illustrated by Figures 2 to 4.

3. Results 3.1 Changes in the landscape of the upper Włodawka river basin as compared to changes in the Polesie National Park

As the size of the population and the technological progress in the Łęczna and Włodawa Lake District increased, so did anthropopressure and the degree of transformation of the natural system. Anthropopressure in this region is connected with the development of settlement and recreation facilities, land reclamation, agriculture and the mining industry. Most changes in the analysed landscape affected the hydrological relations, which is directly or indirectly manifested in the characteristics of the soil and vegetation cover. Other changes could also be found in the modes of land use, including the boundaries of forests, as well as the settlement and road networks. The analysis of landscape changes within the research polygon was shown in the context of changes across the entire Polesie National Park and its protecting zone. The changes in the Park were described on the basis of the referenced literature, while the analysis of changes in the upper Włodawka river basin is the author’s original contribution.

3.2 Changes on the area of the Polesie National Park

The Polesie peatlands were formed as a result of organogenic accumulation occurring over a period of the last dozen or so thousand years, in the lake basins and other hollows which were filled with layers of gyttja and peat (Łoś 1995). Following the land reclamation works carried out in the 19th century and in the early 20th century, the lake and hydrological basins as well as single hollows which had originally been independent, became interconnected. The drained peatlands were used for farming purposes. The process of secondary bogging took place during World War II and the post-war years, and was caused by discontinued land use and devastation of the drainage network. Large-scale drainage works in Polesie Lubelskie were started at the end of the 18th century, although according to popular knowledge the local residents had dug ditches draining water from the meadows and fields even earlier than that. The maps from Fig. 2. Changes in forest area 1839-2002. 244 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 245 Changes in the length of watercourses and the area of Lake Wereszczyńskie in 1839-2002. Wereszczyńskie Fig. 4. Changes in the length of watercourses and area Lake Fig. 3. Changes in boggy areas 1839-2002. 246 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 247 Tab. 1. Landscape changes in 1839-2002 As a result of overgrowing and siltation, after about a dozen years after their digging, some ditches could no longer perform their function and their use was discon- Forests Water-logged areas tinued. Currently, some of the ditches can perform their role only periodically or Difference of Difference of Difference of Difference of Forest area (in Surface of water- Year area area area area sporadically, which is due to artificial regulation of discharge rather than to meteoro- hectares) logged areas (in hectares) (in %) (in hectares) (in %) logical conditions. For this reason, in the periods of water shortage, water could be 1839 1 423 2 665.4 supplied via a network of ditches and canals. Maximum water stages are recorded 1913 1 348 -75 -5.3 2 279.6 -385.8 -14.5 in the driest periods, from May till September, and the minimum stages – in autumn 1933 1 004.5 -343.5 -25.5 2 193.9 -85.8 -3.8 and winter. 2002 1 403.1 398.6 39.7 1 868.0 -325.9 -14.9 While in 1830, forests accounted for about 50% of the region and fields were -19.9 -1.4 -797.5 -29.9 only enclaves in the woodland, in the period of the subsequent 100 years the forest Wereszczyńskie Lake Watercourses area decreased by a half, while in 1830 farmland and buildings occupied 39.5% of Difference of Difference of Difference of Difference of Area of Lake Length of the area (Maruszczak 1952). In the 1976 topographic map, farmland accounted for Year area area area area Wereszczyńskie watercourses (in hectares) in % (in hectares) (in %) 52.4% – and forests – for 27.7% (Wilgat et al. 1997). The twofold increase in the 1839 22.3 31.7 wooded areas over the last 50 years is due to the discontinued use of water-logged 1913 6.4 -15.9 -71.3 43.6 11.9 37.5 areas as meadows, which led to the encroaching of shrubs and trees on peatland. In 1933 4.7 -1.7 -26.6 66.9 23.3 53.4 a 1992 aerial photograph, these areas accounted, respectively, for 47.4% and 33.6% 2002 3.1 -1.6 -34.0 64.5 -2.4 -3.6 (Chmielewski 2003). In individual years, water-logged areas and peatlands account- -19.2 -86.1 32.8 103.5 ed for, respectively: 26.8% (1887), 16% (1976), 15.2% (1992). The total share of waters, meadows, peatlands and water-logged forests systematically decreased, by the early 20th century show scattered ditches and canals intersecting peatland basins 31.9%, 26.3% and 23.3%, respectively. In the recent years, due to the operation of or connecting individual hollows. Land improvement works were stepped up in the the ‘Bogdanka’ hard coal mine and increased precipitation (as compared to average period between the first and the second World Wars. At that time, a comprehensive multi-annual precipitation total), the area of permanent waters has grown, as has the land improvement programme was prepared, which was aimed to ensure both drain- area of built-up land. age and irrigation of the area (Kaca et al. 2002). By 1950, despite the hydrotechnical works which had been carried out by then, no significant changes in the water relations 3.3 Changes of the upper Włodawka basin were achieved. The main pattern of the water network from this period has survived until today. The hydrological relations were strongly affected by the construction of In the whole of the analysed period, the partial catchment basin of the Włodawka the Wieprz-Krzna canal in 1954-1963. Even though researchers opted for excluding river showed a gradual decrease of water-logged areas. In the 1830s, the rate of bog- the Łęczna and Włodawa Lake District from this system, these suggestions were ig- gy areas in this region was 44.9%. As compared with the previous period, the range nored and six lakes became retention reservoirs. Over this period, the region was inter- of wetlands decreased in the subsequent periods by, respectively, 14.5% (1913); sected with a dense network of canals and drainage ditches. In 1926-1982, the density 3.8% (1933) and 14.9% (2002). Currently, water-logged areas account for 31.5% of ditches in the Polesie National Park increased from 0.5 to 2 km/km2 (Michalczyk of the entire area, which corresponds to 1,868 ha. In 1839-1933, a significant (over 1993). In 1915, the length of watercourses was 295.4 km, and in 1992 – 822.4 km. twofold) increase of the length of the canal and drainage ditches was recorded, as The shortage of water in the dry periods was to be supplemented by the water from the a result of land improvement works (Fig. 20). This process coincided with the ad- Wieprz-Krzna canal using the feeding canal Bogdanka-Wola Wereszczyńska. None- aptation of these areas for farming purposes, mainly as meadows and pastures. The theless, the envisaged land reclamation plan was not fully implemented, mainly with development of this network of canals and ditches (mainly drainage ditches) con- regard to Lakes Moszne and Długie and the Bubnów Marshes. Of 13,350 hectares of tinued steadily for 200 years, mainly in an unplanned (chaotic) way. As a result, the meadows situated in the area of the Park and intended for drainage until 1990, only local population dug scattered ditches and canals throughout the area. The highest 7,944 hectares of meadows and 2,415 hectares of arable land were improved (Łoś intensity of land improvement works could be observed in the 1920s and 1930s. 1995). Altogether, in the second half of the 20th century, the acreage of waters and Despite the earlier plans, this area was not covered by large-scale land improvement water-logged areas in the entire Lake District diminished, including the destruction of works connected with the building of the Wieprz-Krzna canal system. Owing to 73% of natural peatlands. As much as 95% of the length of natural watercourses were overgrowing and siltation, the length of watercourses decreased by 2.4 km over the regulated, and additional 600 km of new watercourses were dug (Chmielewski 2003). last 70 years. The most recent works in the early 1990s aimed at draining the spring 248 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 249 zone of the Włodawka were carried out. For several years, revitalisation works have be a source of harmful substances. This is largely due to the lack of sewerage for the been in progress with a view to restoring the water relations originally prevailing in recreational facilities around rivers and lakes, and leads to their increased eutrophi- the area. cation and overgrowing. Over the last 100 years, three lakes have completely disap- In the first half of the 19th century, the density of the canal and ditch network in peared, while the area of four lakes decreased by 50 to 80%, and of seven - by 25 this area was rather small, and the length of the ditches totalled approximately 31.7 to 50% (Chmielewski, Radwan 1993). The evolution of lakes is leading towards the km. During the century to follow, the length of watercourses increased to nearly 70 vanishing of their trophic diversity, and a transition from mesotrophy to dystrophy km. Between 1913 and 1933, peat digging was started. The relatively dense network can be observed. of ditches discharging water directly to the Włodawka river or to peat basins from Changes in the forest communities caused by tree felling and overdrying of habitats smaller hollows and depressions has proved not entirely viable. Land reclamation are also likely to lead to the disappearance of dry-ground forest and xerothermic oak works brought about watershed changes. The esker dividing the Bubnów and Staw wood (Potentillo albae-Quercetum) complexes. The woodiness rate in the Park and marshes was dug up most probably in the 18th century. In 1913-2002, ditches were its vicinity, which in 1915 reached nearly 22%, fell in 1950 to less than 10%. Since dug which connected the Bubnów and Staw peat basins with the smaller hollows in then, the woodiness rate values have been on the increase, and now they reach over their vicinity. The watershed across the entire Łęczna and Włodawa Lake District 16%. This is due to the afforestation of degraded land, drained peatlands and waste- was moved westwards. Following the local lowering of the underground water level, land. The acreage of grey sallow, willow and birch bushes is dynamically increas- despite the earlier connection existing between them, all contacts between the waters ing, which is caused by natural succession on peatlands undergoing eutrophication from the neighbouring hollows was discontinued. (Chmielewski, Sołtys 1987). The author’s analysis of changes in the woodiness rates has demonstrated that the 3.4 Effects of changes highest rates could be observed in the 20th century. In the 1839 map, forests accounted for 24% of the area. In the former analysed period (1839-1913), the depletion of for- Changes in the water network in the Łęczna and Włodawa Lake District led to a ests was slightly above 5%, while in the years 1913-1933 the forest area decreased serious deterioration of hydrological conditions (Chmielewski 2006). The runoff by as much as 25.5%. Such heavy deforestation was caused by the development of rate drastically increased, which resulted in the elimination of surface water stagna- human settlements. Since 1933 until today, the woodiness rate has considerably in- tion in 60-80% of water-logged areas. This was followed by a natural decrease of creased (by 39.7%). Currently, the wooded area is similar to that before 1839, which water retention and triggered off the process of moorsh changes in the peat. Another is a result of encroaching forest vegetation on peatland areas due to the lowered level consequence of the digging of a dense network of ditches was the elimination of of surface water rather than of any planned afforestation. Dense forest complexes are local hydrochemical and hydrobiological diversity in the Park’s ecosystems. In addi- fertile fragments of woodland which can be classified as dry ground forest, alder carr tion to that, the waters from the Wieprz-Krzna system were led into this original eco- and mixed forest. The increase in wooded areas which took place in the 20th century logical system, rich in nutrients and contaminated with many chemical compounds, can also be attributed to species-poor pine coniferous forests (often monocultures) alien to the local ecosystems. These waters originated from the neighbouring hard growing, in small patches, on the sandy mineral level. They were formed as a result coal mine in Bogdanka and from the areas under heavy agricultural use, situated in of afforestation of formerly arable land. the south, that is from the Lublin Upland (Wyżyna Lubelska). This region recorded a period of agricultural development until the beginning of There can be little doubt that hard coal mining in the Lublin Coal Basin neigh- World War II. In the last three decades, farming activity was curtailed and the acre- bouring with the Park significantly affects the functioning of the researched area age of fallow land increased, while in the second half of the 20th century the road (Borchulski 1996). The main issue is how coal mining influences the water relations network was substantially expanded, with nearly 200 km of new paved roads. – that is, what is the impact of the bailing of Jurassic and Carbon waters on the In the researched area, as part of the Park’s protection plan, meadows lying fallow lowering of the water level in the lakes, disappearance of peatlands and bogs, and are mowed in the southern and south-western parts of Bubnów and Staw marshes, reducing runoff in the watercourses. Also, agricultural use has a negative impact on and bushes are cut in the peatlands. This is aimed to prevent the supplanting of peat the changes of surface water characteristics. Subterranean water from farming areas vegetation by forest communities. So far, such works have been carried out only ex- tends to have a high nitrate content, unlike water running off from wooded areas perimentally, in small areas. Revitalisation activities mainly depend on the financial (Wojciechowski et al. 1995). The characteristic feature of areas under agricultural capacity of the authorities in charge of the Polesie National Park. use is their distinctly increased acidification, although this does not apply to river and lacustrine water. In addition to the contamination of surface water with compounds originated by agricultural chemicalisation, recreational use of lakes can also 250 Michał Osowiec Landscape Changes in the Basin of the Upper Włodawka River in the Polesie National Park ... 251 4. Conclusions ekosystemów wodno-torfowiskowych w obszarze funkcjonalnym Poleskiego Parku Nar- odowego na tle antropogenicznych przekształceń środowiska przyrodniczego [“Natural In light of the above information, we can say that when compared with the entire Foundations for the Preservation and Recultivation of Water and Peatland Ecosystems Polesie National Park, the upper Włodawka river basin is a weakly transformed area, in the Functional Area of the Polesie National Park”]. Acta Agrophysica, 91, Instytut one where human activity does not significantly affect the functioning of natural Agrofizyki PAN im. Dobrzańskiego, Lublin. ecosystems. The population density is slowly decreasing, and the characteristics of Chmielewski T. J., Harasimiuk M., 2002. Analiza warunków zrównoważonego rozwo- the vegetation, mainly regarding the species composition of plant communities, have ju Polesia Lubelskiego [“Analysis of the Conditions of Sustainable Development in Polesie Lubelskie”], [in:] Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktualny i zmiany considerably changed, which is due to agricultural use, resulting – indirectly – in the – materiały konferencyjne [Polesie’s Natural Environment, Status Quo and Changes encroaching of rush and forest vegetation on peatlands. – Conference Proceedings]. Acta Agrophysica, 66, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Do- The degree of the changes concerning hydrological conditions, soil and plant cover brzańskiego, Lublin. - of the researched area, as compared with changes in the hydrogenic habitats of Rus Chmielewski T. J., Harasimiuk M., Radwan S., 1996. Renaturalizacja ekosystemów wod- sian and Ukrainian Polesie, is very small (Zajko et al. 2002; Kowalczuk, Chilczewski no-torfowiskowych na Pojezierzu Łęczyńsko-Włodawskim [Revitalisation of Water and 2002). The forecasted changes in the landscapes involve further degradation of the Peatland Ecosystems in the Łęczna and Włodawa Lake Land], AR Lublin, Lubelska Fun- vegetation and habitat conditions (Anoszko et al. 2002). dacja Ochrony Środowiska Naturalnego. In order to restore the original ecological relations, active and multi-faceted meas- Chmielewski T. J., Radwan S., 1993. Zmiany stosunków ekologicznych w rejonie Poleskiego ures relating to protection, revitalisation and restitution are necessary. In addition to Parku Narodowego w ostatnich 75 latach [“Changes of Ecological Relations in the Area of imposing certain constraints in land use, the system must be revitalised, and the pre- the Polesie National Park in the Last 75 Years”], [in:]: Ekosystemy wodne i torfowiskowe vious water relations must be restored (Chmielewski, Harasimiuk, Radwan 1996). w obszarach chronionych [Water and Peatland Ecosystems in Protected Areas]. TWWP. Long interdisciplinary research on the structure, functioning and dynamics of Lublin; 13-25. changes in the natural environment, in collaboration between researchers and deci- Chmielewski T. J., Sołtys M., 1987. Analiza i ocena zmian w szacie roślinnej CRW na tle sion makers in the sphere of nature resources, the existing system of protected areas LZW [Analysis and valuation changes of vegetation of CRW against a background LZW], and the pioneering projects for the revitalisation of peatland ecosystems, justify the TUP, oddział Lublin. conclusion that the region of Polesie Lubelskie will be developing in a sustainable Gawlik J., Dembek W., 2002. Ekosystemy torfowiskowe Polesia (rodzaje i przemiany way. strukturalne) [“Polesie’s Peatland Ecosystems (Types and Structural Changes)”], [in:] Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktualny i zmiany – materiały konferencyjne [Polesie’s Natural Environment, Status Quo and Changes – Conference Proceedings]. References Acta Agrophysica 66, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Dobrzańskiego, Lublin Fijałkowski D., 1988. Zmiany szaty roślinnej na Lubelszczyźnie w ostatnim dwudziestoleciu (1967-1987) [Changes in Plant Cover in the Lublin Region in the Last 20 Years (1967- Anoszko W., Zajko S., Waszkiewicz L., Baczyła S., 2002. Prognoza zmian osuszonych krajo- 1987)]. Ann. UMCS, sec. C, 43, 15; 215-238. brazów i gleb Białorusi [“Forecasted Changes in Drained Landscapes and Soils of Bela- Kaca E., Łoś M.J., Zawadzki S., 2002. Melioracje a ochrona przyrody [“Land Improvement rus”], [in:] Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktualny i zmiany – materiały konfer- Measures and Nature Protection”], [in:] Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktu- encyjne [Polesie’s Natural Environment, Status Quo and Changes – Conference Proceed- alny i zmiany – materiały konferencyjne [Polesie’s Natural Environment, Status Quo and ings]. Acta Agrophysica, 68, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Dobrzańskiego, Lublin. Changes – Conference Proceedings]. Acta Agrophysica; 66, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Chmielewski T. J., 2006. Zmiany krajobrazów Pojezierza Łęczyńsko-Włodawskiego, a prze- Dobrzańskiego, Lublin. miany ich różnorodności biologicznej po 1950 r. [“Landscape Changes in the Łęczna and Kondracki J., Richling A. 1993. Regiony fizycznogeograficzne. Mapa 1:1500 000. [in:] Atlas Włodawa Lake Districts and Changes in Their Biodiversity after 1950”], [in:] Gutry-Ko- Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. Główny Geodeta Kraju, Warszawa. rycka M., Kędziora A., Starkel L., Ryszkowski L. (eds.) Długookresowe przemiany krajo- Kowalczuk I., Chilczewski W., 2002. Hydrologiczne i hydroekologiczne problemy Ukraiń- brazu Polski w wyniki zmian klimatu i użytkowania ziemi [Long-term Landscape Chan- skiego Polesia [“Hydrological and Hydroecological Problems of Ukrainian Polesie”] [in:] ges in Poland Following Climatic and Land Use Changes]. Komitet Narodowy IGBP Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktualny i zmiany – materiały konferencyjne [Po- – Globar Change PAN Warszawa; Zakład Badań Środowiska Rolniczego i Leśnego PAN lesie’s Natural Environment, Status Quo and Changes – Conference Proceedings]. Acta Poznań; Poznań: 237-251. Agrophysica, 66, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Dobrzańskiego, Lublin Chmielewski T. J., 2003. Stan krajobrazowych układów poliekosystemowych badanego ob- Łoś M. J., 1995. Wpływ systemu kanału Wieprz-Krzna na stosunki wodne w Poleskim Parku szaru na początku XXI wieku [“The Condition of Landscape Poly-ecosystems of the Re- Narodowym [“Impact of the Wieprz-Krzna Canal System on Water Relations in the Pole- searched Area in the Early 20th Century”], [in:] Przyrodnicze podstawy ochrony i odnowy sie National Park”], [in:] Ochrona ekosystemów wodnych w Poleskim Parku Narodowym 252 Michał Osowiec i jego otulinie [Protection of Water Ecosystems in the Polesie National Park and Its Pro- tecting Zone]. TWWP, AR Lublin: 28-30. Maruszczak H., 1952. Stan i zmiany lesistości województwa lubelskiego w latach 1830-1930 [Condition and Changes in Woodiness Rates in the Lublin Region in 1830-1930]. Ann. UMCS, sec. B, 5: 109-178. The application of radio-tracking Michalczyk Z., Bartoszewski S., Głowacki S., Turczyński M., 1993. Wody Poleskiego Parku Narodowego [Waters of the Polesie National Park] . Ekobios 1, TWWP, Lublin. to assessment of dispersion and changes Radwan S. (ed), 1994. Środowisko przyrodnicze w strefie oddziaływania kanały Wieprz- of acreages of black grouse Tetrao tetrix Krzna [The Natural Environment in the Zone of Influence of the Wieprz-Krzna-Canal]. in Polesie National Park TWWP, Akademia Rolnicza, Lublin. Wilgat T., Janiec B., Michalczyk Z., Turczyński M., 1997. “Hydrological Consequences of Human Action in Łęczna-Włodawa Lake Region”. Geographia Polonica, 68, 117-147. Wojciechowski I., Czernaś K., Krupa D., 1995. Biotyczne walory jezior Poleskiego Parku Jacek Misztal1, Katarzyna Pikunas2, Elżbieta Kowalik3, Andrzej Różycki4 Narodowego i jego otuliny i ich uwarunkowania [“Biotic Values of Lakes in the Polesie Polesie National Park, ul. Lubelska 3a St., Urszulin 22-234, Poland National Park and Its Protecting Zone and Their Factors”], [in:] Ochrona ekosystemów E-mail: 1 [email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected], wodnych i torfowiskowych w PPN i jego otulinie [Protection of Water Ecosystems in the 4 [email protected] Polesie National Park and Its Protecting Zone]. TWWP, AR Lublin, 38-45. Zajko S., Vashekevich L., Gorbliuk A., Bachyla S., 2002. “Evolution and degradation of drain landscapes and soils of Byelorussian Polesye Region”], [in:] Środowisko przyrodnicze Polesia – stan aktualny i zmiany – materiały konferencyjne [Polesie’s Natural Environ- Summary ment, Status Quo and Changes – Conference Proceedings]. Acta Agrophysica, 67, Instytut Agrofizyki PAN im. Dobrzańskiego, Lublin. Black grouse Tetrao tetrix in the Polish part of West Polesie became extinct in the 1990s. In 2001 in Poleski National Park a restitution program of this bird species was started. Up to 2007, into properly prepared habitats on the area of the Park, the overall number of 116 specimens have been released (42 hens and 74 cocks), previously caught alive in Byelorussian and Ukrainian parts of Polesie (on sites 90, 270 and 310 km far from Poleski NP). Before the birds’ release, 9 specimens had had telemetric transmitters installed. Observations and tracking of the birds were taking place in the years 2003 – 2005. In the years 2005 – 2007, between 39 and 55 birds taking active part in lekking were observed. Owing to the installed transmitters, dispersion of the released specimens into new habitats could be tracked. Application of radio-tracking made it possible to track dispersion of black grouses within the Park’s borders as well as beyond them. The routes of the birds and their seasonal acreages’ sizes were analysed. The results show that the acreage of each specimen is different, but – depending on the season – it demonstrates some similarities within a gender. Average monthly distance of each specimen shows regular changes in birds’ activity, also characteristic for the gender.

Keywords

Black grouse, Tetrao tetrix, radio-tracking, acreage, restitution, Poleski National Park 254 Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to assessment of dispersion and changes ... 255 1. Introduction a directional antenna and multi-range scanning receiver. Each specimen used to be located from two sites, from those places two straight lines were derived – drawn Black grouse Tetrao tetrix is one of the most unique birds of our wetlands. In 1960s on the map and crossing in one point they determined the location of a bird (to an and 1970s it was relatively numerous on the area of Lublin Polesie, especially on peat accuracy of a forest unit – „a walk”). Activity of a bird was monitored to a moment bogs. The highest density of the population was noticed on Krowie Bagno (about when the transmitter battery ran down or the ird died. Any observations, even con- 80 males taking part in lekking) and on the swamps between the villages: Zbójno cerning birds without transmitters, were also noted. During the first month after the – Pieszowola – Brus – Lipniak; birds were also seen in the vicinity of lakes Brudno, birds’ release in 2003, the specimens were located twice per day, in next months Brudzieniec, Karaśne, Łukie, Uściwierz and Nadrybie (Dyrcz et al. 1973). – once per day. In 1990s a gradual decrease of black grouse number was observed, also on the area of Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland. Possible factors of this decrease were: drainage of the region, predator pressure, pheasant introduction and shooting during the lekking season (Kamieniarz 2002). In 2001 “Black grouse restitution in Poleski National Park” programme started. The initial stage of the programme consisted in: 1) water conditions improvement on the peat bogs, 2) removal of shrubs and trees from the areas of potential lekking grounds. In the years 2002-2004 total number of 116 birds (42 hens and 74 cocks) were caught alive in Ukraine and Byelorussia and brought to Poleski NP. All the birds were banded, and only 9 of them had radio transmitters installed. During spring time in the years 2005-2007 the lekking grounds were frequently checked and the birds taking part in spring displays were counted. In 2005 there were observed 39 birds (12 hens), in 2006 – 55 birds (10 hens), in 2007 – 42 birds (8 hens). The aim of this paper is test analysis of dispersion of the black grouses settled in Poleski National Park, as well as assessment of their activity and sizes of seasonal acreages, with a reference to characteristic seasons of this species’ behaviour (lekking, hatching, semi-lekking, etc.).

2. Study area

Poleski National Park is situated in eastern Poland, Lublin region, on the area of Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland which is the southern part of Lublin Polesie. The Park st was established on May 1 , 1990. At present, it covers the area of circa 9 762 ha. It Fig.1. Poleski National Park - types of functional habitats and vegetation. consists of two land complexes: the main one and the complex of carbonate lowland bogs “Bagno Bubnów and Staw” (Fig.1). Thus, the most unique ecosystems in the Park are transitional peat bogs, developed on the edges of overgrown lakes, as well Out of 9 specimens, which in following years were provided with transmitters, as lowland bogs, carbonate peat bogs and continental highmoor. Wetland character 4 birds were monitored for longer than 6 months: 2 females (transmitters No. 040 and of Poleski National Park, together with a variety of forest and thicket ecosystems 158) and 2 males (transmitters No. 119 and 080). The observations of these 4 became (49% of total area), creates convenient life conditions for numerous bird species the basis for data used in this analysis. Unfortunately, time of work of the transmit- (Chmielewski ed. 1989, Radwan ed. 2002). ters varied for each specimen: the cock “119” was observed between May 2003 and May 2004; the cock “080” – from May 2003 till January 2004; the hen “158” – from 3. Materials and methods December 2004 till August 2005 and finally the hen “040” – between July 2004 and January 2005. The observations of black grouse dispersion on the area of Poleski National Park With the use of AutoCad and CorelDraw applications, birds’ migration in specified were conducted by the forest service of the Park. Birds were located with the use of seasons was charted, based on the assumption that a bird was located in the centre of 256 Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to assessment of dispersion and changes ... 257 previously noted land unit. The stretches between subsequent locations were measured and – to simplify the analysis – arithmetic means of daily measures was given for each month and compared. The results were compared on the diagrams prepared in Excel application. On the basis of the stretches, hypothetic acreages for the 4 specimens were drawn, as well as seasonal changes in the acreages’ sizes. The seasons, in which black grouse behaviour varies, are: 1) winter (December – March); 2) spring (April – May); 3) summer (June – August); 4) autumn (September – November). Acreages were drawn by linking the outermost points of a specimen’s routes in a given season. For the female “040” and the male “080” the month gaps in observations were noted. For a month no data concerning their locations in Poleski NP was obtained, but in the following months they were located in remote parts of the Park.

4. Results

The transmitters helped to determine the preferred habitats which were chosen more often by the monitored black grouses. They also made possible to state how big was the birds’ seasonal activity and the ranges of the 4 specimens’ acreages (Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Because of relatively short time of observations based on radio-tracking, not for every monitored specimen seasonal changes can be precisely determined. As the diagrams show, birds, depending on the month – or rather season of the year – demonstrated variable activity. It can be correlated with behaviour typical for each gender. All the birds, released directly from the birdcage located in the vicinity of Moszne Lake, migrated in various directions. Several of them reached areas beyond western and south-eastern borders of the main complex, such as peat bog complex “Bagno Bubnów and Bagno Staw”. Thus, most of all of the released specimens stayed within the area of the Park, on the meadow complex called “Łąki Zienkowskie”, in the vicinity of villages Zienki – Zbójno – Stary Brus – Lipniak – Wola Wereszczyńska. Most localisation data were obtained for the male “119” (13 months of observation), least – for the female “040” (6 months with 1 month gap). Data concerning observation of the hens “040” and “158” were obtained in the years 2004 and 2005. Diagrams in Figure 2 show the differences in birds’ activity during year.

The cock „119”, monitored for the longest time, demonstrated high activity just after the release. He was a robust specimen at the age of 3-4. He immediately adapted to the new place and started exploration of the area. Activity of this specimen changed seasonally and one can easily recognize 4 seasons with similar average distances: June – August (average daily distance for the season: 811 m), September – November (2425 m), December – March (1181 m) and April – May (3589 m; Fig. 2). The visible differences between short average daily distance in May 2003 (1562 m) and long – in May 2004 (2713 m) can result from the fact that in May 2003 this male did not know the territory into which he had been just released. Fig. 2. Average daily distances of each specimen in the months of monitoring. 258 Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to assessment of dispersion and changes ... 259 The highest activity of the cock „119” was noted between September and Novem- “040” visited also the sites beyond the Park (Fig. 3.). The female “158” kept to the ber 2003, and also between April and May 2004 – his distances in those periods were Park’s main complex and explored this terrain to east and west, reaching the biggest the longest. Small summer acreage of the cock “119” can be compared to relatively acreage in spring (Fig. 4). extensive area of exploration during winter (within and beyond the Park’s borders For both males the biggest acreages were noted in autumn and winter (Fig. 5, – Fig. 6). 6). The smallest seasonal acreage was of the cock “080” during the first month The cock “080”’s distances used to change seasonally, too – however, he was most after release (May 2003), while in the same time the other cock explored much active in August. In the next months that specimen traversed gradually shorter dis- more extensive area (Fig. 7). The smallest acreage for the specimen “119” was tances. The longest average daily distance of that bird was noted in January 2004, noted in summer. The analysed males observations show that in the same periods when he moved from the Park’s main complex to the swamp “Bagno Bubnów”, trav- they preferred similar habitats and their acreages partly overlopped each other elling 9 km in straight line. Equally long distance was traversed by the hen “040”, (Fig. 7). However, in winter the cock “080” moved to the swamp “Bagno Bub- moving beyond Park’s borders to the vicinity of Karaśne Lake (near village of Urs- nów” (Fig. 5). zulin). Maximum daily distances were noted for the cock “119” on April 22-23, 2004 and April 23-24 2004 – the specimen traversed 8-10 km. Between March and April 2005 the hen “158” showed the biggest activity and traversed the longest distances in comparison to all her distances (Fig. 2). The lowest activity and the shortest daily distances for the hen “158” were noted between May – August 2005. The acreage of each specimen was different and changed seasonally (Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6).

Fig. 4. The acreages of hen “158” in specified seasons of the year.

During spring inventories, the birds’ presence was stated also in other parts of the Park, for instance in the vicinity of highmoor “Durne Bagno” or meadows near the village Lejno. Black grouses moved also to the swamp “Bagno Bubnów”, which was corroborated by observations of the specimen “080” (Fig. 5), observations of Fig. 3. The acreages of hen “040” in specified seasons of the year. a hen with offspring noted in 2007 (Barczak, account) and observation of young black grouses (Cios, account). Field surveys from the years 2005-2007 showed the The shortest distances for the hens were observed in summer, the longest ones – in presence of the specimens also on the swamp “Krowie Bagno”. spring. In winter the hens stayed on the same area – in the vicinity of Moszne Lake and the meadows on the west from the village Lipniak (Fig. 3, 4). In autumn, the hen 260 Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to assessment of dispersion and changes ... 261

Fig. 5. The acreages of cock “080” in specified seasons of the year. Fig. 7. Overlopping acreages of cocks “080” and “119”, localized in the same period: May 2003 – January 2004.

7. Discussion

The used method of the released birds’ monitoring is relatively often applied to observe the activity and characteristic behaviour of a species in a survey time (Gre- gory et al. 2003, Baines and Richardson 2007), Eliassen and Wegge 2007). The most important purpose for which the decision to install the transmitters was taken was the answer to the question whether the birds would keep to the previously prepared habitats and stay within the Park’s area. On the basis of collected data it can be asserted that they did. Most of the birds decisively stayed in the Park, preferring the area, that even in 1970s used to be an important black grouse retreat (Dyrcz et al. 1973). The area is located in the main complex of Poleski NP, in the part situated among the villages Zbójno – Wielki Łan – Wola Wereszczyńska – Jamniki and Zienki. The observations of winter large-scale migrations, proved for the specimens “080” and “119”, can not be supported by the statement of Kamieniarz, who writes that in this season black grouse tends to be rather sedentary (Kamieniarz 2002). The specimen “119” traversed, however, relatively long distances during next spring, which can be linked to taking part in lek displays on several lekking grounds. According to the literature, it can be possible (Kamieniarz 2002). Males, after a period of increased activity, move to less accessible sites where they change their plumage (Kamieniarz Fig. 6. The acreages of cock “119” in specified seasons of the year. 2002) – for the monitored cocks it is visble in the maps and diagrams, in which the 262 Jacek Misztal, Katarzyna Pikunas, Elżbieta Kowalik, Andrzej Różycki The application of radio-tracking to assessment of dispersion and changes ... 263 summer acreages are very small (Fig. 7.) and the average daily distances – short which are connected with characteristic behaviour of this bird species (spring and au- (Fig. 2). Kamieniarz gives also the information about the possible higher activity in tumn lekking, hatching, etc.). The cocks, especially the more mature and active speci- August – it was observed for the male “080” (Fig. 2). The peak of seasonal activity men “119”, demonstrated very regular changes of average daily distances in specified in October, stated in literature, was observed for both males (Fig. 2). Literature gives months, which made possible to determine the most and the least active periods. also examples of males that visit the spring lekking grounds in autumn, behaving Activity connected with travelling on specified distances does not always agree typically for spring displays. Such behaviour of the males was proved by the field with the acreage size – for instance winter acreages of males are very extensive, survey (Fig. 7.). although average distances in winter are much shorter than in other seasons. It is Similar behaviour of the female „040” could be observed in autumn, when she was reasonable to analyse both factors at the same time. more active and used to explore an extensive area within and beyond the Park (Fig. 2, 3). Interesting periods of activity are visible in observations of the hen “158” which covered maximum average distances in spring – it can prove that she used to visit References several lekking grounds (Fig. 2.). Her spring acreage covers almost the whole area of meadow complex “Łąki Zienkowskie” (Fig. 4.). On the other hand – her behav- Baines D. and Richardson M., 2007: An experimental assessment of the potential effects of iour between May and August 2005: short daily distances and tiny acreage occupied human disturbance on Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix in the North Pennines, England. Ibis – can be the proofs of hatching. Kamieniarz gives the information that shortly after (2007),149 (Suppl. 1), 56–64. hatching, females can travel distances of 500 – 1000m together with offspring. How- Chmielewski T. J. (ed.), 1989: Poleski National Park, Scientific documentation IGPiK, ever, after 3-4 weeks distances covered by them are gradually shorter and acreages TWWP, Warszawa – Lublin, 1-151 – in Polish – gradually smaller. As showed in the diagram for the hen “158”, the distances in Dyrcz A., Okulewicz J. and Wiatr B., 1973: Birds of Łęczna-Włodawa Lakeland during May are visibly longer than between June and August (Fig. 2). The other monitored hatching (with reference to number on lowland peatbogs) Acta zool. cracov. 14 (tom13), 339-474 – in Polish female (“040”) did not have offspring – she was released in the Park’s area in July. Gregory M.J.P., Gordon A.G. and R. Moss, 2003: Impact of nest-trapping and radio-tagging She demonstrated higher activity during “semi-lekking” – autumn displays (Fig. 2, on breeding Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Argyll, Scotland. Ibis(2003),145, 113- - 3). The interesting thing is that the acreages of both females covered each other al 119 most entirely, although they were noted in different years – 2 successive winters in Eliassen S. and Wegge P., 2007: Ranging behaviour of male capercaillie Tetrao urogallus 2004 and 2005 (Fig. 3, 4). It possibly means that the area is well provided with food, outside the lacking ground in spring. J. Avian Biol. 38: 37-43 and tends to be used by the birds in consecutive years. It can also be linked to the fact Kamieniarz R., 2002: Black Grouse. Monografie Przyrodnicze nr 8. Wydawnictwo Lubusk- that birds get used to their retreats, where they tend to come back seasonally. Similar iego Klubu Przyrodników, Świebodzin, 1-120 – in Polish relationship is described by Kamieniarz (2002), who gives the example of overlop- Radwan S. (ed.), 2002. Poleski National Park. Nature Monograph. Wyd. MORPOL, Lublin: ping winter and summer acreages of half of monitored hens. 1-272. – in Polish

8. Conclusions

The 6-years programme of black grouse restitution in Poleski National Park gave positive effects. As proved by year-round observations conducted by the Park’s service, birds hatch and have offspring. The released birds migrated from belonging to the Park area in the vicinity of Moszne Lake (“Mszary”) in various directions, most of them stayed in the main complex of the Park, a discrete number moved to remote peatbogs: “Bagno Bubnów” and “Krowie Bagno”. Some of the birds explored only the vicinity of the Park, and they would come back to the preferred habitats. A place of this kind is the meadow complex called “Łąki Zienkowskie” near the village Lip- niak which – according to Dyrcz et al. (1973) – in 1960s used to be one of two areas in Lublin Polesie of relatively numerous black grouse existence. The birds show a kind of attachment to the places they live. The average monthly distances covered by them and the size of their acreages undergo periodical changes