Sustainable Forestry and Iron Compounds in Karstic Soils: Qualitative and Semi-Quantitative Results Focused on the Occurrence of Fe-Compounds on Mineral Particles

Home , Eluvium, Nitisol, Terra rossa (soil)

JOURNAL OF FOREST SCIENCE, 58, 2012 (9): 410–424

Sustainable forestry and iron compounds in karstic soils: qualitative and semi-quantitative results focused on the occurrence of Fe-compounds on mineral particles

K. Rejšek1, M. Mišič2, F. Eichler3

1Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, Brno, Czech Republic 2Geological Survey of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia 3Liberec-Františkov, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: Relic karstic soils in nine localities in the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia, five localities in the Moravian Karst and four localities in the Bohemian Karst were sampled for soil scientific, mineralogical and petrological studies focused on the presentation of descriptive aspects of particular iron compounds. The macroscopy and microscopy of Fe2+ and Fe3+ compounds were determined and an interpretation of these data was performed aimed at describing sources and their palaeotransports. The presented results show that the studied karstic soils have a heterogeneous petrographical and mineralogical composition when, depending on circumstances, hematite does not dominate and goethite prevails over it or it is an opposite. Results from the chosen methods reinforce sources of the new materials as the crucial factor for the studied karstic soils.

Keywords: iron oxides; iron hydroxides; karstic soils; soil formation in karsts

Sustainable development of inhabited karstic ar- from the bottoms of palaeocaves. Consequently, eas is directly linked to the knowledge of particu- the question what such soils have in common, if lar, karst, phenomena where a keen focus on the anything at all, becomes unavoidable. The behav- conservation of soil ought to be stressed. Preserva- iour of iron compounds is surely one of the charac- tion of the soil mantle plays a crucial role for the teristics of the terra rossa, which have been formed maintenance of the living standard existing in the in the karstic environment. This issue is the subject karst areas. However, the soil cover in karsts is both of the paper as a logical development following the rather shallow and highly jeopardized by erosion. work by Šušteršič et al. (2009). The value of a forested land in karst is, therefore, Generally, the karstic soils have typical colours closely related to the volume of soil. The presence pink, pale red, light red, red, dusky red or dark of thick soil mantles which are not massively jeop- red, and combinations of red and brown. The com- ardized by erosion grants essential pre-conditions prehensive review of opinions on terra rossa defi- for sustainable forestry. nitions was given by Schaetzl and Anderson A great variety of possible sources of materials, (2005). The main questions are (i) what the origin and very different possible geochemical microen- of terra rossa is (Delgado et al. 2003; Mee et al. vironments may result in an extremely variable 2004), (ii) what various types of terrae rossa have pattern of soils in relation to the karst surface. The in common (Plaster, Sherwood 1971; Khadki- most fertile karstic soils (Red Cambisols/Rubefic kar, Basavaiah 2004), and (iii) what the essence Inceptisols) were chosen for agricultural fields and of apparent uniformity is like (Boero, Schwert- pastures. It appears that the fertile soils originate mann 1989; Miko et al. 1999). Iron oxides play a

410 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 crucial role in this. Iron oxides are formed when general perception of terra rossa (no matter how it there is an oxygen-rich atmosphere – no red beds is defined) appeared there, it might be attributed older than about 2000 Ma are known (Retallack to the underlying karstic rocks and not to the karst 2001). In general, the occurrence of red soils is as- system. Characteristic loamy bodies cannot be at- sociated with breaks in the sediment accumulation tributed to the supposed characteristic landscape of many thousands of years (Retallack 1994). because the karst is just one of many geomorphic Red soils can also be formed secondarily as a re- systems: like the others, it does not generate mass sult of burial processes when reddening occurred but it does support mass transfer. It is obvious that in ferric hydroxide minerals in primarily gleyed the final product of both weathering and humi- horizons (McCarthy et al. 1998). Such processes fication in karstic areas Danin( et al. 1983; Wen will lead to the extremely high spatial heterogene- et al. 2001) looks very similar from place to place, ity of karstic soils (Mirabella et al. 1992; Ložek but the existent hypotheses about the formation of 1999) showing very different shares of karstic and karstic soils are very divergent. Different processes non-karstic particles, different waterlogging capac- of removal of weathering products by solifluction ities and a mosaic of slightly acid and neutral soils. and fluvial processes Durn( et al. 1999) result in Nevertheless, both allochthonous and autochtho- the very complex character of karst soils. In addi- nous sources have been considered to be of similar tion, the role of climatic features is very important importance (Bellanca et al. 1996; Delgado et al. (Rejšek 2004): it is evident that drought affects 2003). Merino (2006) and Merino and Banerjee both dissemination of plants and transformation (2008) demonstrated that the loamy material on of iron compounds (Stephens 1965; Boero et al. karst can derive straight from the maternal rock by 1992; Leone 2000). Such a fact leads to the occur- gradual assimilation. Therefore, the search for the rence of soil material containing Fe3+ or Fe2+ com- provenance of relic karstic soil materials has to in- pounds. These compounds are chemically attracted clude consideration of overlying sedimentary strata particularly to alumosilicates but, dependent on of carbonaceous rocks (Torrent, Cabedo 1986), weathering processes, also to oxides, hydroxides insoluble residues in limestones (McFadden, and oxyhydroxides. An array of Fe-oxides in various

Hendricks 1985) and an authigenic clay from the crystalline forms: ferrihydrite, Fe3(OH)8, Fe(OH)3, metasomatic zones (Merino 2006). lepidocrocite, goethite, hematite or magnetite, may The namesterrae calcis/terra rossa can be seen coexist in many soils because of kinetic and weath- as names used for the very ultimate climate condi- ering changes, constraints on mineral transforma- tioned (hematite vs. goethite) products of weath- tions and open system fluctuations in geochemical ering of completely different materials: there are conditions (Thomson at al. 2006). What is more, red/reddish soils in karst, but the formations of the soil material containing Fe2+ compounds is of- the particular ones are very questionable. Pres- ten stabilised (Perethyazhko, Sposito 2005) by ently, the Tertiary and Quaternary sediments and the presence of inorganic phosphates, organophos- soils have been weathering jointly – the ultimate phates and biogenic gases (CO2, H2 and CH4). product is the same but the primary material can The extraordinary complexity of development of be entirely different. A very similar situation oc- relic karstic soils is demonstrated by the distinctive curred throughout geological history, when drier hydrology of karsts (Mahler et al. 2004), unique Pre-Pleistocene periods led to red colours. “Karst” space heterogeneity of karsts (Mirabella et al. is by no means a synonym for “limestone terrain”. It 1992; Ložek 2000), and taxonomic sorting where is very probable that the evident locational connec- the micromorphological features play the key role tion between terra rossa and limestone terrains is for the proper systematic classification. On the level not on the level of rock-to-rock relation but on the of Great groups, Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff level of geo-bio-physical-chemical environment 2006) classifies them as (i) Rendolls, Argixerolls or provided by the functioning of the karst geomor- Haploxerolls (the Mollisol order), (ii) Haploxeralfs phic system. or Rhodoxeralfs (the Alfisol order), and (iii) Xe- Moreover, terra rossa very likely originates with- rochrepts (the Inceptisol order). World Reference in the karst geomorphic system but does not derive Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB from the karstic rock(s) ‒ the latter might just oc- 2006) designates them as Haplic/Luvic Phaeozems casionally provide some mineral components. The or Chromic Luvisol, or some of the main soil units interpretation that the term “karst” relates to the from the reference soil group of Cambisols. “karstic landscape” seems most obvious but it does Studies aimed at understanding roles of surface not make sense logically: if deposits matching the karstification and semi-autochthonous karst soil

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 411 material are rare. Based on the level of processes, i.e. total dissolution, the uniformity of final products of both weathering and humification in recent karst areas is likely to be connected with very old pedological and geological processes: a similarity can be seen in intensively weathered soils Ni- tisols and Ferralsols (IUSS Working Group WRB 2006) or Oxisols (Soil Survey Staff 2006) in recent tropical and subtropical areas which originate from different parent materials but look very similar (Wilding et al. 1983). Considering all of this and emphasizing the essential role of distinctive karstic hydrology (Ford, Williams 1989) and an un- Fig. 1. The layout of the study plots is the Dinaric Karst. certainty in the verified presence of local alkaline conditions, the authors are aware that no generally Study area valid description of possible alteration/pedogenet- ic processes can be submitted. Surely, other sugges- Two approximately west-east traverses were tions can also be taken into consideration, such as planned across Slovenia and the Czech Republic. Rendolls in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 2006) The former traverse runs across the Dinaric Karst but the above-mentioned units are tightly related (Fig. 1) of southern Slovenia: the nine sample lo- to non-recent karstic soil development on a Euro- cations were approximately uniformly spaced and pean scale. chosen to cover the most important rocks of the Thus, the main aim of the paper can be seen in the Mesozoic carbonate sequence (continuous, from discussion about descriptive aspects of iron com- late Triassic to Palaeocene, and totalling about 7 km pounds of the material presented by Šušteršič in thickness (Šušteršič 2002). In the case of the et al. (2009). The study proposed will continue the Bohemian and Moravian Karsts (Fig. 2), which are study on 18 selected plots in the Classical Karst in not continuous, samples were taken from locations Slovenia, and Bohemian Karst and Moravian Karst previously known to be characterized by terra rossa. in the Czech Republic pointing new aspects related to the conservation of soil cover. The application of (i) Dinaric Karst the mineralogical and soil scientifically techniques Čepovan – location 13°48'E, 46°3'N, elevation will shed more light on understanding the role of 660 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, mean surface karstic features for the conservation of a annual precipitation approximately 2,400 mm and soil. The investigation has been focused not only on overall denudation rate in the area is estimated scientific issues but also on an improvement in the 60–90 m·Ma–1. Maternal rocks in the wider area knowledge of practical aspects of the importance belong to the Dinaric carbonate sequence. The of surface karst features for sustainable forestry. colour 5YR 5/7 shows a near degree of rubifica-

Fig. 2. The layout of the study plots in the Moravian Karst and in the Bohemian Karst

412 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 tion. General type of sampled occurrence has been 60–100 m·Ma–1. The study plot lies in the Dinaric matched as lenses though it is evident that most of karst of south-central Slovenia, in the north-west- the material is of colluvial origin. ernmost extension of the Moravski ravnik (= Mora- Komen – location 13°45'E, 45°49'N, elevation va flatland). 270 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 10°C, mean Lož – location 14°29'E, 45°44'N, elevation 660 m a.s.l., annual precipitation somewhat less than 1,500 mm mean annual temperature 6°C, mean annual precipi- and overall denudation rate in the area is estimated tation approximately 1,500 mm and overall denuda- 20–30 m·Ma–1. Maternal rocks in the wider area are tion rate in the area is estimated 65 m·Ma–1. The sam- upper Cretaceous, generally pure but locally inter- pled material is clayey and reddish brown (5YR 4/4) bedded by chert, intensively karstified, limestone. and gives an impression to be autochthonous. The very intense red colour (10R 4/6) indicates a high amount of Fe3+ compounds. (ii) Moravian Karst Divača – location 13°59'E, 45°40'N, elevation Skalka – location 16°45'E, 49°17'N, elevation 460 m 450 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature a little more a.s.l., mean annual temperature 7.5°C, mean annual than 10°C, mean annual precipitation approxi- precipitation approximately 630 mm and overall den- mately 1,400 mm and overall denudation rate in the udation rate in the area is estimated 20–25 m·Ma–1. area is estimated 20–30 m·Ma–1. Maternal rocks in The pale grey, chemically pure limestone of Vilé- the wider area are upper Cretaceous, extremely movice type is of Devonian-Frasnian age. General pure (even > 99.99% CaCO3), intensively karstified, type of the sampled occurrence has been matched limestone. The prominent red colour (10R 4.5/6) as pocket. The loamy red material of 10R 4/6 was points to very intense rubification. symptomatic of Fe-oxides high content. Laze – location 14°16'E, 45°51'N, elevation 470 m Březina I – location 16°48'E, 49°17'N, elevation a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, mean annual 420 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature is 7.5°C, precipitation over 1,800 mm and overall denuda- mean annual precipitations approximately 630 mm tion rate in the area is estimated 60–65 m·Ma–1. At and overall denudation rate in the area is estimated the sampling location the material is clayey and red 20–25 m·Ma–1. The pale gray, chemically pure lime- showing the colour of 10R 5/6 where a high content stone of Vilémovice type is of Devonian-Frasnian of Fe3+ can be expected. age. General type of sampled occurrence has been Verd – location 14°19'E, 45°57'N and 410 m a.s.l., matched as slope material, more generally as lens- mean annual temperature 8°C, mean annual pre- es. Clay-loamy reddish-brown soil (2.5 YR 4/3) was cipitation approximately 1,600 mm and overall den- sampled. udation rate in the area is estimated 60–65 m·Ma–1. Březina II ‒ location 16°45'E, 49°17'N, elevation The sampled material is red fine loam of 10R 5/6 420 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 7.5°C, mean colour, very intense rubification. annual precipitation approximately 630 mm and Višnja Gora-Brezje – location 14°46'E, 45°57'N, overall denudation rate in the area is estimated elevation 380 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 20–25 m·Ma–1. The pale grey, chemically pure lime- more than 8°C, mean annual precipitation exceeds stone of Vilémovice type is of Devonian-Frasnian 1,300 mm and overall denudation rate in the area age. General type of sampled occurrence has been is estimated 20–40 m·Ma–1. The sample site is ap- matched as unroofed cave, more generally as lens- 2+3 proximately 10 m above the toe of a slope in T3 es. The material of very similar colour to Březina I dolomite, mantled by an approximately 10 cm thick but less clayey and sandier was sampled. layer of reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4) silty material, Sloup ‒ location 16°44'E, 49°25'N, elevation 490 m where a high percentage of Fe-oxyhydroxides can a.s.l., mean annual temperature 6.5°C, mean annual be expected. precipitation approximately 680 mm and overall den- Tribuče – location 15°15'E, 45°33'N, elevation 190 m udation rate in the area is estimated 20–25 m·Ma–1. a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, mean annual The study plot on limestone of Vilémovice type Lime- precipitation approximately 1,250 mm and overall stone of Macocha strata type is located. The light denudation rate in the area is estimated 65 m·Ma–1. micrite/dismicrite, chemically pure limestone is of At the spot, it is light red (5YR 6/8) deep soils, where reef edge, splintery fracture type facial characterisa- no intense rubification could be expected. tion. The grey whitish, partly pinky limestones are of Kočevska Reka – location 14°49'E, 45°34'N, eleva- Devonian, Givetian-Frasnian age. The loamy material tion 570 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, with a high percentage of sandy particles was prom- mean annual precipitation approximately 1,600 mm inently red with colour of 10R 4/6. General type of and overall denudation rate in the area is estimated sampled occurrence has been matched as pocket.

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 413 Malomeřice – location 16°42'E, 49°13'N, elevation area is located in a flatland beneath a hilly spot;

380 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 7°C, mean therefore a share of CaCO3 concretions proving the annual precipitation approximately 570 mm with presence of loess was not surprising. The sampled the total summer precipitation less than 350 mm material was sandy, of loamy character and of red- and overall denudation rate in the area is estimated dish brown (2.5YR 5/4) showing a low intensity of 20–25 m·Ma–1. The study plot is situated on the rubification. General type of the sampled occur- edge of a limestone quarry “Lesní Lom Brno”, about rence has been matched as pocket. 2 km north of the Town of Brno. The chemically Tetín – location 14°60'E, 49°57'N, elevation 660 m pure limestone as parent material is of Hády-Říčka a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, mean an- type characterised by the dark grey. The limestone nual precipitation approximately 470 mm and comes from Devonian, Upper Famennian age. overall denudation rate in the area is estimated Loamy material of reddish brown colour (2.5YR 20–25 m·Ma–1. The study area is in the dry and 4/4) was sampled. The morphology of the terrain warm part of Bohemian Karst. The limestone is of shows an eluvial character. General type of sampled Řeporyje-Loděnice type, grey and varied spotted occurrence has been matched as lenses. limestone, Devonian, Pragian. The general character of sampling site appears to be described as partly (iii) Bohemian Karst heavily weathered eluvium, partly sediments which Hostim – location 14°90'E, 49°57'N, elevation 320 m were modified by fluvial transport. Sandy, loamy a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8°C, mean annual material implies intense rubification (105 4.5/6). precipitation approximately 450 mm and overall den- General type of the sampled occurrence has been udation rate in the area is estimated 20–25 m·Ma–1. matched as complex lenses, possibly alluvium/lenses. The study plot is a forested karst area developed on clayey limestones of the lower Devonian development of the Bohemian Karst. In the region, Silu- METHODS rian basalts (diabase) and their tuffs are the oldest non-karstic rocks found. Grey fine-grained clayey At all locations, the general characteristics of the limestones from Lower Devonian show negligible occurrence were determined and samples of soil in crystals of secondary calcite due to strong recrys- C horizon were taken for further pedological and tallization. Loamy non-sandy material was light red geological analyses. Based on design-based sam- (10R 6/8). General type of the sampled occurrence pling, three independent sampling plots for each of has been matched as slope material to lenses. the soils were randomly chosen. From each sam- Tmáň – location 14°40'E, 49°54'N, elevation 390 m pling plot, three individual soil samples of the pure- a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8.5°C, mean an- ly mineral horizon were extracted and mixed to- nual precipitation approximately 450 mm and gether. Subsequently, the composite samples were overall denudation rate in the area is estimat- analysed in three replicates. ed 20–25 m·Ma–1. The study area is composed The colour was determined by Munsell Soil Col- of the whitish and reddish crinoid limestone of our Company (2000). All laboratory analyses of Konĕprusy-Slivenec type, chemically pure lime- loamy material were done in three replicates. Par- stones of Devonian, Pragian age. From Upper Pal- ticle-size classes were determined in the U.S.D.A. aeozoic, carboniferous conglomerates are the old- system (diameters of 0.002–0.05–0.1–2 mm) est non-karstic rocks, red beds from Stefan include by the pipette method (Kalra, Maynard 1991). mudstones, siltstones and arkoses. The reddish Soil reaction was measured in an air-dried soil- brown (5YR 4/3) very loamy material was sampled. water suspension (1:5 v/v, shaken for 5 min) at General type of the sampled occurrence has been room temperature either in demineralised water or –1 matched as in-filled cave, more generally as lenses. 0.05 mol·l CaCl2 (ISO/DIS 10390, 1992). Calcium Suchomasty – location 14°50'E, 49°50'N, eleva- carbonate content was determined volumetrically tion 340 m a.s.l., mean annual temperature 8.5°C, (ISO/DIS 10693, 1993). Sorption parameters were mean annual precipitation approximately 450 mm determined by BaCl2 (Mehlich 1978). and overall denudation rate in the area is estimated The bulk clay mineralogy of the samples was deter- 20–25 m·Ma–1. The study plot was developed on mined by the Geological Survey of Slovenia using X-ray the grey and red limestone of Suchomasty type of diffraction techniques. The clay fraction < 2 µm was the Devonian, Lower Eifelian age. The brownish separated by centrifuging. The clays were analysed af- (10R 5/4) parent material was found in the shape of ter vapour solvation with ethylene glycol for 12 h at a pocket having calcite cemented clods. The study 65°C. Samples were scanned using a Philips PW 3710

414 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 X-ray diffractometer with a 1,820 goniometer, an au- ples. Besides, we sampled four clay-loamy horizons – tomatic divergence slit, and a curved-crystal graphite two in the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia, Divača (Sample monochromator. The instrument was operated at No. 6) and Lož (Sample No. 18), and both sampled 40 kV and 30 mA using CuK α radiation. Bulk sam- horizons in Březina I (Samples No. 21 and 22) in the ples of clay fractions were scanned from 2 to 70° 2Q Moravian Karst. In the Bohemian Karst, on the con- with step scan 0.02 and step time 1 s. The bulk miner- trary, Suchomasty (Samples No. 31 and 32) and Tetín alogy was determined on whole powder mounts. (Samples No. 33 and 34) showed only sandy textural Semi-quantitative mineralogical compositions of classes. In addition, in three horizons in the Dynaric the bulk soil samples and clay fraction were calcu- Karst in Slovenia the combination of high percentage lated using the methods of Schultz (1964) and Mi- of fine sand and low percentage of clay was found – sic (1999). The calculations are given in wt (%) on Čepovan (Sample No. 1), Komen (Sample No. 4) and the basis of the amount of clay fraction in the soils. Tribuče (Sample No. 14), where the sandy material The interstratified clay minerals of I/M (illite/mont- came from fragments of sandstones mixed into the morillonite) type were determined according to fine matrix. In general, the soils in the Moravian Moore and Reynolds (1997). Karst display higher similarity in the character of The macroscopy of iron oxides was analysed by textural classes to the soils in the Dinaric Karst in the rubbing to powder method according to Isa- Slovenia than to the soils in the Bohemian Karst. kov (Rosický, Konta 1961) and chemical de- Except for Maloměřice, the highest pH values 2+ 3+ terminations of Fe by K3Fe(CN)6 and of Fe by are found in soils in the Moravian Karst where the K4Fe(CN)6·4H2O (Warne 1962) were applied, i.e. soils are slightly alkaline (Sparks 1995). Soils in the screening methods of Fe2+/Fe3+-containing the Bohemian Karst are neutral and slightly al- compounds/minerals identifications were carried kaline. Soils in the Dinaric Karst vary consider- out by the very intensive acid disintegration of sam- ably – from extremely acid in Komen, mixed with ple by the Isakov powder method (Rosický, Konta a chert, to neutral in Višnja Gora-Breze. There is 1961). The Fe2+ and Fe3+ compounds were distin- a very good relation between carbonate content guished by a staining technique, when weakly (pH and soil reaction, including data in Table 1. Soils ~ 5.0), medium (pH ~ 2.0) and strongly (pH ~ 1.0) in the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia contain hardly acid solutions of HCl with additions of K3Fe(CN)6 any carbonates, which can be related to generally 2+ 3+ for Fe , and K4Fe(CN)6·4H2O for Fe exhibition more humid conditions. Among all localities in (Warne 1962; Deer et al. 1992) were applied. For the Czech Republic, only in Maloměřice did car- the magnetite identification, a simple assay by a bonates not occur in the studied soil – but the soil strong permanent magnet was carried out. material in Maloměřice study plot contained chert The microscope techniques Bloss( 1999) includ- particles. Soils in the Moravian Karst showed the ed microscoping of soil in its original state, under highest cation exchange capacity (CEC), which dispersion in immersion liquids and in determin- is associated with the other chemical proper- ing solutions based on the optical morphological ties. Dealing with relations to physical proper- taxonomy of iron crystals, aggregates and mineral ties, there is an evident linkage between clay con- particles by Yardley et al. (1990) and Delvigne tent and CEC seen in the Bohemian Karst, where (1998). Four methods were used: (i) chemical de- sandy loamy soils demonstrate much lower CEC 2+ 3+ terminations of Fe by K3Fe(CN)6 and of Fe than loamy soils. In the Dinaric Karst of Slovenia, by K4Fe(CN)6·4H2O (Warne 1962), (ii) chemi- the data presented showed no clear interrelation- cal determination of iron compounds according ships between the physical and chemical proper- to Meites (1963), (iii) chemical identification of ties. The data also showed no clear interrelation- bonds between iron compounds and carbonates ships within chemical properties above. according to Adams et al. (1984), and (iv) simple assay by a strong permanent magnet. Macroscopy of iron compounds

RESULTS Table 2 shows the grouping of soils studied into three main groups according to colour, and related Soil properties to iron content. When iron content evaluations are performed, the most important data come from a As for the textural classes of soil samples, the textur- division of iron compounds into iron in its reduced al class “loamy” was found out in the majority of sam- form Fe2+ and in its oxidized form Fe3+. The red-

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 415 4 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 11,86 11,98 19,49 10,23 74,63 62,34 53,73 60,93 57,96 83,33 95,33 40,80 41,85 35,48 37,63 62,87 88,00 91,41 94,69 100,00 BS (%) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND 3,00 2,00 6,90 3,10 7,10 7,70 9,90 ) TEB 25,00 19,70 20,90 26,20 22,20 29,50 22,70 28,60 10,50 19,30 24,20 26,60 35,70 –1 (mmol·100 g CEC 25,30 16,70 35,40 30,30 33,50 31,60 38,90 43,00 38,30 35,40 22,70 30,00 17,40 18,40 27,90 27,90 30,70 27,50 42,30 39,20 46,80 46,80 45,50 31,80 26,20 24,00 29,10 37,70

3 3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.10 0.00 0.00 (%) 23.20 33.60 12.80 11.20 10.20 31.20 17.60 18.40 CaCO 2 4.67 5.39 3.66 3.48 6.38 5.41 4.73 4.77 4.82 5.71 6.91 6.93 4.07 3.87 4.12 4.05 6.74 6.61 7.17 7.26 7.19 7.20 7.31 7.34 7.34 7.26 5.79 5.46 pH/CaCl 0 2 /H 2 4.88 5.50 3.92 3.79 6.60 5.66 4.97 4.92 4.96 5.82 7.14 7.09 4.39 4.34 4.39 4.33 6.95 6.76 7.37 7.47 7.33 7.41 7.50 7.55 7.57 7.36 6.00 5.83 pH 7.1 9.6 3.8 4.0 2.1 7.9 3.9 4.9 3.5 1.0 7.2 16.8 14.2 15.1 16.4 10.7 12.5 13.0 10.0 24.1 28.0 14.4 16.4 16.2 36.2 27.8 26.0 12.3 sand 1 8.4 7.8 24.6 23.4 23.1 25.3 17.6 15.0 26.1 24.0 26.9 22.4 27.2 25.1 24.6 27.4 30.5 28.9 13.3 22.4 17.6 16.1 16.5 17.1 11.3 16.4 12.3 14.0 fine sand silt 39.6 36.0 23.1 31.0 34.4 34.0 30.4 30.8 26.3 27.1 33.9 23.1 32.4 34.1 27.8 30.1 39.0 32.0 21.6 20.8 24.0 20.6 25.4 21.7 20.6 21.8 42.6 41.0 Textural classes (% w) Textural clay 28.7 31.0 37.0 29.5 44.0 48.9 35.6 41.3 31.7 34.1 35.1 41.1 30.5 25.5 31.7 36.1 44.2 58.6 33.6 45.5 46.5 41.3 30.8 35.2 39.9 31.1 44.0 31.9

R 4/8 1 2000) 10R 3/6 10R 4/6 10R 4/6 5YR 6/8 5YR 5/8 7.5R 4/6 10 10R5.5/8 10YR 6/6 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/7 10YR 4/6 10R 3.5/6 10R 3.5/6 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 3/8 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8 2.5YR 4/8 7.5YR 6/7 5YR 4.5/8 2.5YR 5/4 2.5YR 4/8 2.5YR 5/6 2.5R 4.5/8 2.5R 5.5/8 Soil colour Soil colour 2.ZYR 4.5/6 2.5 YR 4.5/6 (Munsell C.C.(Munsell

→ → → → → → → → → → → → → → (cm) Depth 32–35 35 32–45 45 16–35 35 8–18 18 15–40 40 45–110 110 18–55 55 28–55 55 20–60 60 42–60 60 48–65 65 29–45 45 20-45 45 32–55 55 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 35 36 No. Sample Sample Physical and chemical propertiesPhysical soils of the studied.

Study plot Study Čepovan Komen Divača Laze Verd Gora – Višnja Breze Tribuče Kočevska Reka Lož Skalka Březina I Březina II Sloup Maloměřice

Area Slovenia southern of karst Dinaric Karst Moravan Table 1. Table

416 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 dish colour of soils is caused by oxidized trivalent iron compounds. It is apparent that in the relic soils ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND studied, oxidized iron compounds clearly dominate over reduced iron forms. Though there is a distri- bution of red, weak red and reddish brown, all three hues appear uniformly distributed in the three karst

ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND areas. The highest rate of oxidized iron was found in soils from the Dinaric Karst in Slovenia. Ac- cording to Munsell Soil Colour Charts (2000), the typically red colour was determined in both Mora- vian (Sloup, Skalka) and Bohemian (Tetín) karsts. Prominent reactions on oxidized iron were also de- content higher than 0.3%. CEC higher than – cation content 36,60 32,50 35,80 37,50 21,20 22,40 24,10 19,60 3 soil reaction was measured from air-dried ation (the percentage proportion percentage (the CECation of the that

2 tected in soils from both Moravian (Maloměřice) and Bohemian (Tetín, Tmáň) karsts. Fragments of chert were found in soils from Višnja Gora-Breze, Komen and Maloměřice by a microscopic assay. 0.80 7.20 2.80 2.40 9.00 1.30 0.40 24.80

Mineralogy of clay fraction of soils calcium carbonate content wascalcium determined carbonate content volumetrically (ISO/DIS 7.01 7.12 6.64 6.83 7.39 7.39 7.32 7.27 3 Tables 3 and 4 show the grouping of soils on the basis of their mineralogical compositions. They are given in wt (%) and calculated on the basis of the amount

7.12 7.26 6.90 7.12 7.71 7.70 7.56 7.57 of clay fraction shown in Table 1. It can be seen that

tte method 1991), tte (Kalra and Maynard, clay fractions of Slovenian soils contain illite, chlorite quartz, calcite, gibbsite, and goethite. The soils from the Czech Republic contain illite, kaolinite, Ca 19.4 10.0 13.0 16.4 31.9 35.5 26.6 29.7 – montmorillonite, mixed-layered minerals of illite/ montmorillonite (with random, Reichweite = 0 inter-

2 mm) by the pipe2 mm) by the stratifications), quartz, calcite, goethite and hematite. – 15.3 16.9 13.0 13.5 14.8 20.3 18.4 19.4 The differences in clay mineral contents of soils be- 0.1

– tween the Slovenian and the Czech Republic loca-

0.05 tions are presented on the radar chart in Fig. 3. – 29.9 30.8 34.3 34.2 25.1 22.4 25.7 27.8 ) at room temperature (ISO/DIS room temperature 10390, 1992), ) at 2 (Mehlich 1978). ND was – base (Mehlich not measurable saturation because of CaCO 2

CaCl Microscopy of iron oxides 1 35.4 42.3 39.7 35.9 28.2 21.8 29.3 23.1 – Table 2 also presents the qualitative and semi- quantitative results focused on occurrence, valence and chemical bonds of iron compounds on soil mineral particles. Based on the results of micros- 10R 6/8 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/8 10R 3.5/6 5YR 4.5/8 7.5R 5.5/8 2.5R 4.5/6 2.5 YR 6/8 copy study and on the chemical results from the staining of sections (Waychunas 1991; Deer et al. 1992) iron compounds were found in six forms 3+ → → → → describing forms/bonds of Fe : 28–45 45 12–35 35 21–60 60 26–55 55 (i) oxidized iron compounds bound to silty particles (mixtures of hydrated Fe-oxides and hydrox- 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 ides including very fine particles with dimensions less than 0.001 mm may be seen as pigments), sorption parametersdetermined were by BaCl 4 (ii) microscopic soil concretions with goethite (mixture of goethite and lepidocrocite), (iii) microscopic soil concretions with magnetite,

Hostim Tmáň Suchomasty Tetín Bohemian Karst Bohemian showing high magnetic attraction and containing 2+ 3+ particle-size classes of 0.002 determined system were (diameters in U.S.D.A.

1 5 min; 0.05 mol·l for shaken soil-water suspension (1:5 v/v, 10693, 1993), adsorbed), basic capacity charge cation bases (the BS cation), – base exchangeable TEBexchange sum of the – total exchangeable (the satur is occupied basic by the cation) both Fe and Fe ,

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 417

attraction

Magnetic

A A A A A A A A A A

acid solutions acid Reaction with with Reaction

AA AA AA AA AA AA AA AA

calcite

cemented by by cemented

Concretions Concretions 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30

quartz on on

chemical determinations chemical determinations 3 coats coats 3

5 5 5 + + + + +

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 iron iron

tite

1962),

- hema bound bound

5 +

40 40 70 70 30 20 20

Warne 3+ netite

O (

2 - mag

chemical identification of chemical identification bounds between iron bound bound 4 .4H

5 5 5 5 + + + + +

3+ thite

(1963), - goe Fe(CN)

4 bound bound

+ 10 40 10 30 30 30 30 10 10

Fe by K

Meites 3+

to silt to

bound bound

80 40 40 40 40 30 30 30 30 10 10 30 30 30 20

An occurence of the iron compounds (in % vol) iron of the An occurence 3+ and of Fe

attraction

Magnetic

A A A A A A A A A A Fe(CN) 3 2

3+ by K + + + + + + A A A A A A A A A A A A 2+ Fe

2+ Chemical

Fe determination 2 1

+ + + + + + + + + + A A A A A A Fe

2+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + A Rubbing to Rubbing Fe powder method chemical of Fe determinations 2

1962) and chemical determination of iron compounds by 1962) and chemical of iron determination A A A A A A A red 1961), Warne

A A A red weak weak O ( 2 Colour Konta , -

A A A A A A A A dish red brown Rosický et al. (1984) Fe(CN)6.4H 4 by K Adams 3+ 2000) Color Color 10R 6/8 10R 4/6 10R 4/6 5YR 5/8 5YR 6/8 7.5R 4/6 (Munsell (Munsell 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/7 10YR 4/6 10YR 5/8 10YR 4/6 10R 5.5/8 10R 3.5/6 Company Company 2.5YR 4/8 2.5YR 5/8 7.5YR 6/7 2.5R 4.5/6 105YR 6/6 Soil colour Soil colour and of Fe 6 Fe(CN) 3 The intensity of redthe type/degree of colour and The intensity compounds present,chemical of iron the the the and compounds valence bonds on occurrence, of iron soil mineral

by K 2+ rubbing powder to method ( by Isakov Table 2. Table particles. plotsreaction of it The study the are groupedPositive markedas by A (for the intensity acidfeatures. are to with AA), negative scores their solution due by joint as a blank square,statement weak reactions as + No. plot/sample Study Čepovan/2 Gora Breze/12 Višnja Maloměřice/36 Verd/10 Laze/8 Komen/4 Divača/6 Kočevska Reka/16 Lož/18 Tribuče/14 Tetín/34 Březina I /22 Tmáň/30 Hostim/28 Suchomasty/32 Sloup/26 Březina II/24 Skalka/20 1 compounds and carbonates by of Fe

418 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 Table 3. Bulk sample mineral composition of clay fraction from Slovenian, Moravian and Bohemian karstic soils (in % w), calculated on amount of clay fraction

Study plot/sample No. Ill Chl Kln Mnt I/M R0 Qtz Cal Gbs Gt Hem Clay (%) Slovenian Karst Čepovan/2 10 10 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 Komen/4 3 15 18 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 37 Divača/6 4 18 18 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 43 Laze/8 5 11 14 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 36 Verd/10 3 11 14 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 32 Višnja Gora-Breze/12 0 15 15 0 0 0 0 2 3 0 35 Tribuče/14 7 8 8 0 0 0 2 3 3 0 31 Kočevska Reka/16 16 5 6 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 32 Lož/18 2 16 18 0 0 0 0 6 3 0 45 Moravian Karst Skalka/20 5 0 13 13 0 0 0 0 3 0 34 Březina I/22 3 0 14 26 0 0 0 0 2 0 45 Březina II/24 9 0 15 0 10 0 4 0 3 0 41 Sloup/26 6 0 15 0 6 4 3 0 0 2 36 Maloměřice/36 7 0 12 0 14 7 0 0 3 0 43 Bohemian Karst Hostim/28 14 0 4 0 10 5 2 0 0 1 36 Tmáň/30 4 0 10 0 16 6 0 0 3 0 39 Suchomasty/32 2 0 17 0 5 0 0 0 4 0 28 Tetín/34 4 0 16 0 6 0 0 0 4 0 30

Ill – illite; Mnt – montmorillonite; I/M R0 – mixed layered clay mineral illite/montmorillonite with random, R = 0 startifica- tion; Chl – chlorite, Kln – kaolinite, Qtz – quartz, Cal – calcite, Gbs – gibsite, Gt – goethite, Hem – hematite

(iv) microscopic soil concretions with hematite uct of humid Mediterranean conditions, it can be (irregularly shaped red concretions where positive concluded that the colour of soils from the Dinaric reactions on Fe3+ appear when concentrated HCl Karst of Slovenia is closely related to the geologi- is used), cally presented iron oxides: the microscopic stud- (v) soil quartz particles of microscopic size coat- ies showed that the colour of a particle containing ed with Fe+, iron compounds was mainly affected by the pres- (vi) microscopic soil concretions cemented by ence of iron compounds in relation to (i) physical calcite. bonds (i.e. because of the presence of the very fine- Even though a certain amount of products of grained, mostly prominently reddish pigments) rubification in Slovenia might be seen as a prod- and (ii) chemical bonds (i.e. because of the pres-

Table 4. Average bulk sample mineral composition of clay fraction from Slovenian, Moravian and Bohemian Karstic soils (in % w) calculated on clay fraction

Study area Ill Chl Kln Mnt I/M R0 Qtz Cal Gbs Gt Hem Clay (%) Slovenian 6 12 13 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 35 Moravian 6 0 14 7 6 2 1 0 2 0 38 Bohemian 6 0 12 0 9 3 0 0 3 0 33

Ill – illite, Mnt – montmorillonite, I/M R0 – mixed layered clay mineral illite/montmorillonite with random, R = 0 startifica- tion, Chl – chlorite, Kln – kaolinite, Qtz – quartz, Cal – calcite, Gbs – gibsite, Gt – goethite, Hem – hematite

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 419 Fig. 3. Average composition of Slovenian Karst clay fractions from Slovenian, Moravian and Slovenian karstic Moravian Karst soils

Bohemian Karst

ence of the chemically bound iron in the form of quire more knowledge of the dynamics of its iron either Fe2+ or Fe3+). As concerns the results docu- content and particular iron compounds. menting the iron behaviour with the karstic setting, The ferrum iron compounds, typical ofterra rossa the colours of soil particles were derived from the (Wright, Wilson 1987; Singer et al. 1998), do not presence of iron compounds bound physically and reflect the physicochemical conditions of limestone chemically to other mineral particles such as parti- diagenesis (Delgado et al. 2003). Having in mind cles of quartz, carbonates and clay minerals. that calcite is a congruently dissolving material, it has to be true that it cannot contribute either to soil skeleton or to soil colour. Therefore, karstic soils of DISCUSSION any sort must originate from the material somehow alien to calcite, by a process in which the ultimate Which logical category does terra rossa fit to, role of climate (Harden, Taylor 1983) has to be (i) specific mineral aggregate of fixed and stable min- stressed. eral composition, (ii) approximately uniform min- The main soil minerals containing iron can be di- eral aggregate of characteristic colour, (iii) loamy vided into two groups – iron oxides and iron oxyhy- cave sediment of any composition, subsequently droxides (Waychunas 1991; Deer et al. 1992). He- exposed at the surface, or (iv) one of the above cat- matite α-Fe2O3, maghemite γ-Fe2O3 and magnetite II III egories associated with an organic complex, with Fe Fe 2O4 belong to Fe-oxides, goethite α-FeOOH the mixture displaying a characteristic colour? The and lepidocrocite γ-FeOOH to Fe-oxyhydroxides. colour appears to be a more stable and reliable cri- Hematite and maghemite are mostly red, magnetite terion, though not very exact; various terra rossa is grey; but all of these can also be black. Goethite deposits exhibit quite a wide span of hues (10R-YR). and lepidocrocite are mostly brown, rarely yellow. The supposed similarity with lateritization is illu- The process of rubification (White 1997) is based sory ‒ laterite contains minerals that derive directly on the production of mostly hematite and partly from the parent rock, including Fe hydroxides that goethite (Sparks 1995) that form coatings on clay are responsible for its characteristic colour. This and silt particles. The process has recently been ob- is not the case of terra rossa, where most compo- served mostly in subtropical low forests and savan- nents are of exotic, non-parent origin. Thus, the nahs, where dry and rainy periods followed one an- basic question must be: what is the fundamen- other. In such areas, rubification is commonly seen tal relationship between the karstic geomorphic on well-aerated, base-saturated, slightly acid soils system and the red colour of terra rossa deposits rich in humic acids: neither Moravian not Bohemi- that occur on the karst surface (and are commonly an Karst has such conditions – the transformations trapped within its fractures)? The first step is to -ac in soil are linked to the production of iron hydrox-

420 J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 ides from the group of ferrihydrites FeO(OH) and insoluble residues, the length and intensity of dis-

Fe(OH)3, i.e. the process of brunification dominat- solution and mechanical weathering of limestone ed. The enormously thick red beds come from lake play a key role. With respect to the role of palae- bottoms and alluvial cones that were created most- ocave sediments, one of the strong starting ideas ly in Permian and Palaeogene, when high temper- related to the role of palaeokarstic caves in the atures throughout the year and heavy rainstorms sense of Bosák et al. (1989) can be reinforced by created conditions for enrichment of products of highlighting the crucial importance of modelling weathering with oxidized iron compounds (condi- (Kaufmann 2009). tions commonly found in fractures in any freshly open quarry front). The data presented support the findings of recent studies on karstic soils (cf. the CONCLUSIONS Introduction), reinforcing the idea that such soils do not turn red due to their pedogenesis but due Inherently negative surface karst features play to the massive presence of staining pigments, i.e. the most important role for the forestry because Fe-oxides. The authors are aware that there are no of their massive storage of karstic soils. The karstic relevant data presented in the paper which give evi- soils studied were of both the allochthonous and dence that the colour of recent karstic soils is to be autochthonous origin: (i) karst pockets, protect- linked to the colour of ancient sediments, but their ing the soil very effectively from water and wind findings support such an approach. Current lo- erosion, were filled partly by the autochthonous in- cal studies (Furlani et al. 2009; Urban, Rzonca soluble residues of maternal rock, and (ii) the rest 2009) reinforce such conclusions. In spite of that, of accumulations of soil and clayey material are heterogeneity of relic karstic soils where autoch- evidently of allochthonous origin. Results focused thonous soil particles and allochthonous soil sedi- on the occurrence, valence and chemical bonds of ments are unambiguously found together makes iron compounds to soil mineral particles, based on generalization difficult. The quantitative evaluation findings of microscopy study and by the chemical in the sequence non-weathered bedrock – transi- staining of sections, iron compounds can be found tion zone of interchanges within the horizons of in the forms of mixtures of hydrated Fe-oxides and soil processes – subsurface soil mineral horizon to- hydroxides including very fine particles with di- gether with the qualitative evaluation of the role of mensions less than 0.001 mm, mixture of goethite subsurface lateral water movement from the sub- and lepidocrocite, microscopic soil concretions surface reductive conditions, where easily dissolved with magnetite, microscopic soil concretions with Fe2+ compounds are stable, to the surface oxidative hematite, quartz particles coated with Fe+ and con- conditions, where not easily dissolved Fe3+ are sta- cretions cemented by calcite. ble, may be an answer to such difficulties. Based on the characterisation of iron compounds, The data presented can also be related to the pro- the karstic soils studied can be divided into four duction of locally distinctive iron oxides and hy- groups: droxides: both favourable aeration and appropriate (i) karstic soils where concretions with hematite ingress of air and egress of water, even when there dominate – three localities in the Moravian Karst: are very clayey soils, play important roles. There is Skalka (sample No. 20), Březina II (sample No. 24) obviously a very important task played by both per- and Sloup (sample No. 26), colation of rain-water through karstic cracks and (ii) karstic soils with joint domination of concre- favourable structure of the soils themselves: the soil tions with hematite and oxidized iron compounds colloids saturated with calcium make a prominent bound to silty particles – four localities in the Di- prismatic structure. What is more, eroded materi- naric Karst of Slovenia: Komen (sample No. 4), als from non-karstic areas are transported into a Divača (sample No. 6), Laze (sample No. 8) and karst and eroded autochthonous material is karst Verd (sample No. 10), transported downwards into caves. (iii) karstic soils with domination of oxidized The data obtained, thus, reinforce the role of iron compounds bound to silty particles – two lo- karstic non-carbonate components. In general, due calities in the Moravian Karst and one locality in to the composition of limestone, two different fea- Slovenia: Čepovan (sample No. 2) in the Dinaric tures can be seen: (i) the inner material in cracks Karst in Slovenia and Březina I (sample No. 22) and is derived from the time when the open space was Maloměřice (sample No. 36) in the Moravian Karst, filled in, and (ii) fragments of limestone are often (iv) karstic soils with joint domination of concre- covered by hematite (tectonic silt). In terms of the tions with goethite and oxidized iron compounds

J. FOR. SCI., 58, 2012 (9): 410–424 421 bound to silty particles – all localities in the Bohe- Boero V., Schwertmann U. (1989): Iron oxide mineralogy mian Karst and four localities in the Dinaric Karst of terra rossa and its genetic implications. Geoderma, 44: in Slovenia: Višnja Gora-Brezje (sample No. 12), 319–327. Tribuče (sample No. 14), Kočevska Reka (sample No. Boero V., Premoli A., Melis P., Barberis E., Arduino E. 16) and Lož (sample No. 18) in the Dinaric Karst in (1992): Influence of climate on the iron oxide mineralogy Slovenia and Hostim (sample No. 28), Tmáň (sam- of Terra Rossa. Clays and Clay Minerals, 40: 8–13. ple No. 30), Suchomasty (sample No. 32) and Tetín Bosák P.J., Glazek Ford D., Horáček I. (eds) (1989): (sample No. 34) in the Bohemian Karst. Paleokarst. A Systematic and Regional Survey. Amsterdam- Having in mind the qualitative and semi-quan- Praha, Elsevier-Academia: 728. titative results focused on the occurrence, valence Danin A., Gerson R., Garty J. (1983): Weathering patterns and chemical bonds of iron compounds to soil on hard limestone and dolomite by endorlithic lichens and mineral particles leading towards such aggregation, cyanobacteria: supporting evidence for eolian contribution groups (i) and (iii) do not allow any generalisation. to Terra Rossa soil. Soil Science, 136: 213–217. However, the study plots in group (ii) have in com- Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1992): An Intro- mon “pure karstification”, including a very pure duction to the Rock-forming Minerals. 2nd Ed. London, rock as negligible exterior influences. And, general Longman: 696. similarity among the study plots in group (iv) is Delgado R., Martin-Garcia J.M., Oyonarte C., Delgado that they are not very distant from non-karstic rock G. (2003): Genesis of the terrae rossae of the Sierra Gador outcrops. The authors are aware that the presented (Andalusia, Spain). 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Corresponding author: Prof. Klement Rejšek, Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Department of Geology and Pedology, Zemědělská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected]

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