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Early, Dissertation MODES OF PERSONAL PRESENCE IN THE ROMANCES OF CHRÉTIEN DE TROYES By Rachel Early Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in French December, 2014 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Lynn Ramey, Ph.D. Robert Barsky, Ph.D. John Plummer, Ph.D. Holly Tucker, Ph.D. Copyright © 2014 by Rachel Early All Rights Reserved ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I want to thank Jérôme Brillaud for inspiring me to think about presence, and Patout Burns for reminding me that no one can write your dissertation for you. I also want to thank my other readers, Holly Tucker, Bob Barsky, and John Plummer, for their help and for an enjoyable conversation the day of my defense. Finally, I want to thank my dissertation director, Lynn Ramey, for her patience and encouragement—much of it from a distance—throughout the various stages of my writing. She has given me a good example of what personal presence through technological means may look like. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………………….iii LIST OF TABLES ...…………………………………………………………….............vi NOTE ON CITATIONS AND TRANSLATIONS OF CHRÉTIEN’S ROMANCES….vii INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………..1 Terms ……………………………………………………………………………2 Person ………………………………………………………………………2 Presence ………………………………………………….............................8 Methodology……………………………………...…………………….……...10 Chapter I. Presence in Bodies ...…...………….…………………………..……………....15 Bodily presence and being a knight …………………………………………...17 The knighthood of the siècle ……………………………………………...18 The knighthood of the siècle transcended …………………………….…..27 Presence and being a lover …………………………………………….…..…..35 Lancelot’s love for Guenièvre ……………………………………..……...36 Enide’s love for Erec ……………………………………………………...54 Bodily presence and being a host ……………………………………...………67 Hosts whose bodies are present ………………………...…………………69 Hosts whose bodies are too present …………………………………….....72 Hosts whose bodies are absent …………………………………………....77 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..……83 II. Presence by Proxy ………………………………………………………….......90 Representatives ………………………………………………………………...91 More complex representatives …………………………………………...…...106 Intercessors ……………………………………………………………….......134 Conclusion …………………………………………………………..………..170 III. Presence in Objects ………………………………………………………..…175 Parts of bodies: Traces of presence ………………………………………......178 Backdoor presence: Two windows ………………………………………......209 Metonymy and memory: Rings ……………………………………………...217 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………...…236 iv Page IV. Presence in Language ……………………………………………………..…241 Spoken language ……………………………………………………..……...246 Written language ……………………………………………….....................274 Letters ……………………………………………………………………275 Tombs ……………………………………………………………………297 A romance …………………………………………………………….…303 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………..312 CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………...316 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………...323 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Outline of Perceval’s story in the Conte ……………………………………..........268 vi NOTE ON CITATIONS AND TRANSLATIONS OF CHRÉTIEN’S ROMANCES For citations of the romances, I rely, thoughout the dissertation, on the edition of Chrétien’s collected works published by Librairie Générale Française (Chrétien de Troyes, Romans, Paris: Librairie Générale Française, 1994). In general, the English translations I have cited, for Chrétien’s poems, are those of David Staines in The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990); I have tried to indicate when this is not the case. vii INTRODUCTION The question of what it means for one human being to be present to another is relevant both to Western culture today, with its embrace of new ways to bring about presence in absence (e-mail, text messaging, Skype), and to the culture of twelfth century Europe, with its reliance on hierarchical structures of mediation and its insistence on the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. We often take for granted the mediations of personal presence that occur as parts of our day-to-day routine: when, for example, we are reading a letter, we are liable to let the oddness of what is happening slip by us unnoticed and unanalyzed. However, I would like to suggest that fictions are places where cultural anxieties about various modes of personal presence may reveal themselves, and that this is also true for twelfth century European culture and its fictions. In the bulk of my dissertation, I will examine the ways in which personal presence is mediated in the late twelfth century romances of Chrétien de Troyes, and will seek to investigate the effects of these mediations on the characters involved in them and on these characters’ ethical behavior to one another.1 Before such an investigation may proceed, some preliminary explanations are in order. In what sense is it possible to speak of personal presence within the genre of Old French romance?2 To answer this question requires that I demonstrate what I mean by the terms personal (or person), and presence. My discussion of these terms will occupy a 1 I am using the word ethical, here, in a similar sense to that defined by Wayne Booth when he writes that “[f]rom ancient Greece to the present, the word ‘ethos’ has meant something 2 By speaking of romance, I am speaking of the poetic form developed in the twelfth century by writers such as Béroul and Thomas (to whom we owe two variants of the Tristan et Iseut story), the Roman de Renart poet(s), and Chrétien de Troyes himself. 1 large part of this introduction, and it is in the context of discussing the term presence that I will offer an explanation of how I have organized my chapters. I will conclude by giving an account of my methodology. Terms Person Why speak about the person, rather than the subject? Although both these terms may refer to the human being, as well as to his or her representation in spoken or written language, each term has a distinct history and carries distinct connotations. To study the subject and subjectivity is to study the grammatical articulation of a particular self.3 Indeed, according to the linguist Emile Benveniste, the subject has its very foundation in language: “[c]’est dans et par le langage que l’homme se constitue comme sujet.”4 There are at least two interesting things to be pointed out about the term subject, whether in French or in English. One is that, when it is used to describe a human being, the term makes no necessary reference to that human being’s body.5 The other interesting thing about this term is that it stands in opposition, both grammatically and philosophically, to another term: object. By definition, a subject is someone who acts, whereas an object is 3 An example of a highly grammatically dependent definition of subjectivity is the one used by Sarah Kay in her Subjectivity in Troubadour Poetry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990): by subjectivity she means “the elaboration of a first-person position in the rhetoric of courtly poetry” (p. 1). 4 Problèmes de linguistique générale, Paris: Gallimard (1966), p. 259. Benveniste himself seems to employ almost synonymously the term sujet and the term personne. 5 Michel Zink defines literary subjectivity as “ce qui marque le texte comme le point de vue d’une conscience” (La subjectivité littéraire, Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1985, p. 8). 2 someone or something that is acted upon.6 The use of such terms makes it easier to depict a world in which most, if not all, human actions, can be understood as functions of basic power relations.7 To speak of persons and personhood, on the other hand, is, first of all, to speak of what was seen—in the twelfth century, at any rate—as an ontological reality, not merely a linguistic one.8 In the case of the human person, this reality was made up of both body and soul.9 The terms person and personal allow us to take into account, when reading 6 Kay speaks both of the “alternation of subject and object roles,” in the lyric genre of the canso, and to the “alternation between passivity and activity” (Subjectivity in Troubadour Poetry, p. 97). The role of the subject is associated, here, with activity, and that of the object with passivity. 7 Such an understanding of human activity is visible in Peter Haidu’s The Subject Medieval / Modern: Text and Governance in the Middle Ages (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004). Haidu states that the “goal of [h]is book” is “[t]o recapture the flickering evanescence of the subject of freedom for a material and agonistic historiography” (p. 5). Speaking of twelfth century romances, he writes, “Power is their focus, vernacular their vehicle, secular their problematic” (The Subject Medieval / Modern, p. 98). 8 I do not mean to preclude the possibility that talking about persons may lead us into grammatical territory: on the contrary, we ought to note that, in Richard of Saint Victor’s discussion of the term persona, he writes that “[a]d interrogationem […] quis, nomen proprium reddi solet” (“[T]he answer to the question “who?” is a proper name,” De Trinitate IV, 7, ed. Gaston Salet, Paris: Sources Chrétiennes, 1959, p. 244; Eng. trans. Ruben Angelici, Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2011, p. 147). 9 “Constat namque homo ex corpore et anima; et haec duo simul nonnisi una persona” (“For man consists of body and soul, and together these two are only one person,” Richard of Saint Victor, De Trinitate III, 9, ed. Salet, p. 186; Eng. trans. Grover A.
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