sign in sign up
<<
Home , Afallach, Arthuriana, Chivalric romance, Fairyland, Fata Morgana (mirage), Gaheris

NOTES

Introduction: To Be a Shapeshifter 1 . Sir , Malory: Works , ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: , 1978 ), 716. 2 . Carolyne Larrington, for example, points out that “Enchantresses . . . sometimes . . . support the aims of Arthurian , at other times they can be hostile and petty-minded.” See ’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition (New : I. B. Taurus, 2007), 2. While Larrington’s provides a review of many of Morgan’s literary appearances, my study focuses on close reading, attention to translation issues, and discussion of social concerns. In her review of Larrington’s King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition , Elizabeth Archibald laments that “it would have been interesting to hear more about the ways in which Arthurian enchantresses do or do not resemble their Classical precursors, or indeed Celtic ones, in their use of magic and in their challenges to male heroic norms.” See Elizabeth Archibald, “Magic School,” Times Literary Supplement (February 2, 2007), 9. My study answers this cri- tique by reexamining pivotal scenes in critical texts and by dismantling the archetypal approach that Larrington follows. 3 . Norris J. Lacy, ed., The Fortunes of King Arthur (New York: D. S. Brewer, 2005 ), 94–95. 4 . Helaine Newstead, Bran the Blessed in Arthurian (New York: AMS Press, 1966 ), 149. 5 . Elisa Marie Narin, “‘Þat on . . . Þat oÞer’: Rhetorical Descriptio and Morgan La Fay in Sir and the Green ,” Pacific Coast Philology 23 (1988): 60–66. Morgan only partly fits the description of a supernatural ‘enemy’ provided by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Anna Chaudri; see n. 13, below. 6 . Frederic Jameson, The Political Unconscious: as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981 ), 115. 7 . Raymond Thompson, “The First and Last Love: and Arthur,” in Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 2000 ), 340–41. 158 NOTES

8 . Elizabeth S. Sklar, “Thoroughly Modern Morgan: Morgan le Fey in Twentieth-Century Popular ,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Sally K. Slocum (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1992 ), 28–29. 9 . Maureen Fries, “Female Heroes, Heroines, and Counter-Heroes: Images of Women in Arthurian Tradition,” in Arthurian Women: A Casebook , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996), 61. In multiple articles, Fries sees Morgan as “the oldest and most persistent example of the female-counter-.” She traces Morgan’s behaviors to mythological , concluding that her degeneration from a healing fay to a malevolent witch is the result of “the inability of male Arthurian authors to cope with the image of a woman of power in posi- tive terms” (61). 10 . Also known as the Madonna/Whore syndrome, this refers to the two ‘types’ of women that are in Christian thought represented by, respec- tively, the Virgin Mary and Eve. Mary, as her title indicates, is honored as virgin, while Eve is viewed as the cause of the Fall and has become emblematic of the sexual temptation of men. Culturally speaking, this dichotomy attempts to polarize women into ‘good’ (pure, demure, sub- servient) and ‘bad’ (promiscuous, wild, independent). 11 . Sarah Appleton Aguiar, The Bitch is Back: Wicked Women in (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001), 13. 12 . Aguiar, Bitch , 13–23. 13 . Hilda Ellis Davidson and Anna Chaudri, Supernatural Enemies (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2001 ), viii. Italics mine. 14 . Aguiar, Bitch , 22. 15 . Aguiar, Bitch , 31. 16 . Stephen G. Nichols, The New , ed. Marina S. Brownlee, Kevin Brownlee, and Stephen G. Nichols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 ), 1. 17 . Nichols, New Medievalism . New Medievalism “may be best understood as arising initially from the need to interrogate the nature of medi- eval representation in its differences and continuities. We saw that the continually improvised new and modes of repre- sentation. In the Middle Ages, one senses a fascination with the potential for representation even more than with theories or modes of repre- sentation, something like an attempt to seek ways for extending the range of what was known of the material and the world beyond matter through alchemy, through science, through physical and psychical voy- ages, oneric —dream visions—can be seen as an attempt to penetrate the boundaries of the known” (1–2). 18 . , Vita Merlini , trans. and ed. Basil Clarke (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1973); Etienne de Rouen, “Draco Normannicus,” ed. R. Howlett, in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II, and Richard I vol. 2, Rolls Series 85 (London, 1885 ); Gerald of NOTES 159

Wales, “De Instructione Principis,” in Giraldi Cambrensis , ed. J. S. Brewer, et al., vol. 4, Rolls Series (London, 1873); Gerald of Wales, “Speculum Ecclesiae,” in Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer, et al., vol. 4, Rolls Series (London, 1873). 19 . See Roger Bartra, Wild Men in the Looking Glass: The Mythic Origins of European Otherness , trans. Carl T. Berrisford (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 81–83, and Richard Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages: A Study in Art, Sentiment, and Demonology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952 ), 3–4. 20 . Norris J. Lacy, ed., The -Grail: The Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation (New York: Garland, 1993). 21 . , , ed. A. J. Bliss (London: T. Nelson, 1960 ). 22 . J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the . 2nd ed., revised by Norman Davis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967). 23 . Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales , ed. Thomas Hahn (Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995); , , trans. Cyril Edwards (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004). 24 . Sir Thomas Malory, Malory: Works , ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978 ). According to P. J. C. Field, the best candidate for the author of Le Morte Darthur is the Sir Thomas Malory from Newbold Revell, an alleged rapist, extortionist, and thief (among other crimes), whose uncle Sir Robert may have been one source for Malory’s treatment of chivalry. See chapter 3 . 25 . Geoffroi de Charny, The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny: Text, Context, and Translation , ed. and trans. Richard W. Kaeuper and Elspeth Kennedy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996). 26 . , Faerie Queene , ed. Thomas P. Roche (New York: Penguin, 1978); John Pfordresher, A Variorum Edition of Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973 ). 27 . Arthurian Literature by Women , ed. Alan Lupack and Barbara Tepa Lupack (New York: Garland, 1999); John Blades, ed. : The Poems (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ). 28 . Arthurian Literature by Women, ed. Lupack and Lupack. 29 . Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court , ed. Shelley Fisher Fishkin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 ); Marion Zimmer Bradley, The Mists of (New York: Del Rey, 1982); J. Robert King, Le Morte D’Avalon (New York: Tor, 2003 ); Nancy Springer, I Am Morgan le Fay: A Tale from (New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001 ). 30 . A s m a ny author s have poi nted out, the def i n it ion of ‘ f a nt a sy,’ pa r t icu la rly in relation to the term ‘,’ is nearly impossible to pin down. For the purpose of this work I follow Rosemary Jackson’s assertion that while “Liter a r y f a nt a sie s h ave appea red to be f ree f rom m a ny of t he convent ion s and restraints of more realistic texts,” “ is not to do with invent- ing another non-human world: it is not transcendental. It has to do with 160 NOTES

inverting elements of this world . . . to produce something . . . apparently ‘new’, absolutely ‘other’ and ‘different’. . . . Such violation of dominant assumptions threatens to subvert (overturn, upset, undermine) rules and conventions taken to be normative.” Rosemary Jackson, Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion (London: Routledge, 1995), 1–14. Retrieved from Google , http://books.google.com/books?id =k2aboboVP5MC& printsec=frontcover&dq=rosemary+jackson+fantasy&source =bl&ots =IUq7JiTUYb&sig=JoXb0z18RauA3EeD9R1Bt0EXJcE&hl=en&sa =X&ei=xnE-UPK1MIz68QSBtYGoBw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v= onepage&q=rosemary%20jackson%20fantasy&f=false, accessed June 14, 2012.

1 For the Healing of His Wounds? The Seeds of Ambiguity in Sources 1 . For a discussion of some of the chansons de geste not treated here, which also tend to cast Morgan in a positive light in relation to knighthood, see Carolyne Larrington, King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition (New York: I. B. Taurus, 2007), 92–96. 2 . Although outside the scope of this project, a related character in who also exhibits paradoxical qualities is , Morgan’s lamia-like, half-serpent and half-human niece, in Jean d’Arras’s Roman de Mélusine (1393). See Melusine of Lusignan: Founding Fiction in Late Medieval France , eds. Donald and Sara Sturm-Maddox (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1996 ). 3 . Norris J. Lacy and Geoffrey Ashe, The Arthurian Handbook (New York: Garland Publishing, 1988), 58. 4 . Raymond H. Thompson, “Morgan le Fay,” in The Arthurian Encyclopedia , ed. Norris J. Lacy (New York: Garland Publishing, 1986 ). 5 . Maureen Fries, “Female Heroes, Heroines, and Counter-Heroes: Images of Women in Arthurian Tradition,” in Arthurian Women: A Casebook , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge,1996), 69. 6 . Carolyne Larrington, King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition (New York: I. B. Taurus, 2007), 8, 18–19. 7 . For one example, see Linda Gowans, Cei and the Arthurian (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1988). 8 . Roger Loomis, Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance (New York: Columbia University Press, 1926), 192. 9 . Loomis, Celtic Myth, 35. 10 . Roger Loomis, The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol (New Jersey: Princeton, 1991),12. 11 . Lucy Allen Paton, Studies in the Mythology of Arthurian Romance (New York: Burt Franklin, 1960) 248. 12 . Paton, Studies , 284–85. 13 . Karen K Jambeck, “Femmes et Terre: and the Discourses of ‘,’” in Discourses on Love, Marriage, and Transgression NOTES 161

in Medieval and , ed. Albrecht Classen (Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Studies, 2004), 118–19. 14 . Rachel Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1978 ). The name ‘Morgan,’ though a male name among the Welsh, has been connected to variants such as the Old Irish Muirgen (derivative of Morigenos, a masculine name mean- ing ‘sea-born’); Geoffrey of Monmouth used Morgen. It is important to note here that there is no etymological connection between the names Morgan and Morrigan; I am tracing common traits only. 15 . Miranda Green, “The Celtic Goddess as Healer,” in The Concept of the Goddess, ed. Sandra Billington and Miranda Green (London: Routledge, 1996 ), 35. 16 . Donald E. Morse, “The Irish Fantastic,” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 8 (1997): 2–14. 17 . Miranda Green, The Gods of the ( G l o u c e s t e r : A l a n S u t t o n P u b l i s h i n g , 2005), 101. For more on the Morrigan and her characteristics, see also Rosalind Clark, “Aspects of the Morrigan in Early Irish Literature,” Irish University Review 17.2 (1987): 223–36, esp. 231, and Maire Herbert, “Transmutations of an Irish Goddess,” in The Concept of the Goddess , ed. Sandra Billington and Miranda Green (New York: Routledge, 1996 ), 141–51. Paton draws a connection between Cuchulainn and Arthur, with the Morrigan/Morgan as a common denominator (24, 149). 18 . Clark, “Aspects of the Morrigan,”, “The Morrigan, like other literary characters, has an individual personality. Instead of remaining a flat, archetypal character, she takes on more human characteristics” (231). Female characters, even goddesses, who change their mind or display inconsistency are often subjected to the of ‘the fickle woman’ and are viewed as irrational by an androcentric order that values ratio- nality and logic. 19 . Herbert, “Transmutations,” 144–45. 20 . Clark, “Aspects of the Morrigan,” 233–37. 21 . “The king then had an ointment brought out that had been made by Morgan, his sister. The ointment was so strong that within a week it would completely cure and heal the wound being treated, whether in the ligaments or in the joints, provided the ointment was applied daily.” Chretien de Troyes, “Erec et ,” The Complete Romances of Chretien de Troyes , trans. David Staines (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 53. Another mention occurs in Yvain’s tale: “I remember an oint- ment Morgan the Wise gave me, and she told me it would remove from the mind any grave illness.” “The Knight With the Lion,” The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes . Trans. David Staines (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 292. In both cases, Morgan is identi- fied as ‘sister’ or ‘she’; even though Morgan is typically a ’s name in Welsh, as I will show later, Morgan le Fay may have gathered some of Morgan Tud’s healing powers. Potential gender confusion further complicates her portrayal. 162 NOTES

22 . Paton, Studies , 163. 23 . Paton, Studies, 11–12. 24 . Geoffrey of Monmouth, Vita Merlini , trans. and ed. Basil Clarke (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1973), 40. 25 . Monmouth, Introduction. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain , ed. Michael D. Reeve, trans. Neil Wright (Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2007). 26 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini , vii. 27 . The segment describing Morgan and Avalon is not much related to the Vita as a whole, nor is it much related to Geoffrey’s Historia . In the Historia , the only reference to Avalon is that Caliburn () was forged there. No mention of Morgan by that name is made, though there is a mention of a sister, Anna. Although it is likely that these two women later become conflated over time, there is no evidence that Geoffrey believed them to be the same person. 28 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini , see n. 24 above. All translations mine, with consultations of previous translations, unless otherwise noted. 29 . Though the Biblia Sacra uses pomiferum and fructum , not malum (See Genesis chapter 1 1:11, Biblia Sacra: Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem , ed. Bonifatio Fischer et al. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983), 4, there is precedence for such a pun. In True Names: Vergil and the Alexandrian Tradition of Etymological Wordplay (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), James J. O’Hara points out that Virgil’s Aeneid , VII.740, “et quos maliferae despectant moenia Abellae,” references ‘the walls of apple-bearing Abella.’ Also, the Georgics (2: 126–41) con- tains a related pun connecting fruit with healing: “ felicis mali gloss[es] the suppressed name of the citron or lemon, medica . . . suggests Medea, associated with poisons; Virgil’s prime concern is healing . . . a further gloss is provided by the attribute felicis (mali) . If we allowed the old pun on malum ‘apple’ and malum ‘evil,’ then we have in felicis a gloss from the opposite” (268). For a thorough explanation of the conven- tion and inaccuracies, of Avalon’s name in connection with apples, see Constance Bullock-Davies, “Lanval and Avalon,” The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1969), 133 n. 2. Echard notes that the Latin authors often showed ‘invention and cleverness’ when dealing with Arthurian materials (25). 30 . Although the island is never actually named ‘Avalon’ in the Vita , two pieces of evidence demonstrate that Avalon is indeed the isle to which Geoffrey refers. The first is that in his earlier Historia Regum Britanniae , Geoffrey places Arthur’s healing on Avalon: “Sed et inclitus ille rex Arturus letaliter uulneratus est; qui illinc ad sananda uulnera sua in insulam Auallonis euectus” [The illustrious king Arthur too was mor- tally wounded; he was taken away to the island of Avalon to have his wounds tended]. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History , ed. Reeve, 252–53. This passage prefigures Morgan’s acceptance of Arthur on her NOTES 163

island at the end of the Vita . The second piece of evidence is linguistic, and is apparently so well accepted that no one seems to have revisited the question since the early twentieth century. In 1931, Lewis Cons concludes that “the Celtic word Avallo was equivalent to locus pomorum . The name as it appears in Geoffrey’s Historia regum Britanniae, INSULA AVALLONIS, is linguistically the same thing.” Lewis Cons, “Avallo,” trans. C. H. Slover, Modern Philology 28 (May 1931): 385–99. In the Vita , Geoffrey describes the island as ‘insula pomorum,’ the island of apples, equating it with the description given to Avalon. In addition to etymo- logical evidence, fantastic elements from Celtic folklore and mythology also appear to influence the creation of Avalon in the Latin sources. The name may have come from the island’s ruler, Avalloch or Avallo, who lived there with nine daughters, Morgan among them; the Bretons apparently supplied their water fairy Morgan for the Welsh , making her the ruler of Avalon. Loomis, Celtic Myth , 191–92. Celtic folklore promoted the belief that the realm of the dead was not so much an underworld as it was an otherworld, an island in the West that some called Ynys Avallach , or the island of apples. Loomis holds that “there is strong reason to believe that twelfth-century Welsh tradition derived the name of the isle [Avalon] from Avallach, father of Morgain and her sisters; from the leader of the Wild Hunt he took over the clamorous company of riders by moonlight” (72). Loomis, Wales and the Arthurian Legend (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1956). However, in a note to another article, he points out that “ is a Welsh common noun, meaning apple-orchard.” Roger Loomis, “Morgain La Fee and the Celtic Goddesses,” Speculum XX (1945): 183–203, 190, n. 6. The theory that claims the name of the island came from the apple trees grown there is the one most often cited in the Latin sources. Morgan might also be associated with the Wild Hunt through similar characteristics to the folkloric character Holda; see Lotte Motz, “The Winter Goddess: Percht, Holda, and Related Figures,” Folklore 95 (1984): 151–66. 31 . Siân Echard, Arthurian Narrative in the Latin Tradition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 215; Monmouth, Vita Merlini , 7–9. Though it seems more likely that Geoffrey would have garnered this information through a Roman source, Echard concurs with Clarke that “the natural science section of the work suggests firsthand knowledge (ital- ics mine) of Isidore’s Etymologiae , and perhaps also of Bede’s De Natura Rerum .” 32 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini, 9–11. 33 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini, 17. 34 . Alexander H. Krappe, “Arturus Cosmocrator,” Speculum 20 (1945 ): 412, 405–14. 35 . Krappe, “Arturus Cosmocrator,” 412. 36 . David Chamberlain, “Marie de France’s Arthurian Lai: Subtle and Political” in Culture and the King : The Social Implications of the Arthurian 164 NOTES

Legend , ed. Martin B. Schictman and James P. Carley (Albany: State University of New York Press), 27. 37 . The legend of Arthur’s return is influenced by the Celtic belief in rein- carnation. See Richard P. Taylor, “Reincarnation, Western,” in Death and the Afterlife: A Cultural Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2000), 300. For Celtic tales featuring the theme of reincarnation, see Alwyn D. Rees, Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales , (New York: Grove Press, 1961 ), 230. 38 . Oddly, Geoffrey does not use the standard Latin form Morganis , as do the other authors; this will be discussed later in the chapter. 39 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini, 4. 40 . Monmouth, Vita Merlini , 48–49. 41 . The name conundrum is complicated by the fact that antecedents or parallels to Morgan are not always easily identifiable by spelling similarities—or even common initial letters. One example is Argant, or Argante, the fay whom Arthur says will heal him in Layamon’s Brut : “And I shall voyage to Avalon, to the fairest of all maidens, / To the queen Argante, a very radiant , / And she will make quite sound every one of my wounds, / Will make me quite whole with her life giving potions” (ll: 14276–80). W. R. J. Barron and S. C. Weinberg, ed. and trans., Layamon’s Arthur: The Arthurian Section of Layamon’s Brut (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2001). The echoes of Morgan’s role unmistakably make Argante a ‘sister’ to Morgan. An ‘Anna’ is also mentioned here as sister to Arthur. In both Geoffrey and Wace, Anna is married off to Lot, the knight tradition- ally marries in the later medieval retellings. Anna then develops into Morgause, mother of the four —Gawain, , , and (and often )—and Argante becomes Morgan, the woman who tends to Arthur’s wounds. Anna as predecessor to Morgan, rather than Morgause, provides support for another associa- tion of Morgan with the Morrigan. As Rosalind Clark notes, “the war goddess appears in triple form under many name-combinations: Badb, Macha, and Morrigan, or Badb, Macha, and Ana. ” Clark, “Aspects of the Morrigan,” 226. Italics mine. Another variation of her name was Morgana, and so Anna could have been a shortened form or later conflated with Morgan to make Morgana. Morgan is traditionally a male name in the Welsh, but ‘o’ and ‘a’ resemble one another closely enough in a manuscript to cause such a scribal error. Morgana is also easily shortened to Ana or Anna, particularly in the case of scribal abbreviation in Latin texts. If Geoffrey had been the only writer to mention an Anna, we could say that a potential error had been made. However, as John Rhys suggested long ago, since Wace, too, mentions an Anna, sister to Arthur, one must think more seriously about the theory that Anna was the original name, later conflated with Morgan. According to Rhys, “Geoffrey calls Loth’s wife Anna, but she is prob- ably to be identified with Arthur’s sister, called Morgan le Fay in NOTES 165

the romances.” John Rhys, Studies in the Arthurian Legend (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891), 22. This problem of initial letters can also work in reverse, as Loomis points out: “proper names in manuscript transmission sometimes lost the initial letter. Thus we find the name of Morgain la Fee corrupted into such forms as Orguein and Argant.” Loomis draws on J. D. Bruce for this theory: “The loss of initial M in such cases was probably due to the fact that the mediaeval scribes often left the space vacant at the beginning of a paragraph with the intention of filling it in later with an elaborate initial letter, but sometimes failed to carry out this intention. If the first word of the paragraph were a proper name, it would thus lose its initial letter.” Modern Language Notes XXVI (1911): 6, 7 n. 14. In The Grail , 234. 42 . Loomis suggests that because of Geoffrey’s use of Morgen rather than Modron , the Welsh form, supplied in the Triads , he may have gotten his Celtic information through Breton intermediaries. See Loomis, Wales , 192, 345. 43 . See Paton, Studies , 151–53, particularly p. 152 n. 1; Loomis, Celtic Myth , 35–38 and Michael W. Twomey, “Is Morgne La Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight— or anywhere in Middle English?” Anglia: Zeitschrift fur Englische Philologie 117 ( 1999 ): 545–51. An excellent overview of this information is given in Heather Rose Jones, “Concerning the Names Morgan, Morgana, Morgaine, Muirghen, Morrigan , and the like,” http:// www.medievalscotland.org/problem/names/morgan.shtml . 44 . also gives her healing powers; in fact, he seems to have no trouble juxtaposing healing with the claim that “the devil was her companion”; he cautions that “the man for whom she pre- pared a bandage would not be wise if he were greatly offended by this [association with the devil].” Arthurian Romances, Tales, and Lyric : The Complete Works of Hartmann von Aue , trans. Frank Tobin et al. (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 2001), 290–91, ll. 5129–243. 45 . The Didot-Perceval, according to the Manuscripts of Modena and Paris , ed. William Roach (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1941), 201–2. Also see The Romance of Perceval in : A Translation of the E Manuscript of the Didot Perceval , trans. Dell Skeels (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1961), 41–42. 46 . Krappe, “Arturus Cosmocrator,” 407. 47 . Krappe, “Arturus Cosmocrator,” 406. 48 . Loomis, Wales , 97. 49 . Lewis Cons, “Avallo,” 385–99. 50 . Loomis, Celtic Myth, 178–83. 51 . In the Draco Normannicus Morgan is named Arthur’s sister. Monmouth, Vita Merlini, 205. 52 . The , trans. Gwyn Jones and Thomas Jones (Hendrik-Ido -Ambacht, The Netherlands: ’s Dream Books, 1982), 202. 53 . Jones and Jones, Mabinogion , 207. 166 NOTES

54 . For one exploration of the fairy retention motif as relates to Morgan, see Paton, Studies , 49–59. 55 . In Malory, she kidnaps Lancelot by ‘enchauntement’ and forces him to choose one of four queens (among them Morgan herself) as his lover. He refuses, and is punished by being left to die in prison (but is later res- cued): “For hit behovyth the now to chose one of us four, for I am queen Morgan le Fay. Now chose one of us, whyche that thou wolte have to thy paramour, other ellys to dye in this preson.” Sir Thomas Malory, Malory: Works , ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 151–52. 56 . Morgan also captures a knight named Alexander, who is gravely wounded. He asks her for healing, but first, she “gaff hym suche an oynement that he sholde have dyed. And than she put another oyne- mente upon hym, and than he was out of his payne.” After she has dem- onstrated her ability to harm as well as heal, she makes him promise, if he would be hale and hearty, to remain with her in her castle for a year and a day. Fearful of his life, he agrees. Malory, Works , 392–95. 57 . E. A. Andrews, Harper’s Latin Dictionary: A New Latin Dictionary Founded in the Translation of Freund’s Latin-German Lexicon , eds. Charleton T. Lewis and Charles Short (New York: American Book Company, 1907 ), 1122. 58 . Loomis, “Evalach, Avalon, and Morgan le Fay,” in Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance (New York: Haskell House, 1967), 194. 59 . A parallel to Greek myth exists in the story of Prometheus, whose liver is torn out at night only to be regrown during the day so the punish- ment can continue. 60 . See Loomis, Celtic Myth , 285–95 for more examples of how Celtic and classical influences intertwine in Arthurian literature. 61 . Alan Lupack, The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005 ), 35. 62 . Loomis, The Grail . “Even after the lapse of six hundred years, the Bretons still cherished the hope that he was alive and would return, as a Messiah, to win back their ancestral home” (15). 63 . Lupack, Oxford Guide, 35. 64 . Etienne de Rouen, Draco Normannicus , ed. R. Howlett, in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II, and Richard I, vol. 2, Rolls Series 85 (London, 1885), ll: 1161–74. I follow Siân Echard’s translation for ll: 1165–74. Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 86–87. 65 . Helaine Newstead, Bran the Blessed in Arthurian Romance (New York: AMS Press, 1966 ). 66 . Mildred Ann Leake Day, “The Letter from King Arthur to Henry II: Political Use of the Arthurian Legend in Draco Normannicus ,” in The Spirit of the Court , ed. Glyn S. Burgess and Robert A. Taylor (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1985), 153–57. 67 . Siân Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 87. The OE word wyrd carries the same associations; the Nordic Fates were called Norns. Fey is also indebted NOTES 167

to ME feie, meaning ‘fated to die.’ See D. L. Ashliman, Fairy Lore: A Handbook (London: Greenwood Press, 2006 ), 1; Katherine Briggs, The in English Tradition and Literature (London: Bellew Publishing, 1967), 208; for more on the Fates, see Geza Roheim, “The Thread of Life,” in Fire in the Dragon and Other Psychoanalytic Essays of Folklore , ed. Alan Dundes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 88–101. 68 . K. M. Briggs, “The Fairies and the Realms of the Dead,” in Folklore 81 ( 1970): 81–96. 69 . P. Delhaye, “Antipodes,” in The New Catholic Encyclopedia , 2nd ed., vol. 1, ed. Berard L. Marthaler, et al (New York: Thomson Gale, 2003), 529. The term ‘Antipodes’ might also refer to a race of people who live on the other side of the ; at least one monk was threatened with excommunication if he claimed a belief in the Antipodes. 70 . J. S. P. Tatlock, “Geoffrey and King Arthur in Normannicus Draco ,” Modern Philology 31 ( 1933 ): 1–18. 71 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 88. 72 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 88. 73 . Robert Bartlett, Gerald of Wales: 1146–1223 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 13–58. 74 . Gerald of Wales, Speculum Ecclesiae , in Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer, et al., vol. 4, Rolls Series (London, 1873). 75 . Echard translates ‘fabulosi’ as ‘lying’ (73). 76 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 74. 77 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , voices a belief that this may be quite delib- erate: “Gerald is a storyteller who sees the appeal of Arthurian material even as he claims to debunk it, in the service of entertainment” (74). 78 . Gerald of Wales, De Instructione Principis, in Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock, and G. F. Warner, vol. 8: 1160–64 (1861–91). 79 . See “,” in The Arthurian Encyclopedia , ed. Norris J. Lacy (New York: Garland, 1986), 239. The origins of the first community are unknown, but the ‘island’ had been thoroughly Christian since about the year 660. 80 . Bartlett, Gerald of Wales , l. 1163. 81 . Bartlett, Gerald of Wales , ll. 1160–64. From De Instructione as in n 78 and 80. Stet period 82 . Bartlett, Gerald of Wales, 62–63. Correct 83 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , 73.

2 Sisters of the Forest: Morgan and Her Analogues in Arthurian Romance 1 . Corinne J. Saunders, The Forest of Medieval Romance: Avernus, Broceliande, Arden (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 22–23. 168 NOTES

2 . Robert Pogue Harrison, Forests: The Shadow of Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992 ), ix. 3 . Joseph Bedier, The Romance of and , trans. Hillaire Belloc (New York: Vintage, 1973 ), 85. 4 . Manuel Aguirre, “The Riddle of Sovereignty,” Modern Language Review 88 ( 1993): 273–82. 5 . One possible exception to those beyond control is the religious ; though he is physically in the forest, he is spiritually tied to civilization through the institutional church. 6 . Richard Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages: A Study in Art, Sentiment, and Demonology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952), 19–20. 7 . Jacques le Goff, The Medieval Imagination, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988 ), 51–53. 8 . Saunders, The Forest of Medieval Romance , 62–63. 9 . Harrison, Forests , ix, xi. 10 . Saunders, The Forest of Medieval Romance , 23. 11 . I follow Christine Herold in using the more ambiguous term ‘’ rather than ‘’: “Significantly, I think, Chaucer does not himself call his figure of ancient femininity a ‘hag,’ referring to her instead as ‘lady,’ perhaps suggesting her connection to the courtly world of fairy. And, interestingly, the English analogues which share the hag-description used by Chaucer also fail to use the term, whereas the Irish sources do use ‘hag.’ ‘Loathly lady’ appear to be the terms of choice.” Christine Herold, “Archetypal Chaucer: The Case of the Disappearing Hag in ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’,” in Archetypal Readings of Medieval Literature , ed. Charlotte Spivak and Christine Herold (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002 ), 52. 12 . le Goff, The Medieval Imagination , 117. Bernheimer sees ambiguity of a more material nature, in that “the wild man [is a] being neither quite man enough to command universal agreement as to his human identity, nor animal enough to be unanimously classified as such” (6). 13. Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 33–34. 14 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 38. 15 . Elizabeth M. Biebel-Stanley, “Sovereignty Through the Lady: ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’ and the Queenship of Anne of Bohemia,” in The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs , ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007), 73–82. “Nature [is] the locus of power in the Celtic sovereignty tales” (75). 16 . See Roger Bartra, Wild Men in the Looking Glass: The Mythic Origins of European Otherness , trans. Carl T. Berrisford (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), 81–83 and Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 3–4. 17 . At least two other critics have identified Morgan as a loathly lady fig- ure. Ellen Caldwell points out that “another Loathly Lady, Morgan le NOTES 169

Fay, tests the ethics of the in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” while Mary Leech cites Lorraine K. Stock as seeing a connec- tion between Morgan, the loathly Sheela-na-Gigs, and Dame Ragnell: “Stock draws . . . comparisons between the Sheela figures and Morgan le Fay of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , [and] much of what she describes relates to Dame Ragnell as well.” See Ellen M. Caldwell, “Brains or Beauty: Limited Sovereignty in the Loathly Lady Tales ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale,’ ‘Thomas of Erceldoune,’ and ‘The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle’.”, and Mary Leech, “Why Dame Ragnell Had to Die: Feminine Usurpation of Masculine Authority in ‘The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell’,” in The English “Loathly Lady” Tales . Ed. Passmore and Carter, 245, 216, and Lorraine K. Stock, “The Hag of Castle Hautdesert: The Celtic Sheela-na-gig and the Auncian in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” in On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst (Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 ), 121–48. 18 . Herold, “Archetypal Chaucer,” 47–58. “The description of this figure fits that of one of the more ancient and well-documented archetypal figures. She was known to the Greeks as [a] goddess of the crossroads, as the insatiable man-eater, Camunda (Kali), ‘the most terrible aspect of Devi, the great Hindu goddess,’ as Eriu, hag-to-beauty symbol of Irish sovereignty, and as Cerridwen, Celtic goddess who appears as a shape- shifting witch and whose name translates as ‘Cauldron of Wisdom.’ In the Celtic transformation myth this figure, while referred to as ‘hag,’ even in her most horrible representations is associated with Wisdom, Sophia, the positive aspect of feminine power” (52–53). 19 . Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a notable exception; however, the Green Knight himself is clearly a denizen of the forest. By intruding into Arthur’s court to issue the challenge, he immediately signals that the forest—and its attendant confusion—will be an important aspect of the tale. 20 . , “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale,” in The Riverside Chaucer 3rd ed., ed. Larry D. Benson et al. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987), 118. All quotations are from this edition. 21 . “The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle,” in Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales , ed. Thomas Hahn (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995), 47–80. Susan Carter, “Coupling the Beastly Bride and the Hunter Hunted: What Lies Behind Chaucer’s ‘Wife of Bath’s Tale’,” Chaucer Review 37 (2003): 329–45. All quotations are taken from this edition. 22 . “The Marriage of Sir Gawain,” 359–72 and “The Carle of Carlisle,” 373–92 in Eleven Romances and Tales , n. 21, above. 23 . Her description includes ‘rough wrinkled cheeks,’ a ‘short thick’ body, and ‘broad buttocks.’ See J. R. R. Tolkien and E. V. Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . 2nd ed., revised by Norman Davis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967 ). 27. 170 NOTES

24 . Norris J. Lacy, “The Lancelot-Grail Cycle,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Romance , ed. Roberta L. Krueger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 ), 169–70. 25 . Alexandre Micha, ed., Lancelot: roman en prose du XIIIe siècle , v ols. 1–8 (Geneva: Droz, 1978–82), 314–17, Vol. 5. 26 . Norris J. Lacy, The Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation (New York: Garland, 1993), 106. 27 . Lacy, Lancelot-Grail , 108. 28 . Michelle Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance from Chretien de Troyes to Geoffrey Chaucer (Portland, OR: Four Courts Press, 2000), 79. 29 . “Elle vint a Guiamor, si li dist que mors estoit, se li rois le pooit savoir et si fist tant, que par proieres que par manaces, que il ne l’amoit mie de tele amor que bien ne s’en consierrast.” [She (Guenevere) came to Guyamor and said that he was as good as dead if the king learned of the affair, and with pleas and threats she succeeded in making him give up the young woman (Morgan).]” Micha, Lancelot , 301; translation from Lacy, Lancelot-Grail Cycle , 311. Morgan is very upset, especially as she is ençainte , pregnant, with Guigomar’s child. This is one of the very rare times Morgan is depicted as a mother, but a later line mentions only that the child becomes a great knight, and he is never named or explained further. Chrétien de Troyes also mentions the love affair between Morgan and Guigomar: “Et Guigomars, ses frere, I vint; / De l’Isle d’Avalon fu sire / De cestui avons oi dire. / Qu’il fu amis Morgain, la fee, / Et ce fu veritez prove” [And his brother Guinguemar came too, who was Lord of the Isle of Avalon. We have heard it said of him that he was a lover of Morgan le Fay, and that had been proven true” (ll 1954–58)]. Chrétien de Troyes, Erec et Enide , trans. Michael Rousee (Paris: Flammarion, 1994), 148; translation from Chrétien de Troyes, “Erec and Enide,” The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes , trans. David Staines (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,1990), 25. 30 . Thomas Chestre, Sir Launfal , ed. and trans. A. J. Bliss (London: T. Nelson, 1960 ). All quotations taken from this edition. 31 . A common feature of Celtic hero and fairy tales, a geis is usually an oath and/or prohibition against a particular action, placed on a hero by a god- dess figure. Violation of a geis traditionally brings dishonor or death. 32 . Alan Lupack, The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 119. 33 . See Bliss’s note 255, p. 89: “The name itself is otherwise known only as that of the hero of the romance of Syr Tryamowre; but its meaning ‘choice love’ is very appropriate to the story of Launfal.” Chestre, Sir Launfal . 34 . Chester, Sir Launfal , 20. Bliss points out that “The Celtic origin of Lanval and its analogues leaves little doubt that the lady in the story, whose supernatural powers are so conspicuous, is to be identified here with the fee , a recurring figure in and romance whose NOTES 171

most manifestation is as Morgan la Fee in the Arthurian cycle.” See also Constance Bullock-Davies, “Lanval and Avalon,” The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 23 ( 1969 ): 128–42. 35 . See n. 29 above. 36 . Chrétien de Troyes, “Erec and Enide,” 25. See also Bliss, ed., Sir Launfal , 18, 20. For more on the connections between Morgan and Guigomar, see especially Lucy Paton, Studies in the Fairy Mythology of Arthurian Romance , 2nd ed. (New York: Burt Franklin, 1960), 60–73. 37 . The most comprehensive examination of Morgan as the fairy mistress to date is Paton’s Studies . For a more recent examination of Morgan, see Carolyne Larrington, King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition (New York: I. B. Taurus, 2007 ). 38 . Bliss, points out that “the stories of these Breton lays follow a common pattern. A man or woman becomes involved by some means in a liaison with a fairy” (Chestre, Sir Laufal, 18). See a l so A n ne L a sk aya, “ Sir Launfal : Introduction,” in The Middle English Breton Lays , ed. Anne Laskaya and Eve Salisbury (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995), 204–5. 39 . , ed., The English and Scottish Popular , 5 vols. (New York: Dover, 2003), I: 317–58. Briefly, the story relates that fair- ies grant Ogier strength and other gifts at his birth: Morgan gives him the promise of coming to Avalon after his life on earth is done. In his hundredth year, Morgan brings him there to live for two hundred years in perfect bliss. His presence being again required in the world, Morgan sends him back to France to “vanquish the foes of ,” and then returns him to Avalon. 40 . Maureen Fries, “Female Heroes, Heroines and Counter-Heroes: Images of Women in Arthurian Tradition,” in Arthurian Women: a Casebook, ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996 ), 59–76. 41 . Chestre, Sir Launfal, ll 361–65. 42 . “Her accusation of the standard ‘secret vice’ is not only uncourtly but also in vivid contrast to the idealistic stance taken earlier by the fee” (136). Patrick John Ireland, “The Narrative Unity of the Lanval of Marie de France,” Studies in Philology 74 ( 1977 ): 130–45. 43 . Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance , 276–82. “One of the striking changes evident in the Chestre text, however, is the reincarnation of the fee. Marie’s delicate handling of her description creates the impression that the focus of the text is on a sensual woman and the lushness which surrounds her. The Chestre adaptation increases both her magical pow- ers and the impact of her physical description in the tale by announcing, before her actual appearance, that she hails from Olyroun and that her father is ‘Kyng of the fayrye.’ This sensuous description [of her appear- ance in the poem] suggests the allure of this fee is physical.” 44 . In the Vulgate, Morgan and Guigomar consummate their relationship almost immediately as well. 172 NOTES

45 . Elizabeth Williams points out that fairies may perhaps be regarded in sexual matters as a special case: they are exotic outsiders, free from social and moral constraints, and may be expected to act accordingly. Elizabeth Williams, “‘A Damsel By Herselfe Alone’: Images of Magic and Femininity from Lanval to Sir Lambewell, ” in Romance Reading on the Book: Essays on Medieval Narrative Presented to Maldwyn Mills , ed. Jennifer Fellows, Rosalind Field, Gillian Rogers, and Judith Weiss (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1996), 155. 46 . Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance , 142. “It is odd, however, that Chestre did not elucidate a point crucial to the plot, namely Gwennere’s past infidelities, the existence of which convinces the nobles to try Launfal rather than instantly mete out the ‘justice’ which Arthur demands. Perhaps Chestre assumes that it is enough to use the name of Gwennere, as it is already famous in connection with the destruction of Camelot. It is interesting that each life-altering decision which Launfal is forced to make is related to an encounter with one of these magical characters. These women, both inordinately powerful in the Arthurian world, are shrouded in magical illusions. In a larger sense, they epito- mize the anxiety which sexual power generates, an anxiety that was realized in the medieval world by the overwhelming number of women persecuted for magical powers. Chestre’s [version] features the fairy and evil queen as characters who are mutually opposed and yet are also unmistakably alike in that they are equally provocative and derive their power over men and society from forms of sexuality.” 47 . Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance , 143. 48 . Sweeney, Magic in Medieval Romance , 119. 49 . Laskaya, “ Sir Launfal : Introduction,” in The Middle English Breton Lays , 201–9. 50 . Laskaya, Middle English Breton Lays, 238, ll 1015–17. 51 . Thomas Hahn, “Gawain and Popular in Britain,” in The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Romance, ed. Roberta L. Krueger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 218–34. 52 . One of several critics who remark on this possibility is Geraldine Heng, who calls Morgan and the Lady ‘nonidentical doubles’: “Each woman is intricately elaborated in multiple identifications with every other woman, so that a sense of the limits of individual identity is never accomplished. The result is the emergence of a feminine example in the text of identity as plural, heterogeneous” (501–2). See “Feminine Knots and the Other in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” PMLA 106 (May 1991): 500–512. 53 . Many critics are entirely unsatisfied with that abrupt explanation at the end. Albert B. Friedman says that the author “fails to convince us Morgan is organic to the poem” (274); Larry D. Benson states that “Morgan appears too late in the action, and Guenevere’s role is too slight to justify the importance she suddenly assumes at the end of the NOTES 173

adventure” (33). C. M. Adderly takes a slightly different tack in decid- ing that this abrupt revelation of Morgan’s agency was a deliberate choice on the part of the author, and the ‘feeling of disconnectedness’ this engenders helps the reader appreciate the structure of the poem and the poem’s movement between ‘real’ and ‘fictional’ worlds (49). Sheila Fisher argues that the poem is revising Arthurian history, and that it therefore “deliberately leaves Morgan aside, positioning her at the end of the narrative when she is, in fact, the means: the agent of Gawain’s testing” (78). She concludes that finally, women cannot be truly marginalized, either in life or legend, hence the uneasy conclu- sion to the poem. See Sheila Fisher, “Leaving Morgan Aside: Women, History, and Revisionism in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,” in Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996), 77–96; C. M. Adderly, “Meeting Morgan le Fay: J. R. R. Tolkein’s Theory of Subcreation and the Secondary World of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Mythlore 22 ( 2000 Spring): 48–58; Larry D. Benson, Art and Tradition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1965 ); Albert B. Friedman, “Morgan la Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Speculum 35 (1960 ): 260–74. 54 . Geraldine Heng sees Morgan as a strand in the knotted embroidery of the poem, one in an interlacing of feminine desires between and among the masculine desires of the poem. She, like Fries, sees Morgan’s repre- sentations as multiple and doubling; she references much work on the question of Morgan and the Lady as manifestations of one another. See “Feminine Knots”, n. 52 above. 55 . Although not the primary focus of my discussion here, those interested in exploring the connections between Morgan le Fay and medieval witchcraft are referred to MaryLynn Dorothy Saul, “A Rebel and a Witch: The Historical Context and Ideological Function of Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur ” (PhD dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1994). 56 . Stephanie Hollis points out that magic did not always equal evil in medi- eval romance: “What is remarkable about medieval literary representa- tions of the faery otherworld is that medieval authors found it possible to make creative use of this particular form of the non-Christian super- natural, despite the fact that Christian hegemonic thinking regarded all forms of the supernatural which had not been assimilated to Christian belief as opposed to it, and therefore diabolical” (176). She adds in a later footnote that “The narrator [of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ], by contrast, appears bent on disassociating Morgan from witchcraft and the demonic” (n. 41, p. 184). Stephanie Hollis, “‘The Marriage of Sir Gawain:’ Piecing the Fragments Together,” in The English ‘Loathly Lady’ Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs , ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007), 163–85. 174 NOTES

57 . Tolkien and Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 2nd ed. All quotes taken from this edition unless otherwise noted. 58 . Appropriately, Morgan’s reasons for sending the Green Knight to Arthur’s court are multiple: to test Gawain’s adherence to multiple virtues, to test the renown of the Round Table, and to frighten Guenevere to death. For an audience likely to have been already familiar with the reason for Morgan’s enmity with Guenevere from hearing other tales concerning Morgan, such as the Guigomar story from the Vulgate, for instance, there would be no need for background in this tale. Michael W. Twomey has made this argument, linking Morgan’s motives in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight to the Guigomar episode from the Prose Lancelot . See “Morgain la Fee in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight : From Troy to Camelot,” in Text and Intertext in Medieval Arthurian Literature, ed. Norris J. Lacy (New York: Garland, 1996), 91–115. 59 . James J. Wilhelm, ed., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in The Romance of Arthur: An Anthology of Medieval Texts in Translation , (New York: Garland, 1994), 404. Marie Borroff, trans., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: A New Verse Translation (New York: Norton, 1967), 3. 60 . Tolkien and Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 8. 61 . Whether the Green Knight expects Gawain to attempt a decapitating blow may be a matter of debate, adding ambiguity to the moment. From Cuchulainn to Gawain: Sources and Analogues of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, selected and trans. Elisabeth Brewer (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1973) provides a clear antecedent for the episode in the folkloric motif of the Beheading Motif, but Victoria L. Weiss points out that “the stranger’s challenge is presented only as an exchange of blows rather than as an invitation to chop off his head” (361); Gawain’s “aggressive response demonstrates a lack of concern for human life” (363), a concern the Green Knight does demonstrate in his return nick- ing. Weiss concludes that “the uneasy anticipation of death that Gawain is forced to live with through the course of most of the narrative points to the evil inherent in rashness and excessive valor” (365–66), qualities encouraged by Arthur, who “seems unable to grasp the concept of game without dangerous combat” (363). However, “at the end, Gawain’s con- cern with ‘larges’ [generosity] reveals a new respect for the life and well-being of others” (366). Victoria L. Weiss, “Gawain’s First Failure: The Beheading Scene in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, ” Chaucer Review 10 (1976 ): 361–66. Sheri Ann Strite echoes Weiss, adding that “a careful literal reading must render the challenge far more ambigu- ous than that insisted upon by the traditional reading” (3), emphasizing the significance of the choice being in Gawain’s hands. Strite also adds that the challenge is, given the Christmas season, placed in a Christian context. This suggests that forgiveness, rather than violence, is the more appropriate response to the Green Knight’s challenge, but Gawain clings firmly to his (violent) chivalric values instead. Sheri Ann Strite, NOTES 175

“ Sir Gawain and the Green Knight : To Behead or Not to Behead: That is A Question,” Philological Quarterly 70 ( 1999 ): 1–12. 62 . Sarah Stanbury, Seeing the Gawain-: Description and the Art of Perception (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 ), 7. 63 . Stanbury says that “Unlike the pentangle, which disappears after the first arming, the girdle remains highly visible; it is the last garment Gawain puts on after arming to ride to the Green Chapel (2034), the blazon clearly apparent to the Green Knight after his blow.” Stanbury, Seeing the Gawain-Poet , 111. 64 . It might even be inferred that this is a moment of great pride for Gawain—he apparently believes the devil himself feels the need to come and kill him personally. 65 . Stanbury, Seeing the Gawain-Poet , 111. 66 . Tolkien and Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 22–28. 67 . James Wade, Fairies in Medieval Romance (New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2011 ), 132. See also Carolyne Larrington: “Whether Morgan’s designs are good or evil in this poem depends on how she is read. . . . Sir Gawain and the Green Knight deliberately gives us too little information to decide about Morgan”. Larrington, King Arthur’s Enchantresses, 68. 68 . Tolkien and Gordon, eds., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 65. 69 . Wilhelm’s translation reads: “Those lords and ladies who were loyal to the Table— / Laughed loudly at him ” ( Romance of Arthur, 465) whereas Tolkien’s gives “þerat” ( Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 69). 70 . C. M. Adderly, “Meeting Morgan le Fay,” 48–58. 71 . Although Morgan’s emblem, the garter, is misread by the fictional court, it is interesting that her green sash later becomes the device of the Order of the Garter, founded in 1350, with the motto “Hony Soyt Qui Mal Pense” (Shame be to the man who has evil in his mind). If Gawain’s pride and rigidity are the ‘evil’ he brings on his , shame is the result. 72. Borroff, trans., Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 52. 73 . Sandra Hindman, Sealed in Parchment: Rereadings of Knighthood on the Illuminated Manuscripts of Chretien de Troyes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1994 ), 86–87. 74 . Harvey de Roo, “Undressing : Guilt and Denial in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” The Chaucer Review 27 (1997), 313. 75 . See Larrington, King Arthur’s Enchantresses, 73. 76 . G. F. Dalton, “The ‘Loathly Lady’: A Suggested Interpretation,” Folklore 82 (1971): 124–31. “However, in view of the known Irish origin of the theme it seems reasonable to identify the King Henry of the with Henry II, the only one of the name who had any special connection with Ireland” (125). Also associated with the sovereignty goddess is the ; see particularly Maureen Concannon, The Sacred Whore: Sheela, Goddess of the Celts (Cork, Ireland: The Collins Press, 2004 ), 25–26; Stock, “The Hag of Castle Hautdesert,” 121–48; and Russell 176 NOTES

A. Peck, “Folklore and Powerful Women in Gower’s ‘Tale of Florent,’” in The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs , ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007), 100–145. 77 . Dalton, “The ‘Loathly Lady’”, 127. 78 . Carter, “Coupling the Beastly Bride,” 331, 329–45. 79 . Dalton “The ‘Loathly Lady’”, 127. 80 . See the motif of the in the Grail quest, a wounded king whose realm becomes a wasteland. 81 . S. Elizabeth Passmore, 7. “Through the Counsel of a Lady: The Irish and English Loathly Lady Tales and the ‘Mirrors for Princes’ Genre,” in The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs , ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007), 3–41. 82 . Hahn, Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales . In order of appearance: “Wedding”, 53; “Marriage”, 364, “Carle”, 380. Chaucer, Wife of Bath’s Tale in The Riverside Chaucer , 118. 83 . Paton, Studies , 151. 84 . See Heng, “Feminine Knots.” 85 . Sweeney points out that “magic is related to control over the female body. The link between magic and power over an individual is tied in many ways to the link between control over female sexuality and the need to ensure the pure bloodlines of dynastic houses” Magic in Medieval Romance , 27. 86 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages, 130–31. 87 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages, 125–26. Brackets mine. 88 . Hahn, “Wedding,” Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales, Ll. 808–9. 89 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages, 34–35. His suggestion that such figures are nightmarish as well may also be a connection to Morgan and other fairy figures capturing knights while they are sleeping in or near the forest. 90 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 35–36. 91 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 37. 92 . Bernheimer, Wild Men in the Middle Ages , 171. Carter adds that “the Sovranty Hag does not bear children. The personification does not privilege the fertility implicit in youth and beauty; instead a rampant sexuality marks the hag’s agency in mortal affairs” ( 332). 93 . As such, the loathly lady’s instruction complements, and in the case of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight perhaps precedes, the more conven- tional instruction described by Hindman, who describes the process of court ladies’ teaching of bachelor knights through reading aloud: “The topos of storytelling also inscribes different roles for the knights and ladies. . . . By implication the very confrontation between the knight and the lady—the listener and the reader—leads to the domestication of the illiterate youth by the literate lady, who turns him into a hus- band . . . the lady attempts to shape the knight as she reads aloud to NOTES 177

him, offering role models for his behavior out of romances.” Hindman, Sealed in Parchment , 86. 94 . As Carter states, “but now and then amongst canonical works one is surprised by subversion of the ritual of capture. The central motif of her tale—the loathly lady—has an active sexuality that somehow wrig- gles free of the Christian yoke of heterosexual relations and of authorial censure, offering to heterosexuality the lesson that gender roles are not the only option, and that female sovereignty may bring happiness. The slippage of inversion allows a loosening of gender roles” Carter, Coupling the Beastly Bride , 339–40. 95 . Chaucer, The Riverside Chaucer , 3rd ed., 11. 96 . Benson, Art and Tradition , ll: 857–81. 97 . Biebel-Stanley, “Sovereignty through the Lady,” 73. 98 . Robert J. Meyer, “Chaucer’s Tandem Romances: A Generic Approach to the Wife of Bath’s Tale as Palinode,” Chaucer Review 18 (1984 ): 221–38. “The hag . . . tells the bachelor a secret which he needs to save his life, but she realizes that this is not the end of the matter. By exacting his vow to do the next thing which she requires of him, she provides for the next stage in the bachelor’s growth. The role of Chaucer’s Hag might be compared to that of Morgan le Fay in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . Indeed, in view of the tale’s Arthurian provenance and setting, she may even be Morgan. Like Morgan in Sir Gawain , the hag controls the testing process which results in the hero’s re-education and new self-knowledge” (228). See also Esther C. Quinn, “Chaucer’s Arthurian Romance,” Chaucer Review 18 (1984): 211–20. She argues that Chaucer’s version needs to be compared to other Arthurian romances, not just to tales where the hag’s analogue exists, and that once this comparison is made, we can see that “Chaucer’s Wife of Bath’s Tale echoes Sir Gawain [and the Green Knight] at several points and may be viewed as an ironic parallel” (213). 99 . Benson, Art and Tradition , 119. 100 . Jill Mann, Feminizing Chaucer (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2002 ), 70. “This time, male surrender leads not only to marital peace and har- mony, but also to the magical transformation of the ugly old hag into a beautiful young wife. Miraculous as it is, this transformation is no whit more miraculous than the transformation of a rapist into a meekly submissive husband; the magical change in the woman is merely the external projection of this even more magical change in the man.” 101 . Carter, “Coupling the Beastly Bride,” 331–32. 102 . Sheryl L. Forste-Grupp, “A Woman Circumvents the Laws of Primogeniture in The Weddynge of Sir Gawen and Dame Ragnell ,” Studies in Philology 99 ( 2002 ): 105–22. 103 . Alcuin Blamires highlights Alisoun’s potentially ‘excessive’ generos- ity and the moral propriety, in this case, of such excess, adding that “counsel was certainly associated with generosity in medieval moral literature. . . . A woman’s unrestraint is what saves the knight’s life in the 178 NOTES

tale” (66–67). Alcuin Blamires, “Refiguring the ‘Scandalous Excess’ of Medieval Woman: The Wife of Bath and Liberality,” in Gender in Debate from the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ), 57–78. 104 . Norris J. Lacy and Geoffrey Ashe, The Arthurian Handbook (New York: Garland, 1988 ), 104. There are several other medieval versions of the Parzival tale: Chrétien’s unfinished Perceval and its continuations, the Welsh , the French Didot- Perceval and Perlesvaus , and the four- teenth century Middle English . 105 . Andree Blumstein, “The Structure and Function of the Cundrie Episodes in Wolfram’s Parzival,” German Quarterly 51 (1978 ): 160–69. 161. 106 . Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival, trans. Cyril Edwards (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004 ), 142. 107 . Dennis Green points out that having to ask the question means “he is now confronted with a type of situation in which more than a knight’s readiness to help by military means or the tactful self-restraint imposed by courtly breeding is called for” (155). Dennis Green, “Parzival’s Failure (Books V and VI),” in Perceval/Parzival: A Casebook , ed. Arthur Groos and Norris J. Lacy (New York: Routledge, 2002 ), 155–74. 108 . Jean Frappier, “ Perceval or Le Conte du Graal, ” in Chretien de Troyes: The Man and His Work , trans. Raymond J. Cormier (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1982), 150. 109 . See n. 52, above. 110 . von Eschenbach, Parzival , 2. 111 . von Eschenbach, Parzival , 80. 112. von Eschenbach., Parzival , 80–81. 113 . von Eschenbach, Parzival , 249. Blumstein calls Cundrie “misshapen” and “the Loathly Messenger of the Grail.” “The Structure and Function of the Cundrie Episodes,” 112, 161–62. 114 . Blumstein, “The Structure and Function of the Cundrie Episodes,” 164. 115 . Evelyn Jacobson, “Cundrie and Sigune,” Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 25 (1989 ): 1–11. 1.

3 Morgan in Malory 1 . P. J. C. Field, The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1993), 35. 2 . Field, Life and Times , 81. 3 . Field, Life and Times , 96–102. 4 . Sir Thomas Malory, Malory: Works , ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), v. 5 . Field, Life and Times , 103. NOTES 179

6 . Field, Life and Times , 103–33. 7 . Malory, Works , v-vi. As stated in the introduction, Vinaver’s text is based on the Winchester manuscript, and the edition used here is repro- duced and revised from his three-volume set (ix). All citations taken from this edition. 8 . Field, Life and Times , 123. 9 . As mentioned, Geoffrey de Charny is not contemporary with Malory, but Maurice Keen also cites him as a good model for knighthood. See Maurice Keen, Chivalry (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984), 15. 10 . Dorsey Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 6. 11 . Christina Hardyment, Malory: The Life and Times of King Arthur’s Chronicler (London: Harper Collins, 2005 ), 33. 12 . Felicity Riddy, “Contextualizing Le Morte Darthur : Empire and Civil War,” in A Companion to Malory , ed. Elizabeth Archibald and A. S. G. Edwards (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1996), 66, 55–73. 13 . Hardyment, Malory , 218; Field, Life and Times , 103. 14 . Geoffroi de Charny, The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny: Text, Context, and Translation , ed. and trans. Richard W. Kaeuper and Elspeth Kennedy (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 33. All quotations are from this edition. 15 . Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 21–22. As noted in the previous chapter, history has been inspired by literature before; the garter in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight provided partial inspiration for the Order of the Garter. 16 . At least one such knight, Ramon Lull, held such a view, as Kaeuper explains: “A profound fear of knightly wickedness tempers the extrava- gant praise he heaps on knighthood as an ideal.” Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 23–28. 17 . Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 31. 18 . Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 16; italics mine. 19 . Italics mine. 20 . Malory, Works , 75. 21 . See Joanna S. Stein, “The Ambiguous Forest: Marvelous Landscapes in Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur ,” BA Honors Thesis, Macalester College, 2006, http://digitalcommons. macalester.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context =english _honors, 14. 22 . Myra Olstead, “Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Bulletin Bibliographique de la Societé Internationale Arthurienne 19 (1967), 128–38. 23 . tells Arthur that he “ys the man in the worlde that she hatyth moste, because he is moste of worship and of prouesse of ony of hir bloode. . . . And than had she devysed to have me kynge in this londe and so to reigne, and she to be my quene.” Malory, Works , 88. 180 NOTES

24 . Catherine LaFarge, “The Hand of the Huntress: Repetition and Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” in New Feminist Discourses: Critical Essays on Theories and Texts , ed. Isobel Armstrong (New York: Routledge, 1992 ), 264. 25 . Olstead, “Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 129–30. 26 . Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community , 69. 27 . Kenneth Hodges, Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s Morte d’Arthur (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 ). Hodges points out that “an analysis of the imagined feminine is not the same as an analy- sis of women. Characters are seldom ideal; it would be considerably more surprising to find a perfectly feminine woman than to discover that many women do not fit neatly into either the positive or negative of the gender. While Morgan is a troubling character, such ‘unfeminine’ women are not always condemned, and there are numer- ous assertive women praised in Le Morte DArthur . Potential victim (and thus potential object of heroic rescue) is not the only role good women can , and the other roles that develop allow fuller partici- pation in chivalric society” (36–37). 28 . Roberta Davidson, “Reading like a Woman in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Arthuriana 16.1 (2006 ), 21. 29 . Frederic Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981), 115. 30 . K. S. Whetter, “On Misunderstanding Malory’s Balyn,” in Arthurian Studies lx: Reviewing Le Morte Darthur,” ed. K. S. Whetter and Raluca L. Radulescu (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 ), 149–62. 31 . E dwa rd Don a ld Ken ned y, “M a lor y’s K i n g M a rk a nd K i n g A r t hu r,” i n King Arthur: A Casebook , ed. Donald Kennedy (New York: Garland, 1996 ), 139–71. See also Norris J. Lacy, “The Ambiguous Fortunes of Arthur: The Lancelot-Grail and Beyond,” in The Fortunes of King Arthur, ed. Norris J. Lacy (New York: D. S. Brewer, 2005 ), 94–205. 32 . It is unclear in Malory which may be the case initially. Even when Arthur is made to see Lancelot and Guenevere’s betrayal, he hesitates to act and then repeatedly allows a loophole—Lancelot’s prowess—to save Guenevere. For further discussion of what Arthur knew and when, see Elise Francisca Wilhelmina Maria VanderVen-Ten Bensel, The Character of King Arthur in Literature (New York: Haskell House, 1966 ), 147; and Ginger Thornton, “The Weakening of the King: Arthur’s Disintegration in The Book of Sir Tristram ,” Arthurian Yearbook 1 (1991), 135–48. 33 . For a discussion of Morgan as the focus for disloyalty, see especially Debra A. Benko, “Morgan le Fay and King Arthur in Malory’s Works and Marion Zimmer Bradley’s : Sibling Discord and the Fall of the Round Table,” in The Significance of Sibling Relationships in Literature, ed. JoAnna Stephens and Janet Doubler Ward (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Popular Press, 1992 ), 23–31, and Henry NOTES 181

Grady Morgan, “The Role of Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Southern Quarterly 2 (1963–64), 150–68. 34 . It is worth noting, though outside the primary focus here, that Morgan is simultaneously enabled and discredited by her magical abilities. She is referred to as a witch throughout Malory; her magic is part of what enables her to achieve ends that a woman constrained by societal roles could not. At the same time, her magic is a disadvantage because it also allows the court to fear her, see her as evil, and relegate her to the mar- gins. Knights are allowed to fail but still win, because a fight against a magical woman is not a fair fight in the chivalric system. See Olstead, “Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 129–30. 35 . Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies: A Study of Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957 ), 7. 36 . Elizabeth A. Pochoda, “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend,” in Arthurian Propaganda as an Historical Ideal of Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 37–39. 37 . Kantorowicz, The King’s Two Bodies , 7. 38 . Pochoda, “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend,” 37. 39 . Jane Freeman, “Performing the Bodies of King Lear,” Griselda Online , http://www.griseldaonline.it/percorsi/3freeman.htm . 40 . Molly Hite reads Virgina Woolf in light of the King’s Two Bodies the- ory in “Virginia Woolf’s Two Bodies,” Genders Online 31 ( 2000), http:// www.genders.org/g31/g31_hite.html . She concludes that “whereas the King’s public body was invented to maintain an established order in the face of change, Woolf’s visionary body undermined this order, asserting its own desires in the interstices of official doctrines of ancillary femi- ninity.” While I see Morgan as attempting to undermine the rigidity of chivalry, I read her as ultimately supportive of Arthur’s attempt to maintain an established order. 41 . In the oath Arthur’s knights swear, they must “take no batayles in a wrongefull quarrel” (Malory, Works , 75); Arthur does exactly that when he is maneuvered into fighting Accolon, discussed later in this chapter. 42 . Thornton, “The Weakening of the King” 135. 43 . [“Furent il fait pour sojourner assez et pour po traveillier? Certes nen- nil! Furent fait pour touzjours boire et mangier le plus delicieusement qu’il peuent? Certes nennil! Furent il fait qu’il ne se deussent point armer, ne mettre leur corps en peril de batailles a la deffension de leurs terres et le leur people? Certes nennil! Furent il fait pour ester couhart? Certes nennil.”] Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 138–39; all translations taken from Kaeuper and Kennedy. 44 . Thornton, “The Weakening of the King” 137–48. 45 . Further, Arthur fails in other duties of a king. The affair between Guenevere and Lancelot has become something of an open secret. Interpreting Arthur’s shortcomings through the lens of Charny, it is possible that Guenevere goes to Lancelot initially because Arthur is no 182 NOTES

longer doing his knightly duties (or, possibly not paying the conjugal debt). She is released from her marital responsibility to Arthur as a man, because he has reneged on his duties as a knight. 46 . “Mas convient avecques ce que en tous les regars qui dessus sont nom- mez, que en nulle maniere l’en ne puist chose deshonneste veoir ne dire sur eulx; car de leur defrraute seroit le parler et la renommee plus grant que d’un autre qui n’aroit pas si grant renommee de bonte” [It is not, therefore, the only virtue of those who bear arms that they carry weap- ons and perform feats of arms; but in addition to this, it is necessary that in all the respects mentioned above, in no way can anything dishonor- able be perceived nor said concerning them; for there will be much greater talk and notoriety about their shortcomings than there would be concerning some one without such a great reputation]. Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 108–9. Also: “Mais ainsi come l’en doit vouloir garder l’onnour de sa dame en tant comme a lui touché et pour l’amour que I’on y a, l’en y doit garder son honnour mesmes pour l’onnour de sa dame et l’amour que elle lui ” [But just as one should want to protect the honor of one’s lady concerning one’s relationship with her for the sake of the love one has for her, one should also protect one’s own honor for the sake of the honor of one’s lady and for the love she shows to oneself]. Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 118–19. 47 . Thornton, “The Weakening of the King” 140–42. 48 . VanderVen-Ten Bensel, The Character of King Arthur , 146; Kennedy, “Malory’s King Mark and King Arthur” 151–53. 49 . C. Stephen Jager, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals 939–1210 (University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 239. 50 . Peter R. Schroeder suggests that duplicity on Morgan’s part (as when she shows no outward sign of sorrow at Accolon’s death) is indicative of ‘moral unsoundness’; however, it seems more likely simple politi- cal expediency, as Schroeder himself seems to say when he continues, “Having just pled temporary diabolical possession when her son caught her trying to kill her husband, she knows it would be unwise to make too much fuss about the death of her paramour” (46). “Saying But Little: Malory and the Suggestion of Emotion,” Arthuriana 11.2 ( 2001 ): 43–51. 51 . Latin vagina , taken by some to be a feminine symbol. 52 . VanderVen-Ten Bensel, 143; Davidson, “Reading like a Woman in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 23–24. 53 . [“ Don’t furent il faiz pour tenir ce qu’il promettoient et disorient de leur bouche veritablement, don’t par plus forte raison devoient il tenir leurs seremens et seellez sanz corrumpre .”] Charny, The Book of Chivalry , 142–43. 54 . This is another example of Arthur not listening to wise councilors. Though Mark is shown in a bad light in Malory, at least he is attempt- ing to act to stop the treasonous love between Tristan and Isolde. It is NOTES 183

thus ironic that Arthur would ignore the warnings of a fellow ruler who is taking the sort of action Arthur needs to. For more on this, see Kennedy, “Malory’s King Mark and King Arthur.” 55 . This mantle is not to be confused with the one in “Lay of the Mantle.” In that tale, the cloak is tried on by all the ladies of the court and fits each according to their faithfulness to their lovers or husbands. 56 . This line of reasoning also suggests that Morgan’s attempt to kill is a similar tactic; whether she intended to succeed or not, Uriens is linked to Arthur politically, as the episode where they are hunting together and are separated by the fairy barge shows. Whether Morgan intended to succeed or not (and it is possible she did not, given that she tells a damsel what she intends to do with Uriens’s sword, rather than retrieve it herself with no word as to why), Uriens stands as a symbolic proxy for Arthur, and his death or simply hearing of the attempt would serve as another warning to Arthur about dangers from unexpected quarters. Furthermore, Arthur does not seem to believe that Morgan truly wants to kill him, either, since he repeatedly accepts her danger- ous gifts as easily, as blindly, as he does her final ‘safe’ one. As just men- tioned, he is glad to accept the cloak initially; likewise, when a damsel brings him the false Excalibur from Morgan “for grete love” (85) prior to the battle with Accolon, he takes it and thanks her, only questioning the blade when it begins to fail him in battle. Of course, this cycle of trust in a kinsperson foreshadows the trust Arthur wrongly places in Mordred. 57 . The is herself both helpful to Arthur and dangerous in her own right, in a contrary pattern to Morgan. Where Morgan looks foul and is fair, the Lady is the opposite. During the Accolon episode, in the same sentence, Malory tells us that the Lady of the Lake, who had killed , has “com thidir for the love of kynge Arthur.” Malory, Works , 85. Likewise, in the cloak episode just discussed, it is telling that the Lady has to in effect kill the damsel who brings the mantle to show Arthur its effects, rather than simply tell him of the danger. 58 . Malory’s willingness to leave Arthur’s fate indeterminate is reminiscent of Morgan’s multiple and shifting bodies—one immortal—as queen of Avalon. 59 . Jager, The Origins of Courtliness , 6. 60 . Geraldine Heng, “Enchanted Ground: The Feminine Subtext in Malory,” in Arthurian Women: A Casebook . Ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996), 97–113. 106 Davidson, “Reading like a Woman in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 23–27. 61 . Andreas Capellanus, The Art of , trans. John Jay Perry (New York: Ungar, 1941). 62 . Chrétien de Troyes, “The Knight of the Cart,” in The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes , trans. David Staines (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 215. 184 NOTES

63 . de Troyes, “The Knight of the Cart,” 174. 64 . Malory clearly sees Lancelot rather than Arthur as the of his text; he ends his text not with the death of Arthur, but with the deaths of Guenevere and Lancelot. 65 . For Lancelot’s paintings, see vol. 5 of the Alexandre Micha, ed., Lancelot: Roman en prose du XIIIe siecle , vols. 1–8 (Geneva: Droz, 1978–82), LXXXVI. For Arthur’s viewing of the paintings, see Jean Frappier, ed., Le Mort le Roi Artu: Roman du XIIIe Siecle (Geneva: Droz, 1964 ), 55–66. 66 . In both chivalry and courtly love, then, Malory reluctantly recognizes degeneration from the ideals while expressing hope that perhaps things are not as bad as they seem. 67 . Dorsey Armstrong, Gender and the Chivalric Community , points out that “the forests of adventure are seemingly brimming with damsels . . . and knights seem only to be able to ‘read’ these women as needy and inca- pable of deception. Thus, knights never readily perceive or anticipate the occasional malicious female who seeks to harm or destroy a knight. Arthur’s knights have no mechanism or means by which they may recog- nize or effectively deal with such a danger” (103). See n. 10, above. 68 . LaFarge, “The Hand of the Huntress,” 268. 69 . Pochoda, “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend,” 119–20. 70 . The four queens are Morgan, queen of Gore, the queen of North Galys, the queen of Estlonde, and the queen of the Oute Iles, but none of the others are given proper names. Malory, Works , 152. 71 . As Davidson has also pointed out, Morgan takes on the role of a fellow knight, rather than a traditional maiden. “Reading like a Woman in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 58–59. 72 . She takes him when he “lyeth undir the appil-tre slepyng.” This is a common device in medieval stories; Orfeo’s wife is taken by the fairy king when she falls asleep under an ympe-tre. See Anne Laskaya and Eve Salisbury, eds., The Middle English Breton Lays (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995), 27. Trees are one of the places that are nei- ther here nor there, this nor that, where Morgan can exercise power. Trees and forests are liminal locales of mystery, uncertainty, and adven- ture, all qualities of magical places and therefore the perfect place for Morgan to locate her power. The forest also is traditionally a place of the Other. Lancelot has stepped out of Arthur’s realm and into a place where action is not so restricted, where loopholes in the chivalric code as well as entrances into the Otherworld can be found. 73 . Perhaps because of Lancelot’s unswerving loyalty to Guenevere, Hodges notes that “many of Launcelot’s adventures seem to test what it means for a knight to be subordinate to woman. . . . Most of his adventures in this tale involve Launcelot’s service to women. The adventures seem to ask similar, more general questions: how much freedom does a knight lose by serving women? Is he feminized? Is he cut off from the society of fellow men?” Forging Chivalric Communities , 73–74. See n. 27, above. NOTES 185

74 . Pochoda, “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend,” 124. 75 . Sometimes that damage is literal and physical. When Lancelot rescues Guenevere from the fire, he is forced to fight his way out, in the process accidentally slaying Gaheris and Gareth, who have reluctantly come unarmed in protest. Lancelot’s defense is that he did not see them in the rush to escape, as he claims later (689), though Gawain does not believe him. This is of course also a chivalric fault; Lancelot has just slain two unarmed fellow knights, a truly shameful act. 76 . Which means that Arthur has probably not been in active battle for at least that long, a fault all by itself in Charny’s eyes. In addition, this year-long delay seems to be a sign that Morgan again does not truly seek Arthur’s death—she could simply slay Arthur with Excalibur directly when she steals it and the scabbard from his chamber while he sleeps. 77 . It is difficult to say whether Accolon truly knows he faces Arthur; the ’s initial instructions are to use Excalibur and “bryngyth the kyn- ges hede whyche ye shall fight withal” (84); later in his confession, Accolon seems to know which king (“to sle kyng Arthure, hir brother”, 88), yet Accolon apparently does not recognize this knight as Arthur— Accolon asks him to identify himself, and then says “I knew you nat” (88). Perhaps he is sincere, or perhaps he knows that invoking ignorance and Morgan’s name as the agent will guarantee him mercy. 78 . Heng, “Enchanted Ground,” 106; knights’ inability or refusal to read the ‘signs.’ Furthermore, Morgan’s use of Accolon serves another purpose: that of warning the knights about the loyalty-dividing power of courtly love, since Accolon gives one motivation for his actions as overween- ing love of Morgan. Her ability to turn Accolon against Arthur echoes Guenevere’s ability to turn Lancelot’s loyalty away from Arthur. 79 . Olstead, “Morgan Le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” 136; see also Jerome Mandel, “The Idea of Coherence and the Feminization of Knights in Malory’s ‘Alexander the Orphan,’ The Arthurian Yearbook III ( 1993): 91–105. 80 . This episode is strong support for the idea that Morgan is not seek- ing to literally kill knights or do them lasting harm. The premise for Alexander’s capture is that Mark wishes to destroy Alexander, and calls on Morgan for help in achieving this end. Morgan captures Alexander but, though clearly able to bring about his death, only further hurts, then heals and imprisons him. It is Mark who ultimately kills Alexander. Malory, Works , 392. 81 . Charny, The Book of Chivalry , see n. 14 above. 82 . Dhira B. Mahoney points out that Alexander retains his honor by keep- ing his oath. Though he is released, and the castle destroyed, he serves out his year and day sentence in defending the spot from fellow knights (100). “Symbolic Uses of Space in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” in Arthurian Studies lx: Reviewing Le Morte Darthur: Texts and Contexts, Characters and Themes , ed. K. S. Whetter and Raluca Radulescu (Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 ), 95–106. 186 NOTES

83 . Whetter proposes a theory for the Lady of the Lake—that because she is supernatural, she is exempt from the courtesy usually expected from knights toward women; that by her powers she is something of an hon- orary knight—that also fits Morgan. However, Morgan is allowed such courtesy; as demonstrated by her escape of punishment for attempting to kill Uriens, she has other strategies for escaping retribution or pun- ishment (155). See n. 30, above. 84 . Possibly they put their own concerns above Arthur because they under- stand that he is flawed and therefore tarnishes their own honor. Part of the reason they go on the Grail quest, then, is because they have found a more perfect lord in a more perfect system, making loyalty easier. See also Pochoda, “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend,” 136.

4 Morgan’s Presence-in-Absence in Renaissance, Romantic, and Victorian Works 1 . Alan Lupack, The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 145–46. 2 . See the Introduction, n. 9. 3 . Carole Levin and Jeanie Watson, eds., Ambiguous Realities: Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Detroit: Wayne State University, 1987), 14–15. 4 . Susan Frye, : The Competition for Representation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 108–9. 5 . Matthew Woodcock, Fairy in The Faerie Queene: Renaissance Elf-Fashioning and Elizabethan Myth-Making (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), 3. 6 . Kimberly Ann Coles, “‘Perfect hole’: Elizabeth I, Spenser, and Chaste Productions,” Review 32 (2002): 31, 31–61. 7 . Susan Frye, Elizabeth I, viii. 8 . Susan Frye, Elizabeth I, 140. 9 . Woodcock, Fairy, 105, 113. 10 . Representative of this view is Shirley F. Staton, “Reading Spenser’s Faerie Queene : In a Different Voice,” in Ambiguous Realities: Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance , ed. Carole Levin and Jeanie Watson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987), 145–64. 11 . In chapter 5, I discuss a work of contemporary fantasy in which Morgan is raped: J. Robert King’s Le Morte D’Avalon (New York: Tor, 2003). 12 . Edmund Spenser, Faerie Queene , Ed. A. C. Hamilton (London: Longman, 1977), 15–16. 13 . Woodcock, Fairy, 5. It is interesting to note that, given the interest in fairy lore evidenced by Spenser and Shakespeare that Morgan herself, as a queen of fairy, does not appear. 14 . Elizabeth Fay, Romantic Medievalism: The Ideal of History (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ), 90. NOTES 187

15 . Woodcock, Fairy, 89. 16 . Judith Anderson, “Arthur, Argante, and the Ideal Vision: An Exercise in Speculation and Parody,” in Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996 ), 191–204. 17 . Anderson, “Arthur, Argante,” 195. 18 . Spenser, I.2.31–45. Sheila T. Cavanaugh comments in Wanton Eyes and Chaste Desires: Female Sexuality in the Faerie Queene (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994) that “female tempters such as Duessa who represent true dedication to the downfall of these men, not sim- ply to the satisfaction of their own sexual desires, use their seductive powers primarily to entice their victims into extended or permanent dissipation. As the with a thousand faces, Duessa magnifies the dangers perceived as inherent within the female sex. She also combines the treacheries associated with the witches, hag, and succubus triad. Duessa is one of the few characters who straddles each of these catego- ries, once again demonstrating her finesse in adapting to contingen- cies” (55–56). 19 . Rovang also sees echoes of Lancelot’s kidnapping by Morgan and her fellow queens when he sleeps under the apple-tree in Redcrosse’s rest by the fountain and subsequent seduction by Duessa, clearly a paral- lel to Morgan herself, and mentions the connection to the Celtic fairy Otherworld. Paul R. Rovang, Refashioning “Knights and Ladies Gentle Deeds”: The Intertextuality of Spenser’s Faerie Queene and Malory’s Le Morte Darthur (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996), 29–30. 20 . Seduction is also a quality of Morgan’s featured in the portrayal of Malecasta. In a work like Spenser’s that features chastity in any form, we have to expect a Morgan-like, over(t)ly sexual woman, and we find her in Malecasta. She is the lady of the castle Joyous, a place and a woman both closely resembling Hautdesert and the Lady who attempts to seduce Gawain (on Morgan’s instruction) in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . Britomart more closely resembles Lancelot here than Redcross did in the previous book, easily denying Malecasta’s advances. The Lady is also clearly reminiscent of Morgan’s capture of and sexual advances toward Lancelot and Alexander. Elizabeth Fay points out that “The Lady (along with the seducer of Merlin later in the book, the Lady of the Lake, whose mention clearly reinforces the treachery of female desire) represents the traduction of true love. This is best represented by the Lady’s policy of having her knights force any stranger knight to surrender his love for another in preference to her: She thus absorbs courtly love into herself and ruins it as an individualizing concept.” Fay, Romantic Medievalism , 89. 21 . Cavanaugh, Wanton Eyes and Chaste Desires , 45. 22 . Fay, Romantic Medievalism , 14. 23 . Showalter, A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 14. 188 NOTES

24 . For the importance of chastity to Victorian conceptions of the worth of a woman, see Sally Mitchell, The Fallen Angel: Chastity, Class and Women’s Reading, 1835–1880 (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1981), x-xv. 25 . For a more thorough explanation of how the shift occurred, see Gail Cunningham, The New Woman and the Victorian Novel (London: Macmillan Press, 1978), 1–19. 26 . Victoria, like Elizabeth I, also resisted the identities others tried to impose upon her. Elizabeth Langland points out that though “Victoria is memora- ble for her distress at being forced repeatedly to bear children,” she became an unwilling symbol “of conventional propriety and familial devotion” and “the public conferred upon Victoria an image of itself that con- firmed both the emergence and importance of middle-class domesticity.” Telling Tales: Gender and Narrative Form in Victorian Literature and Culture (Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press, 2002), 122. For a more detailed picture of Queen Victoria’s negotiation of self-image and others’ representation of her, see Margaret Homans, Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876 (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998). 27 . Adriana Craciun, “Bannerman, Anne (1765–1829),” in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). 28 . Fay, Romantic Medievalism , 120–21. 29 . Fay, Romantic Medievalism , 135. 30 . For a thorough examination of the archetypes used, see Adriana Craciun, Fatal Women of (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 116. 31 . See for one example, J. Caitlin Finlayson, “Medieval Sources for Keatsian Creation in La Belle Dame Sans Merci ,” Philological Quarterly 79 (2000): 225–47. 32 . Anne K Mellor states that “this short romance underlines the angst Keats felt toward his favorite feminine subject-matter, his psychological need to ally himself with his male peers” (223). Anne K. Mellor, “Keats and the Complexities of Gender,” in The Cambridge Companion to Keats , ed. Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 ), 214–29. 33 . Mervyn Nicholson, “Magic Food, Compulsive Eating, and Power Poetics,” in Disorderly Eaters: Texts in Self-Empowerment , ed. Lilian R. Furst and Peter W. Graham (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992), 48, 43–60. 34 . Mellor, “Keats and the Complexities of Gender,” 223. 35 . Harold Bloom, How to Read and Why (New York: Scribner, 2000 ), 137. See also John Blades, John Keats: The Poems (New York: Palgrave, 2002 ): “She seems like an enchantress or even a witch, with resemblances to . . . the cunning Morgan le Fay of Arthurian legend. The title descrip- tion ‘sans Merci’ carries with it a double strand of a woman lacking in NOTES 189

both pity and gracious kindness (she evades the conventional stereotype of a lady). Yet we cannot be certain that the knight blindly falls to a destructive siren entrapment . . . perhaps he is the full active, willing par- ticipant” (166). His eagerness suggests the idea, returned to below, that she may provide a tantalizing escape for men who did not wholeheart- edly embrace their identity as ‘knight.’ 36 . Greg Kucich contends that “Arthur’s dream shimmers behind the knight-at-arms’s conflicted dream-experience in La Belle Dame Sans Merci ; the Bower of Bliss ( Faerie Queene II.2:12) haunts Keatsian bow- ers of dreaming. But Keats’s way with Spenserian material is to . . . leave the conflict unresolved, or resistant to any clear moral interpretation” (190–91). Greg Kucich, “Keats and ,” in The Cambridge Companion to Keats , ed. Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 ), 186–202. 37 . Lambdin and Thomas, Camelot in the Nineteenth Century, xi. 38 . For example, Guenevere is given a surprisingly spirited justification of her adultery in ’s “Defence of Guenevere.” 39 . See the discussion of her attempt to murder her husband, Uriens, above. 40 . This is particularly interesting in light of the fact that Tennyson him- self resisted assigning strict meanings to his characters. In reply to the Bishop of Ripon’s attempt to pin down the allegorical interpretation of the three queens (not named, but presumably including Morgan) at Arthur’s crowning, Tennyson replied that he was “right, and . . . not right. They mean that and they do not . . . they are much more. I hate to be tied down to say, ‘This means that ,’ because the thought within the image is much more than any one interpretation” (1). Gerhard Joseph, “Tennyson’s Three Women: The Thought Within the Image,” Victorian Poetry 19 ( 1981): 1–18. 41 . Anne Hogan and Andrew Bradstock have readily acknowledged that the “Angel in the House” image was itself “always a more complex figure than she at first seemed.” Women of Faith in Victorian Culture: Reassessing the Angel in the House (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 1. 42 . Isobel Armstrong, “Tennyson’s Lady of Shalott: Victorian Mythography and the Politics of Narcissism,” in The Sun is God: Painting, Literature, and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century , ed. J. B. Bullen (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 49–108. Tennyson read his poem as expressive of the art- ist’s ambivalence: the artist requires both experience and distance from it to create art; too much of either aspect could cause destruction. The poem evokes a similar problem for women, more heavily weighted against experience, however. 43 . Jan Marsh, Pre-Raphaelite Women: Images of Femininity (New York: Harmony Books, 1987), 10. 44 . Carole Silver, “Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle,” in The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition , ed. Christopher Baswell and William Sharpe (New York: Garland, 1988 ), 258–59, 249–59. 190 NOTES

45 . Marsh, Pre-Raphaelite Women, 114. “He felt, however, that she [Maria] had his heart in thrall, like Merlin under the stone, and to exorcize his feelings he repeatedly portrayed her as a sorceress. The Beguiling of Merlin is his last major tribute to Maria; later he explained how Nimue was modeled on her.” 46 . Marsh, Pre-Raphaelite Women, 109–10. “The closest that Pre-Raphaelite art to presenting femininity in wicked or ugly guise is in the delineation of woman as enchantress or witch. But even here, woman- hood is almost never shown as contemptible or base, and the images of the ensnaring sorceress are as idealized and beautiful as those of the courtly lady. Burne-Jones, who made a cult of the witch figure, insisted that the woman who held men captive through her beauty should not be blamed, however immoral her action: she could not change her nature, which was a manifestation of the goddess—amoral but divine. ‘Don’t hate,’ he wrote . . . ‘some things are beyond scolding—hurricanes and tempests and billows of the sea—it’s no use blaming them.’ Ideas of seduction, evil and magic combined to bewitch Burne-Jones, adding ‘menace to the worship of female beauty’ and laying the ground for the concept of the ; this adolescent fantasy remained a favorite throughout his life” (109–10). 47 . Muriel Whitaker, The of King Arthur in Art (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1990). Whitaker asks “how are we to account for the Lily Maid’s extraordinary popularity? What attracted Victorian males, I suspect, was the iconic depiction of an ‘ideal’ relationship between the sexes. The handsome, successful masculine figure engages actively in the real world outside the castle—every Englishman’s home—while the woman, impregnable, inviolate, secluded in her tower, engages in domestic activity” (218). Whitaker sees a further restriction in both Hunt’s drawings (“she is imprisoned by the loom’s whip-like threads”) and reads Moxton’s illustration and in the large oil painting developed from it (1886–1905), as symbolizing that “the lady has chosen emotional experience, which the binding threads suggest is a trap, rather than ded- ication to spiritual values. She is ‘human soul’ refusing its ‘accepted responsibility’” (213). 48 . Whitaker, The Legends of King Arthur , 243–44. For another analysis of the painting, see Marsh, Pre-Raphaelite Women, 118. 49 . Jan Marsh in Pre-Raphaelite Women says that “the bondage motif evi- dently presented itself to the painters despite Tennyson’s own claim that the poem articulated the dilemma of art. On his own account, Holman Hunt analysed the text as a moral illustrating ‘the failure of a human soul towards its accepted responsibility’. In the poem, the prohibition on the lady is arbitrary, but in Hunt’s picture the iconogra- phy is of moral disobedience and the conflict between good and evil” (150). 50 . Mancoff, Arthurian Revival, 221. “Thirteen years earlier a similar erotic intensity, depicted in Frederick Sandys’ Morgan-le-Fay (1864; NOTES 191

Birmingham City Art Gallery), incited the critics to derision. The reviewer in the Art Journal lamented that the work evoked ‘astonish- ment, and dismay.’ The figure of Arthur’s half-sister casting her spell was grotesque, ‘medieval, a petrified spasm, sensational as a ghost from a grave. We are happy to hear the work is not without admirers, though possibly few.’ The erotic power of the femme fatale presented an alternative to the increasingly dry and text-dependent conceptions for Arthurian imagery. What was once an element of repulsion in a work became the core of its attraction.” 51 . Diane Purkiss, At the Bottom of the Garden: A Dark History of Fairies, , and Other Troublesome Things (New York: New York University Press, 2000 ), 247. 52 . Morgan also appears in , which are fairly traditional in their treatment of her and thus not discussed here: Ralph Adams Cram’s Excalibur: An Arthurian (1909) and Rutland Boughton’s Arthurian Cycle (1904–6). See Alan Lupack, The Arthurian Revival , 162 and 219. 53 . Benedikte Naubert, The Mantle , http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot /naubert.htm . 54 . Naubert, 107–258. 55 . Naubert, 217–18. “Her present abode is on an island near the Sicilian coast, where she constantly mocks the passing mariners. In the mist . . . the inexperienced seaman fancies, when afar off, that he sees castles, cities, men, and strange forms of animals. . . . He finds himself deceived.” 56 . The mantle and horn tests are frequently featured in Arthurian lit- erature; see for example “The of the Mantle,” trans. Marianne E. Kalinke, in The Romance of Arthur: An Anthology of Medieval Texts in Translation , ed. James J. Wilhelm (New York: Garland, 1994 ), 209–23. 57 . Naubert, 255–56. 58 . Naubert, 258. 59 . Arthurian Literature by Women , ed. Alan Lupack and Barbara Tepa Lupack (New York: Garland, 1999 ), 163. 60 . The Lupacks attribute this episode to Hervey’s “desire to redeem her characters . . . even . . . the most traditionally wicked” and point out that it is “striking, particularly since it is couched in terms that are critical of male responses to women who attempt to exceed their expected roles” (5). 61 . Sally Mitchell, Dinah Craik and the Feminine Tradition (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983), 107. 62 . Dinah Maria Muldock Craik, Avillion, or the Happy Isles , in Arthurian Literature by Women , ed. Alan and Barbara Tepa Lupack (New York: Garland, 1999 ). 95–158. 63 . Madison Cawein, The Poems of Madison Cawein, Vol. 1: Lyrics and Old World Idylls (Boston: Small, Maynard, and Company, 1907), 353. 64 . Francis James Child, ed., The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, Vol 1 (New York: Dover, 2003), 335–57. 65 . This also recalls Thomas Chestre’s Launfal , which deals with a sim- ilar situation: the knight is left behind to prove his loyalty through 192 NOTES

discretionary silence about his fairy lover. In that story, the fairy takes her lover with her to Avalon (as and are initially brought to Faery), not left behind permanently, as “La Belle” and others seems to imply is the case. 66 . Purkiss, At the Bottom of the Garden , 247. 67 . Child, 319. A foretelling of Thomas’ is supposed to have been in a pre-1320 manuscript; the version cited here was recorded in 1802. Child says in a footnote on p. 319 that he knows of a source for the Ogier story (dated 1542) that might explain which came (or was at least recorded) first, but is unable to find it. 68 . For Heurodis and fairy characteristics, see Dean R. Baldwin, “Fairy Lore and the Meaning of ,” Southern Folklore Quarterly 41 (1977), 129–42. Holdas / Mother Holle are figures both associated with leading the Wild Hunt and ruling the realm of the Other/Underworld; for con- nections between fairyland and the underworld, see K. M. Briggs, “The Fairies and the Realms of the Dead,” Folklore 81 (1970): 81–96. For background and characteristics of Holdas and Mother Holle, see Lotte Motz, “The Winter Goddess: Percht, Holda, and Related Figures,” Folklore 95 (1984): 151–66. K. Briggs also points out that “the distinc- tion between the fairies and the dead is vague and shifting. The Scottish Faery Rade corresponds closely to Frau Hulde’s Rode, and belongs to All Hallowtide, when the fairies, the witches and the dead were all stir- ring.” The Fairies in English Tradition and Literature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 51. 69 . Silver, “Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle,” 17. 70 . Barbara Fass, La Belle Dame Sans Merci and the Aesthetics of Romanticism (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1974). “Keats’s ballad raises still another point about the ‘return’ motif. Just as it is true that the hero usually wearies of his supernatural abode, it is also true that he cannot readjust to the world” (39). 71 . John Grosvenor Wilson, “Morgain,” http://www.lib.rochester.edu /camelot/wilsmorg.htm . 72 . Once again calling up the folkloric image of Holdas; see n. 68 above. 73 . In Malory, Morgan is no more amenable to marriage than she seems here; she is married to Uriens but attempts to murder him in their bed with his own sword. Sir Thomas Malory, Malory: Works , ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), 90–91. 74 . Victorian folklorists seemed uneasy with using some of the Celtic mate- rial available to them as it pertained to female fairy power. In refer- ence to swan-maiden tales, but equally applicable to the portrayal of Morgan, Silver suggests that this power “suggested the possibility of the superiority or, at least, the equality of women, thus overturning the prevailing hierarchy of gender. They suggested, as well, the symbolic ‘otherness’ of women, their alien and ‘natural’ characteristics; their inability to fit with comfort in a ‘normal’ patriarchal world.” Silver, NOTES 193

“Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle,” 93–94. 75 . Silver, “Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle,” 9. 76 . Marsh, 112. 77 . John Pfordresher, A Variorum Edition of Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973). All quotations are from this edition. 78 . Silver, “Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle,” 17. “Her moral nature remains capricious and unknowable; there are hints that she pities and suffers, suggestions that she does not will the evil she causes, that she is the product of a different order, functioning upon the basis of a separate law.” 79 . In Malory, Morgan warns Arthur of the affair through actions: she sends the horn and the cloak that reveal infidelity, for example. 80 . Lambdin and Thomas believe that “Tennyson’s reworking of Malory is clearly an attempt to discourage wicked conduct among audience members. The Idylls is a series of moral lessons about a civilization that steadily progresses toward failure because of the corrosive and con- tagious nature of human sexuality. As social criticism, the Arthurian works of Tennyson show that the rigidity required of total commitment to any one cause does not allow for the normal complexity of life” (144). 81 . Th is echoes the moment in Ma lor y when A r thur receives a sim i lar war n- ing from Morgan: “Whan kynge Arthur undirstode the lettir, he mused of many thynges, and thought of his systers wordys, queen Morgan le Fay, that she had seyde betwyxte queen Gwenyver and sir Launcelot, and in this thought he studied a grete whyle. Than he bethought hym agayne how his owne sister was his enemy, and that she hated the queen and sir Launcelot to the deth, and so he put that all out of his thought.” Malory, Works , 381. 82 . Stephen Ahern, “Listening to : Female Agency and the Politics of Chivalry in Tennyson’s Idylls, ” Studies in Philology 101 (2004): 88–111. “Arthur’s obsession . . . to impose the order of Christian law onto the natural world . . . does indeed “make the world / Other,” but he does it by constructing whatever lies beyond his control as the threatening opposite of all he desires” (94). 83 . As Lambdin and Robert point out, “Merlin recognizes that Vivien is not as devoted to him as she pretends to be, but is too flattered by her attention to realize that she is especially dangerous, so he does not take the precaution of banishing her. As he allows himself to be deceived and to have his intellect corrupted by sensuality, he gets his just reward” (32). 84 . Merlin does not see her as a threat; he does echo the ‘lowest and high- est’ comparison in ll: 810–13. Like Morgan, Viven is dangerous because as Beverly Taylor suggests, “another aspect of her nature perhaps more 194 NOTES

transgressive by Victorian standards [is] her desire for knowledge tra- ditionally reserved to men.” Beverly Taylor, “Re-Vamping Vivien: Reinventing Myth as Victorian Icon,” in King Arthur’s Modern Return , ed. Debra A. Mancoff (New York: Garland, 1998), 70–71. Of course, Morgan is frequently credited with both learning of in a nunnery (Malory) and also seducing and learning from Merlin (Vulgate). 85 . Vivien’s use of ‘wink’ is particularly apt here, as the image suggests a semi-blindness as well as echoes the repeated use of ‘half-’ throughout the poem. 86 . Taylor, “Re-Vamping Vivien: Reinventing Myth as Victorian Icon,” believes that “Vivien’s reliance on deceit, flattery, and seduction may be said to result from separate spheres which have reduced women’s oppor- tunities to act usefully in the world, opposed women and men, and made sexual attraction a source of danger. Merlin and Vivien’s contest for pos- session of the ancient book’s knowledge ends with a disastrous, inverted reinscription of the separate spheres, with Merlin confined, useless to the world, and Vivien mobile, empowered, but debased” (72–73). 87 . Like Morgan’s effects on the Round Table in Malory, the effects of Viven’s success in imprisoning Merlin are hardly felt. Rebecca Umland, “The Snake in the Woodpile: Tennyson’s Vivien as Victorian Prostitute,” in Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend , ed. Martin B. Shichtman and James P. Carley (New York: State University of New York Press, 1994), 274–87. 88 . Catherine Harland says that “Vivien suggests that gender prevents her from the free expression of what she knows about the Round Table. Vivien’s protean potential appears to be quickened by Merlin’s casual stereotyping. In the course of the idyll he sees her as a playful kitten, as actress, gossip, and whore. He assumes that she is, because a woman, ignorant, jealous, and fickle. Tennyson implies that Merlin is ‘overtalked and overworn’ . . . by an imagination committed to culturally sanctioned types. Vivien plays upon this careless perspective, to Merlin’s destruc- tion, by adopting the various roles he assigns her. Vivien’s alternative interpretations of the human story disrupt the master narrative” (64–65). Catherine R. Harland, “Interpretation and Rumor in Tennyson’s Merlin and Vivien ,” Victorian Poetry 35 (1997 ): 57–70. This is exactly the sort of game Morgan plays in Malory, when Uwayne catches her about to murder Uriens: she plays on his expectations of ‘weak’ womanhood to escape Uwayne’s punishment.

5 Imprisoned by Ideology: Modern and Fantasy Portrayals 1 . Ann Howey points out in Rewriting the Women of Camelot: Arthurian Popular Fiction and Feminism (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 ) that the Arthurian fantasy genre often takes on a feminist cast by NOTES 195

featuring ‘female protagonists’ who move beyond their typical role as a love object, “often by emphasizing the nation-building aspects of the story rather than the courtly love aspects”; love may be a part of their life, but “that motivation is often equaled or excelled by their concern for community and their religious or political convictions” (64). For my definition of ‘fantasy,’ I have followed Rosemary Jackson’s view that fantasy works against the normative; see note 30 in the Introduction. 2 . Alan Lupack, “The Old Order Changeth: King Arthur in the Modern World,” in The Fortunes of Arthur , ed. Norris J. Lacy (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 ), 210, 209–24. 3 . Kim Moreland, The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 55–56. 4 . Janet Cowen, “‘Old Sir Thomas Malory’s Enchanting Book:’ A Connecticut Yankee Reads Le Morte Darthur ,” in Arthurian Studies in Honour of P. J. C. Field (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004 ), 311–24. 5 . Betsy Bowden, “Gloom and Doom in Mark Twain’s Connecticut Yankee , from Thomas Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Studies in American Fiction 28 (2000 ): 179–202. Joe B. Fulton also points out in Mark Twain in the Margins: The Quarry Farm Marginalia and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000) that “such ambivalence and contradictions may have existed in Twain’s mind but certainly also existed within his historical sources and within history itself” (23). 6 . Jane Gardiner, “‘A More Splendid Necromancy’: Mark Twain’s Connecticut Yankee and the Electrical Revolution,” in Mark Twain: An Anthology of Recent Criticism , ed. Prafulla C. Kar (Delhi: Pencraft International, 1992 ), 182–94. 7 . Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court , ed. Shelley Fisher Fishkin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996 ), 134. All following quotes are taken from this edition and cited in parentheses in the text. 8 . Mary Lyndon Shanley and Peter G. Stillman, “Mark Twain: Technology, Social Change, and Political Power,” in The Artist and Political Vision , ed. Benjamin R Barber and Michael J Gargas (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1982), 267–89. 9 . Gardiner, “A More Splendid Necromancy”191–92. 10 . Cowen, “Old Sir Thomas Malory’s Enchanting Book” 318. 11 . James L. Johnson says it most succinctly in Mark Twain and the Limits of Power (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982 ): “The disturb- ing thing is that all of the contradictory facets of Hank’s personality are genuine and sincere” (141). David Lampe sees the contradictions between Hank’s professed beliefs and his behavior as evidence that “we have an unreliable narrator” (85). “‘The Accuracies of My Impressions’: Mark Twain, Ford Madox Ford, and Michael Crichton Re-Imagine Chivalry,” The Year’s Work in Medievalism 17 ( 2002 ): 84–96. 12 . See for example Stephen Knight, Arthurian Literature and Society (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983 ), 197; Shanley and Stillman, “Mark 196 NOTES

Twain: Technology, Social Change, and Political Power,” 273–74; Taylor and Brewer, “Arthur’s ‘Return’”, 172–73, and Alan and Barbara Tepa Lupack, King Arthur in America (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2001), 56. 13 . Taylor and Brewer, “Arthur’s ‘Return’”, 171. 14 . J. D. Stahl, Mark Twain: Culture and Gender (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1994 ), 104. 15 . See Donald H. Hoffman, “Mark’s Merlin: Magic vs. Technology in A Connecticut Yankee In King Arthur’s Court ,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Sally K. Slocum (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Popular Press, 1992), 46–55. 16 . See Fulton, Mark Twain in the Margins , 90. Fulton sees even this compli- ment as a symptomatic factor in Hank’s destruction, because he feels so strongly about his cause that he has to sublimate his admiration for Arthur. I see this rather as another piece of evidence indicative of Hank’s ambivalence; he can admire Arthur as a person, desire the power that kingship confers, and still want to bring about his republic. 17 . John A. Zurlo points out in “Hank’s Egomania,” Mark Twain Journal 21 ( 1983) that “actually, Hank imposes his will on the queen by expand- ing the death sentence to cover the entire band” and that this episode “clearly exposes Hank’s vanity and indifference toward human life” (60). 18 . Shanley and Stillman, “Mark Twain: Technology, Social Change, and Political Power,” 272. In another parallel between the two characters, Hank earlier compares his emerging power to a volcano as well. See Richard Kaeuper, “Telling it Like it Was? Mark Twain’s Rereading of Chivalry in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur ,” in Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck , ed. Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1997 ), 179–90. 19 . Fulton, Mark Twain in the Margins , 80. 20 . Adam Roberts points out that the intersection of Arthurian material with fantasy especially ‘opens up’ ‘dialectical opportunities’: “Just as the myth itself involves realistic-historical and mythic-fantastic elements in a complex interrelation, so contemporary writing is quite likely to draw on both the vocabularies of historical fiction and the rhetoric of to elaborate its themes.” See Silk and Potatoes: Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988), 67. Nichols’s New Medievalism likewise views the medieval imagination as inclusive. 21 . Foreshadowing some of the tenets of New Medievalism, John M. Lipski says that “literature that has been classified as fantastic, whether in the realm of science fiction, , or some less easily defined category, deals with that which is unknown or unexperienced but that is, within its own internal self-constraints, unknowable” (119). “Mysticism, Esoterism, and Fantastic Literature,” in The Scope of the Fantastic: Theory, Technique, Major Authors , ed. Robert A. Collins and Howard D. Pearce (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 113–21. NOTES 197

22 . Charlotte Spivack, “Morgan le Fay: Goddess or Witch?” in The Company of Camelot: Arthurian Characters in Romance and Fantasy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994). For examples of Morgan as conventionally evil, see particularly the discussion of Penelope Lively, Pamela Service, and Persia Wooley, Company of Camelot , 34–38. 23 . Jeanette C. Smith, “The Role of Women in Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy,” Extrapolation 35 (1994): 135, 130–44. 24 . Spivack, “Morgan le Fay: Goddess or Witch?” 46. 25 . Smith, “The Role of Women in Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy,” 136. 26 . Smith, “The Role of Women in Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy,” 140. 27 . Sallye J. Sheppeard, “Arthur and the Goddess: Cultural Crisis in The Mists of Avalon ,” in The Arthurian Myth of Quest and Magic: A Festschrift in Honor of Lavon B. Fulwiler (Dallas: Caxton’s Modern Arts Press, 1993), 102. 28 . Nickianne Moody, “Maeve and Guinevere: Women’s Fantasy Writing in the Science Fiction Marketplace,” in Where No Man Has Gone Before: Women and Science Fiction (London: Routledge, 1991), 191–201. 29 . For the purpose of this discussion, the name ‘Morgan’ will be used when the character is being discussed in comparison to or outside of Bradley’s novel. When Morgan’s role in Mists is the topic, her spelling (‘Morgaine’) will be used. This will also be the procedure for other main characters such as Lancelot/Lancelet. 30 . Smith, “The Role of Women in Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy,” 131. 31 . Carol L. Fry, “‘What God Doth the Wizard Pray To’: Neo-Pagan Witchcraft and Fantasy Fiction,” Extrapolation 31:4 ( 1990): 339, 333–46. 32 . Howey, Rewriting the Women of Camelot , 78. 33 . For a defense of Bradley’s portrayal of Morgan, see particularly Lee Ann Tobin, “Why Change the Arthur Story? Marion Zimmer Bradley’s Mists of Avalon ,” Extrapolation 34 ( 1993): 147–57. 34 . Howey, Rewriting the Women of Camelot , 67. 35 . For a useful discussion of the italicized passages as narrative technique, see Howey, Rewriting the Women of Camelot , 92–95. 36 . Marion Zimmer Bradley, The Mists of Avalon (New York: Del Rey, 1982). All citations taken from this edition and cited in parentheses in the text. 37 . In Bradley, ‘Merlin’ is not a personal name but the title of an office: ‘the Merlin.’ 38 . Other than Lancelet and occasionally Arthur, most of the males in the story seem very sure of themselves. In fact, Bradley makes a point of showing that Morgaine’s son (Mordred) is supremely sure of his own will from a very young age. Bradley, 455. 39 . Howey, Rewriting the Women of Camelot , 38. See also Tobin, 147–57. 40 . Howey, Rewriting the Women of Camelot , 59. 198 NOTES

41 . Bradley, 393. 42 . Karen E. C. Fuog, “Imprisoned in the Phallic Oak: Marion Zimmer Bradley and Merlin’s Seductress,” Quondam et Futurus 1 (1993 ): 75, 67–80. 43 . Sabine Volk-Birke, “The Cyclical Way of the Priestess: On the Significance of Narrative Structures in Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon ,” Anglia 108 (1990 ): 414, 409–28. 44 . James Noble, “Feminism, Homosexuality, and Homophobia in The Mists of Avalon ,” in Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend: Essays in Honor of Valerie M. Lagorio , ed. Martin B. Shichtman and James P. Carley (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994 ), 288–96. 45 . Bradley, 765–66. 46 . Marilyn R. Farwell, “Heterosexual Plots and Lesbian Subtexts: Toward a Theory of Lesbian Narrative Space in Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon ,” in Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 2000 ), 319–30. 47 . Volk-Birke, “The Cyclical Way of the Priestess” 424. 48 . Carolyne Larrington reads Morgan’s motivations here as being much more convincing than in any other versions; see King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition (New York: I. B. Taurus, 2006), 190–92. 49 . Judith L. Kellog, “Introduction,” Arthuriana Special Issue: Essays on the Arthurian Tradition in Children’s Literature 13.2 (Summer 2003 ): 1–8. 50 . J. Robert King, Le Morte D’Avalon (New York: Tor, 2003 ). 51 . An interesting corollary has long been noted in many young adult (and medieval romance): young women who take their sexuality into their own hands are invariably punished by becoming pregnant, either by consensual sex or by rape. See Gayle Nelson, “The Double Standard in Adolescent Novels,” in Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism , ed. Millicent Lenz and Ramona M. Mahood (Chicago: American Library Association, 1980), 228–31. 52 . King, Le Morte D’Avalon , 186–93. Whether Morgause is deceiving Morgan intentionally or Morgan is only imagining that she gave birth is left unresolved in the novel. 53 . Riane Eisler, “The Goddess of Nature and Spirituality: An Ecomanifesto,” in In All Her Names: Explorations of the Feminine in Divinity, ed. Joseph Campbell and Charles Muses (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991), 13. 54 . See Raymond H. Thompson, “The First and Last Love: Morgan le Fay and Arthur,” in Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 2000 ), 341–42. 55 . Peter Scharf, “Moral Development and Literature for Adolescents,” in Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism (Chicago: American Library Association, 1980), 101–6. 56 . Miriam Youngerman Miller, “‘The Dream Withered’: The Tale of Sir Gawain ,” Arthuriana 13 (2003): 86, 85–93. NOTES 199

57 . For example, Sylvia Engdahl first noted this over twenty-eight years ago in “Do Teenage Novels Fill a Need?” in Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism , ed. Millicent Lenz and Ramona M. Mahood (Chicago: American Library Association, 1980), 45. 58 . See Masha Kabakow Rudman, Children’s Literature: An Issues Approach , 3rd ed. (New York: Longman, 1995), 349–51. Kenneth Kidd points out that children’s literature has often been used as a therapeutic tool in dealing with traumatic events of all kinds, reflecting the shift in ideology from protecting children from controversial topics to encour- aging exposure to them through books. See “‘A’ is for Auschwitz: Psychoanalysis, Trauma Theory, and the ‘Children’s Literature of Atocity’,” Children’s Literature 33 (2005): 120–49. 59 . It has been suggested that one reason for glossing over the subject of sex in children’s literature is not because adults fear it is too ‘adult’ for young minds, but because adults are uncomfortable answering the questions children might raise upon encountering the topic. See Perry Nodleman and Mavis Reimer, The Pleasures of Children’s Literature , 3rd ed. (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003), 97. 60 . Catherine J. Montgomery, “The Dialectical Approach of Writers of Children’s Arthurian Retellings,” Arthurian Interpretations 3 (1988 ): 79–88. 61 . Nancy Springer, I Am Morgan le Fay: A Tale from Camelot (New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001). All citations taken from this edition and cited in parentheses in the text. 62 . Springer, I Am Morgan le Fay , 223. 63 . Sarah Gilead, “Magic Abjured: Closure in Children’s Fantasy Fiction,” PMLA 106 (1991): 277–93. 64 . It is difficult not to see an indirect allusion to Medusa-like aspects here. Thomas fears Morgan, especially the power she wields with the stone; with this power she is able to imprison Thomas, rendering him ‘immo- bile’ through imprisonment in her invisible castle and so turning him to ‘stone’ of a sort. 65 . Interestingly, Merlin names her as such the first time they meet, so in a way, she is only embracing the identity—the ‘fate’—that he has already imposed on her. Springer, I Am Morgan le Fay , 14. 66 . The ‘home and away’ motif in children’s literature usually features a child who travels, physically or imaginatively, and then returns home having learned a lesson about him- or herself and, sometimes, about his or her relationship to society. In a popular variation on the theme, ‘home’ is reality and ‘away’ a fantastic place; some examples are Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland , L. Frank Baum’s Wizard of Oz , and Maurice Sendak’s Where the Wild Things Are . 67 . Gilead, “Magic Abjured,” 285. 68. Although I see Morgan in this novel as fully embracing this choice, Gilead holds out some hope that even a ‘return’ that is chosen might not be completely accepted: “While officially resolving and fixing 200 NOTES

meanings (offering, in particular, the ‘correct’ interpretation of what precedes), the return seems in fact to pose many more questions than it settles. It may legitimize the fantasy narrative as a necessary lapse from structured reality, a lapse that paradoxically supports reality. But often such a reading noticeably simplifies the fantasy’s rich and multiple meanings. Perhaps the overall narrative, like the self, acquiesces to the ideologies that fix its patterns and meanings, but, at the very point of acquiescence, registers discomfort with such constraints” (278). 69 . Fuog, “Imprisoned in the Phallic Oak,” 86–87.

Conclusion: Beyond Limits 1 . Frederick Anderson, ed., Selected Mark Twain-Howells Letters, 1872–1910 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 286–87. 2 . Stephen G. Nichols, “Introduction,” The New Medievalism , ed. Marina S. Brownlee, Kevin Brownlee, and Stephen G. Nichols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 1. 3 . Sarah Appleton Aguiar, The Bitch is Back: Wicked Women in Literature (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001), 134. 4 . Aguiar, The Bitch is Back , 136. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources Anderson , Frederick , ed. Selected Mark Twain-Howells Letters, 1872–1910. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967 . Bedier, Joseph . The Romance of Tristan and Iseult . Trans. Hillaire Belloc. New York: Vintage, 1973. Barron , W. R. J. and S. C. Weinberg , eds. and trans. Layamon’s Arthur: The Arthurian Section of Layamon’s Brut. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2001 . Biblia Sacra: Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem , ed. Bonifatio Fischer, et al. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983. Borroff , Marie , trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: A New Verse Translation . New York: Norton, 1967 . Bradley , Marion Zimmer . The Mists of Avalon . New York: Del Rey, 1982 . Bromwich , Rachel , ed. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads . Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1978. Cawein, Madison. The Poems of Madison Cawein, Vol. 1: Lyrics and Old World Idylls. Boston: Small, Maynard, and Company, 1907. Chaucer, Geoffrey . “T he Wi fe of Bat h ’s P rolog ue a nd Ta le.” The Riverside Chaucer . 3rd ed. Ed. Larry D. Benson, et al. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987. Chestre , Thomas . Sir Launfal. Ed. and trans. A. J. Bliss. London: T. Nelson, 1960 . Child, Francis James , ed. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads . Vol. 1. New York: Dover, 2003 . Chrétien de Troyes . Erec et Enide . Trans. Michael Rousse. Paris: Flammarion, 1994. ———. “Erec and Enide.” In The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes . Trans. David Staines. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. ———. “The Knight of the Cart.” In The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes . Trans. David Staines. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. ———. “The Knight With the Lion.” In The Complete Romances of Chrétien de Troyes . Trans. David Staines. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. ———. Yvain (Le Chevalier Au Lion ). Trans. T. B. W. Reid. French Classics. Gen. ed. Eugene Vinaver. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1961 . Craik, Dinah Maria Muldock. Avillion, or the Happy Isles . In Arthurian Literature by Women , ed. Alan and Barbara Tepa Lupack. New York: Garland, 1999. 202 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Davies , Sioned , trans. The Mabinogion . New York: Oxford University Press, 2007 . Etienne de Rouen . “Draco Normannicus.” Ed. R. Howlett. In Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II, and Richard I . Vol. 2. London: Rolls Series 85, 1885 . Frappier, Jean , ed. Le Mort le Roi Artu: Roman du XIIIe Siecle . Geneva: Droz, 1964. Geoffrey of Monmouth . The History of the Kings of Britain . Ed. Michael D. Reeve. Trans. Neil Wright. Woodbridge: Boydell and Brewer, 2007 . ———. The History of the Kings of Britain . Trans. Lewis Thorpe. London: The Folio Society, 1966 . ——— . Vita Merlini . Ed. and trans. Basil Clarke. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1973. Geoffroi de Charny . The Book of Chivalry of Geoffroi de Charny: Text, Context, and Translation . Ed. and trans. Richard W. Kaeuper and Elspeth Kennedy. University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996 . Gerald of Wales . De Instructione Principis. In Giraldi Cambrensis Opera . Ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimdock, and G. F. Warner. Vol. 8. London: Rolls Series, 1861–91 . ———. Speculum Ecclesiae . In Giraldi Cambrensis Opera . Ed. J. S. Brewer et al. Vol. 4. Rolls Series. London, 1873 , II.9. Hahn, Thomas, ed. Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and Tales . Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995. Hartmann von Aue . Arthurian Romances, Tales, and : The Complete Works of Hartmann von Aue . Trans. Frank Tobin et al. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 2001 . Heber , Reginald . Morte d’Arthur: A Fragment. http://www.lib.rochester.edu /camelot/heber.htm Jones , Gwyn and Thomas Jones , trans. The Mabinogion . Hendrik-Ido-Ambacht, Netherlands: Dragon’s Dream Books, 1982. King , J. Robert . Le Morte D’Avalon . New York: Tor, 2003 . Laskaya, Anne and Eve Salisbury , eds . The Middle English Breton Lays . Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1995. Malory , Sir Thomas . Malory: Works. Ed. Eugene Vinaver. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978 . Marie de France . Marie de France: Lais. Ed. Alfred Ewert. Trans. G. S. Burgess. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press, 1995. Micha , Alexandre , ed. Lancelot: roman en prose du XIIIe siecle. Vols. 1–8. Geneva: Droz, 1978–82. Vol. 5. Naubert, Benedikte. The Mantle . http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/naubert .htm Ovid. The Metamorphoses . Trans. Horace Gregory. New York: Viking Press, 1958. Paris , Gaston and Jacob Ulrich , eds. Merlin: Roman en Prose du XIIIe Siecle. 2 vols. Paris: Librarie de Firmin Didot et Cie, 1965. BIBLIOGRAPHY 203

Spenser, Edmund . The Faerie Queene . Ed. A. C. Hamilton. London: Longman, 1977 .Spenser, Edmund. The Faerie Queene . Ed. Thomas P. Roche. New York: Penguin, 1978. Springer, Nancy . I am Morgan le Fay: A Tale from Camelot. New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001 . Tolkien , J. R. R. and E. V. Gordon , eds. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight . 2nd ed., revised by Norman Davis. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967 . Twain , Mark . A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court. Ed. Shelley Fisher Fishkin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Williams, Harry F. ed. Floriant et Florete . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1947 . Wilson, John Grosvenor. “Morgain.” http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot /wilsmorg.htm . Wolfram von Eschenbach . Parzival . Trans. Cyril Edwards. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004 .

Secondary Sources Adams, James Eli . “Woman Red in Tooth and Claw: Nature and the Feminine in Tennyson and Darwin,” Victorian Studies 33 (1989 ): 7–28. Adderly , C. M. “Meet i ng Morg a n le Fay: J. R. R. Tol k ien’s Theor y of Subcreat ion and the Secondary World of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Mythlore 22 (2000 ): 48–58. Aguiar , Sarah Appleton . The Bitch is Back: Wicked Women in Literature . Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001 . Aguirre , Manuel . “The Riddle of Sovereignty,” Modern Language Review 88 ( 1993 ): 273–82. Ahern, Stephen . “Listening to Guinevere: Female Agency and the Politics of Chivalry in Tennyson’s Idylls, ” Studies in Philology 101 (Winter 2004): 88–111. Alden , Melinda J. “From Witchery to Wisdom: the Transformation of Morgan le Fay in The Mists of Avalon .” Unpublished Thesis. East Tennessee State University, 1992 . Anderson , Judith H. “Arthur, Argante, and the Ideal Vision: An Exercise in Speculation and Parody.” In Arthurian Women , ed. Thelma S. Fenster (New York: Routledge, 1996 ), 191–204. Andrews , E. A. Harper’s Latin Dictionary: A New Latin Dictionary Founded in the Translation of Freund’s Latin-German Lexicon . Ed. Charleton T. Lewis and Charles Short. New York: American Book Company, 1907 . Archibald, Elizabeth “Magic School,” Times Literary Supplement (February 2, 2007), 9. Armstrong , Dorsey. Gender and the Chivalric Community in Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003 . ———. “Malory’s Morgause.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 149–60. 204 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armstrong, Isobel. “Tennyson’s Lady of Shalott: Victorian Mythography and the Politics of Narcissism.” In The Sun is God: Painting, Literature, and Mythology in the Nineteenth Century , ed. J. B. Bullen (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989). Ashe , Geoffrey . Mythology of the British Isles . Vermont: Trafalgar Press, 1990. Ashliman, D. L. Fairy Lore: A Handbook . London: Greenwood Press, 2006 . Auerbach , Nina . Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982 . Bagdanow, Fanni . “Morgan’s Role in the Thirteenth-Century Prose Romances of the Arthurian Cycle,” Medium Aevum 38 ( 1969 ): 123–33. Baldwin, Dean R. “Fairy Lore and the Meaning of Sir Orfeo .” Southern Folklore Quarterly 41 (1977): 129–42. Bartlett , Robert . Gerald of Wales: 1146–1223 . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. Bartra , Roger . Wild Men in the Looking Glass: The Mythic Origins of European Otherness . Trans. Carl T. Berrisford. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994 . Baughan, Denver Ewing . “The Role of Morgan la Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” English Literary History 17 (1950 ): 241–51. Beal , Rebecca S. “Guenevere’s Tears in the Alliterative Morte Arthure : Doubly Wife, Doubly Mother, Doubly Damned.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 1–10. Benko , Debra A. “Morgan le Fay and King Arthur in Malory’s Works and Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon: Sibling Discord and the Fall of the Round Table.” In The Significance of Sibling Relationships in Literature. Ed. JoAnna Stephens and Janet Doubler Ward. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Popular Press, 1992. pp. 23–31. Benson , Larry D. Art and Tradition in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1965. Bernheimer , Richard . Wild Men in the Middle Ages: A Study in Art, Sentiment, and Demonology . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952. Berthelot , Anne . “From the Lake to the Fountain: Lancelot and the Fairy Lover.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000 . pp. 153–70. ———. “From Niniane to Nimüe: Demonizing the Lady of the Lake.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 89–102. Biebel-Stanley, Elizabeth M. “Sovereignty through the Lady: ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’ and the Queenship of Anne of Bohemia.” In The English ‘Loathly Lady’ Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 73–82. Billington , Sandra and Miranda Green , eds. The Concept of the Goddess. New York: Routledge, 1996. Blades, John. John Keats: The Poems. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 . Blaess , Madeleine . “Arthur’s Sisters,” BBSIA 8 ( 1956 ): 69–77. Blamires , Alcuin . “Refiguring the ‘Scandalous Excess’ of Medieval Woman: The Wife of Bath and Liberality.” In Gender in Debate from the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 . pp. 57–78. BIBLIOGRAPHY 205

Bloch, R. Howard and Stephen G. Nichols , eds. Medievalism and the Modernist Temper . London: Johns Hopkins Press, 1996. Bloom , Harold . How to Read and Why . New York: Scribner, 2000. Blumstein , Andree . “The Structure and Function of the Cundrie Episodes in Wolfram’s Parzival ,” German Quarterly 51 ( 1978 ): 160–69. Bonney , William W. “Torpor and Tropology in Tennyson’s ‘Merlin and Vivien’,” Victorian Poetry 23 ( 1985): 351–68. Borroff , Marie . “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight : The Passing of Judgment.” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988. pp. 105–28. Bowden , Betsy . “Gloom and Doom in Mark Twain’s Connecticut Yankee , from Malory’s Morte Darthur .” Studies in American Fiction 28 ( 2000): 179–202. Boyd , David L. “Tennyson’s Camelot Revisited: An Augustinian Approach to the Idylls .” In The Arthurian Tradition:Essays in Convergence . Ed. Mary Flowers Braswell and John Bugge. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1988. pp. 163–74. Bradley , Marion Zimmer . “My Search for Morgaine Le Fay.” In The Vitality of the Arthurian Legend . Odense: Odense University Press, 1988 . pp. 105–9. Brewer, Elisabeth, ed. and trans. From Cuchulainn to Gawain: Sources and Analogues of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1973. Brewer , Elisabeth . “Interpretations of Malory: Women in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King ,” Conjointure arthurienne (2000 ): 11–18. ——— . “The Figure of Guenevere in Modern Drama and Fiction.” Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000 . pp. 307–18. Briggs, K. M. “The Fairies and the Realms of the Dead.” Folklore 81 ( 1970): 81–96. ———. The Fairies in English Tradition and Literature . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967 . Bryden, Inga . Reinventing King Arthur: The Arthurian Legends in Victorian Culture . Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate, 2005 . Bullock-Davies, Constance . “Lanval and Avalon,” The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 23 ( 1969 ): Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1969. pp. 128–42. Burland , Margaret Jewett . “Chrétien’s Enide: Heroine or Female Hero?” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 167–86. Burns , E. Jane . “Rewriting Men’s Stories: Enid’s Disruptive Mouths.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 19–40. Caldwell, Ellen M . “Brains or Beauty: Limited Sovereignty in the Loathly Lady Tales ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale,’ ‘Thomas of Erceldoune,’ and ‘The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnelle’.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 235–56. Canino , Catherine G . “‘Thy Weaker Novice to Perform Thy Will’: Female Domination over Male Identity in FQ.” In Privacy, Domesticity, and Women in 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Early Modern . Ed. Corinne S. Abate. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003 . pp. 111–28. Capellanus , Andreas. The Art of Courtly Love . Trans. John Jay Perry. New York: Ungar, 1941 . Capps , Sandra Elaine . “Morgan le Fay as Other in English Medieval and Modern Texts.” Dissertation Abstracts International, Section A: The Humanities and Social Sciences 57, no. 10 (1997 April): 4377. Dissertation University of Tennessee, 1996 abstract no: DA9708997. ISSN: 0419– 4209. Carson, Mother Angela, O. S. U. “Morgain la Fee as the Principle of Unity in Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Modern Language Quarterly 23 ( 1962 ): 3–16. Carter, Susan . “Coupling the Beastly Bride and the Hunter Hunted: What Lies Behind Chaucer’s ‘Wife of Bath’s Tale,’” Chaucer Review 37 (2003 ): 329–45. ———. “A Hymenation of .” In The English “Loathly Lady”Tales: Boundaries Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 83–99. ———. “Galadriel and Morgan le Fey: Tolkien’s Redemption of the Lady of the Lacuna (J. R. R. Tolkien’s ‘’)”, Mythlore 25 ( 2007 ): 71–89. Cavanaugh , Sheila T. “‘Beauties Chace’: Arthur and Women in The Faerie Queene. ” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988. pp. 207–18. ———. Wanton Eyes and Chaste Desires: Female Sexuality in the Faerie Queene. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994 . Cavendish , Richard . King Arthur and the Grail . London: , 1978 . Chamberlain , David . “Marie de France’s Arthurian Lai: Subtle and Political.” In Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend. Ed. Martin B. Schictman and James P. Carley. Albany: State of New York Press, 1994. pp. 15–34. Clark, Rosalind . “Aspects of the Morrigan in Early Irish Literature,” Irish University Review 17.2 (1987 ): 223–36. Claxton, Michael . “A Connecticut Yankee and Victorian Magic,” The Philological Review 30 (2004 ): 1–14. Cochran , Rebecca . “Edwin Arlington Robinson’s Morgan le Fay: Victim or Victimizer?” The Platte Valley Review . 19 (1991 ): 54–60. Colahan , Clark . “Morgain the Fay and The Lady of the Lake in a Broader Mythological Context,” SELIM: Journal of the Spanish Society for Medieval English Language and Literature 1 ( 1991): 83–105. Coles, Kimberly Ann. “‘Perfect hole’: Elizabeth I, Spenser, and Chaste Productions.” English Language Review 32 (2002): 31–61. Concannon , Maureen . The Sacred Whore: Sheela, Goddess of the Celts . Cork, Ireland: The Collins Press, 2004 . Cons , Lewis . “Avallo.” Trans. C. H. Slover. Modern Philology 28 (May 1931 ): 385–99. Cowen , Janet . “‘Old Sir Thomas Malory’s Enchanting Book’: A Connecticut Yankee Reads Le Morte Darthur .” In Arthurian Studies in Honour of P. J. C. Field . Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004 2004 . pp. 311–24. BIBLIOGRAPHY 207

Craciun, Adriana. “Bannerman, Anne (1765–1829).” In The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography . Ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Craciun, Adriana . Fatal Women of Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 . Crater , Theresa . “The Resurrection of Morgan le Fey: Fallen Woman to Triple Goddess,” Femspec 3 (2001 ): 12–21. Dalton, G. F. “The ‘Loathly Lady’: A Suggested Interpretation.” Folklore 82 (1971): 124–31. Cunningham, Gail. The New Woman and the Victorian Novel. London: Macmillan Press, 1978. Davidson , Hilda Ellis and Anna Chaudhri . Supernatural Enemies. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2001 . Davidson , Roberta . “Reading like a woman in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Arthuriana 16.1 (2006 ): 21–33. Davis , Rebecca A. “More Evidence for Intertextuality and Humorous Intent in The Weddynge of Syr Gawen and Dame Ragnell. ” The Chaucer Review 35 ( 2001 ): 430–39. Day, Mildred Ann Leake. “The Letter from King Arthur to Henry II: Political Use of the Arthurian Legend in Draco Normannicus .” In The Spirit of the Court . Ed. Glyn S. Burgess and Robert A. Taylor. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1985. pp. 153–57. de Roo , Harvey . “Undressing Lady Bertilak: Guilt and Denial in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” The Chaucer Review 27 (1997 ): 313. Delhaye , P. “Antipodes.” In The New Catholic Encyclopedia , 2nd. ed. Vol. 1. Ed. Berard L. Marthaler, O. F. M. Conv., S. T. D., Ph. D., et. al. New York: Thomson Gale, 2003 . 529. Dickson , Nancy O. M. “Morgan and the Morrighan: Modern Fantasy and the Celtic Goddess,” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 9 ( 1998): 24–35. Donnelly, Colleen . “Aristocratic Veneer and the Substance of Verbal Bonds in The Weddynge of Sir Gawen and Gamelyn ,” Studies in Philology 94 (1997 ): 321–43. Eadie , J. “Morgan le Fay and the Conclusion of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Neophilogus 52 ( 1968 ): 299–303. Echard , Siân . Arthurian Narrative in the Latin Tradition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998 . Edwards, Paul . “Ambiguous Seductions: ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’, ‘The Faerie Queene’ and ‘Thomas the Rhymer’,” The Durham University Journal 51 (1990 ): 199–203. Eisler, Riane. “The Goddess of Nature and Spirituality: An Ecomanifesto.” In In All Her Names: Explorations of the Feminine in Divinity, ed. Joseph Campbell and Charles Muses (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991). Ellis, Peter Berresford . Celtic Women: Women in Celtic Society and Literature . Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1995. Engdahl , Sylvia . “Do Teenage Novels Fill a Need?” In Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism . Ed. Millicent Lenz and Ramona M. Mahood. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980. 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Evans , R. and L. Johnson , eds. Feminist Readings in Middle : the Wife of Bath and All Her Sect . London: Routledge, 1994. Evans-Wentz , W. Y. The Fairy Faith in Celtic Countries . New York: Citadel Press, 1994. Fanon , Marcel . “La Fe Morgain et Ronsard,” Romance Philology 2 (1948 ): 239–40. ———. “La Fe Morgain et les Chronique Gargantuines ,” Modern Language Notes 64 ( 1949 ): 52–53. Faral , Edmond . “L’isle d’Avallon et la fee Morgane,” In Melanges de Linguistique et de literature offerts a M. Alfred Jeanroy . Paris: Droz, 1928 . pp. 243–53. Farwell , Marilyn R. “Heterosexual Plots and Lesbian Subtexts: Toward a Theory of Lesbian Narrative Space.” In Arthurian Women:. New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 319–30. Fass, Barbara . La Belle Dame Sans Merci and the Aesthetics of Romanticism . Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1974. Fauth , Wolfgang . “Fata Morgana,” Beitrage zum romanischen Mittelalter. Zeitschrift fur Romanische Philologie, Sonderband ( 1977 ): 417–54. Fay, Elizabeth . Romantic Medievalism: The Ideal of History . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 . Feinberg, Lorne . “Twain’s Connecticut Yankee: The Entrepreneur as a Daimonic Hero,” Modern Fiction Studies 28 (1982 ): 155–67. Field , P. J. C. The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1993. “Film Tristano et Isotta .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 313–20. Finke , Laurie A . “Spenser for Hire: Arthurian History as Cultural Capital in The Faerie Queene .” In Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend. Albany: State of New York Press. pp. 211–33. Finke , Laurie A. and Martin B. Shichtman . King Arthur and the Myth of History . Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 . Finlayson, J. Caitlin . “Medieval Sources for Keatsian Creation in La Belle Dame Sans Merci ,” Philological Quarterly 79 (2000 ): 225–47. Fisher , Sheila . “Leaving Morgan Aside: Women, History, and Revisionism in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” In Arthurian Women : A Casebook . Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 1996. 77–96. ———. “Taken Men and Token Women in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” In Seeking the Woman in Late Medieval and Renaissance Writings: Essays in Feminist Contenxtual Criticism . Ed. Sheila Fisher and Janet E. Halley. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989 . pp. 71–105. Fleming, John V. “Sacred and Secular Exegesis in the Wyf of Bath’s Tale.” In Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck. Ed. Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. pp. 73–90. Forste-Grupp, Sheryl L. “A Woman Circumvents the Laws of Primogeniture in The Weddynge of Sir Gawen and Dame Ragnell,” Studies in Philology 99 ( 2002 ): 105–22. BIBLIOGRAPHY 209

Foulon , Charles . “La fee Morgue chez Chretien de Troyes.” FS Frappier (1970 ), 283–90. Fox , Denton . “Introduction,” Twentieth Century Interpretations of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: A Collection of Critical Essays . Ed. Denton Fox. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1968 . pp. 1–12. Francey, Marcel . “Guerino Meschino, Morgain-la-Fee, et Tannhauser,” Romance Notes 16 (1975 ): 457–59. Frappier, Jean . “Perceval or Le Conte du Graal .” In Chretien de Troyes: The Man and His Work . Trans. Raymond J. Cormier. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1982. Fredeman, William E. “The Last Idyll: Dozing in Avalon.” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988 . pp. 264–306. Freedman, Jonathan . “Ideological Battleground: Tennyson, Morris, and the Pastness of the Past.” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988. pp. 235–48. Freeman , Jane . “Performing the Bodies of King Lear.” Griselda Online. http:// www.griseldaonline.it/percorsi/3freeman.htm . Accessed August 15, 2007 . Friedman , Albert B. “Morgan la Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Speculum 35 (1960 ): 260–74. Friedrich , Ellen L. “The Beaten Path: Lancelot’s Amorous Adventure at the Fountain in Le Chevalier de la Charrette .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 199–212. Fries, Maureen . “Female Heroes, Heroines and Counter-Heroes: Images of Women in Arthurian Tradition.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 59–76. ———. “Feminae Populi : Popular Images of Women in Medieval Literature,” Journal of Popular Culture 14 (1980 ): 79–107. ———. “From the Lady to the Tramp: The Decline of Morgan le Fay in Medieval Romance.” Arthuriana 4 ( 1994 ): 1–18. Fry, Carol L. “’What God Doth the Wizard Pray To’: Neo-Pagan Witchcraft and Fantasy Fiction,” Extrapolation 31.4 (1990 ): 333–46. Frye , Northrop . Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. New York, Atheneum, 1967 . Frye, Susan. Elizabeth I: The Competition for Representation . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Fulton , Joe B . Mark Twain in the Margins. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000. Fuog, Karen E. C . “Imprisoned in the Phallic Oak: Marion Zimmer Bradley and Merlin’s Seductress,” Quondam et Futurus 1 ( 1993): 67–80. Gaffney, Paul . “Controlling the Loathly Lady, or What Really Frees Dame Ragnell.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 146–62. 210 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gardiner , Jane . “‘A More Splendid Necromancy’: Mark Twain’s Connecticut Yankee and the Electrical Revolution.” In Mark Twain: An Anthology of Recent Criticism . Ed. Prafulla C. Kar. Delhi: Pencraft International, 1992. pp. 182–94. Gibson , Melanie McGarrahan . “Lyonet, , and : Carnivalesque Arthurian Women.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 213–28. Gilbert , Elliot L. “The Female King: Tennyson’s Arthurian Apocalypse.” In King Arthur: A Casebook . New York: Garland, 1996. pp. 229–55. Gilead , Sarah . “Magic Abjured: Closure in Children’s Fantasy Fiction,” PMLA 106 (1991 ): 277–93. Gimbutas , Marija . The Civilization of the Goddess . New York: HarperCollins, 1991 . ———. The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe, 6500–3500 B.C.: Myths and Cult Images . Berkeley: University of Press, 1982. ———. The Language of the Goddess . San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991 . ———. “The ‘Monstrous Venus’ of Prehistory: Divine Creatrix.” In In All Her Names: Explorations of the Feminine in Divinity . Ed. Joseph Campbell and Charles Muses. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1991 . pp. 25–54. Girgus, Sam B. “Conscience in Connecticut: Civilization and Its Discontents in Twain’s Camelot,” New England Quarterly 51(1978 ): 547–60. Godwin, Parke . “The Road to Camelot: A Conversation with Marion Zimmer Bradley,” SF and Fantasy Review 66 ( 1984): 6–9. Gowans, Linda . Cei and the Arthurian Legend. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1988. Goyne , Jo . “Arthurian Wonder Women: The Tread of .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 161–66. Green , Dennis . “Parzival’s Failure (Books V and VI).” In Perceval/Parzival: A Casebook. Ed. Arthur Groos and Norris J. Lacy. New York: Routledge, 2002 . pp. 155–74. Green , Miranda . Celtic Goddesses: Warriors, Virgins, and Mothers . New York: George Braziller, 1995. ———. “The Celtic Goddess as Healer.” In The Concept of the Goddess . Ed. Sandra Billington and Miranda Green. London: Routledge, 1996. ———. The Gods of the Celts . Gloucester: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1986. Greenblatt, Stephen. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005 . Gutierrez Garcia , Santiago . “El haida Morgana y la reina de Avalon,” Cultura neo- latina: Rivista di Fiologia Romanza fondata da Giulio Bertoni 61(2001 ): 301–18. Hahn , Thomas . “Old Wives’ Tales and Masculine Intuition.” In Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck. Ed. Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. pp. 91–108. Hale , William C. “Origins: Morgaine, Morgana, Morgause,” Avalon to Camelot 1 ( 1984): 35–36. BIBLIOGRAPHY 211

Hardyment , Christina . Malory: The Life and Times of King Arthur’s Chronicler . London: Harper Collins, 2005 . Harf-Lancner , Laurence . “Fairy Godmothers and Lovers.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 133–51. Harland , Catherine R. “Interpretation and Rumor in Tennyson’s Merlin and Vivien ,” Victorian Poetry 35 (1997 ): 57–70. Harrison, Robert Pogue. Forests: The Shadow of Civilization . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Harty , Kevin J. “A Note on Maureen Fries, Morgan le Fay, and Ugo Falena’s 1911 Film Tristiano e Isotta.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001. pp. 313–18. Haruta, Setsulo . “The Women in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight.” In Arthurian Romance and Gender: Selected Proceedings of the XVIIth International Arthurian Congress . Amsterdam; Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1995. pp. 206–14. Harward, Vernon J. The Dwarfs of Arthurian Romance and Celtic Tradition . Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1958 . Hassett, Constance W. and James Richardsom . “Looking at Elaine: Keats, Tennyson and the Directions of the Poetic Gaze.” Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 287–306. Hayward, J . “Women’s Threat to the Chivalric Order: A Study of Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur .” www.georgetown.edu/users/haywardj . Accessed February 3, 1998. Hecker , William . “The Androgynous Warrior: An Examination of Gender Blending in Twain’s Military Heroes,” The Mark Twain Annual 1 (2003 ): 37–43. Hemmi , Yoko . “Morgain la Fee’s Water Connection,” Studies in Medieval English Language and Literature 6 ( 1991): 19–36. Heng , Geraldine . “Enchanted Ground: The Feminine Subtext in Malory.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook . Ed. Thelma S. Fenster, New York: Routledge, 1996. pp. 97–113. ———. “Feminine Knots and the Other in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” PMLA 106 ( 1991): 500–13. ———. “Pleasure, Resistance, and a Feminist Aesthetics of Reading.” In Cambridge Companion to Feminist . Ed. Ellen Rooney. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006 . pp. 53–69. Herold , Christine . “Archetypal Chaucer: The Case of the Disappearing Hag in ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’.” In Archetypal Readings of Medieval Literature . Ed. Charlotte Spivak and Christine Herold. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. pp. 47–58. Herra , Imogen Rhia . “Vanishing Tricks of a Goddess,” The New Welsh Review . 13 ( 2001 ): 14–15. Higham , N. J. King Arthur: Myth-Making and History . London: Routledge, 2002 . Hindman, Sandra . Sealed in Parchment: Rereadings of Knighthood on the Illuminated Manuscripts of Chretien de Troyes . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. 212 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hite, Molly. “Virginia Woolf’s Two Bodies,” Genders Online 31 ( 2000). http:// www.genders.org/g31/g31_hite.html . Accessed August 15, 2007 . Hoberg , Thomas . “Duessa or Lilith: The Two Faces of Tennyson’s Vivien,” Victorian Poetry 25 (1987 ): 17–26. Hodges , Kenneth . Forging Chivalric Communities in Malory’s Morte d’Arthur. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 . Hoeveler , Diane Long . “Manly-Women and Womanly-Men: Tennyson’s Androgynous Ideal,” Michigan Occasional Papers in Women’s Studies 19 ( 1981): 1–19. Hoffman, Donald L. “Hard(l)y Tristan.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 271–82. ———. “Mark’s Merlin: Magic vs. Technology in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court .” In Popular Arthurian Traditions. Ed. Sally Slocum. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green Popular Press, 1992 . pp. 46–55. Hogan, Anne and Andrew Bradstock. Women of Faith in Victorian Culture: Reassessing the Angel in the House. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998. Holbrook , Sue Ellen . “Nymue, The Chief Lady of the Lake, and Her Sisters.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 71–88. ———. “Nymue, The Chief Lady of the Lake in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur .” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 171–90. Hollis, Stephanie . “‘The Marriage of Sir Gawain:’ Piecing the Fragments Together.” In The English ‘Loathly Lady’ Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 163–85. Homans, Margaret. Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998. Howey , Ann F. Rewriting the Women of Camelot: Arthurian Popular Fiction and Feminism . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001 . Hughes , Melinda . “Dark Sisters and Light Sisters: Sister Doubling,” Mythlore 19 ( 1993 ): 24–28. Ireland, Patrick John . “The Narrative Unity in the Lanval of Marie de France,” Studies in Philology 74: ( 1977 ): 130–45. Jackson, Rosemary. Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion (London: Routledge, 1995), 1–14. Jacobson , Evelyn . “Cundrie and Sigune,” Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 25 ( 1989): 1–11. Jaen, Didier T. “Mysticism, Esoterism, and Fantastic Literature.” In The Scope of the Fantastic: Theory, Technique, Major Authors . Ed. Robert A. Collins and Howard D. Pearce. Greenwood Press: London, 1980. pp. 105–11. Jager, C. Stephen. The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals 939–1210 . University Park, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985. Jambeck , Karen K. “Femmes et Terre: Marie de France and the Discourses of ‘Lanval’.” In Discourses on Love, Marriage, and Transgression in Medieval and Early BIBLIOGRAPHY 213

Modern Literature. Ed. Albrecht Classen. Tempe: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2004 . pp. 109–45. Jameson, Frederic. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981 . Jennings, Margaret . “‘Heavens defend me from that Welsh Fairy’ ( Merry Wives of Windsor , V, v, 85): The Metamorphosis of Morgain la Fee in the Romances.” In Court and Poet: Proceedings of the Third Congress of the International Courtly Literature Society (Liverpool 1980 ). Ed. Glyn Burgess. ARCA Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 5. Liverpool: Cairns, 1981 . Pp. 197–205. Johnson , Buffie . Lady of the Beasts: The Goddess and Her Sacred Animals. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions International, 1994. Johnson , James L. Mark Twain and the Limits of Power . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982. Jones , Chris . “Knight or Wight in Keats’s ‘La Belle Dame’? An Ancient Ditty Reconsidered,” The Keats-Shelley Review 19 ( 2005 ): 39–49. Jones, Heather Rose. “Concerning the Names Morgan, Morgana, Morgaine, Muirghen, Morrigan , and the like.” http://www.medievalscotland.org/problem /names/morgan.shtml Joseph, Gerhard . “Tennyson’s Three Women: The Thought Within the Image,” Victorian Poetry 19 ( 1981): 1–18. Kamps, Ivo . “Magic, Women, and Incest: The Real Challenge in in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,” Exemplaria: A Journal of Theory in Medieval and Renaissance Studies 1 ( 1989): 313–36. Kantorowicz, Ernst H. The King’s Two Bodies: A Study of Mediaeval Political Theology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957 . Kaeuper, Richard. “Telling it Like it Was? Mark Twain’s Rereading of Chivalry in Malory’s Morte Darthur .” In Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck . Ed. Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1997. pp. 179–90. Keen, Maurice. Chivalry . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984. Kellog, Judith L. “Introduction.” Arthuriana Special Issue: Essays on the Arthurian Tradition in Children’s Literature 13.2 (Summer 2003 ): 1–8. Kelly, Kathleen Coyne . “‘No—I am out—I am out of my Tower and my Wits’: The Lady of Shalott in A. S. Byatt’s Possession .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 283–94. Kennedy , Beverly . “Malory’s Guenevere: A ‘Trew Lover’.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 11–34. Kennedy , Edward Donald . “Malory’s Guenevere: ‘A Woman Who Had Grown a Soul’.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 35–44. ———. “Malory’s King Mark and King Arthur.” In King Arthur: A Casebook. Ed. Edward Donald Kennedy. New York: Garland, 1996. pp. 139–71. Kennedy , Elspeth . “The Knight as Reader of Arthurian Romance.” In Culture and The King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend . Ed. Martin B. Shichtman and James P. Carley. Albany: State of New York Press, 1994 . pp. 70–90. 214 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kennedy-Dixon , Mike . Companion to Arthurian and Celtic Myths and Legends . Stroud: Sutton, 2005 . Ketterer , David . New Worlds for Old: The Apocalyptic Imagination, Science Fiction and American Literature . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1975. Kidd , Kenneth. “‘A’ is for Auschwitz: Psychoanalysis, Trauma Theory, and the ‘Children’s Literature of Atocity’”. Children’s Literature 33 (2005): 120–49. Knepper, Janet . “A Bad Girl Will Love You to Death: Excessive Love in the Stanzaic Morte Arthur and Malory.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 229–44. Knight , Stephen Thomas . Arthurian Literature and Society . New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. Kramer , Heinrich and James Springer . Malleus Maleficarum . Trans. Montague Summers. New York: Dover, 1971. Krappe, Alexander H. “Arturus Cosmocrator.” Speculum 20 (1945 ): 405–14. Krueger , Roberta L. “Love, Honor, and the Exchange of Women in Yvain : Some Remarks on the Female Reader.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 3–18. Krueger , Roberta L. , ed. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Romance . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 . Kucich, Greg . “Keats and English Poetry.” In The Cambridge Companion to Keats . Ed. Susan J. Wolfson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 . Pp. 186–202. Kurth-Voight , Lieselotte E. “La Belle Dame sans Merci: The Revenant as Femme Fatale in Romantic Poetry.” In European Romanticism: Literary Cross-Currents, Modes, and Models . Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990. pp. 247–67. Lacy, Norris J. , ed. The Arthurian Encyclopedia . New York: Garland, 1986. ——— . The Fortunes of King Arthur. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 . ———. The Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation . New York: Garland, 1993. Lacy, Norris J. and Geoffrey Ashe. The Arthurian Handbook. New York: Garland, 1988. LaFarge, Catherine . “The Hand of the Huntress: Repetition and Malory’s Morte Darthur .” In New Feminist Discourses: Critical Essays on Theories and Texts . Ed. Isobel Armstrong. New York: Routledge, 1992. pp. 263–79. Lambdin , Laura Cooner and Robert Thomas . Camelot in the Nineteenth Century: Arthurian Characters in the Poems of Tennyson, Arnold, Morris, and Swinburne . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000 . Lampe , David . “‘The Accuracies of My Impressions’: Mark Twain, Ford Madox Ford, and Michael Crichton Re-Iimagine Chivalry,” The Year’s Work in Medievalism 17 ( 2002 ): 84–96. Langland, Elizabeth. Telling Tales: Gender and Narrative Form in Victorian Literature and Culture. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University Press, 2002. Larrington, Carolyne . King Arthur’s Enchantresses: Morgan and Her Sisters in Arthurian Tradition . New York: I. B. Taurus, 2006 . BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

———. “The Fairy Mistress in Medieval Literary Fantasy.” In Writing and Fantasy . New York: Longman, 1999. pp. 32–47. Larrington, Carolyne , ed. The Feminist Companion to Mythology . London: Pandora Press, 1992. Laskaya, Anne. “Thomas Chestre’s Revisions of Manhood in Sir Launfal .” In Retelling Tales: Essays in Honor of Russell Peck. Ed. Thomas Hahn and Alan Lupack. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer. pp. 191–212. le Goff, Jacques. The Medieval Imagination . Trans. Arthur Goldhammer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988 . Leavy, Barbara Fass . “Iseult of Brittany: A New Interpretation of Matthew Arnold’s Tristram and Iseult .” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 205–28. Leech , Mary . “Why Dame Ragnell Had to Die: Feminine Usurpation of Masculine Authority in ‘The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell’.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 213–34. Leerssen , Joep . “On the Celtic Roots of a Romantic Theme.” In Configuring Romanticism: Essays Offered to C. C. Barfoot . Ed. Theo D’haen et al. New York: Rodopi, 2003 . pp. 1–10. Levin , Carole and Jeanie Watson , eds. Ambiguous Realities: Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance . Detroit: Wayne State University, 1987. Lipski , John M. “Mysticism, Esoterism, and Fantastic Literature.” In The Scope of the Fantastic: Theory, Technique, Major Authors . Ed. Robert A. Collins and Howard D. Pearce. Westport, CT:Greenwood Press, 1980 . Loomis , Roger Sherman , ed. Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative History . Ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959. ———. Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance . New York: Columbia University Press, 1926. ———. “Evalach, Avalon, and Morgan le Fay.” In Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance . New York: Haskell House, 1967 . pp. 188–96. ———. “Morgain La Fee and the Celtic Goddesses,” Speculum XX ( 1945 ): 183–203. ———. “Morgain la Fee in the Oral Tradition.” In Studies in Medieval Literature: A Memorial Collection of Essays. New York: Burt Franklin, 1970. pp. 3–34. ———. The Arthurian Material in the Chronicles . 2nd ed. New York: Burt Franklin, 1966 . ———. The Development of Arthurian Romance . New York: Harper and Row, 1963. ———. The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol . New Jersey: Princeton, 1991 . ———. Wales and the Arthurian Legend . Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1956 . Long , Charles . “Arthur’s Role in Morgan le Fay’s Plan,” Tennessee Philological Bulletin 7 ( 1970): 3–10. Louis , M. K. “Arthurian Wantons: Language, Lust, and Time in Victorian Poetry and Drama,” Mythlore 17 (1991 ): 31–36. 216 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lukitsh , Joanne . “Julia Margaret Cameron’s Phtographic Illustrations to Alfred Tennyson’s The Idylls of the King .” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 247–62. Lupack , Alan , ed. Arthur, the Greatest King, An Anthology of Modern Arthurian Poetry . New York: Garland, 1988. ———. “The Old Order Changeth: King Arthur in the Modern World.” In The Fortunes of Arthur . Ed. Norris J. Lacy. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 . 209–24. ———. The Oxford Guide to Arthurian Literature and Legend. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005 . ———. “Women Illustrators of the Arthurian Legends.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 295–312. Lupack , Alan and Barbara Tepa Lupack , eds. Arthurian Literature by Women. New York: Garland, 1999. ———. King Arthur in America. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1999. Mahoney , Dhira B. “Symbolic Uses of Space in Malory’s Morte Darthur .” In Arthurian Studies lx: Reviewing Le Morte Darthur: Texts and Contexts, Characters and Themes. Ed. K. S. Whetter and Raluca Radulescu. Woodbridge: D. S. Brewer, 2005 . pp. 95–106. Mancoff , Debra N. The Arthurian Revival in Victorian Art . New York: Garland, 1990. ———. “To Take Excalibur: King Arthur and the Construction of Manhood.” In King Arthur: A Casebook . Ed. Edward Donald Kennedy. New York: Garland, 1996. pp. 257–80. Mandel , Jerome . “The Idea of Coherence and the Feminization of Knights in Malory’s ‘Alexander the Orphan’,” The Arthurian Yearbook (III) 1993 : 91–105. Mann, Jill . Feminizing Chaucer . Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2002 . Markale, Jean . Merlin: Priest of Nature. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 1995. ———. Women of the Celts . Rochester, NY: Inner Traditions International, 1986. 136–41. Marsh, Jan. Pre-Raphaelite Women: Images of Femininity. New York: Harmony Books, 1987. Maynadier , Howard . The Arthur of the English . New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1907 . McCarthy , Terence . “Did Morgan le Fay Have a Lover?” Medium Aevum 60 ( 1991): 284–89. McInerny, Maud . “Malory’s Lancelot and the Lady Huntress.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 245–58. McManus, Caroline . Spenser’s Faerie Queene and the Reading of Women . Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2002 . Mellor, Anne K. “Keats and the Complexities of Gender.” In The Cambridge Companion to Keats. Ed. Susan J. Wolfson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001 . pp. 214–29. BIBLIOGRAPHY 217

Merriman , James Douglas . The Flower of Kings: A Study of the Arthurian Legend in England Between 1485 and 1835 . Witchita: University Press of Kansas, 1973 . Mertens-Funck, Paul . “Morgan, fee, et deesee,” FS Lejeune (1969 ), vol. II, 1067–76. Meyer , Robert J. “Chaucer’s Tandem Romances: A Generic Approach to the Wife of Bath’s Tale as Palinode,” Chaucer Review 18 (1984 ): 221–38. Miller, Miriam Youngerman. “‘The Dream Withered’: The Tale of Sir Gawain .” Arthuriana 13 (2003): 85–93. Mitchell , Sally. Dinah Craik and the Feminine Tradition. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983. ———. The Fallen Angel: Chastity, Class and Women’s Reading, 1835–1880. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1981. Montgomery, Catherine J. “The Dialectical Approach of Writers of Children’s Arthurian Retellings.” Arthurian Interpretations 3 ( 1988): 79–88. Moody , Nickianne . “Maeve and Guinevere: Women’s Fantasy Writing in the Science Fiction Marketplace.” In Where No Man Has Gone Before: Women and Science Fiction , London: Routledge, 1991 . pp. 186–204. Moon , Douglas . “The Role of Morgan le Fay in Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Neuphilologische Metteilungen 67 (1966 ): 31–57. Moore, Dennis . “Making Sense of an Ending: Morgan la Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Mediavalia: A Journal of Mediaeval Studies , 10 (1988 ): 213–33. Moreland , Kim . The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature . Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996 . Morgan , Henry Grady . “The Role of Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Southern Quarterly 2 (1963–64): 150–68. Morrison , Susan Signe . “Morgan le Fay’s Champion: Marion Zimmer Bradley’s ‘The Mists of Avalon’ as Challenge to Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur .” In Mittelalter-Rezeption IV . Ed. Irene von Burg, Jurgen Kuhnel, Ulrich Muller, and Alexander Schwartz. Goppinger Arbeiten zur Germanistik, 550. Goppinger: Kummerle, 1991 . pp. 133–54. Morse, Donald E. “The Irish Fantastic.” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 8 (1997): 2–14. Motz, Lotte . Faces of the Goddess . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ———. “The Winter Goddess: Percht, Holda, and Related Figures,” Folklore 95 ( 1984): 151–66. Narin , Elisa Marie . “‘Þat on . . . Þat OÞer’: Rhetorical Descriptio and Morgan La Fay in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Pacific Coast Philology 23 ( 1988): 60–66. Nelson, Gayle. “The Double Standard in Adolescent Novels.” In Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism . Ed. Millicent Lenz and Ramona M. Mahood. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980. pp. 228–31. Newstead , Helaine . Bran the Blessed in Arthurian Romance. New York: AMS Press, 1966 . ———. “The Besieged Lady in Arthurian Romance,” PMLA 63 ( 1948 ): 803–30. Nichols , Stephen G. The New Medievalism . Ed. Marina S. Brownlee, Kevin Brownlee, and Stephen G. Nichols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991 . 218 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nicholson, Mervyn . “Magic Food, Compulsive Eating, and Power Poetics.” In Disorderly Eaters: Texts in Self-Empowerment . Ed. Lilian R. Furst and Peter W. Graham. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992. pp. 43–60. Noble , James . “Feminism, Homosexuality, and Homophobia in The Mists of Avalon .” In Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend: Essays in Honor of Valerie M. Lagorio . Ed. Martin B. Shichtman and James P. Carley. Albany: State of New York Press, 1994. pp. 288–96. ——— . “Gilding the Lily (Maid): Elaine of .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 45–58. Nodleman, Perry and Mavis Reimer, The Pleasures of Children’s Literature , 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2003. O ’ Hara , James J. True Names: Vergil and the Alexandrian Tradition of Etymological Wordplay . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996. Olstead, Myra . “Morgan le Fay in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Bulletin Bibliographique de la Societé Internationale Arthurienne 19 ( 1967 ): 128–38. ———. “The Personality and Role of Morgan in Malory’s Morte Darthur ,” Bulletin Bibliographique de la Societé Internationale Arthurienne 18 (1966 ): 169–70. O ’ Sharkey , Eithne . “The Identity of the Fairy Mistress in Marie de France’s Lai de Lanval .” Trivium 6 ( 1971): 18–23. Passmore, S. Elizabeth . “Through the Counsel of a Lady: The Irish and English Loathly Lady Tales and the ‘Mirrors for Princes’ Genre.” In The English“Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 3–41. Paton , Lucy Allen . Studies in the Fairy Mythology of Arthurian Romance . New York: Burt Franklin, 1960 . Peck , Russell A. “Folklore and Powerful Women in Gower’s ‘Tale of Florent’.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 100–45. Pfordresher, John . A Variorum Edition of Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. New York: Columbia University Press, 1973 . Pochoda, Elizabeth T. Arthurian Propaganda : Le Morte Darthur as an Historical Ideal of Life . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971. ———. “Medieval Political Theory and the Arthurian Legend.” In Arthurian Propaganda as an Historical Ideal of Life. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971 . pp. 37–39. Pohvel, Martin . “Art and the Supernatural in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight : Morgan le Fay and the Hautdesert Conspiracy.” In Arthurian Literature 5. Ed. Richard Barber. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1985. pp. 30–36. Pressman , Richard S. “A Connecticut Yankee in Merlin’s Cave: The Role of Contradiction in Mark Twain’s Novel,” American Literary Realism 16 (1983 ): 58–72. Prior , Sandra Pierson . The Poet Revisited . New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994. BIBLIOGRAPHY 219

Psaki, Regina . “‘Le Donne Antiche e’Cavalieri’: Women in the Italian Arthurian Tradition.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 115–34. Purkiss, Diane . At the Bottom of the Garden: A Dark History of Fairies, Hobgoblins, and Other Troublesome Things . New York: New York University Press, 2000. Putter, Ad . Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and French Arthurian Romance . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995. Quinn, Esther C. “Chaucer’s Arthurian Romance,” Chaucer Review 18 (1984 ): 211–20. Ralph , Phyllis C. Victorian Transformations: Fairy Tales, Adolescence, and the Novel of Female Development . New York: Peter Lang, 1989 . Rasmussen , Ann Marie . “‘Ez ist ir G’artet von Mir’: Queen Isolde and Princess Isolde in ’s .” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 41–58. Rees , Alwyn D. Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales . New York: Grove Press, 1961 . Rhys, John Davies . Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971. ———. Studies in the Arthurian Legend. Oxford: Clarendon Press, MDCCCXCI. Riddy, Felicity . “Contextualizing Le Morte Darthur : Empire and Civil War.” In A Companion to Malory . Ed. Elizabeth Archibald and A. S. G. Edwards. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1996. pp. 55–73. Riggs, Don . “The Survival of the Goddess in Marie de France and Marion Zimmer Bradley,” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 9 ( 1998): 15–23. Roach , William , ed. Didot-, According to the Manuscripts of Modena and Paris. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1941 . Roberts , Adam . Silk and Potatoes: Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy. Amsterdam: Rodopoi, 1988. Roheim , Geza . “The Thread of Life.” In Fire in the Dragon and Other Psychoanalytic Essays of Folklore . Ed. Alan Dundes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992. pp. 87–102. Rollo , David . Glamorous Sorcery: Magic and Literacy in the . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000. Roppolo , Joseph P. “The Converted Knight in Chaucer’s Wife of Bath’s Tale ,” College English 12 (1951 ): 263–69. Rosenberg, John D. “Tennyson and the Passing of Arthur.” The Passing of Arthur : New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988 . pp. 221–34. ———. The Fall of Camelot: A Study of Tennyson’s “ Idylls of the King .” Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973 . Rovang, Paul R. Refashioning “Knights and Ladies Gentle Deeds”: The Intertextuality of Spenser’s Faerie Queene and Malory’s Le Morte Darthur. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. Rudman, Masha Kabakow. Children’s Literature: An Issues Approach , 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1995. pp. 349–51. 220 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ruggieri , Ruggero M. “Morgain la fe en Italie: un personage et un ,” BBSIA 18 (1966 ): 170–71. Samples , Susann T. “Belcane: Other As Another In Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . Pp. 187–98. Saul , MaryLynn Dorothy . “A Rebel and a Witch: The Historical Context and Ideological Function of Morgan le Fay in Malory’s ‘Le Morte Darthur’.” Unpublished Dissertation. Ohio State University, 1994. Saunders , Corinne J. The Forest of Medieval Romance: Avernus, Broceliande, Arden . Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1993. Scharf, Peter. “Moral Development and Literature for Adolescents.” In Young Adult Literature: Background and Criticism. Chicago: American Library Association, 1980. pp. 101–06. Schroeder , Peter R. “Saying But Little: Malory and the Suggestion of Emotion,” Arthuriana 11 ( 2001 ): 43–51. Shaner , Mary Edwards . “A Jungian Approach to the Ballad ‘King Henry’.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 186–98. Shanley , Mary Lyndon and Peter G. Stillman . “Mark Twain: Technology, Social Change, and Political Power.” In The Artist and Political Vision. Ed. Benjamin R Barber and Michael J Gargas. New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1982. pp. 267–89. Sharpe , Victoria . “The Goddess Restored,” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 9 ( 1998): 36–45. Sheppeard , Sallye J. “Arthur and the Goddess: Cultural Crisis in The Mists of Avalon.” In The Arthurian Myth of Quest and Magic: A Festschrift in Honor of Lavon B. Fulwiler . Dallas: Caxton’s Modern Arts Press, 1993. pp. 91–104. Shoaf , R. A . “The ‘Sygne of Surfet’ and the Surfiet of Signs in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight .” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell. New York: Garland, 1988. pp. 152–69. Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977. Silver, Carole . “In Defense of Guenevere.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000. pp. 229–48. ———. “Victorian Spellbinders: Arthurian Women and the Pre-Raphaelite Circle.” In The Passing of Arthur: New Essays in Arthurian Tradition . Ed. Christopher Baswell and William Sharpe. New York: Garland, 1988 . Pp. 193–206. Skeels , Dell, trans . The Romance of Perceval in Prose: A Translation of the E Manuscript of the Didot Perceval . Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1961 . Sklar, Elizabeth S. “Malory’s Other(ed) Elaine.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 59–70. ———. “Thoroughly Modern Morgan: Morgan le Fey in Twentieth-Century Popular Arthuriana.” In Popular Arthurian Traditions. Ed. Sally K. Slocum. BIBLIOGRAPHY 221

Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1992 . Pp. 24–35. Smith , Jeanette C. “The Role of Women in Contemporary Arthurian Fantasy,” Extrapolation 35 (1994 ): 130–44. Spense , Lewis . The Minor Traditions of British Mythology . London: Rider and Company, 1948 . Spivack , Charlotte . “Morgan le Fay: Goddess or Witch?” In The Company of Camelot: Arthurian Characters in Romance and Fantasy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. pp. 31–46. Spivack , Charlotte and Roberta Lynne Staples. The Company of Camelot: Arthurian Characters in Romance and Fantasy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. Stahl, J. D. Mark Twain: Culture and Gender . Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1994. Stanbury , Sarah . Seeing the Gawain-Poet: Description and the Art of Perception. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 . Staton, Shirley F. “Reading Spenser’s Faerie Queene : In a Different Voice.” In Ambiguous Realities: Women in the Middle Ages and Renaissance , ed. Carole Levin and Jeanie Watson. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987. 145–64. Stein , Joanna S. , “The Ambiguous Forest: Marvelous Landscapes in Ovid’s Metamorphoses and Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur ,” BA Honors Thesis, Macalester College, 2006 . http://digitalcommons,macalester.edu/cgi/view content.cgi?article=1005&cont ext=english_honors . Accessed April 28, 2008 . Steinberg , Aaron . “The Wife of Bath’s Tale and Her Fantasy of Fulfillment,” College English 26 (1964 ): 187–91. Stewart, R. J. Celtic Gods, Celtic Goddesses. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1992. Stock , Lorraine Kochanske . “The Hag of Castle Hautdesert: The Celtic Sheela-na -gig and the Auncian in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight .” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 121–48. Stone, Merlin . Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood: Our Goddess and Heroine Heritage . Vols. 1 and 2. New York: New Sybilline Books, 1979. Strite, Sheri Ann . “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: To Behead or Not to Behead: That Is a Question,” Philological Quarterly 70 ( 1999 ): 1–12. Sturm-Maddox, Donald and Sara , eds. Melusine of Lusignan: Founding Fiction in Late Medieval France . Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1996 . Sweeney , Michelle . Magic in Medieval Romance from Chretien de Troyes to Geoffrey Chaucer . Portland, OR: Four Courts Press, 2000. Tatlock , J. S. P. “Geoffrey and King Arthur in Normannicus Draco ,” Modern Philology 31 ( 1933 ): 1–18. Taylor, Beverly . “Re-Vamping Vivien: Reinventing Myth as Victorian Icon.” In King Arthur’s Modern Return . Ed. Debra N. Mancoff. New York: Garland, 1998. pp. 65–81. Taylor, Beverly and Elisabeth Brewer . “Arthur’s ‘Return’ in the New World: American Literature of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries.” In The Return of King Arthur: British and American Literature since 1900 . Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1983. pp. 162–203. 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Taylor Beverly, and Elisabeth Brewer . “‘An in the Fashion of the Day’: Idylls of the King .” In The Return of King Arthur: British and American Literature Since 1900. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1983. pp. 89–128. Taylor, Richard P. “Reincarnation, Western.” In Death and the Afterlife: A Cultural Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2000. Thiel , Anne . “From Woman to Woman: Benedikte Naubert’s ‘Der Kurze Mantel.’” In Harmony in Discord: German Women Writers in the 18th and 19th Centuries . Ed. Laura Martin. Berne: Lang, 2002 . pp. 125–44. Thompson, Raymond H. “‘For quenys I might have now . . . ’: The Knight Errant’s Treatment of Women in English Arthurian Verse Romances,” Atlantis 4 ( 1979 ): 34–47. ———. “Morgan le Fay.” In The Arthurian Encyclopedia . Ed. Norris J. Lacy. New York: Garland Publishing, 1986. ———. “Science Fiction and Science Fantasy.” In The Return from Avalon: A Study of the Arthurian Legend in Modern Fiction . Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985. pp. 83–84. ———. “The First and Last Love: Morgan le Fay and Arthur.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000 . pp. 331–44. ———. The Return From Avalon: A Study of the Arthurian Legend in Modern Fiction . London: Greenwood Press, 1985 . Thornton, Ginger . “The Weakening of the King: Arthur’s Disintegration in The Book of Sir Tristram,” Arthurian Yearbook 1 ( 1991): 135–48. Tobin , Lee Ann . “Why Change the Arthur Story?: Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon .” Extrapolation 34 ( 1993): 147–57. Twomey, Michael W. “Is Morgne la Faye in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight —or anywhere in Middle English?” Anglia: Zeitschrift fur Englische Philologie 117 ( 1999 ): 542–57. ———. “Morgain la Fee in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight : From Troy to Camelot.” In Text and Intertext in Medieval Arthurian Literature. Ed. Norris J. Lacy. New York: Garland, 1996. pp. 91–115. ———. “Morgan le Fay at Hautdesert.” In On Arthurian Women. Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 103–19. Umland , Rebecca . “The Snake in the Woodpile: Tennyson’s Vivien as Victorian Prostitute.” In Culture and the King: The Social Implications of the Arthurian Legend . Ed. Martin B. Shichtman and James P. Carley. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. pp. 274–87. VanderVen-Ten Bensel , Elise Francisca Wilhelmina Maria . The Character of King Arthur in Literature. New York: Haskell House, 1966 . Vasta , Edward . “Chaucer, Gower, and the Unknown Minstrel: The Literary Liberation of the Loathly Lady,” Exemplaria 7 ( 1995): 395–418. Volk-Birke , Sabine . “The Cyclical Way of the Priestess: On the Significance of Narrative Structures in Marion Zimmer Bradley’s The Mists of Avalon ,” Anglia 108 (1990 ): 409–28. Wade , James . Fairies in Medieval Romance. New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2011 . BIBLIOGRAPHY 223

Wais , Kurt . “Morgain amante d’Accolon et rivale de Guenievre,” BBSIA 18 ( 1966 ): 137–49. Walker , Jeanne Murray . “High Fantasy, Rites of Passage, and Cultural Value.” In Teaching Children’s Literature: Issues, Pedagogy, Resources . Ed. Glenn Edward Sadler. New York: MLA, 1992. 109–20. Weiss , Victoria L. “Gawain’s First Failure: The Beheading Scene in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight ,” Chaucer Review 10 ( 1976): 361–66. Westoby , Kathryn S. “A New Look at the Role of the Fee in Medieval French Arthurian Romance.” In The Spirit of the Court: Selected Proceedings of the the Fourth Congress of the International Courtly Literature Society (Toronto 1983). Ed. Glyn S. Burgess et al. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer, 1985 . Pp. 373–85. Wheatley, Henry B. , ed. Merlin, or the Early History of King Arthur: A Prose Romance . 2nd ed. London: Trubner & Co., 1875 . Wheeler , Bonnie , ed. Arthurian Studies in Honor of P. J. C. Field. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2004 . Wheeler , Bonnie and Fiona Tolhurst , eds. On Arthurian Women . Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . Whetter , K. S. “On Misunderstanding Malory’s Balyn,” in Arthurian Studies lx: Reviewing Le Morte Darthur. Ed. K. S. Whetter and Raluca L. Radulescu. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005 . 149–62. Whitaker, Muriel . The Legends of King Arthur in Art . Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1990. ———. “The Woman’s Eye: Four Modern Arthurian Illustrations.” In Arthurian Women: A Casebook. Ed. Thelma S. Fenster. New York: Routledge, 2000 . pp. 263–86. Wilhelm , James J. , ed. The Romance of Arthur: An Anthology of Medieval Texts in Translation . New York: Garland, 1994. Williams, Edith Whitehurst . “Morgan La Fee as in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight .” Folklore 96 (1985 ): 38–56. Williams, Elizabeth . “‘A Damsel by Herselfe Alone’: Images of Magic and Femininity from Lanval to Sir Lambewell. ” In Romance Reading on the Book: Essays on Medieval Narrative Presented to Maldwyn Mills. Ed. Jennifer Fellows, Rosalind Field, Gillian Rogers, and Judith Weiss. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1996. pp. 155–70. Wilson , Anne . The Magical Quest: The Use of Magic in Arthurian Romance . Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988. Wollstadt , Lynn M. “Repainting the Lion: ‘The Wife of Bath’s Tale’ and a Traditional British Ballad.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 199–212. Woodcock, Matthew. Fairy in The Faerie Queene: Renaissance Elf-Fashioning and Elizabethan Myth-Making. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004. Woods , Susanne . “Spenser and the Problem of Women’s Rule,” HLQ 48 (1985 ): 141–58. Wright, Richard . The Development of Morgan le Fay’s Character in Arthurian Literature . Unpublished Thesis (BA with honors in English). Emory University, 1986. 224 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wulf , Charlotte A. T. “Merlin’s Mother in the Chronicles.” In On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries . Ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst. Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 . pp. 259–70. Wynne-Davies, Marion . Women and Arthurian Literature: Seizing the Sword . New York: Macmillan, 1996 . Yeager, R. F. “The Politics of Strengthe and Vois in Gower’s Loathly Lady Tale.” In The English “Loathly Lady” Tales: Boundaries, Traditions, Motifs . Ed. S. Elizabeth Passmore and Susan Carter. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2007 . pp. 42–72. Youngberg , Quentin . “The Morphology of Manifest Destiny: The Justified Violence of John O’Sullivan, Hank Morgan, and George W. Bush,” Canadian Review of American Studies 35 (2005 ): 315–33. Zurlo , John A. “Hank’s Egomania,” Mark Twain Journal 21 ( 1983): 60. INDEX

Accolon, 9 , 70 , 71 , 75 , 84–7 , 97 , 109 and relationship with Morgan, 1 , in Bradley, 135 , 179 n. 23 , 181 n. 41 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 15 , 20 , 44 , 60 , 79 , 81 , 82 , 182 n. 50 , 183 n. 56 , 183 n. 57 , 85 , 104 , 107 , 125 , 127 , 129 , 130 , 185 n. 77 , 185 n. 78 134 , 136 , 139 , 141 , 143 , 144 , 147 , in Cawein, 110–11 149 , 150 , 155 , 179 n. 23 , Acrasia, 94 , 95 , 97 , 98 , 116 183 n. 56 , 193 n. 79 Adultery, 76 , 84 , 106 , 134 , 189 n. 38 as shape shifter, 17 , 27 , 161 n. 17 see also Guenevere; Lancelot and willful blindness, 8 , 9, 45 , 80 , 81 , Agravain, 76 , 164 n. 41 84–7 , 88 , 89 , 114–16 , 180 n. 32 , Alexander, 9 , 16 , 20 , 82 , 83 , 87–8 , 183 n. 57 , 193 n. 81 96 , 97 , 166 n. 56 , 185 n. 80 , Avalon, 15 , 16 , 18 , 20 , 21 , 23–5 , 27 , 185 n. 82 28 , 29–31 , 34–6 , 98 , 110 , Anfortas, 62 162 n. 27 , 162 n. 29 , Angel in the House, 99 , 102 , 103 , 162 n. 30 , 171 n. 39 189 n. 41 and Arthur, see Arthur and Avalon Anna, 162 n. 27 , 164 n. 41 and Lanval, 43 , 46–9 , 191 n. 65 Argante, 10 , 95–7 , 98 , 116 , 164 n. 41 in Mists of Avalon , see Bradley, Arthur, King, 43 , 91 , 94 Marion Zimmer and Avalon, 28 , 31 , 35 , 70 , 79 , Morgan as ruler of, 74 , 79 , 95 , 96 , 96–8 , 100 , 129 , 134 , 136 , 143 , 108 , 183 n. 58 162 n. 30 in Morte d’Avalon , see King, J. Robert and Breton Hope, 7 , 24–5 , 30 , 33 , 34 , 79 , 99 , 164 n. 37 , 183 n. 58 Bannerman, Anne and Guenevere, 20 , 132–3 Prophecy of Merlin , 10 , 99 as immortal ruler, 7 , 31–3 Barinthus, 22 , 24 , 25 , 27 as imperfect ruler, 10 , 11 , 33 , 46 , Bertilak, 8 , 43 , 50–5 , 57 , 60 48–50 , 51 , 67 , 68–9 , 70 , 72–9 , Black bird, 5–6 , 19 , 26–7 88 , 89 , 119 , 174 n. 61 , 181 n. 41 , Bradley, Marion Zimmer 181 n. 45 , 182 n. 54 , 185 n. 76 Mists of Avalon, The , 4 , 11 , 12 , 119 , as Morgan’s brother, 2 , 18 , 27 , 31 , 127–38 , 150 32 , 36 , 57 , 79 , 82 , 129 , 164 n. 41 , Broceliande, 167 n. 1 191 n. 50 Burne-Jones, Edward, 11 , 91 , 103 , as Morgan’s patient, 3 , 16 , 21–2 , 105 , 113 , 190 n. 46 28–31 , 33 , 34 , 36 , 70 , 79 , 96 , Beguiling of Merlin, The , 104–5 164 n. 41 Morgan le Fay , 104–5 226 INDEX

Cawein, Madison J., 116 Elizabeth I, Queen, 10 , 91 , 92–6 , 98 , “Accolon of Gaul”, 10 , 91 , 110–11 99 , 116 , 188 n. 26 “Morgan le Fay”, 109 Etienne de Rouen Caxton, William, 84 Draco Normannicus , 6 , 7 , 15 , 30–3 Chastity tests Eve/Ave dichotomy, 6 , 102 , 149 horn, 81 , 88 , 98 , 107 , 191 n. 56 , Excalibur, 70 , 84–5 , 97 , 141 , 162 n. 27 , 193 n. 79 183 n. 56 , 185 n. 76, 77 mantle, 98 , 191 n. 56 scabbard, 44 , 84–5 , 141 , 143 , see also Naubert, “The Mantle” 185 n. 76 Chaucer, Geoffrey “Wife of Bath’s Tale”, 43 , 55 , 57 , Fairies, 6 , 26 , 45 , 47 , 60 , 106 , 110 , 113 , 59–61 , 98 , 168 n. 11 , 169 n. 18 , 166 n. 67, 171 n. 39 , 172 n. 45 , 177 n. 98 175 n. 67 , 192 n. 68 Chestre, Thomas Fallen woman, 10 Sir Launfal , 8 , 15 , 39 , 46–50 , see also Angel in the House; 170 n. 33, n. 34 , 171 n. 38 , Woman Question 171 n. 43 , 172 n. 46 , Fata Morgana, 26 , 107 191 n. 65 Femme fatale, 2 , 3 , 10 , 11 , 59 , 100 , Chivalry, 8 , 9 , 65–90 , 99 , 120 , 157 n. 2 , 102 , 109 , 111 , 112 , 114 , 154 , 159 n. 24 , 179 n. 9 , 179 n. 16 , 190 n. 46 , 191 n. 50 181 n. 40 , 184 n. 66 Forest as limiting, 41 , 48 , 54 as ambiguous, 40–1 , 43 , 52 , see also Keen, Maurice; de Charny 168 n. 5 , 184 n. 72 Chretien de Troyes, 15 , 18 , 47 , as dichotomous with court, 8 , 61 , 80 39–40 , 45 , 52 , 169 n. 19 Erec et Enide , 15 , 20 , 25 , 58 , as feminine, 40–1 , 42 , 58–9 , 109 , 161 n. 21 , 170 n. 29 111 , 144 , 155 , 176 n. 89 , Knight of the Cart (Chevalier de la 184 n. 67 Charette ), 80 as place for expanding knightly Yvain , 15 , 161 n. 21 identity, 7 , 8 , 9 , 39 , 42 , 43 , 44 , Courtly love, 10 , 67 , 69 , 79–82 , 49–50 , 54 , 63 , 64 83–5 , 87 , 184 n. 66 , 185 n. 78 , as refuge, 21 , 39 , 44 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 97 187 n. 20 , 194 n. 1 Craik, Dinah Maria Muldock Gawain, 17 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 47–8 , 63 , 67 , Avillion, or the Happy Isles , 108 143 , 155 , 185 n. 75 Cuchulainn, 6 , 19–20 , 161 n. 17 in ’”Sir Gawain and the Carle of Carlisle”, 46 , 50 , 55 Daedalus, Dedalus, 26 , 27 in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , De Charny, Geoffroi, 67–8 8, 42 , 43 , 46 , 50–5 , 57 , 60 , 111 , Livre de chevalerie, 9 , 66–9 , 72 , 172 n. 52 , 173 n. 53 , 174 n. 58, 75–7 , 88–9 , 179 n. 9 , 15 , 16 , 61 , 175 n. 63, 64, 69, 71 181 n. 43 , 45 , 182 n. 46 , 53 , in “The Wedding of Sir Gawain 185 n. 76 and Dame Ragnell”, 43 , 46 , 50 , Didot Percival , 26 55 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 63 Duessa, 10 , 91 , 92 , 94 , 95 , 97–8 , 116 , Geis, 8 , 46 , 48 , 170 n. 31 187 n. 18 , 19 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 20 , 24 , 25 INDEX 227

Historia Regum Brittaniae , 162 n. 27 , Kantorowicz, Ernst 30 “The King’s Two Bodies”, 73–4 , Vita Merlini , 5 , 6 , 15 , 16 , 20–30 , 181 n. 40 163 n. 31 , 164 n. 38 Keats, John Gerald of Wales (Giraldus La Belle Dame Sans Merci , 10 , 99–101 , Cambrensis), 6 , 7 , 15 , 26 , 33–7 102 , 109 , 111 , 112 , 116 , 188 n. 32, De Instructione Principis , 6 , 7 , 15 , 35, 36 , 189 n. 36 , 192 n. 70 33–7 Keen, Maurice Speculum Ecclesiae , 6 , 7 , 33–7 Chivalry , 179 n. 9 Glastonbury, 35 , 36 , 137 , 167 n. 79 King, J. Robert , 93–5 Le Morte D’Avalon , 11 , 12 , 119 , Gower 138–43 , 150 , 159 n. 29 , “Tale of Florent”, 50 , 58 , 186 n. 11 , 198 n. 50, 52 175 n. 76 Grail, 18 , 43, 44 , 61–3 , 137 , 176 n. 80 , Lady of the Lake, 75 , 78 , 84 , 130 , 136 , 178 n. 113 , 186 n. 84 183 n. 57 , 186 n. 83 , 187 n. 20 Guenevere, 172 n. 51 , 174 n. 58 , Lancelot, 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 15 , 25 , 43 , 184 n. 64 , 185 n. 78 , 189 n. 38 44–6 , 55 , 57 , 59 , 63 , 67 , 72–7 , affair with Lancelot, 8 , 9 , 12 , 15 , 79 , 80 , 83–4 , 91 , 141 , 166 n. 55 , 43 , 44–6 , 55 , 57 , 72 , 73 , 76–7 , 184 n. 65 79–84 , 86–9 , 115 , 132 , 135 , 144 , and Arthur, loyalty to, 82 , 86 , 185 n. 78 181 n. 45 , 184 n. 73 , 185 n. 75 and Guenevere, affair with, 81 , 85 , and Arthur, 20 , 74 , 77 , 85 , 133 , 88 , 89 , 106 , 115 , 144 , 180 n. 32 , 180 n. 32 181 n. 45 , 184 n. 73 , 185 n. 75 in Bradley, 132–6 as Lancelet (Bradley), 132 , 133 in Chaucer, 60 and Morgan, 82 , 83 , 96 , 97 , in Hervey, 11 , 107–8 184 n. 72 , 187 n. 19 , 187 n. 20 and Morgan, 46 , 107–8 , 132–6 , Lancelot-Grail Cycle, see Vulgate 170 n. 29 Cycle in Naubert, 106 Layamon, 10 , 95 in Sir Launfal , 46 , 48–50 Brut , 96 , 164 n. 41 in Tennyson, 114–15 Loathly Lady, 5 , 7 , 8 , 41–3 , 46–50 , 55–63 , Guigomar, 45–6 , 47 , 106 , 170 n. 29 , 98 , 154 , 168 n. 11, 15, 17 , 173 n. 56 , 171 n. 36 , 171 n. 44, 174 n. 58 175 n. 76 , 176 n. 93 , 177 n. 94 Cundrie and Sigune, 61–3 Hallewas, 83 as Sovereignty Hag, 8 , 61 Henry II, King, 7 , 30 , 32–3 , 34 , 35 , 44 , 55 , 175 n. 76 Mabinogion, The , 24 , 28 Hervey, T. K. Magic, 7 , 10 , 13 , 16 , 21 , 23 , 24 , 26 , Feasts of Camelot , 10 , 91 , 107–8 , 28 , 36 , 39 , 40 , 42 , 47 , 49 , 51 , 191 n. 60 52–3 , 55 , 58 , 60 , 63 , 87 , 95 , 98 , Horn test, see Chastity tests 99 , 104 , 107 , 109 , 110 , 114 , 122 , Hunt, William Holman 134 , 135 , 137 , 140 , 143 , 144–50 , The Lady of Shalott , 103 157 n. 2 , 171 n. 43 , 172 n. 46 , 173 n. 56 , 176 n. 85 , 177 n. 100 , (in Bradley), 130 181 n. 34 , 184 n. 72 , 190 n. 46 228 INDEX

Malory, Sir Thomas, 1 , 2 , 5 , 9 , 10 , 15 , as Arthur’s advisor and critic of 17–20 , 29 , 33 , 60 , 64 , 65–90 , 91 , court, 10 , 11 , 44–5 , 57 , 65–90 , 94 , 96–9 , 108 , 109, 10 , 112 , 114 , 115 , 134 , 181 n. 40 , 183 n. 56 , 113–16 , 120 , 128 , 134 , 154 , 155 , 185 n. 76 159 n. 24 , 166 n. 55, 56 , 173 n. 55 , as Arthur’s sister, 27 , 31 , 36 , 78–9 , 179 n. 7, 9, 23 , 180 n. 32 , 181 n. 34, 87 , 106–7 , 161 n. 21 , 165 n. 51 , 41 , 182 n. 50, 54 , 183 n. 57 , 58, 180 n. 33 , 190 n. 50 184 n. 64, 66, 70, 71 , 185 n. 80, as fairy, 7 , 8 , 28–30 , 32 , 41–64 , 82 , 192 n. 73 , 193 n. 79, 81 , 47–50 , 96 , 99–104 , 105–6 , 194 n. 84, 87, 88 107–8 , 109–13 , 127 , 143–50 , Morte Darthur , 1 , 9 , 15 , 19 , 65–90 , 166 n. 54 , 171 n. 34 , 172 n. 37 , 159 n. 24 , 173 n. 55 , 180 n. 27 , 173 n. 56 , 184 n. 72 , 186 n. 13 , 181 n. 34 , 184 n. 71 , 185 n. 82 , 187 n. 19 , 188 n. 35 , 192 n. 74 187 n. 18 , 195 n. 5 , 196 n. 18 as femme fatale, 3 , 10 , 11 , 102–5 , Mantle, burning, 78 , 183 n. 55 , 111–12 , 114 , 154 183 n. 57 in Geoffrey of Monmouth, Mantle test, see Chastity tests see Geoffrey of Monmouth Marie de France as goddess, 7 , 12 , 13 , 17–20 , 28 , Lanval , 15 , 46 , 47 , 63 , 160 n. 13 , 32 , 34, 51 , 127 , 128 , 139–43 , 162 n. 29 , 170 n. 34 , 171 n. 42 , 147–8 , 150 , 154 , 161 n. 17 172 n. 45 as healer, 6 , 15–37 , 41 , 78–9 , Mark, King of , 17 , 77 , 88 , 87–8 , 97 , 100 , 105 , 145 , 114 , 140 , 182 n. 54 , 185 n. 80 148 , 161 n. 21 , 162 n. 30, Melusine, 160 n. 2 166 n. 56 Merlin, 20–1 , 27 , 43 , 91 in Layamon’s Brut , see Layamon in Bannerman, 10 , 99 as loathly lady, 7 , 41–64 , 97 , 98 , in Bradley, 12 , 130 , 133 , 136 , 137 , 168 n. 17 , 177 n. 98 197 n. 37 , 198 n. 42 , 199 n. 65 in Malory’s Morte Darthur , 9–10 , and Burne-Jones, 103 , 105 , 15 , 65–90 , 115–16 , 173 n. 55 , 190 n. 45 192 n. 73 , 193 n. 79, 81 , in Hervey, 107–8 194 n. 88 in Malory, 77 , 78 , 85 , 86 , 183 n. 57 , in Mark Twain, 11 , 119–27 , 132 187 n. 20 as mistress of Avalon, 22–4 , 31 , 35 , in Naubert, 105 47–50 , 79 , 96 , 98 , 108 , 162 n. 27 , in Springer, 144 , 147 , 149 162 n. 30 , 171 n. 39 in Tennyson, 113–16 , 193 n. 83, 84 , name variations, 26 , 95–6 , 161 n. 14 , 194 n. 86, 87, 88 162 n. 38 , 164 n. 41 in Twain, 11 , 121–2 , 125 , 126 , as psychopomp, 25 , 29 , 127 196 n. 15 as queen, 74 , 79 , 94 , 108 , 166 n. 5 , in the Vita Merlini , 20–1 184 n. 70 , 187 n. 19 , 189 n. 40 Modron, 17 , 42 , 162–3 n. 30 , 165 n. 42 as shapeshifter, 5–6 , 22–3 , 26–7 , Mordred, 75 , 77 , 89 , 99 , 132 , 141 , 50 , 60 , 69 , 92–4 , 97 , 98 , 138 , 164 n. 41 , 183 n. 56 , 197 n. 38 145 , 156 Morgaine ( Mists of Avalon ), 127–38 as teacher of knights, 8–9 , 11 , 41–64 , Morgan le Fay, 1 , 157 n. 2 , 158 n. 9 , 65–90 , 160 n. 1 , 181 n. 40 , 191 n. 52 , 193 n. 84 185 n. 78 , 185 n. 80 INDEX 229

Morgan, Hank, 11 , 12 , 117 , 119–26 , Sir Gawain and the Green Knight , 7 , 8, 132 , 137 , 150 , 195 n. 11 , 15 , 39 , 42 , 43 , 46 , 50–5 , 57 , 60 , 61 , 196 n. 16, 17, 18 168 n. 7 , 169 n. 19 , 172 n. 52, 53 , see also Twain, Mark 173 n. 56 , 174 n. 58, 61 , 175 n. 67, Morgan Tud, 24 , 28 , 161 n. 21 69 , 176 n. 93 , 177 n. 98 , 179 n. 15 , Morgause, 67 , 131–3 , 140 , 145 , 146 , 187 n. 20 164 n. 41 , 198 n. 52 Sir Launfal , see Chestre Morrigan, The, 5 , 6 , 13 , 16 , 17 , Sir Orfeo , 47 , 110 , 184 n. 72 , 192 n. 68 19–20 , 26–7 , 32 , 42 , 127 , 147 , Spenser, Sir Edmund 149 , 154 , 161 n. 14, 17, 18, 20 , Faerie Queene, The , 10 , 91 , 92 , 164 n. 41 , 165 n. 43 93–8 , 99 , 101 , 113 , 116 , 155 , 187 n. 18, 19, 20 , 189 n. 36 Naubert, Benedict (Benedikte) Springer, Nancy “The Mantle”, 105–7 I am Morgan le Fay , 11 , 119 , 138 , New Medievalism, 4 , 119 , 158 n. 17 , 143–50 , 199 n. 65 196 n. 20, n. 21 Suite du Merlin , 42 , 44 , 47

Taliesin, 21 , 23 Ogier le Danois, 2 , 47 , 110 , 171 n. 39 , see also Merlin 192 n. 67 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 10 , 11 , 91 , 92 , 102 , 104 , 113 , 114 , 119 , 126 , Paintings, in Morgan’s castle, 189 n. 40 , 189 n. 42 , 190 n. 49 , see Post-Vulgate Cycle 193 n. 80, 82 , 194 n. 87, 88 Post-Vulgate Cycle , 7 , 8 , 43–6 , 96 Idylls of the King , 10 , 11 , 91 , 113 , paintings in, 44–5 , 81 , 184 n. 65 116 , 119 , 193 n. 80 , 193 n. 82 Pre-Raphaelites, 10 , 11 , 91 , 102–5 , “The Lady of Shalott”, 102 , 103 , 190 n. 45, 46, 48, 49 , 192 n. 74 , 189 n. 42 193 n. 78 Tristan, 17 , 39–40 , 45 , 140 (in King) , 182 n. 54 Roman goddesses shield, given by Morgan, 81 , 88 , 89 Sequana, Sirona, Sulis, 6 , 16 , 18 , Tryamour, 8 , 42 , 46–50 , 54 , 58 26 , 29 Twain, Mark, 11 , 117 , 119–27 , 153 , 155 , 195 n. 5, 11 , Sandys, Frederick 196 n. 16, 17, 18 Morgan le Fay , 91 , 103–5 A Connecticut Yankee in King Scabbard, Excalibur, 44 , 75 , 77 , 78 , Arthur’s Court , 11 , 12 , 17 , 119–27 , 84–7 , 141 , 143 , 185 n. 76 132 , 137 , 150 , 195 n. 5 Shalott, Lady of, 102 , 189 n. 42 (Tennyson), 103–4 Uriens, King (paintings) in Malory, 70–2 , 74 , 82 , 83 , 97 , 98 , , 1 , 5–6 , 10 , 12 , 18 , 183 n. 56 , 186 n. 83 19 , 26 , 27 , 36 , 61 , 69 , 72 , in Twain, 123 , 125 93–8 , 116 , 148 , 156 , Uwayne, 70–2 , 194 n. 88 169 n. 18 black bird, 5 , 6 , 19 , 26–7 , 25 , 96 , 147 stone, 5 , 20 , 44 , 60 Vinaver, Eugene, 64 , 84 , 157 n. 1 230 INDEX

Vivien, 101 Wild Man, 7 , 20 , 42 , 58–9 , in Bradley (Viviane), 12 , 105 , 110 , 168 n. 12 130–1 , 132 , 134 , 136 Wild Woman, 7 , 41–2 , 58–9 in Tennyson, 11 , 91 , 92 , 113–16 , Wilson, John Grosvenor 193 n. 83 , 193 n. 84 , 194 n. 85 , “Morgain”, 111–13 194 n. 86 , 194 n. 87 , 194 n. 88 Witchcraft, 173 n. 55 Vulgate Cycle (Lancelot-Grail Cycle), Wolfram von Eschenbach 7 , 8 , 15 , 25 , 42 , 43–6 , 50 , 60 , 96 , Parzival , 8 , 39 , 42 , 61–4 , 105 , 108 , 109 , 112 , 113 , 147 , 154 , 178 n. 104 , 178 n. 107 171 n. 44 Woman Question, 10 , 99 , 102 , s ee also Post-Vulgate Cycle 109 , 111 see also Angel in the House; Wace, 25 , 164 n. 41 Fallen woman; Femme Wars of the Roses, 9 , 66–8 , 73 fatale Waterhouse, John William The Lady of Shalott , 102–5 Yvain, see Chretien de Troyes