0. INTRODUCTION
“The children seemed totally disinterested in the teacher’s monologue.
They stared vacantly at the teacher and sometimes at the blackboard
where some alphabets had been written. Clearly aware that the children
could not understand what he was saying, the teacher proceeded to
provide even more detailed explanation in a much louder voice. Later,
tired of speaking and realizing that the young children were completely
lost, he asked them to start copying the alphabets from the blackboard.
~” (Jhingran 2005: 1)
Although this description is upon a classroom in a primary school in a remote tribal area in Chhindwara district in Madhya Pradesh, the picture in Hindi medium primary schools in the Pattani language community in Lahul & Spiti district, Himachal Pradeshm is not very different. Throughout this dissertation I will investigate what makes a teacher’s discourse so incomprehensible to children and what can possibly be done to rescue the situation.
In chapter one, the objective and the hypothesis of this research are stated. Most teachers in Pattani language community use Hindi as a sole medium of instruction for primary education although the Hindi proficiency of the children is not good enough to understand the instruction. As Jhingran (2005: 44) points out, the reasons for using Hindi may be as follows: 1) Using Pattani may be against the official policy of use of Hindi for instruction in official Hindi medium government schools. 2) They seem to believe that
1 the exclusive use of Hindi may help to provide maximum exposure to that language, which may help the children learn Hindi quickly. On the other hand, some teachers in a few schools use oral Pattani for communication simply because Pattani is the only language that children can understand. Thus, the study primarily aims to investigate linguistically and academically the educational effect of two different medium languages, i.e. Pattani and Hindi.
Chapter two introduces the background information about the Pattani language community. This includes the geography, history, people and languages spoken in the area. Since Pattani language community is a part of wider identity group, Lahuli people group, first, information about Lahuli is given followed by that about the Pattani community.
In chapter three, I examine the theoretical support for mother tongue education and bilingualism for the linguistic and academic achievement. The first part is regarding the implication of learning through mother tongue in order to achieve academic excellence while the second part deals with the positive effect of bilingualism for the better academic achievement. In the second part of this chapter, I divide the related research into two kinds: research in pre- and post- 1960s. I point out the problem of both internal and external validity of the pre-60s research. As for the post-60s’ research, bilingualism’s effect on cognition, divergent thinking, meta-linguistic awareness, field independency, etc. is discussed. The relevance of Pattani oral medium to mother tongue education and bilingualism is discussed in chapter 6.
2
Chapter four is devoted to the methodology. It provides a clear picture of the sample, the medium of instruction, parents’ occupation, teachers’ qualification, their teaching method, multi-grade class condition and school facilities. Five different tools were used to elicit the data from the student sample, i.e. Hindi Sentence Repetition Test (HSRT), Hindi
Cloze Test, Hindi Writing Task, Annual Exams and participant observation. The first three tests were administered by me and the annual exam was carried out by Himachal government. The annual exam includes the following subjects: Hindi, English,
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and Moral Education & History of Freedom
Struggle.
Chapter five is concerned with the data elicitation and analysis. HSRT marks are compared among three different schools, i.e. Hindi medium class V, Pattani oral medium class V and another Hindi medium school in another language (Gahri) community.
Following HSRT, the result of Hindi Cloze Test, Hindi Writing Task and annual exam reveals differently according to the medium language in class V. A Hindi medium class
V is composed of three different groups of students, i.e. Hindi, Pattani and Nepali home children, and these groups of children are analysed. The rest of the chapter is devoted to a discussion of HSRT for class X and test scores according to age and sex of the children.
In chapter six, I discuss the implications of the findings under study in chapter five. I emphasize linguistic and academic effect of the oral medium of Pattani (oracy).
Regarding the different socio-cultural support from the three different groups in a Hindi
3 medium class V, Thomas and Collier’s Prism Model (1997) is discussed. A few more words are added for long term effect of Pattani oral medium, special benefit of mother tongue for girls and more probable grade repetition among Hindi medium class V.
4 1. OBJECTIVE
The objective of this study is to examine whether learning through one’s mother tongue, along with learning other languages, enhances both one’s linguistic and academic achievement. I propose to work in two kinds of primary schools of the Pattan valley. In one type of school, the teacher is a native speaker of Pattani and uses Pattani in class while textbooks are written in Hindi; in the other kind of school, the teacher, though a
Pattani speaker, uses only Hindi as a medium of instruction. My hypothesis is that primary school children who learn different subjects through their mother-tongue, Pattani, will be linguistically better both in Hindi and English and academically more advanced in other subjects, i.e. Science, Math, Social Studies, etc. than those children who receive all their education only through an unfamiliar language, Hindi.
5 2. BACKGROUND OF THE PATTANI LANGUAGE
COMMUNITY
2.1. Geography
The term Pattani is used in this paper to refer to the first language of the people mainly living in the Pattan valley of the Lahul area. And it is also used to describe the people in
Pattan valley. Lahul along with Spiti, constitute the Lahul and Spiti district of Himachal
Pradesh, India.
The Lahul area is remote and surrounded by towering mountain ranges. The district is generally considered rural and even its district headquarters, Keyolong, is considered a rural area (Atwal 1991: xi). The district of Lahul-Spiti is separated in the north from the
Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir by the Baralacha range which has an average height of 5500 meters from the sea level; in the east is situated the Tibet region. In the south-east the district is separated from Kinnaur district by tall mountains with an average height of 5000 meters. In the southwest and west the district is separated from
Kulu and Chamba districts by the lofty range with an average elevation of 4500 meters
(Bajpai 1987: 1).
Lahul & Spiti is the largest district (13,835 sq. Kms accounting for 24.85 percent area of the State) in the state whereas it has very small population compared to other districts in
6 the state. The density of population in the District is just 2 persons per sq. Kms whereas that of the State is 93 (Atwal 1991: 3).
Pattani is spoken throughout the Pattan valley, which is located on the banks of the river
Chandra-Bhaga in the Lahul side of the Lahul-Spiti district. The Chandra-Bhaga river was named so because the two rivers, the Chandra and the Bhaga join and become the river, Chandra-Bhaga. Thus the Lahul side of the district is distinct from the other part of the district, Spiti. And it is composed of three rivers (valleys), the Chandra, the Bhaga, and the Chandra-Bhaga. The Chandra and the Bhaga rise on opposite side of the
Baralacha Pass, which is situated at an elevation of about 5,200 meters (Bajpai 1987: 5) and known as ‘Pass with crossroads on summit’ (Bajpai 1987: 3). Both rivers flow down from their common source, for 181 kilometers (the Chandra) and 72 kilometers (the
Bhaga) and meet each other again at Tandi to become the Chandra-Bhaga river, popularly known as Pattan (Bajpai 1987: 2-3).
The main occupation in Lahul is agriculture. But from almost October to early April,
Lahul is covered with snow, thus agricultural operation begins in April and ends in
September each year. Although there is not a large amount of level land, the river valleys are fertile. In particular, from the village Tandi to Tirot, the valley is wider, fertile and thickly populated. So it has been termed the “orchard and granary of Lahaul-Spiti”
(Bajpai 1987: 2-3). Potatoes are one of the major cash crops in Lahul. When I went up the Pattan valley to visit schools, most Pattanis were busy in harvesting potatoes before
7 the first snow falls. The cultivation of potato was first introduced by Moravian missionaries in the middle of 19th century. Additional main crops include Kuth and hops.
2.2. History
Lahul has a long and turbulent history and it played buffer’s role among the surrounding areas, i.e. Ladakh, Tibet, Kullu, and Chamba. Consequently there was intermixing of people belonging to different races and culture in this land. Sahni (1994: 50) points out,
“the most common arrangement seems to have been for Ladakh in the
northeast to rule the Tod [Stod] and Gahr valleys, Chamba in the west to
rule Chamba-Lahul beyond Thirot, and Kullu in the south to dominate the
Ranglo and Gondhla valleys. The Pattan valley in western Lahul was
disputed by all three”.
However, there has been no particular community which inhabited the whole of Lahul at any time. Nowadays Mongolian Tibetans from Ladakh and Tibet, and Aryans from
Chamba and Kullu, form the main population in Lahul (Kapoor 1993: 113-114, referred in Chamberlain 1996: 6).
Buddhism was introduced into Lahul around the 8th century probably by Padma
Sambhva, the famous missionary from Udyana, who may have visited Zahor and Garzha
(Mandi and Lahul), and preached the doctrines of Buddha. Before Padma came to Lahul
8 snake, demon and phallic worship had been the prevalent religion (Government of India
1933: 475, referenced in Chamberlain 1996: 6). In the Pattan valley, there are mainly three religions practiced, i.e. Tibetan Buddhism, Hinduism and traditional Devtaism.
Buddhism is more popular in the east from Gushal to Jahlma whereas Hinduism is more popular in the west side of the valley from Thirot to Udaypur. However all the Pattanis believe in their own family and village Devtas. In particular, Raja Gepan is believed as the most powerful god among the whole Lahuli people. Interestingly, the younger brother of Raja Gepan is believed to have gone to a mountainous village, named Malana in Kullu district and the language used in that village is named Kanash and has similar syntactic aspects as Pattani. Both belong to Western Himalaya subgroup of Tibeto-Bermese language family.
In more recent history, the Moravian Mission, founded in 1853, was a medium of great material advantage to Lahul. Although the Moravians have not been working in Lahul in the last 70 years, many people credit them with introducing potatoes, literacy, knitting cooperatives, and the Lahuli dress. During the 1996 survey, several Lahulis expressed their appreciation for the hard work done by the Moravians who came from Germany
(Chamberlain 1996: 6).
9 2.3. People
2.3.1. Lahuli People
Originally Lahuli neither referred to the specific language, nor the group of people.
Instead the word Lahul was derived from two local words, ‘hya-yul’, meaning deities or spirits (divine or supernatural, generally of the malevolent type) and ‘hul’, meaning land or abode (Singh 1994: 680). The 1991 Census introduced another possible explanation as to how the name, Lahul, may have originated. The word ‘Laho-yul’ meant “southern country” and because of its geographical location to the south of Ladakh, the Ladakhi rulers named it ‘Laho-yul’, the southern country.
However today, the term, ‘Lahula’ or ‘Lahuli,’ applies to every person, irrespective of his caste or race, who resides in the territory of Lahul region. ‘Lahula’ in fact is not the name of a tribe or community inhabiting the Lahul region (Kapoor 1993:114, referred in
Chamberlain 1996). Hence, the term Lahuli, used in this study will refer to the people groups living in Lahul valley.
A 1986 survey estimates Lahul’s population to be 19,404, with 181 towns (Government of HP 1986: 16). The 1981 Census breaks down the population by valleys within Lahul
& Spiti as in Figure 3.1.
10 Name of the valley Population
Pattan Valley 10,673
Gahr Valley 4,175
Stod Valley 1,605
Tinan Valley 2,058
Rangloi Valley 774
Mayar Valley 1,080
Total 20,365
Figure 3.1 1981 Census - Population of Lahul-Spiti, Himachal Pradesh
Many families, within Lahul area, send their young children to Kullu or Manali for education. Those young people often stay on after graduation, and find good jobs. When
I was conducting a bilingualism survey for my applied field method study in 2004, 33 (31 percent) out of 108 subjects reported that they had lived in the Kullu-Manali area for more than five years of their life (Son 2004). It is known that approximately 300 Lahulis are permanently settled down in Delhi and most of them belong to upper class, i.e. doctors, professors, pilots, etc. They gather together once every year during Lahuli’s traditional festival, called “Fagri”. According to Government of HP (1986: 2), the population has decreased from 32,100 in 1981, to 27,306 in 1986. Atwal (1991: 25) points out two reasons for the decline of population during the decade 1981-91 Census, i.e. completion of road projects and out-migration of Lahulis to adjacent district of Kullu where two well known towns, Kullu and Manali, are located. However, this decline
11 seems to be temporary phenomenon because the population of the district registered an increase of 1,124 people (6.17 percent) during the decade 1991-2001 Census. When we observe the decadal variation in population for the last one hundred years, population has been growing steadily except two Censuses in 1921 and in 1991, which indicated a decline by 145 and 806, respectively (Atwal 1991: 25).
Year Persons Males Females Decadal variation Percentage decadal variation 1901 12,392 6,221 6,171 - - 1911 12,981 6,522 6,459 +589 +4.75 1921 12,836 6,440 6,396 -145 -1.12 1931 13,733 6,903 6,830 +897 +6.99 1941 14,594 7,601 6,993 +861 +6.27 1951 15,338 7,936 7,402 +744 +5.10 1961 23,682 13,359 10,423 +8,344 +54.40 1971 27,568 15,168 12,400 +3,886 +16.41 1981 32,100 18,171 13,929 +4,532 +16.44 1991 31,294 17,224 14,070 -806 -2.51 Figure 3.2 Decadal Variation in Population of Lahul & Spiti District Since 1901
Lahulis are generally well educated people compared to other tribes. Many of the people interviewed during the 2004 bilingualism survey (Son 2004) had more than matriculation
(i.e. 10 years of schooling) education. More than half people who responded to the test claimed that they studied more than five years in the school. Government of HP (1986:
3) reports that 161 towns have primary schools and 22,664 (83.02%) children are served by primary schools within their residence habitation in Lahul & Spiti district. According to Chamberlain (1996), representatives from each town in Lahul area claimed that 100
12 percent of their children were attending school, and that most continued their education until the age of 15 years. An average literacy rate of 73.17 percent was also reported in
2001 census. Men (82.76) are more literate than women (60.94) (Census of India 2001:
38).
The prosperity of Lahul valley is reflected in their houses. Commonly, Lahuli houses are two or three stories tall, with up to more than 20 rooms. The ground floor is used for keeping livestock. Satellite dishes and solar powered lighting are found in many villages.
2.3.2. Pattani People
Most information of Pattani people overlaps with that of Lahulis. The Pattan valley, due to its turbulent history, has the maximum mixture of people. “One of the major reasons is that this area has been most vulnerable and it has been tossed around among different kingdoms at different times, each leaving its own mark and its own group of settlers”
(Sahni 1994:111, cited in Chamberlain 1996). Hence, there are several castes, sub-castes and religions in the Pattan valley. When Pattanis are asked which caste they belong to, their answers are varied. The 1996 survey report (Chamberlain) tells us that sixteen out of 87 reportedly belong to the Pandit caste, fifteen are Rajputs, ten are Thakurs, eleven replied that they are Swanglas, four are Bodh, two are Chinals and a large number, 27 of
87 are uncertain. The Pattanis are primarily agriculturalists, with healthy crops.
However, a high percentage of government officials in the neighboring Kullu District are also from Pattan Valley.
13 2.4. Languages
2.4.1. Languages in Lahul Valley
Although Lahul valley is home to only about 20,000 residents, there are seven language varieties spoken as mother tongue (Chamberlain 1996). These seven languages are divided into two groups: horizontally regional based languages and vertically caste based languages. For the most part, these languages are regional, spoken by people from particular regions of Lahul valley. Such regional languages include Pattani, Gahri,
Tinani, Bhoti, and Pangi. In addition, some languages are spoken as mother tongues by people throughout Lahul who belong to particular castes. These caste-based languages are the Chinali and Lohari.
Of these languages, the Pattani, Tinani, and Gahri are considered to be similar to one another, and classified as Himalayish languages. In addition to the lexical connection with Tibeto-Burman languages, several scholars have suggested that these languages also show relation to the Munda languages. As summarized by Grierson (Volume III, Part I,
1906: 59),
“the indications of the ancient Munda influence on the forms of speech of
Tibeto-Himalayan dialects is a matter of greatest interest. It connects
languages spoken in Lahul, Kinnaur and Chamba with the Munda
languages of central India”.
14
Sharma (1989: 10) also argues that the Munda characteristics, such as numeral systems and morphological elements, are found in Lahul languages.
2.4.2. Pattani
Pattani is spoken by the people of Pattan, Chamba-Lahul, and lower Mayar valleys. It is used by the largest group of people in Lahul, with approximately 11,000 mother tongue speakers, and another 5,000 people using it as a second language. Though Hindi is the primary language of wider communication (LWC) in Lahul valley, Pattani may also be considered an LWC. It is common for Pattani speakers to use Pattani when they travel to other regions of Lahul and for people in those places to respond in Pattani (Chamberlain,
1996). This statement is supported by some of my observations made during my field resarch. One lady whose mother tongue is Tinani was communicating in Pattani with
Pattanis when she visited their house in Manali in Kullu district. Even though they were away from their native land, Lahul, they preferred speaking Pattani as long as Pattani was understood among them. Another informal interview also supports the role of Pattani as a lingua franca in Lahul area. When I interviewed a group of Gahri speaking ladies in
Keylong where Gahri is used, they unequivocally responded positively about their Pattani language proficiency.
According to Chamberlain (1996) and supported by my interviews, Pattani speakers believe that their language consists of two dialects, with a possible central variety
15 occupying the region between these two. The eastern variety is spoken in Pattan Valley, from the village of Mooling to Jahlma (See the map in Appendix 12). The western variety is spoken mainly in the Chamba-Lahul valley, from the villages of Thirot to Salgram.
The central variety covers the area between Jahlma and Thirot. When I asked the differences between the varieties, the people tended to say the difference of speed, expressing the more one goes from East to West, the speed increases. Grierson (1906:
453) referred to the eastern and western varieties when he wrote, “Manchati [Pattani] is closely related to the other Lahul dialects, and also to Kanauri... It is situated on both sides of the united Chandra-Bhaga [Chenab]. A similar dialect is spoken in the portion of
Lahul within the Chamba state.” For this paper, all varieties will be referred to as Pattani since there is no difficulty of communication along the whole Pattan valley.
Pattani is influenced by several different languages. The region was host to invasions from neighboring kingdoms throughout its history. This is reflected in the variety of linguistic influences on the Pattani language. Shani (1994: 214, referred in Chamberlain
1996) summarizes that Pattani has been influenced by the dialect of the Malana village in
Kullu [Kanashi], the dialects of Busher and Tibetan and the Balti dialect.
In recent years, Pattani song books and poems are known to have been published using the Devanagri script. These books are quite popular throughout Lahul. In addition, several cassettes of Pattani songs and music video in VCD format are easily available.
16 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.1. Learning through One’s Mother-tongue and Linguistic and
Academic Achievement
First of all, it is generally claimed that conceptual clarity is best conveyed through the mother tongue(s) of children. Learning to read through mother tongue is a lot easier than through an unfamiliar language. Children can learn how to read faster in a language which they already know how to speak and listen than in a language they can not speak and understand. However, we do not have many studies (Gupta 1995; Nambissan 1995) in India that support our hypothesis. Anju Sahgal Gupta’s study (1995: 206) suggests that
“two years of mother tongue medium in the initial stages immensely aids the child acquiring better linguistic proficiency both in the mother tongue and the second language.” UNESCO’s position paper in 1951 also supports this point (UNESCO 1953:
11, quoted in Fasold 1984: 293).
“It is axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is his mother
tongue. Psychologically, it is the system of meaningful signs that in his
mind works automatically for expression and understanding…
Educationally, he learns more quickly through it than through an unfamiliar
linguistic medium.”
17 Secondly, the level of proficiency in a second language is likely to be high if children have strong foundation of their mother tongue. Dutcher and Tucker (1996) suggest that mother tongue education is prerequisite to second language learning. They argue that mother tongue for the initial teaching of reading and for comprehension of subject matter is the necessary foundation for the cognitive development and the second language acquisition is based on this cognitive development. Toulmin’s (2004) practical research supports this point well in Rajbanshi language community in Nepal. Thirty three Class IV and V Rajbanshi students were taught in Rajbanshi for two months and both initial cloze and final cloze tests in both Rajbanchi and Nepali were administered to them and compared with the control group taught in Napali medium. The result shows that the
Rajbanshi test group performed much better not only in Rajbanshi but also in Nepali. In another research of Thomas and Collier’s (1997) covering six school districts scattered around the US, they tested 42,000 students with optimal versions of six models of bilingual education compared with native English speaking students for 11 years. Their main finding is that the more children develop their first language academically and cognitively at an age-appropriate level, the more successful they will be in academic achievement in second language, English by the end of their school years. On the other hand, if children are educated in a second language, as UNESCO (2002) points out, they will face “a double set of challenges”, which are challenges of learning a new language and learning new content conveyed in that new language.
Thirdly, skills and concepts that the children learn in their mother tongue easily transfer to their second language. Thomas and Collier (1997) argue that a knowledge base, first
18 language deep structure, literacy skill and cognitive processes are claimed to transfer from first language to second language, if the children develop cognitively and linguistically in their first language. At more advanced stages, as Cummins points out in his article, “Bilingual Children’s Mother Tongue: Why Is It Important for Education?”, the transfer across languages in academic and literacy skills includes “knowing how to distinguish the main idea from the supporting details of a written passage or story, identifying cause and effect, distinguishing fact from opinion, and mapping out the sequence of events in a story or historical account”. Developmental Interdependence
Hypothesis by Cummins and others (Cummins 1978, Toukomaa & Skutnabb-Kangas
1977) also supports this in terms of transfer of proficiency of mother tongue to second language. Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis (DIH) was proposed based on
Thresholds Theory (Cummins 1976). While the latter concerns the correlation between the proficiency of both languages and the cognitive advantages of the bilingual children, the former (DIH) suggests that there is a correlation between a child’s first language and second language. That is, the more proficient in his or her first language a child is, the more developed the second language will be. Cummins and Swain (1986: 87) express this point in a more formal way:
“To the extent that instruction in Lx [first language] is effective in
promoting proficiency in Lx, transfer of this proficiency to Ly [second
language] will occur provided there is adequate exposure to Ly (either in
school or environment) and adequate motivation to learn Ly”.
19 However, there are issues whether mother tongue instruction is realistic in most multilingual countries, most of which belong to the 2/3rds World. Although there are many salient promises of mother tongue education, those promises cannot, as Fasold
(1984: 297-307) argues, be kept if it is not possible. Dutcher (2003) also points out that there are not only promises but also perils of mother tongue education, e.g. inappropriate teacher training and materials and lack of political willingness. The Prisim Model
(Thomas and Collier 1997) emphasizes the importance of “Social and Cultural Process” in relation to the rest three components of the model, e.g. L1+L2 Language Development,
L1+L2 Academic Development and L1+L2 Cognitive Development. In other words, socio-culturally supportive environment is crucial in order to enhance language acquisition for school. MacKenzie (2004) also raises her voice in the project in Andhra
Pradesh that the cooperation is necessary for successful program among central and local government, local communities, NGOs and academic institutions. Therefore, it is important to see whether these social, cultural, economic and political factors are supportive to mother tongue education in Pattan valley.
3.2. Bilingualism and Academic Achievement
3.2.1. Traditional Research Results (1900 ~ 1960s)
From the early nineteenth century to approximately the 1960s, the dominant belief among scholars was that bilingualism had a negative effect on cognitive development. A quote from Laurie, a professor at Cambridge University well describes this negative effect of bilingualism (Laurie 1890: 15, quoted in Baker 117),
20
“If it were possible for a child to live in two languages at once equally
well, so much the worse. His intellectual and spiritual growth would not
thereby be doubled, but halved. Unity of mind and character would have
great difficulty in asserting itself in such circumstances”.
This perception is generally reasoned in two ways. First, some people seem to believe that the more one learns and uses a second language, the less skill he or she will have in their first language. Like weighing scales or a balance, the more one increases, the more the other decreases. Second reason concerns that the ability to speak two languages may be at the expense of efficiency in thinking. This is intuitively believed that two languages residing inside the thinking quarters of the brain leave less room for other areas of learning.
Most research up to the 1960s looked at this issue through one factor i.e. ‘intelligence’.
When bilinguals and monolinguals were compared on their IQ scores, particularly on verbal IQ, the usual result was that bilinguals were behind monolinguals. An example of this early research is by a Welsh researcher, D.J. Saer (1923). He gathered a sample of
1400 children aged seven to fourteen from bilingual and monolingual backgrounds. A ten point difference in IQ was found between bilinguals and monolingual English speakers from the rural areas of Wales. Saer concluded that bilinguals were mentally confused and at a disadvantage in thinking compared with their counterparts.
21 However, Saer’s research among others has several serious drawbacks as raised by Baker
(1996: 118-121) and discussed in the following sections.
3.2.1.1. Definition and Measurement
The underlying question is this, “What is intelligence and who is intelligent?” Three controversies are in general found on IQ test. First, there is a fierce debate about the relative effects of heredity and environment on the development of intelligence. A strong hereditarian viewpoint argues that intelligence is relatively fixed and unlikely to be affected by additional learning such as becoming bilingual. An environmental view holds that intelligence is not fixed, but modifiable by experience. The ‘extra’ experience of two languages may contribute to the growth of intelligence. Second, IQ tests tend to relate to a middle class, white, Western view of intelligence. The cultural boundness or relativity of IQ tests suggests that generalizations across cultures are dangerous and limited.
3.2.1.2. Language of Testing
It is preferable to test the IQ of bilinguals in their stronger language or in both languages.
In the early research, many verbal IQ tests were administered only in English. This tended to be to the disadvantage of bilinguals in that they were tested in their weaker language and thus under-performed in the IQ test.
3.2.1.3. Classification
It is too simplistic to place people into a monolingual or a bilingual group. We need to ask what language competences are being used for classification. Are all four basic
22 language abilities being used? What is the degree of fluency in each language? Were bilinguals classified by their use of languages or by their ability in language? To make the issue more complex, the language use of most bilinguals are domain specific, thus testing in one language is unfair against bilinguals. This means that the research results are simplistic and ambiguous, having classified bilinguals in an insensitive and imprecise manner.
3.2.1.4. Generalization
Much of the research on bilingualism and cognition is based on convenience samples.
Thus research on 11 year olds cannot be generalized to other age groups. Also findings in the US cannot be generalized to bilinguals in the rest of the world. In most of the early research on bilingualism and cognition, the sampling is both small and inadequate making generalization limited.
3.2.1.5. Matched Groups
To compare a group of bilingual children with monolinguals on IQ, or on any other measure of cognitive ability, requires that the two groups should be equal in all other aspects. The great majority of researches on bilingualism and ‘intelligence’ failed to match the groups on other factors that might explain the results. Thus, it is necessary to match the groups on variables such as socio-cultural class, gender, age, type of school attended and urban/rural and subtractive/additive environments.
23 3.2.2. Recent Research Results (1960s onward)
3.2.2.1. Peal & Lambert
After 1960 major research on the relationship between bilingualism and cognition was initiated by Peal & Lambert (1962). A sample of 110 children aged 10 years old was drawn from middle-class French schools in Montreal, Canada. This sample was composed of a group of balanced bilinguals and a group of monolinguals, ensuring that the bilingual and monolingual groups were matched on socioeconomic class. The result shows that bilinguals performed significantly higher on 15 out of 18 variables measuring
IQ. On the other three variables, there was difference between balanced bilinguals and monolinguals in that bilingualism provides greater mental flexibility; the ability to think more abstractly, more independently of words, providing superiority in concept formation.
This may show that a more enriched bilingual and bicultural environment benefits the development of IQ and that there is a positive transfer between a bilingual’s two languages facilitating the development of verbal IQ.
3.2.2.2. Divergent & Creative Thinking
The underlying hypothesis for the positive relationship between creative thinking and bilingualism is that the ownership of two or more languages may increase fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration in thinking. Torrance’s (1974a, 1974b) research findings suggest that bilinguals are superior to monolinguals on divergent thinking tests in additive bilingual contexts. Baker (1996: 131), however, argues that whether this is the case that bilingualism gives cognitive advantages of a permanent nature. Ben-Zeev
(1977) has suggested that such cognitive advantages are predominant in younger rather
24 than older children, whereas Arnberg (1981) argues that cognitive development is additive and cumulative, and the further the child moves towards balanced bilingualism, the more there are cognitive advantages to be gained. Thomas and Collier’s research
(1997) points out that the students in strong bilingual programs such as two-way developmental bilingual education, show lower achievement in English reading up to grade 6, but they achieve higher scores than native English students from grade 7 onwards. The development was found additive and cumulative in that as the grade of the bilingual students increased, the higher score they received.
3.2.2.3. Meta-linguistic Awareness
According to Ianco-Worrall (1972), bilinguals reach a stage of semantic development two-three years earlier than their monolingual peers. The assumption is that bilinguals tend to believe that language is more arbitrary. This seems to be a result of owning two languages, giving the bilingual child awareness of free and non-fixed relationship between names and their meanings. Thus, bilinguals appear to be more flexible and analytical in language skills. Meta-linguistic awareness may be defined as “the ability to reflect upon and manipulate the structural features of spoken language, treating language itself as an object of thought, as opposed to simply using the language system to comprehend and produce sentences” (Tunmer & Herriman 1984: 12, quoted in Baker
134). Such meta-linguistic awareness is regarded by Donaldson (1978) as a key factor in the development of reading in young children. This implies that bilinguals may be ready slightly earlier than monolinguals in learning to read. In turn, this tends to facilitate earlier reading acquisition, and again, can lead to higher levels of academic achievement.
25 3.2.2.4. Field Dependency and Independency
Witkin, et al. (1962) argue that as children grow to maturity they become more field independent. While field dependence-independence may appear as a perceptual ability,
Witkin and his co-workers regard it as a general ability to be aware of visual contexts, and relates particularly to problem solving ability and ease of cognitive restructuring.
Thus, field independent individuals tend to achieve higher academically than those field dependent. Research done in Switzerland by Balkan (1970, referred in Baker 1996) shows that in the Embedded Figures Test French-English balanced bilinguals are more field independent than monolinguals.
3.2.2.5. BICS and CALP
In the 1970s, educators began to realize that there was a distinction between the superficial fluency and the more advanced language skills, which are necessary to benefit from the education process. Cummins (1984: 136) formalized this distinction in terms of
Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive/Academic Language
Proficiency (CALP). BICS involves contextual help in everyday communication, whereas CALP is required in context reduced academic situations. This distinction has been applied to the transitional bilingual schools in the United States. Minority language students have been transferred from transitional bilingual programs into English-only schools when their BICS in English is ready, but those students have often failed to keep up with the English monolingual students in the mainstream school. On the other hand, as
Baker (1996: 155-156) notes, research in Canada and other places, with minority language children in bilingual schools (where their first languages are used as a medium
26 of instruction), reveals that there is little retardation in school achievement or in majority language proficiency. They develop CALP through their minority language and this ability in the cognitively demanding and context reduced classroom environment then transfers to the majority language. This indicates bilingual students need more than just the BICS level of proficiency to succeed academically.
Next we will examine whether this general positive relationship between bilingualism and scholastic effect would be true in the context of the primary schools in the Pattan valley.
27 4. METHOD
4.1. Sample
It has been challenging to find schools in which Pattani is used as a medium of explanation (The reason I use the term, ‘medium of explanation’ is because Pattani is used only for oral communication in class whereas all the textbooks are written in Hindi.
Thus the term, ‘medium of explanation’ needs to be distinguished from ‘medium of instruction’ which means the language is used both for oral communication and for written textbooks.), because most teachers in primary schools are using only Hindi as a medium of instruction even in class I onwards although they are native speakers of
Pattani. However, I finally found four primary schools where Pattani is used orally to explain the concepts of what are taught in classroom for the initial period of primary school. Because of the small school size, there were small number of students in each class, thus several schools with similar condition had to be examined together so that the sample size could be big enough to be analyzed. The sample was extracted from both class V and class X so as to find out not only the “near” future effect of medium language among the class V students but the “distant” future effect of that among the class X students.
The whole sample for my study consisted of 79 students. Out of 79, 45 were class V students and the rest 34 students were from class X. The 45 class V students were from eight different primary schools. Out of eight schools, 11 students were taken across four
28 different Pattani medium primary schools (“Pattani medium” primary school here means in which Pattani is used in the initial three to four years of primary education.), while 26 students were in three different Hindi medium primary schools. One Hindi medium school was chosen outside the Pattan valley for reference purpose and eight students were tested in this school. Among the 34 class X students, two secondary schools had both
Hindi and Pattani medium students consisting of 26 (15 Pattani medium + 11 Hindi medium) and one school had only eight Pattani medium students. One mixed school had eight students who had primary education in Pattani and seven with Hindi medium primary education and the other mixed school had seven students with Pattani (oral) and four with Hindi medium primary education (both oral and written). Figure 4.1 charts the make up of the sample used in this study.
Sample Constitution
Key: N = number of subjects S = Primary school SS = Secondary school PM = class X students who had Pattani oral medium primary education HM = class X students who had Hindi medium primary education Pattani Medium = Pattani oral medium Hindi Medium = Hindi oral and written medium Pattani Home = Pattani students who use Pattani at home Hindi Home = Pattani students who mostly use Hindi at home Nepali Home = Nepali students who mostly use Nepali at home
29 N=79
Class V (45) Class X (34)
Pattan Valley Non-Pattan Valley SS1(15) SS2(11) SS3(8) Schools (37) School (8)
Pattani Medium Hindi Medium PM HM PM HM PM Schools (11) Schools (26) (8) (7) (7) (4) (8)
S1(4) S2(2) S3(3) S4(2) S5(16) S6(7) S7(3)
Pattani Home(6) Hindi Home(5) Nepali Home(5)
Figure 4.1
More students were tested besides the above mentioned 79 sample. Class V students were excluded largely because their first language is not the same as school languages (neither
Pattani nor Hindi), i.e. Gahri, Lohari and Santali etc. and likewise their socio-economic factors are different from that of the typical Pattan valley children. The Gahri language is spoken by approximately 4,000 people in Gahr Valley. This region is located along the
Bhaga River and Keylong, the administrative headquarters of Lahul-Spiti District, is located in this valley. One student had come from Keylong primary school four months ago at the time of the administration of the tests because her father was transferred to the village in which S5 is located. Since her socio-economic background is different from
30 that of the others, she was excluded from the sample. According to the 1996 socio- linguistic survey report (Chamberlain, et.al.1996.), the Lohari language is spoken among the metalsmith caste of Lahul Valley. Based on informal interviews, there are approximately 85 Lohar households throughout Lahul. The largest concentration is in
Gondhla in the Pattani valley, in which there are 12 Lohar families. It is, however, typical for one Lohar family to live in a village. Overall population is estimated at 500.
Since Lohari speaking child’s socio-economic status is assumed to be lower than typical
Pattani children, one Lohari child was excluded from the sample. As for the Santali speaking child, his father is from Bihar and mother is from Nepal. His family has lived in
S5 village for the last 4 years as his father is doing government service there. Again, his family is not a typical Pattani type thus he too was excluded from the sample.
For Class X students, students who had graduated from primary schools which were not located in Pattan valley, i.e. Keylong, Tindi, Kullu, Mandi, and even Uttar Pradesh, were not considered because it was impossible within limited time of field research to observe the schools and interview the teachers that they were taught in. Although they received their primary education in Pattan valley, I did not choose those students whose medium language was not sure when they were in the primary school. One girl student was excluded since her educational experience has been across three different schools; so it is difficult to keep track of her educational condition with regard to class medium, teachers, school facilities, etc. Lastly one student in non-S5 school was excluded because his home language is Hindi whereas that of the rest sample is Pattani.
31 It may be helpful to explain about the schools in general and each school for the better understanding of the sample of the study. The explanation below about the schools is based on informal interview and personal observation. The real name of each school has been avoided (i.e. S1 for one primary school and SS1 for another secondary school) because some teachers were uncomfortable the result of the tests and the annual examination results of their school.
4.1.1. Medium of Instruction
Most schools are almost identical except for the language the teachers used for explanation to the students. Up until 20 to 25 years ago, most teachers were using Pattani as a medium of explanation for the 5 years of primary education. However, nowadays,
Hindi is solely used from the beginning of the primary schooling in the majority of schools, i.e. S 5, S 6 and S 7. It is surprising to see Hindi being used as the sole medium of instruction and explanation after realizing that all the teachers in the primary schools that I visited in Pattan valley are from the same Pattan valley, thus their mother tongue is
Pattani. They believe that the earlier they teach in the Hindi medium, the faster children will learn Hindi regardless of the proficiency in Hindi of the children.
On the other hand, there are four primary schools (S1 to s4) in which teachers use Pattani as a medium of explanation as they believe it is necessary to use the language that children understand in class. The medium may be switched from Pattani to Hindi depending upon individual child’s proficiency of Hindi level and the degree of difficulty of the topic. Since the ratio of teachers to student is very good, each student’s problem is
32 solved face to face thus teachers are aware of each child’s Hindi level. As far as the topic is concerned, teachers are using Pattani to explain difficult contents even in secondary schools. Four teachers in S1, 3 and 7 have been teaching in the same school more than 5 years. One lady teacher in S1 has been teaching in the same school for the last 10 years because she is physically disabled and has permission to continue to teach in the same school. For S 2 and S 4, the two center head teachers are very concerned that Pattani should be used in class for more than 5 years and the teachers under them have been encouraged to use Pattani as a medium of explanation. In S6, however although the teachers have been transferred, only Hindi has been being used so far.
The S5 is an interesting situation. There are three different kinds of students in this school with regard to language used at home. First are the Pattani children whose home language is Pattani, second are the Pattani children but who use mostly Hindi at home because the educated parents want their children to use Hindi even in home domain and lastly the
Nepali children whose parents are mainly laborers thus not fluent in Hindi, and use
Nepali at home. This is because the village, in which S5 is located, has more educated parents but also more migrated Nepalis than any other village. Due to the mixed student group, teachers decided to use Hindi as a medium of instruction so that Hindi speaking
Pattani children who know little Pattani may not be disadvantaged, while the other two groups of children are submerged in Hindi instruction with no system to improve their
Hindi.
33 4.1.2. Parents’ Occupation
Most primary schools are located in villages without markets; the occupation of the parents mostly involves agricultural work except those parents of students in S5. Nearby
S5 is the largest market in Pattan valley, thus other facilities are also available in the village in which S5 is located, i.e. post office, banks, a military station, shops and even a
Nepali dhaba. Therefore the students in S5 have more parents who are not farmers and whose educational level is higher than other villages; they also speak better Hindi. We will later do a comparative analysis of Pattani, Hindi and Nepali speaking children.
4.1.3. Teacher’s Qualification
It was not polite to ask about the educational qualification of each teacher in primary schools. However, I was told by a teacher that all the teachers in Pattan valley finished
10th grade and received 2 years’ teacher training. They have also been trained in the
District Institute of Educational Training (DIET) occasionally as an in-service training. If they have further degrees i.e. B.A. and onwards, then they become promoted from primary teacher to secondary or above. Thus most teachers’ qualification is substantially the same.
4.1.4. Multigrade Class
All the seven primary schools are running multi-grade classes. Originally, the center school, i.e. S1, S2, S5 and S6 and the branch school, i.e. S3, S4 and S7 were supposed to have three and two teachers respectively however most schools have less teachers than their quota because of the shortage of teachers in Lahul & Spiti district in general.
Teachers are allocated according to the number of students in each school, thus only S4
34 and S5 have three teachers of the center school quota and two teachers of branch school quota, while the other center schools (S1, S2 and S6) and branch schools (S4 and S7) have only two and one teacher, respectively.
4.1.5. Teaching Method
Because of the combined classes, the common way of teaching is not a formal lecture but more like a tutorial. For instance, children first receive instruction to solve Math problems, to read certain pages in Hindi class and memorize poems, etc. Once a teacher gives instructions, within a few moments the children come to their teacher one by one to check what they did by themselves. Each school has a variety of wall charts hung on the classroom walls. Wall charts include human body parts, kinds of flowers, birds and animals, verse of national anthem song, wall map of Himachal Pradesh, India, and the world, numerical, the alphabets of Hindi and English, etc.
4.1.6. School Facility
In terms of school facility, each center school has classrooms, a playground and head master’s office, whereas branch school only has classrooms. There are only three classrooms in each school and one classroom is used for storage room in branch schools.
Because of the cold climate, class is often held at the terrace in which they can receive the warm sun shine. Each classroom has concrete blackboard with black color paint on it, one chair for the teacher, mats for the children to sit on (no chairs or desks are available for the children) and one heater called “tandoor” (Himachal government supplies each
35 school firewood for the heater before the first snowfall) in November. There were no libraries observed in any primary school which implies that children read only textbooks.
In summary, I tried to make cross-sections of my sample as comparable as possible in terms of socio-economic background and school experience. So the sample chosen except the two groups (Hindi speaking Pattani children at home domain and Nepali children in
S5) speak Pattani at home and have similar socio-economic status (most of the parents are farmers) and school experiences, i.e. teaching method of teachers, teachers’ qualification and school facilities. The only variable that significantly differentiates them is medium of education, i.e. whether the medium of general transaction in the primary school is Hindi or Pattani. The next two chapters are devoted to a discussion of data- elicitation and data-analysis.
4.2. Tools
To elicit data from the student sample, I used five different tools.
The Hindi Sentence Repetition Test (HSRT),
Hindi Cloze Test,
Hindi Writing Task,
Annual Exams and
Participant Observation.
I was able to administer the first three tests and observe the students in the classroom.
The annual exam was carried out by the teachers for the Himachal government. The
36 annual exam includes the following subjects: Hindi, English, Math, Science, Social
Studies and Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle.
4.2.1. Hindi Sentence Repetition Test (HSRT)
A Sentence Repetition Test (Radloff 1991) consists of fifteen sentences recorded in the second language (Hindi was used in this study) with three practice sentences at the beginning. The test starts with short, simple sentences and the sentences become progressively longer and more complex in grammar. The sentences are recorded on tape in the second language. Each of these sentences is played once for each subject. After hearing one sentence, subjects have an opportunity to repeat it exactly as they hear it.
The evaluator scores the subjects’ mimicry on a four-point scale (0~3, see Appendix 2), according to how closely the subject repeats the sentences on the tape, for a maximum of
45 points for 15 sentences. A subject’s score is usually expressed as the total number of points awarded. The higher the score the higher the subject’s bilingual ability is assumed to be. Errors may be significant pronunciation mistakes i.e. those which alter meaning, word transpositions, word substitutions, omissions, additions, etc. If the mimicry is exact on the first try, three points are awarded for that sentence. If there is one error, two points are awarded. If two errors occur, then only one point is awarded, and if there are three or more errors, then no point is awarded for that sentence.
The sentence repetition test is supported by research in speech pathology and psycholinguistics. According to Casad (1974, referred in Blair 1990), psycholinguistics
37 has shown a correlation between ability to mimic sentences and control of grammatical and phonological structure.
The Hindi SRT (HSRT) was developed in Mussoorie, in Uttar Pradesh by Varenkamp in
1991 (See Appendix 1 for HSRT scoring sheet). The readers are referred to Varenkamp
(1991) to find out how HSRT was developed, who participated in the development of the test and the reasons why certain aspects were included or excluded.
The points of HSRT are expressed as a Reported Proficiency Evaluation (RPE) level. The
RPE levels range from 0+ (very minimal proficiency) to 4+ (approaching the proficiency level of a native speaker). Figure 4.2 shows the Hindi SRT score ranges with corresponding RPE levels (Varenkamp 1991:9). See Radolf (1991, chapter 6) for how
RPE was developed, its methodology and theoretical background.
Hindi SRT score RPE level Proficiency description* (out of 45) 44 – 45 4+ Near native speaker 38 – 43 4 Excellent proficiency 32 – 37 3+ Very good, general proficiency 26 – 31 3 Good, general proficiency 20 – 25 2+ Good, basic proficiency 14 – 19 2 Adequate, basic proficiency 08 – 13 1+ Limited, basic proficiency 04 – 07 1 Minimal, limited proficiency 00 – 03 0+ Very minimal proficiency * More detailed proficiency description of RPE is attached in Appendix 3.
Figure 4.2 Score Ranges on Hindi SRT Corresponding to RPE Level
38
4.2.2. Hindi Cloze Test
Cloze test is a procedure in which words are deleted from a passage according to a word- count formula or various other criteria. The passage is presented to students, who insert words as they read to complete and construct meaning from the text.
I selected a passage which is assumed to be a little challenging to Class V students and easy for Class X students and the content is about the animals living in India (extracted from Kim 2002: 250). The whole passage is composed of 160 words. Every seventh word is omitted although the first sentence and last clause and all punctuation were left intact.
Out of 20 omitted words, 10 content words were deleted in order to assess students’ knowledge of the topic or their ability to use semantic cues, which carry meaning, i.e. nouns (गाय, ख़ चर, गैस, etc.) and main verbs (लेता). The other 10 deleted words consisted of prepositions (को, म , का, से, etc.), auxiliary verbs (रह ) etc., through which students’ use of syntactic cues can be assessed. Even among content words, syntactic ability can be assessed such as gender of nouns (काम), agreement suffix for verbs (लेता) and oblique case form of nouns (जानवर ) and pronouns (उन) (see
Appendix 6 for all the omitted words). All the 20 blanks were made in equal length to avoid showing visual clues about the lengths of omitted words (see Appendix 5 for actual test sheet). The purpose of Hindi Cloze Test is to assess both the students’ semantic and syntactic ability.
39 4.2.3 Hindi Writing Task
The story of “Rabbit and Turtle” was chosen for the writing task. Four pictures of the story with number in each picture which matches the flow of the story, was printed out on a sheet and given to the students (see pictures in appendix 7). Instruction was given in
Hindi to write a story as long as possible according to the pictures. Relevance of the story to the pictures was not considered significant since not all the children knew the story. So those who already knew the story would write a more relevant story than those not knowing it. Thus the evaluation criteria included the length of the story, syntactic ability and spelling. Points were given for each criterium 30, 10 and 10 points respectively making a total 50 mark. See the appendix 8 for details about the marking criteria.
4.2.4 Annual Exam
The annual exam is composed of six subjects, i.e. Hindi, English, Math, Science, Social
Science, Moral Education and History of Freedom Struggle. The exam papers were prepared by Himachal Pradesh Board School of Education located in Dharmsala,
Himachal Pradesh. The teachers administered the exams to all students in the schools including the sample. The full exam papers are attached in appendix 9.
4.2.5 Participant Observation
Participant observation is a research strategy, which aims to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals and their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their natural environment. This strategy usually involves a
40 range of methods: informal interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the group, collective discussions, analysis of the personal documents produced within the group, self-analysis, and life-histories. Participant observation is usually undertaken over an extended period of time, ranging from several months to many years.
I stayed in the Pattani language community for four weeks from the end of September to the end of October 2005 and made another visit for the month of April 2006. Previously I visited this community many times for the bilingualism survey (2004). While I was staying in the community, I visited many schools and sat in the classroom and observed how class was conducted with the aid of questionnaires (Agnihotri, et al 2002). Before I conducted Hindi tests in each school, i.e. HSRT, Hindi Cloze and Hindi Writing Task, I had to sit down with teachers and headmasters and discuss different issues for about half an hour. It was culturally appropriate to talk to and spend time explaining the study and building a friendship before administering the tests. These conversations became a wonderful opportunity to do informal interviews. I was able to ask about their ideas of mother tongue, multilingual education and their attitude towards the children as well as listen to whatever they wanted to share with me. During the time outside of the school setting, I was hosted by a family in a village. This village experience gave me opportunity to observe their language use patterns and daily lives.
In terms of class observation, I had an opportunity to help Hindi medium class one through five in S6. The teacher used only Hindi for the whole day and the children seemed to be afraid of the teacher and did not talk at all except when they had to go to
41 toilet. On the other hand, it was impossible to sit in a Pattani medium classroom. Once I enterred the classroom, the teacher stopped using Pattani and switched to Hindi. After the reasons of this research were explained, the teacher switched back to Pattani. So sometimes I tried to listen the transaction in Pattani outside the classroom without disturbing the class and more talks were heard from the children in Pattani class than in
Hindi class.
42 5. DATA ELICITATION AND ANALYSIS
I undertook two formal field visits for this study. The first visit was carried out in
October, 2005 in which I was able to visit 15 schools (11 primary schools and four secondary schools). During this period, the three tests: Hindi Sentence Repetition Test,
Hindi Cloze Test and Hindi Writing Task, were administered to the students in class V and X throughout the schools. The second trip was made seven months later (May, 2006) after the first visit. There I had a chance to be informed that the result of the annual examination of class V has been delivered to each school. During this time, I was able to visit only eight primary schools due to time constraints and collect the marks of the annual examination of the same sample students. Access to the result of class X was not possible because the exam papers were still at Himachal Pradesh Board School of
Education, in Dharmsala.
I used Hindi to administer the HSRT to the students in person calling each one by one while the rest students took the Hindi Cloze Test and completed the Hindi Writing Task.
The students were given enough time to finish both Hindi Cloze Test and Hindi Writing
Task. There was some cheating found on both tests among class X students in both SS1 and SS2 whereas cheating was not possible in HSRT because of the character of the test.
However, there was no cheating on the tests among the SS3 school class X students because the classroom teacher was carefully presiding over the tests in SS3 school.
43 As far as class V children in the non-Pattan valley primary school is concerned, no teacher was available during the test session and the answer sheets for Cloze Test and
Writing Task of four students were found to be the same. Thus the data of Hindi Cloze
Test and Writing Task for schools SS1, SS2 and the non-Pattan valley primary school is not described because of the skewed process.
5.1. Hindi Sentence Repetition Test (HSRT) for Class V
Table 5.1 shows the HSRT scores according to three different groups, i.e. Pattani medium class V, Hindi medium class V and non-Pattan valley class V. Pattani medium students in class V across four different schools show higher scores than the class V students in
Hindi medium schools and the Hindi medium class V students in non-Pattan valley school in general. As shown in table 5.1, average point of Pattani class V (25.2, 56%) is higher than Hindi class V and non-Pattan valley class V by about 7 (18%) and 10 (22%) points, respectively. The mean scores of the Hindi medium class V in Pattan valley (17.3,
38%) and the Hindi medium non-Pattan valley class V (15.5, 34%) show little difference by 2.8 (4%) points. This is probably because both groups of students have had education for 5 years in Hindi, which they do not understand very well. Although the two groups are different from each other in terms of languages used in the home domain, i.e. Pattani
(for Hindi medium class V) and Gahri (for the non-Pattani school), they do have something in common in that they have been having education for the last 5 years in a language that they are not very proficient. These findings are also demonstrated in chart
5.1 below.
44
HSRT Scores
Key:
Avg = Average point SD = Standard Deviation Pattani Class V = class V students who have been having primary education in Pattani as a medium of explanation for only oral communication whereas have been using textbooks written in Hindi and Pattani is used at home Hindi Class V = class V students who have been having primary education in only Hindi as a medium of instruction for both text book and oral communication but Pattani is used at home Non-Pattan valley V = class V students whose school is in Keylong where the headquarter of Lahul & Spiti district is located and the medium of instruction is Hindi but Hindi is not their mother-tongue Full Mark of HSRT = 45
HSRT Score(full mark: 45) Pattani Class V (n=11) Hindi Class V (n=16) Non-Pattan Valley V 21 19 18 27 25 11 15 11 15 32 16 24 32 10 13 19 19 23 29 18 12 23 19 8 23 22 28 4 28 18 14 28 21 18 14 Avg: 25.2(56%) Avg: 17.3(38%) Avg: 15.5(34%) SD = 5.4 SD = 5.8 SD = 5.7
Table 5.1
45 HSRT Score Chart
35
30
25 e r
o 20
c Pattani Class V S Hindi Class V T
R 15 Non-Pattan Valley V S H
10
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Class V Student
Chart 5.1
5.2. Hindi Cloze Test and Hindi Writing Task for Class V
Both Hindi Cloze Test and Writing Task show the same tendency as HSRT. Pattani medium children score higher average points, 7.2 and 41.6, in Cloze Test and Writing
Task than their counterpart, 3.8 and 34.4, respectively as shown in table 5.2. As far as
Cloze Test is concerned, the score of Hindi medium children (3.8) is only half of that of
Pattani medium children (7.2). Chart 5.2 demonstrates this fact more vividly. The scores of Hindi Cloze Test and Hindi Writing Task of class V children in the non-Pattan valley are not indicated here because of the inappropriate procedure of test administration as mentioned in early part of this chapter.
46 Hindi Cloze Test and Writing Task in Class V
Key: Avg = Average point SD = Standard Deviation Full Mark of Hindi Cloze Test = 20 Full Mark of Hindi Writing Task = 50
Hindi Cloze Test and Writing Task in Class V Hindi Cloze Test Hindi Writing Task Pattani Class V Hindi Class V Pattani Class V Hindi Class V 3 12 39 42 10 4 41 36 5 4 47 37 8 3 43 37 7 8 40 33 10 3 38 32 8 1 43 33 8 5 42 36 4 2 33 8 1 28 8 5 39 1 27 3 36 2 38 4 29 2 Avg: 7.2(36%) Avg: 3.8(19%) Avg: 41.6(83%) Avg: 34.4(69%) SD = 2.3 SD = 2.9 SD = 2.8 SD = 4.2
Table 5.2
Chart of Hindi Cloze Test and Writing Task in Class V
Key: Pattani Medium Cloze = Pattani medium Class V students in Hindi Cloze Test Hindi Medium Cloze = Hindi medium Class V students in Hindi Cloze Test Pattani Medium Writing = Pattani medium Class V students in Hindi Writing Task Hindi Medium Writing = Hindi medium Class V students in Hindi Writing Task
47 Hindi Cloze & Writing in Class V
50
40 Pattani Medium Cloze
k 30
r Hindi Medium Cloze a
M 20 Pattani Medium 10 Writing 0 Hindi Medium Writing 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Student
Chart 5.2
5.3. Annual Exam
It is clear from the Table 5.3 (also see Chart 5.3) that Pattani medium children do much better than Hindi medium children in all the six content areas. This data emphatically demonstrates a strong positive correlation between mother tongue education and conceptual development in different domains of knowledge. Notice that the difference is highly significant in the case of English, i.e. learning a third language. This clearly shows that multilingualism helps language learning in significant ways. The differences in
Mathematics, Science and Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle (MEHFS) are also significant. We may hypothesize that multilingualism tends to encourage abstract thought.
48 Table 5.3 shows the average mark in six subjects and their total point for Class V students. This table shows that Pattani medium students again obtained almost more than
10 points (out of 30) more than Hindi medium students while about 2 points higher in one subject, Social Studies. Both group marked low points in Social Studies, 30.1 (Pattani) and 28.9 (Hindi) and Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle (MEHFS) is found the weakest subject for Hindi medium children and relatively weak for Pattani group. On the whole, likewise, the mean of total of six subjects for Pattani and Hindi class shows the big difference of 54 points out of 300.
Table of Annual Exam Results
Key: n = Number of each Sample Group SD = Standard Deviation Full Mark for each Subject = 50 Full Mark of Total of Six Subjects = 300
Average Point of Annual Exam For ClassV, n=23 Subject Mean of Pattani Class V (SD), Mean of Hindi Class V (SD), n=10 n=13 Hindi 35.3 (71%)(SD=7.7) 27.5 (55%)(SD=6.8) English 40.9 (82%)(SD=5.5) 28.9 (58%)(SD=7.9) Math 41.3 (83%)(SD=9.4) 30.3 (61%)(SD=9) Social 30.1 (60%)(SD=6.6) 28.5 (57%)(SD=6) Studies Science 42.9 (86%)(SD=6.5) 32.5 (65%)(SD=5.7) MEHFS 37.6 (75%)(SD=7.5) 26.7 (53%)(SD=7.1) Total 228.1 (76%)(SD=38.7) 174 (58%)(SD=30.7)
Table 5.3
49
Chart of Annual Exam Results
Key: 1=Hindi 2=English 3=Math 4=Social Studies 5=Science 6=Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle 7=Total of the above Six Subjects
Average Point of Annual Exam
250 l a t o
T 200
d n a
t
c 150 e j
b Pattani Class V u S
Hindi Class V
h 100 c a e
r o f 50 k r a M
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Six Subjects and Total Mark
Chart 5.3
Table 5.4 appears to be complicated since it contains the information of all the tests and the sample groups except the non-Pattani valley school. When you look at S5 (on both
Table 5.4 and Chart 5.4), the Class V is composed of the three different groups of children using Hindi, Pattani and Nepali at home. Since the medium of explanation
50 language in S5 is Hindi, the children using the same language at home marked the highest and much higher than the two other groups whose home languages (Pattani and Nepali) are different from that of school. Looking at the data more carefully, Nepali children show a little lower mark than Pattani home children, especially in Annual Exam, i.e.
166.8 in total for Pattani home children and 145.8 for Nepali children. Hindi home children in S5 show slightly higher mark than Pattani Class V children in general (See
Table 5.4 and Chart 5.5).
On the other hand, as shown in Table 5.4, these five groups can be categorized into two groups according to whether there is language difference between school and home, i.e. the group with match between school and home language and the group with mismatch between languages of school and home. As for the groups of Hindi Home V and Pattani
Class V, the language of school and home is same, i.e. Hindi is used both at school and home for the Hindi Home V and Pattani for Pattani Class V. As for the rest three groups in the table, the school language of Hindi Class V, Pattani Home V and Nepali Home
V is Hindi whereas the home language for the first two groups is Pattani and the last group is where Nepali is used at home. Because of this reason, the total points (242.2 and
228.1) of annual exam of the two groups with identical language between school and home are a lot higher than the points (166.8, 145.8 and 174.1) of the rest three groups by average 73 points out of 300(Chart 5.5), whereas the difference of total points among the groups with the same language condition may be understood insignificant. Chart 5.5 demonstrates this difference vividly if you see the values of 10 (the total of six subjects) on the horizontal axis.
51 Table of Annual Test Results Comparison with Language used in the Home and School Key: Hindi Home V = group of Class V students in S5 mostly using Hindi at home Pattani Home V = group of Class V students in S5 using Pattani at home Nepali Home V = group of Class V students in S5 using Nepali at home Pattani Class V = Class V students across four primary schools (S1 to S4) having education in Pattani as a medium of explanation but Pattani is used at home Hindi Class V = Class V students across three primary schools (S5 to S7) having education only in Hindi as a medium of instruction but Pattani is used at home (* In this regards, only “Pattani Home V (n=6)” in S5 composes part of Hindi Class V.) S5 = a Hindi medium primary school
Mean (SD)of Different Tests for Different Group Kind of Test Three Different Groups in Class V, S5 Pattani Hindi Hindi *Pattani Nepali Class V Class V Home V Home V Home V (n=11) (n=16) (n=5) (n=6) (n=5) HSRT 23.4 (52%) 16.7 (37%) 14.4 (32%) 25.2 (56%) 17.3 (38%) (SD=5) (SD=5.6) (SD=2.2) (SD=5.4) (SD=5.8) Hindi Cloze 8.8 (44%) 5.7 (29(%) 6.4 (32%) 7.2 (36%) 3.8 (19%) (SD=2.2) (SD=3.6) (SD=2.3) (SD=2.3) (SD=2.9) Hindi Writing 44.5 (89%) 36.2 (72%) 35.8 (72%) 41.6 (83%) 34.4 (69%) (SD=2.1) (SD=3.5) (SD=2.7) (SD=2.8) (SD=4.2) Hindi 44.2 (88%) 26.3 (53%) 25 (50%) 35.3 (71%) 27.5 (55%) (SD=2.7) (SD=9) (SD=11.6) (SD=7.7) (SD=6.8) English 43.8 (88%) 30.8 (62%) 27.2 (54%) 40.9 (82%) 28.9 (58%) (SD=3.9) (SD=9.3) (SD=11.6) (SD=5.5) (SD=7.9) Math 31.8 (64%) 24.8 (50%) 16.6 (33%) 41.3 (83%) 30.3 (61%) (SD=9.6) (SD=10.8) (SD=5.7) (SD=9.4) (SD=9) Social Studies 42.6 (85%) 26.2 (52%) 25.2 (50%) 30.1 (60%) 28.2 (56%) (SD=2.5) (SD=8.4) (SD=9.1) (SD=6.6) (SD=6) Science 41.6 (83%) 34.3 (69%) 28 (56%) 42.9 (86%) 32.5 (65%) (SD=1.1) (SD=6.2) (SD=8.3) (SD=6.5) (SD=5.7) MEHFS 38.2 (76%) 24.3 (49%) 23.8 (48%) 37.6 (75%) 26.7 (53%) (SD=1.5) (SD=9.6) (SD=9.1) (SD=7.5) (SD=7.1) Total of Annual 242.2 166.8 145.8 228.1 174.1 Exam (81%) (56%) (49%) (76%) (58%) (SD=15.5) (SD=41.5) (SD=50.9) (SD=38.7) (SD=30.7)
Table 5.4
52 Different Exam Results for Three Groups in S5
Key: Hindi Home = group of Class V students in S5 using Hindi more than Pattani at home Pattani Home = group of Class V students in S5 using Pattani at home Nepali Home = group of Class V students in S5 using Nepali at home
Mean of Different Tests for Three Groups in S5
300 250 e r 200 o Hindi Home V c S
150 Pattani Home V n a
e 100 Nepali Home V M 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.4
Exam Results According to Different Groups in S5
Key: 1=Hindi SRT 2=Hindi Cloze Test 3=Hindi Writing Task 4=Hindi for Annual Exam 5=English for Annual Exam 6=Math for Annual Exam 7=Social Studies for Annual Exam 8=Science for Annual Exam 9=Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle 10=Total of Six Subjects (4~9) for Annual Exam Hindi Home V = group of Class V students in S5 using mostly Hindi at home Pattani Home V = group of Class V students in S5 using only Pattani at home Nepali Home V = group of Class V students in S5 using mostly Nepali at home
53 Pattani Class V = Class V students across four primary schools having education in Pattani as a medium of explanation for oral communication as well as using Pattani as home language but textbooks are written in Hindi Hindi Class V = Class V students across three primary schools having education only in Hindi as a medium of instruction for both oral communication and textbook language but using Pattani as home language
Mean of Different Tests for Different Groups
300 250 Hindi Home V e r 200 o Pattani Class V c S
150 Hindi Class V n a
e 100 Pattani Home V M 50 Nepali Home V 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.5
Table 5.5 and Chart 5.6 demonstrate the contrasting mean scores of the two different groups; those Pattani children whose language of home and school is the same and different. The former is composed of two different language groups; Pattani class V whose language of home and school is Pattani and Hindi home V in S5 whose language of home and school is Hindi. The latter group is the same as Hindi class V children shown in Table 5.4. Indentical language groups performed a lot higher than different language groups in all the nine tests. Although language of home and school of Nepali home V child in S5 is different each other, they are not included in the latter group because of their lower socio-economic status than Pattani children.
54
Key: Identical Language Groups between Home and School Domain (16) = Pattani Class V (11) + Hindi Home V in S5 (5) Different Language Groups between Home and School Domain (16) = S6 (7) + S7 (3) + Pattani Home V in S5 (6)
Mean Based on Identicalness of Languages between Home and School Domain Kind of Test Identical Language Groups between Different Language Groups Home and School Domain between Home and School Domain HSRT 24.6 (55%) (SD=5.2) 17.3 (38%) (SD=5.8) Hindi Cloze 7.6 (38%) (SD=2.3) 3.8 (19%) (SD=2.9) Hindi Writing 42.6 (85%) (SD=2.9) 34.4 (69%) (SD=4.2) Hindi 38.3 (77%) (SD=7.7) 27.5 (55%) (SD=6.8) English 41.9 (84%) (SD=5.1) 28.9 (58%) (SD=7.9) Math 38.1 (76%) (SD-10.3) 30.3 (61%) (SD=9) Social Studies 34.3 (69%) (SD=8.2) 28.2 (56%) (SD=6) Science 42.5 (85%) (SD=5.3) 32.5 (65%) (SD=5.7) MEHFS 37.8 (76%) (SD=6.0) 26.7 (53%) (SD=7.1) Total of 232.8 (78%) (SD=32.8) 174.1 (58%) (SD=30.7) Annual Exam
Table 5.5
Key: Identical Langugae Groups = Class V Pattani children whose language of home and school is the same Different Language Groups = Class V Pattani children whose languages of home and school are different
55 Mean Based on Identicalness of Languages between Home and School
n 100 a e
M 80
Identical Language f e o r 60 Groups e o c g 40 a Different Language S t
n Groups
e 20 c r
e 0 P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.6
5.4. Hindi Sentence Repetition Test for Class X
Table 5.6 indicates HSRT scores for Class X students from three different secondary schools SS1, SS2 and SS3. The HSRT scores of Class X students are contrasted in SS1 and SS2 according to the medium of explanation language through which they received their primary education. The average scores of Pattani medium students (33.4 for SS1 and 31.3 for SS2) are greater than those of Hindi medium students (26.3 for SS1 and 15.5 for SS2) by 7.1 and 10.8. Since most students in SS3 graduated from S1 of which medium of explanation language is Pattani, I list only the scores of Pattani medium students. The average HSRT score of SS3 Class X students are similar to that of Pattani medium students in SS1 and SS2. Charts 5.7 and 5.8 display the contrasting scores between the Pattani and Hindi medium of explanation students in both SS1 and SS2.
56 Table of HSRT scores for Class X students
Key: Pattani Medium = class X students having Pattani as a oral medium during their primary education Hindi Medium = class X students having Hindi as the medium during their primary education SS1 = Secondary School 1 SS2 = Secondary School 2 SS3 = Secondary School 3
HSRT Score for Class X (n=31) Pattani Medium Hindi Medium Pattani Medium Hindi Medium Pattani Medium in SS1 (n=8) in SS1 (n=8) in SS2 (n=7) in SS2 (n=4) in SS3 (n=8) 34 24 39 22 32 27 32 34 16 31 39 19 33 14 36 33 20 28 10 29 40 28 31 30 29 23 21 36 30 33 33 34 35 31 18 Avg: 33.4 Avg: 26.3 Avg: 31.3 Avg: 15.5 Avg: 30.8 (74%) (58%) (70%) (34%) (62%) SD: 4.6 SD: 5.5 SD: 5.6 SD: 5 SD: 5.8
Table 5.6
57
Chart displaying HSRT scores for SS1 Class X students
HSRT in SS1
50
40 e r o c 30 Pattani Medium S
T 20 Hindi Medium R S
H 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Class X Student
Chart 5.7
Chart displaying HSRT scores for SS2 Class X students
HSRT in SS2
50
40 e r o c 30 Pattani Medium S
T 20 Hindi Medium R S
H 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Class X Student
Chart 5.8
58
In Table 5.7, all the class X students are classified according to medium language of their primary education regardless of their present school. Pattani medium students (31.8,
71%) received 9.1 (21%) average points higher than their counterpart (22.7, 50%). Again this contrast is displayed in Chart 5.9 below.
Table of Class X Students Classified According to Medium of Explanation Language Key: PM = Class X students having Pattani as a class medium during their primary education HM = Class X students having Hindi as a class medium during their primary Education
HSRT PM 34 27 39 33 40 29 30 35 32 31 36 29 Of Class HM 23 32 19 20 28 23 33 31 22 16 14 10 X in SS1, PM 30 36 34 18 39 34 33 28 31 21 33 Avg:31.8 SD:5.2 SS2 (71%) N=23 &SS3 HM Avg:22.7 SD:7.4 (50%) N=12
Table 5.7
Chart displaying Class X Students Scores According to Medium of Explanation Language
Key: Pattani Medium = Class X students having Pattani as a class medium during their primary education Hindi Medium = Class X students having Hindi as a class medium during their primary education
59 HSRT of Class X in SS1, SS2 & SS3
50
40 e r o
c 30 Pattani Medium S
T 20 Hindi Medium R S
H 10
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 Class X Student
Chart 5.9
5.5. Scores according to Age and Sex
The data based on age and sex of the sample is included in this last section of the chapter.
There is some indication that there is a correlation between age and scores and between sex and scores. Table 5.8 shows the mean scores of each test according to the age groups of Class V students. If the school admits children at age 6 into Class I, then the normal age of Class V is 9 or 10 at the time of test administration which for this study was last
October, 2005. Thus the sample is divided into two groups based on whether they are at normal age range or above. As for the Pattani Class V, there was only one child who was more than ten years old, likewise only the scores of normal age group (9~10) is listed in the table below excluding the child, which have almost no difference with the whole sample (9~11) as expected. Unlike the Pattani Class V, six out of 16 children were
60 between the ages of 11 (4 children) and 12 (2 children) in the Hindi Class V. However, again the difference of scores among the three groups (Hindi Class V 9 to 10, 11 to 12 and 9 to 12 years) are similar one another as shown in Chart 5.10. It is also noticeable that six students (38%) are above the normal age in the Hindi Class V while only one student (9%) is above the normal age in the Pattani Class V.
Table of Test Scores According to Age
Mean (SD)of each Test according to Age Group Kind of Pattani Class Pattani Class Hindi Class Hindi Class Hindi Class Test V 9 to 10 Yrs V 9 to 11 V 9 to 10 V 11 to 12 V 9 to 12 (n=10) Yrs Yrs (n=10) Yrs (n=6) (n=16) (n=11) HSRT 25.5 (50%) 25.2 (56%) 17.4 (39%) 17 (38%) 17.3 (38%) (SD=5.6) (SD=5.4) (SD=7.2) (SD=3.2) (SD=5.8) Hindi 6.8 (34%) 7.2 (36%) 2.9 (15%) 5.2 (26%) 3.8 (19%) Cloze (SD=2.3) (SD=2.3) (SD=2.2) (SD=3.4) (SD=2.9) Hindi 42.1 (84%) 41.6 (83%) 33.7 (67%) 35.5 (71%) 34.4 (69%) Writing (SD=2.6) (SD=2.8) (SD=4.1) (SD=4.5) (SD=4.2) Hindi 35.2 (70%) 35.3 (71%) 27.8 (56%) 27 (54%) 27.5 (55%) (SD=8.2) (SD=7.7) (SD=5.7) (SD=9.1) (SD=6.8) English 41 (82%) 40.9 (82%) 26.3 (53%) 33.2 (66%) 28.9 (58%) (SD=5.8) (SD=5.5) (SD=5.7) (SD=9.6) (SD=7.9) Math 41 (82%) 41.3 (83%) 33.6 (67%) 25 (50%) 30.3 (61%) (SD=9.9) (SD=9.4) (SD=7.6) (SD=9.3) (SD=9) Social 29.1 (58%) 30.1 (60%) 28.8 (58%) 27.2 (54%) 28.2 (56%) Studies (SD=6.2) (SD=6.6) (SD=4.3) (SD=8.5) (SD=6) Science 42.7 (85%) 42.9 (86%) 31.4 (63%) 34.2 (68%) 32.5 (65%) (SD=6.9) (SD=6.5) (SD=4.4) (SD=7.6) (SD=5.7) MEHFS 37 (74%) 37.6 (75%) 26.6 (53%) 26.8 (54%) 26.7 (53%) (SD=7.7) (SD=7.5) (SD=5.4) (SD=10) (SD=7.1) Total of 226 (75%) 228.1 (76%) 174 (58%) 173.4 (58%) 174.1 (58%) Annual (SD=40.4) (SD=38.7) (SD=22.3) (SD=44.3) (SD=30.7) Exam
Table 5.8
61
Chart Displaying Test Scores According to Age
Key: Hindi V-Age 9~10: Hindi medium Class V students whose age ranges from 9 to 10 Hindi V-Age 11~12: Hindi medium Class V students whose age ranges from 11 to 12 Hindi V-Age 9~12: Hindi medium Class V students whose age ranges from 9 to 12
Scores according to Age
200
150 Hindi V-Age 9~10 e r
o 100 Hindi V-Age 11~12 c
S Hindi V-Age 9~12 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.10
Table 5.9 indicates the scores according to the sex of Class V students. Again there is no significant gap in scores between the two sex groups. However, both Pattani and Hindi
Class V show that the scores of boys for annual exams are slightly higher than girls as displayed in chart 5.11 and 5.12. This may be due to the fact that most house work is done by girls in the villages based on my personal observation and informal interviews.
Likewise girls may have less time for exam preparation. Although girls are more engaged by the house chores than boys, it is significant that Pattani Class V girls, in general, received higher points than Hindi Class V boys except in Social Studies. In
62 Social Studies the Hindi Class V boys mark slightly higher than the girls but lower than the the boys in the Pattani Class V.
Table Showing Test Scores According to Sex
Mean (SD)of each Test according to Sex Kind of Test Pattani Class V Pattani Class V Hindi Class V Hindi Class V Boys (n=6) Girls (n=5) Boys (n=10) Girls (n=6) HSRT 26.3 (58%) 23.8 (53%) 17.4 (39%) 17 (38%) (SD=4.6) (SD=6.5) (SD=4.6) (SD=8) Hindi Cloze 8.7 (44%) 5.4 (27%) 4.6 (23%) 2.3 (12%) (SD=1) (SD=2.1) (SD=3.3) (SD=0.8) Hindi 41.4 (83%) 42 (84%) 34.5 (69%) 34.2 (68%) Writing (SD=2.1) (SD=4.4) (SD=4.5) (SD=4.1) Hindi 35.7 (71%) 34.8 (70%) 27.2 (54%) 28 (56%) (SD=9.2) (SD=6.2) (SD=8.1) (SD=3.6) English 41.5 (83%) 40 (80%) 29 (58%) 28.8 (58%) (SD=5.8) (SD=5.8) (SD=7.1) (SD=10.8) Math 42.3 (85%) 39.8 (50%) 32.2 (64%) 26 (52%) (SD=9.9) (SD=10) (SD=8.9) (SD=8.9) Social 32.3 (65%) 26.8 (54%) 28.9 (58%) 26.5 (53%) Studies (SD=7.4) (SD=3.8) (SD=6.6) (SD=4.4) Science 43.3 (87%) 42.3 (85%) 33 (66%) 31.3 (63%) (SD=6.9) (SD=6.8) (SD=6.4) (SD=4.2) MEHFS 38.3 (77%) 36.5 (73%) 27.3 (55%) 25.3 (51%) (SD=8.4) (SD=7) (SD=8.1) (SD=5.1) Total of 233.5 (78%) 220 (73%) 177.8 (59%) 165.8 (55%) Annual (SD=43.6) (SD=34.4) (SD=35.4) (SD=17.5) Exam
Table 5.9
Chart Displaying Test Score Means among Pattani V Classes According to Sex
Key: 1=Hindi SRT 2=Hindi Cloze Test 3=Hindi Writing Task 4=Hindi for Annual Exam 5=English for Annual Exam
63 6=Math for Annual Exam 7=Social Studies for Annual Exam 8=Science for Annual Exam 9=Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle 10=Total of Six Subjects (4~9) for Annual Exam
Mean of each Test according to Sex
250
200 e r o
c 150 Pattani Class V Boys S
n 100 Pattani Class V Girls a e
M 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.11
Chart Displaying Test Score Means Among Hindi V Classes according to Sex
Key: 1=Hindi SRT 2=Hindi Cloze Test 3=Hindi Writing Task 4=Hindi for Annual Exam 5=English for Annual Exam 6=Math for Annual Exam 7=Social Studies for Annual Exam 8=Science for Annual Exam 9=Moral Education & History of Freedom Struggle 10=Total of Six Subjects (4~9) for Annual Exam
64 Mean of each Test according to Sex
200
e 150 r o c Hindi Class V Boys S
100 n Hindi Class V Girls a e
M 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kind of Test
Chart 5.12
65 6. IMPLICATIONS FROM THE FINDINGS
In this chapter, I investigate the theoretical reasons and support for the findings of this study.
6.1. Oracy in Pattani and Literacy in Hindi
The characteristics of using Pattani as the medium of explanation has been articulated in
4.1. Teachers use it as an oral medium only and do not teach it as a subject. Moreover, materials in Pattani are not available for school children even if they wanted to use them.
Thus, although the students oral Pattani improves, they do not have any chance to become literate in Pattani. Our main interest, therefore here is looking at the effect of oracy in Pattani in relationship to becoming literate in Hindi and other academic achievements. One of the major findings of this study, as demonstrated in Chapter 5
(Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and Charts 5.1, 5.2, 5.3), is that Pattani class V children perform much better both linguistically and academically than children in Hindi class V. What made oral Pattani medium children achieve better educational result than Hindi medium children? Does using the oral medium in the child’s first language promise better results than using a second language medium?
Many researchers (Cummins 2001, Thomas & Collier 1997, etc.) point out that failure of first language literacy leads to less positive outcomes in second language literacy.
Malones (Malone & Malone 2006) also argue that the best rule for transitional bilingual
66 education is to start in the first language (L1) orally, followed by teaching L1 literacy, then use the second language (L2) orally followed by teaching L2 literacy. Although these four steps may overlap, the order of the initial introduction of four each step is suggested to attain better literacy in L2. For instance, while children develop L1 literacy, they can start learning in L2 orally but L2 literacy is not recommended to be taught before L2 oracy is introduced. While Pattani class V children omit L1 literacy and oral
L2, Hindi class V children miss oral L1 exposure in school on top of what Pattani class V children miss. The only difference between the two groups is different degree of oral
Pattani development. Thus, it is clear that the more oral Pattani is developed, the higher
Hindi literacy is developed. Hudelson (1994: 139-140, referred in Poulson 2005: 12) underlines research in communities where oral language is highly valued and he demonstrates that there are much similarities between strategies utilized by oral-language behaviors (i.e. narrating the events of a story; telling a story; sharing jokes, riddles, and gossips; teasing; constructing a story jointly; commenting about an event, story, or television or radio program; and questioning someone about an event or story) and written-language behaviors. These strategies cover sequencing, explaining, evaluating, elaborating and clarifying, arguing, persuading, responding, and analyzing. Most of these strategies utilized in oral Pattani may transfer to Hindi literacy as pointed out by
Cummins and Swain (1986: 87). Thus, oracy is not a condition of deficit in terms of lack of literacy, rather it involves “a set of powerful and effective mental strategies” (Eagan
1987: 180, quoted in Poulson 2005) for second language literacy. Although children learn to read and write in their first language more efficiently than in second language as pointed out in chapter one, it is still better to use the first language as an oral medium (as
67 a medium of explanation). It is also better to encourage its use orally than having no chance to develop in the first language at all because of the practice of using a second language such as Hindi from the beginning of the schooling. This first language development could enhance more transfer of Pattani oral proficiency and the strategies of oral Pattani behaviours mentioned above. Moreover, because Pattani medium taught
Pattani children have more chances to develop their Pattani in school, they become more bilingual than the Hindi only medium taught Pattani children. They gain more positive advantages of bilingualism than their counterparts. That is, they become more advanced than the Hindi medium taught Pattani children in divergent/creative thinking, meta- linguistic awareness, field independency, etc. as discussed in chapter 1.
However, it is noted that Pattani class V children achieved a little lower average point than Hindi home V children as shown in table 5.4 and chart 5.5. There may be two reasons for this result. First, Pattani proficiency of Pattani class V may not be good enough to show higher academic effect than Hindi home class V children. The oralcy of
Pattani class V children still results in better Hindi proficiency than low level of oracy among Hindi class V children but does not enable them to perform better than monolingual Hindi home V children who have been developing both oracy and literacy in
Hindi as a first language. I would therefore argue that the Pattani level of the Pattani class
V children is not as high as the level of CALP.
Secondly, according to the thresholds theory (Cummins 1976 & Toukomaa & Skutnabb-
Kangas 1977, referred in Baker 1996: 148-151), first threshold is a level for a child to
68 reach to avoid the negative consequences of bilingualism and the second threshold is a level necessary to experience the possible positive benefits of bilingualism. Pattani class
V children are very close to the first threshold but have not reached it yet because their overall accomplishment in the tests are slightly lower than Hindi home class V children
(Hindi monolinguals) (Table 5.4 & Chart 5.5). Therefore I would argue here that if the
Pattani class V children could reach the second threshold they would achieve better academic excellency than Hindi monolinguals in S5. If they had chance to acquire not only oracy in Pattani but also Pattani literacy they would become more balanced bilinguals during their primary education. As for the children in Hindi class V and Nepali home V in S5, they are far below the first threshold in their first language, i.e. Pattani and
Nepali, respectively, since they have not had any chance to improve their first language in school and they are submerged in a second language medium school where they can hardly understand the medium language, Hindi, which may result in less development in that language. As a result, the level of both their first language and Hindi is below the first threshold and they performed less in all the tests than Pattani class V and Hindi home V children in S5. Jhingran (2005: 52) calls this kind of situation, “‘semi- lingualism’, a condition where the child does not acquire linguistic skills appropriate for his age in any language”. It is very sad and unfortunate that most primary schools in
Pattani language community except those four Pattani class (S1-S4) and Hindi home class V, are producing semi-lingual children whose language abilities remain stunted both in their first language and Hindi. According to Jhingran (52), this was also the most common situation in the schools and blocks that were covered in their fieldwork interviews in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Assam and Gujarat.
69 6.2. Educational Support for the Findings
In this section, the oral medium of Pattani is discussed in terms of its implication to educational theories and research in general and its effect on academic subjects.
6.2.1. Developmental Learning Theory
The Swiss scientist, Jean Piaget (1986-1980) initiated Developmental Learning Theory
(Davis 1991). He became interested in the process by which children learn to think and found out that children who were same age frequently gave the same wrong answers to the same questions. Piaget had two questions: 1) What characteristics enable children to adapt to their environment? 2) What is the most simple, accurate, useful way to classify child development? He proposed four stages of cognitive development based on the above two questions, the Sensorimotor (0-2 years) stage, the Preoperational (2-7 years) stage, the Concrete Operational (7-11 years) stage, and the Formal Operational (11-15 years) stage.
In the case of the Hindi class V students, language of the first two developmental stages are ignored or rejected because although cognitive development is made in Pattani during the first two stages, it is not recognized in school and it is replaced by Hindi as soon as they enter the primary school. On the other hand, the Pattani class V students have more chances to develop the concrete operational development stage during their primary school based on previous sensorimotor and preoperational development stages because the same language is used in school as the language they used until they entered the
70 school. Therefore, the continuity of stages two and three may have enabled the children in Pattanl class V to perform much higher than their counterpart with discontinuity.
6.2.2. Schema Theory
The Schema Theory (Anderson 1977, referred in Davis 1991) views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one’s understanding of the world. Thus it is important to teach general knowledge and generic concepts. A large proportion of learner difficulties can be traced to insufficient general knowledge. Thus teachers must help learners to build schemata and to make connections between ideas. Since prior knowledge is essential for the comprehension of new information, teachers either need to help students build the prerequisite knowledge, or remind them of what they already know before introducing new contents. Schemata grow and change as new knowledge is added to what students already know. Two kinds of conflicts are pointed out. Firstly, learners feel internal conflict if they are trying to assimilate new knowledge which contradicts their already made schemata. So teachers need to understand and be sympathetic to this tension. Secondly, deep-seated schemata are hard to change because an individual often prefers to live with inconsistencies than to change a deeply-held value or belief (schemata).
Children entering the primary schools in the Pattan valley have already established schemata and when teachers introduce new knowledge in Hindi their schemata formed in
Pattani is neglected or denied. Therefore, there must be serious internal conflict between their Pattani schemata and the totally new knowledge they acquire in Hindi at grade one
71 onward. Or teachers may have to spend extra time to build a brand new schema as the already made schmata are thrown away or buried. On the other hand, the teachers in
Pattani medium schools base their new knowledge teaching upon the schemata that children already have been establishing until they enter the primary school. So children are able to make sense of the new knowlege taught in Pattani as they are able to connect the new contents to their schemata already established in Pattani. Thus, their schemata develop to include more variables and more specific information and become organized more meaningfully, which eventually leads to better learning.
6.2.3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Zone Proximal Development is defined as,
“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky 1978: 86, quoted in
Walqui 2006: 162).
Thus learning takes place when there is some knowledge, understanding or skill, just beyond the grasp of the learner, which the learner is prepared to learn but cannot learn by herself. Thus the learner needs a more knowledgeable or skilled person to assist her in understanding the new concept or skill. The more knowledgeable person helps the learner in the process of acquiring the knowledge until she is able to understand or perform by herself.
72 The learning by children in the Hindi class V is carried out far beyond the zone of proximal development because their independent problem solving ability, which has been built on their first language, Pattani, is totally ignored by the teachers using Hindi as a medium of instruction It is impossible to imagine learning taking place within the ZPD in
Hindi medium schools. However, teachers in Pattani medium class V may know what children already know in Pattani and are able to teach new knowledge in Pattani which may be just beyond the grasp of the children. So learning within the ZPD is more probably carried out in Pattani class V than in Hindi class V.
6.2.4. Scaffolding Theory
The Scaffolding theory is described as,
“a process of ‘setting up’ the situation to make the child’s entry easy and
successful and then gradually pulling back and handing the role to the
child as he becomes skilled enough to manage it” (Bruner 1983: 60).
So there is a gradual shift in agency and finally a ‘take-over’ is made. And scaffolding can only occur within the ZPD. There are two elements in scaffolding: structure and process.
Structure is similar to the actual structure of supports and boards around a building. It is temporal and changeable, which workers need to carry out their work. On the other hand, process is similar to the actual work which is carried out such as laying bricks or welding.
The process is enabled by the scaffolding structure, and a constant evaluation of the process indicates when parts of the scaffolding structure can be dismantled or shifted elsewhere. There should be these same dynamics between structure and process in
73 learning too. Teachers need to provide scaffolding structure by which children can go through the learning process. There should be dynamics between the teacher’s aiding structure and the children’s learning process, that is, structure should be unceasingly restructured according to the changing learning process.
In Hindi medium class however, the learning process cannot be enabled by Hindi scaffolding structure. Since it is difficult in Hindi to evaluate the learning process of children that has been carried out in Pattani, the Hindi medium structure can be rigid and become a permanent structure. Thus teachers using Hindi only continue to be an agent and no ‘take-over’ can take place causing children to become passive and dependent learners. However, in Pattani medium class, teachers can have more chance to provide necessary scaffolding structure since they can evaluate in Pattani the children’s present learning process and adapt and restructure the scaffold as learning progresses.
6.2.5. Sociocultural Theory of Learning
The Sociocultural theory of learning was initiated by Lev Vygotsky (1987, referred in
Malone 2006), a Russian psychologist. He argues that all knowledge is socially constructed, a product of dialogue and interaction between thought and language (speech) emphasizing on the social nature of learning. These are key Vygotskian concepts. 1)
Everything is learned twice: first socially, with the help of other human beings, then privately (internalized). 2) All knowledge is socially constructed; that is, all learning is group learning. 3) Thought and speech are keys to human consciousness. 4) Thought is
74 aided by speech, not the vice versa. Implications of these concepts for education are as follows:
1) If knowledge is socially constructed, then it is very important for learners to be
allowed to converse, to exchange ideas, to interact with their teachers and peer
learners.
2) If thought develops as people use speech, then the act of speaking is as important
as the act of listening for learning new information, concepts and skills shared by
others.
3) The role of the teacher, then, is to provide opportunities for learners to dialogue.
In this study, I have observed there is more ‘talk’ of children in the Pattani classes than the Hindi classes. Pattani medium teachers ask questions about the knowledge that children already have before they introduce new concepts in Hindi, thus children have more chances to talk as they answer. On the other hand, the children in Hindi medium classes start their learning without any chance to think about their previous knowledge that they have gained at home and their village in Pattani. Thus they only listen to the teacher’s monologue without understanding what is being said and do not have any chance to talk. Therefore, in Vygotskian terms, the children in Pattani class V may construct knowledge more socially and develop their thoughts more as they are given more chance to dialogue in Pattani.
I have dealt with so far several educational theories which may have implication to the success of students in the primary schools in Pattani language community. All the
75 educational theories covered above consider background knowledge and prior experiences of children critical to the learning process. As Braunger & Lewis (2006: 61) points out, using relevant background knowledge of children’s first language, Pattani, in
Pattani class offers the scaffolding structure necessary to learn Hindi. Children who learn in Hindi and other academic subjects simultaneously require more intentional scaffolding to bridge from their previous experience to the new academic content, build appropriate schema and develop understanding of context, and internalize academic Hindi.
6.3. Prism Model
The Prism Model was developed by Thomas and Collier (1997) to help policy makers understand the complex process of second language acquisition within a school context.
The model has four major components that “drive” language acquisition in the school setting: sociocultural, linguistic, academic, and cognitive processes. These components are interdependent and complex.
6.3.1. Sociocultural Processes
At the heart of the figure (see Appendix 11), an individual student goes through the process of acquiring a second language in school. Central to the student’s acquisition of language are all the social and cultural processes occurring through everyday life within the student’s past, present, and future, in all contexts, i.e. home, school, community, and the broader society. Sociocultural processes in second language acquisition may also include individual student variables such as self-esteem or anxiety or other affective
76 factors. At school, the instructional environment in a classroom or administrative program structure may create social and psychological distance between groups such as the Pattani medium children, Hindi medium children, and Hindi home Pattani children,
Pattani home children and Nepali home children in S5. Community or regional social patterns such as prejudice and discrimination expressed towards groups or individuals in personal and professional contexts can influence students’ achievement in school, as well as societal patterns such as subordinate status of a minority group or acculturation versus assimilation forces at work. These factors can strongly influence the student’s response to the new language and affect the process positively only when the student is in a socioculturally supportive environment.
In the context of Hindi medium primary schools in Pattani valley, the sociocultural processes are mostly ignored and thus children feel that they are not in a supportive learning environment thus they learn less. In this study this problem is found more serious among Nepali home children in Hindi medium S5 than the Pattani children in
Hindi medium schools. The parents of Nepali children are immigrants from Nepal. Most of them are seasonal laborers and are employed by Pattani parents during summer from
April to November. Some of them run Napali Dhaba (local restaurants) in which Thukba soup is served. Their social status is lowest in Pattani language community. Likewise
Napali children are not warmly treated by most Pattani teachers. There are times Pattani teachers show predudice and discriminate against them in the classroom. As a result
Nepali children have low self-esteem in general. As it is expected, Nepali children in S5 ranked the lowest in all subjects whereas Hindi home Pattani children in S5 whose
77 parents are well educated thus speak Hindi well, showed the highest mark in S5 and slightly higher than the Pattani class V Pattani children.
6.3.2. L1 (First Language) and L2 (Second Language) Language Development
Language development has two components: 1) the subconscious aspects of language development, which is an innate ability all humans possess for acquisition of oral language and 2) metalinguistic, conscious and formal learning of language in school and acquisition of the written system of language. The domain of these first and second components cover the acquisition of the oral and written systems of the student’s first and second languages across all language domains, i.e. phonology, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, discourse, and paralinguistics (nonverbal and other extralinguistic features). It is claimed that to assure cognitive and academic success in second language, a student’s first language system, oral and written, must be developed to a high cognitive level at least to a level comparable to their native-English(Hindi)- speaking peers.
In the Pattani language community, Pattani language development stops when the child enters the Hindi medium school although they may acquire further Pattani out of school.
Development of Hindi in Hindi medium schools by children may not be as meaningful because they begin their literacy in Hindi that they are not able to speak and understand but it is still use as the medium instruction. Thus children spend most of their Hindi class in memorization. On the other hand, Pattani children that have a chance to speak and listen in Pattani that is used in the Pattani medium class understand better. Moreover the
78 instruction in Hindi and English classes is understandable since Pattani is used as a medium of explanation in an oral form.
6.3.3. Academic Development
The domain of this development includes all school work in language arts, mathematics, the sciences, and social studies for each grade level, Grades K-12 and beyond. With each succeeding grade, academic work dramatically expands the vocabulary, sociolinguistic, and discourse dimensions of language to higher cognitive levels. Academic knowledge and conceptual development are claimed to transfer from the first language to the second language. So it is most efficient to develop academic work through a student’ first language, while teaching the second language during other periods of the school day through meaningful academic content. In earlier decades in the U.S., the emphasis was on teaching second language (English) as the first step, and they postponed the teaching of academics. Research has shown that postponing or interrupting academic development is likely to promote academic failure in the long-term. In an information-driven society that demands more knowledge processing with each succeeding year, students cannot afford the lost time in on-grade-level academic work during the period while they are learning
English to a level comparable to their native-English-speaking peers.
Academic development in Hindi medium class is not provided meaningfully for several years until the children learn the Hindi medium language to the CALP level. Since children in Hindi medium class learn Hindi without aid of their first language, it takes longer to reach CALP level in Hindi than it does for Pattani medium children. Children in
79 Pattani medium classes develop better academically since all the academic concepts are explained in Pattani, their first language. Furthermore, they learn Hindi faster than Hindi medium children and the academic concepts acquired in Pattani transfer to Hindi language so they have a double advantage to foster their academic development, i.e. first, learning Hindi faster and becoming better prepared to academically develop in Hindi earlier than Hindi medium children while academic development is carried on in Pattani; second, academic development in Pattani from the beginning and its transfer to Hind.
6.3.4. Cognitive Development
The fourth component of this model, the cognitive development is a natural and subconscious process that occurs developmentally from birth to the end of schooling and beyond. An infant initially builds thought processes through interacting with loved ones in the language of the home. This is a knowledge base, an important stepping stone to build on as cognitive development continues. It is extremely important that cognitive development continues through a child’s first language at least through the primary school years. This is not a hinderance to learning another language as extensive research has demonstrated that children who reach full cognitive development in two languages enjoy cognitive advantages over monolinguals.
Cognitive development is not emphasized in Hindi and the child stops hearing Pattani used as the medium of explanation when the child enters the Hindi medium primary school. Children who enter school after they have completed six years of cognitive development in Pattani should be given proper education in their own language to
80 continue to develop cognitively as native Hindi speaking children do at school. Switching medium language to Hindi neither forbids further cognitive development in Pattani nor causes a slowdown of cognitive development in Hindi, which needs to last for several years. During this period, children in Pattani medium classes continue to develop cognitively in Pattani while they are still learning Hindi and English as subjects. However, children in Hindi medium classes fall behind in cognitive development and may never catch up with the children in Pattani medium class who constantly develop cognitive awareness.
6.3.5. Interdependence of the Four Components
All of these four components--sociocultural, academic, cognitive, and linguistic--are interdependent. If one is developed to the expense of another, this may be detrimental to a student’s overall growth and future success. The academic, cognitive, and linguistic components must be viewed as developmental. For the child, adolescent, and young adult still going through the process of formal schooling, development of any one of these three components depends critically on simultaneous development of the other two, through both first and second languages. Sociocultural processes strongly influence, in both positive and negative ways, students’ access to cognitive, academic, and language development. It is crucial that educators provide a socioculturally supportive school environment that allows natural language, academic, and cognitive development to flourish in both L1 and L2.
81 I should acknowledge that Pattani medium children cannot fully develop their first language because Pattani is used only as oral medium. However this oral use of Pattani has had a positive impact on learning the second language, Hindi and even a third language, English than those who have not.
6.4. Long Term Effect among Class X Students
The goal of education is usually the development of the people in their life time. So in many cases, the well-being of a person may be strongly influenced by the quality of his or her tertiary education. And quality of their tertiary education is determined by their academic excellence during the secondary school. Nobody can be certain that a child will be successful in his or her life when they perform well in their primary level school. Thus as Thomas and Collier’s research points out, testing of children’s achievement over primary school stage is too short and may lead to an inaccurate perception of students’ actual long-term performance. As shown in Appendix 10, there is little difference among six different programs until the end of primary school. However, their research vividly demonstrates that differences in programs effects become cumulatively larger and more apparent, as students continue their schooling until the end of Grade 12.
In this regards, I have collected the data not only from the children of grade 5 but also from the students of grade 10 in order to examine the long term effect of Pattani oral medium of education during primary school. As indicated in charts 5.7, 5.8 & 5.9 and tables 5.6 & 5.7, all the class X students with Pattani medium primary education achieved
82 much higher result in HSRT than those with only Hindi medium primary education. And
Pattani class V children performed even higher than those in Hindi class V in HSRT
(Table 5.1 & Chart 5.1), Hindi Cloze and Writing Task (Table 5.2 & Chart 5.2) and annual exams in seven different subjects (Table 5.3 & Chart 5.3). This result eloquently speaks of the fact that Pattani oral medium education during the primary education years enables the students to perform much better than Hindi medium education in both linguistic (Hindi and English) and academic (Math, Science and etc.) subjects.
6.5. Girls and Mother-tongue Education
According to Corson (referred in UNESCO. 2005), there are three kinds of groups on earth who are most negatively affected by unjust language policies and planning in education. They are women and girls, the poor, and groups with languages not represented in formal structures. We can assume that the injustice must be the most among those who experience all three conditions simultaneously.
Gender related research has pointed out that because girls and women have much less opportunity to work in markets or factories, they are much less likely than boys and men to be exposed to an official language, which is mostly identified the same as school medium language. This is because their lives are more often restricted to the home and family where only the local language is spoken. Furthermore, families with limited resources tend to send only their sons to school and expect their daughters for household tasks or small trading to support the family and encourage their daughters to become
83 married early, which in many cases deprive the opportunity for girls to further study.
Girls may drop out due to lack of female models, inability to understand instruction in an unfamiliar language, low self-esteem and low relevance of education to their needs or interests.
Girls, however, in mother tongue base bilingual classes are reported to stay in school longer. They feel more comfortable speaking and learning in their first language and perceive that schooling is relevant and gives them the skills and confidence in their careers. If women are more comfortable and skillful at speaking their first language in school, they are more likely to enroll in teacher education for mother tongue-based programs, in particular, if they can come back to their language communities to teach.
These women teachers from the identical communities may become the role model of girls. Actually, although it did not specifically target language of instruction, a project for girls in Rajasthan, India (UNESCO. 2005) has been reported successful in increasing the proportion of trained female teachers from the students’ communities by creating residential training schools for women.
In the Pattani medium class V schools, girls tested better than boys in Hindi medium class V schools in all subjects except one, Social Studies (Chart 5.12) although they are slightly lower than boys in the same Pattani medium class (Chart 5.11). What makes the girls in Pattani medium class V schools perform better than the boys in the Hindi medium
Class V schools? They feel more comfortable speaking and learning through Pattani than the boys in Hindi medium class whose proficiency level of Hindi is too low to follow the
84 instruction in that language. Moreover, almost all the teachers in Pattani valley originate from the same valley and are native speakers of Pattani and the majority of the teachers are women. The location of DIET in Pattan valley makes more Pattani women enroll in teacher training program after finishing 10th grade. Finally these female teachers become the role model of girl students in Pattani medium schools.
However, girls in Pattani medium class still performed slightly lower than boys in the same school as explained by the added responsibilities they have at home. From my personal participant observation and many experiences for the last 4 years, girls are found to do most house work while boys play, i.e. playing cricket or watching TV. Girls also get married relatively early at the age of students in Class X and they stop their education after marriage. Families in Pattan valley also want to send their sons to cities for further studies whereas girls are not allowed to go outside of their community by themselves for study. By these reasons, girls are less motivated to study hard and may have less energy to do both house work and study. This would explain the results in lower performance of girls than boys in both Hindi and Pattani medium classes as shown in Table 5.10 and
Chart 5.12.
6.6. Repetition of Grade
It has been reported that 26 % children drop out at the primary education level in India and the main reason for this is “lack of interest in education” (Agnihotri, et al 2005: 20).
The less interest in education may be caused by the lack of cultural content in education
85 curriculum. Language does not come from vacuum but from people’s culture, tradition and history. So Language is not merely one component of culture but also a container of culture and wordview of its users. Therefore, mother tongue medium can not only reduce the linguistic and cultural gap caused by the difference between school language and home language but also “facilitate richer classroom transaction, greater participation of learners and yield better learning outcomes” (Agnihotri, et.al. 2005: 20).
As pointed out in Jhingran (2005, referred in Agnihotri, et.al. 21), over 12% children suffer serious learning disadvantage because they are denied access to primary education through their mother tongues.
This general trend of primary education in India is also true in my study. As mentioned in section 5.5, the Hindi class V has more children (6 out of 16, 38%) whose age (11 to 12) is more than normal age for standard Class V (9 to 10) than Pattani class V (only 1 child out of 11, 9%). It is possible that Hindi class V has more children who kept failing in different classes. Therefore, Pattani oral medium education in Pattani classes seems to make a better learning environment in school more relevant and meaningful resulting in a much lower failure rate.
86 7. CONCLUSION
It has been demonstrated in this study that oral Pattani medium education is far more effective than Hindi medium schooling in that Pattani medium children perform much better on measures of both linguistic and academic achievement. This result has been supported by various linguistic and educational theories and research. However, since
Pattani is used only orally and no effort is made to encourage literacy in Pattani, Pattani class V children do not perform better than Hindi monolingual children (Hindi home V children in S5). Moreover, socio-cultural factors of higher educated and higher socio- economic status of Hindi home class V children may enable their children to achieve higher. In this regard, low socio-cultural support for Nepali home children made them perform lower than even Hindi class V children although both groups of children are identical in terms of using Hindi as a medium of instruction, in which they are not good enough to follow in class, which is different from each of their mother tongues, Pattani and Nepali.
Based on the results above, as far as homogenous linguistic schools (S1 to S4 and S6 to
S7) are concerned, it is reccommended that holistic Pattani medium education of both oracy and literacy for primary education be implemented and a gradual shift to Hindi medium be made from grade 4 or so but Pattani be still taught as a subject even after switching medium language. Oral Hindi can be taught from the beginning and Hindi literacy can be introduced grade 2 onwards but still as a subject. In this system not only oral Pattani but also Pattani literacy can be developed at least during primary education
87 so that children may reach CALP level in Pattani, through which Hindi proficiency will be also get enhanced.
On the other hand, S5 has been shown to have linguistically heterogenous children.
Students are divided into three groups according to their first language. Thus choosing one language as sole medium of education is disadvantageous for the other two groups whose mother tongues differ from the medium language. As Malone (2006) suggests, children can be grouped according to their first language for grade 1 to 3 and in each classroom students follow the same curriculum but the language of instruction is the children’s mother tongue. Thus children learn to read and write in their first language first. In S5 all the teachers are bilingual in Pattani and Hindi as all the teachers in other schools in Pattani language community, so they need only Napali speaking teacher or teaching assistant. By hiring Nepali assistant, Nepali can be recognized in an official way.
The Pattani teachers also need to see Nepali as a resource that Nepali children bring in the classroom rather than hindrance to be overcome or problem to be solved and try to deliver meaningful instruction to the Nepali children with the help of Nepali assistant.
Nepali assistants need to be Nepali and Hindi bilinguals so that teachers and assistants can interact in Hindi. For this linguistic multi-grade class, teachers need to be trained to be well-organized, manage small groups well, and give clear directions for learner activities. And in such situations, multilingualism can indeed be treated as a resource, a strategy and a goal (NCERT 2006, NCF 2005).
88 It has been shown in chapter five that the class X students who received better HSRT marks come from their oral Pattani medium primary schools. Thus Pattani medium education may provide a better chance to succeed in their tertiary education or in their lives. It has also been demonstrated that grade repetition rate is much lower in Pattani medium classes than Hindi medium classes. Also despite heavier household duties on girls, Pattani class girls performed much better than Hindi class boys, which also demonstrates the crucial role of Pattani medium for girls’ education.
If I take Gharagedaghi’s (1986) definition that “development” is “the person’s ability to use the resources they have available”, the more developed a person is, the more able they are to both “find” and “create” the resources. I believe that the education in Pattani language community may be the only tool available for their development. Children in
Pattani language community belong not only to Lahuli tribal group but also to India as citizens of the nation. This means that they need to not only have strong foundation in their first language but also have high proficiency in the national language, Hindi and
English. Balanced bilingualism may be basic condition for their development in this multifaceted society.
89 APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Hindi Sentence Repetition Test Scoring Sheet HINDI SRT SCORING SHEET
Sub ID: Mother Tongue: Name: Language at home Sex: Lived or stayed in other places: Age: How long? Education Travel out side area:
Practice Sentences
P1. कल म मु बई जाऊँगा।
P2. मझुको जग ल पसद है।
P3. हम हसाब चुकाना है।
0 A word omitted W A wrong word S Word substituted for another >or< Any change of word order ~ ~ A word distorted + A word or phrase added R Word or phrase repeated
1. ले कन क ाली हाथ आया।
2. काश ने सोचा म य ा क ँ?
3. वह लड़का बहुत चच ल है।
90 4. हमने जला हुआ मकान दे ा।
5. उसने कहा क ब च े को मत छू।
6. सार तैया रया ँकल तक क जाएँ।
7. ऐश करते-करते वह आलसी हो जाएगा।
8. वहा ँलोग भीड़ लगाए ड़े थे।
9. यद ठ लग रह हो तो ड़ क ब द कर ली जए।
10. दन भर अकेले रहने से वह ऊबने लगा।
11. कल रात म छर बहुत यादा थे, इस कारण म सो नह सका।
12. जसैा क म ने सुना था, कई लोग िशकायत कर रहे थे।
13. उन छोटे अ र को पढ़ते-पढ़ते मेर आ ँ द ुने लगी।
14. तब उसने कहा क जी हा ँम इस कताब से बहुत भा वत हूँ।
15. अगर स भव हो तो आप बाल-ब च को भी द वाली मनाने के िलए साथ लाए।ँ
Remarks:
91 Appendix 2. Comments for Scoring Hindi Sentence Repetition Test
General Comments:
1. Gender, number and tense are clearly marked in Hindi on the verb; thus, any
variation of vowels, nasalization and often consonant combinations will change
the meaning.
2. There are Urdu/Hindi words which are interchangeable. Where they do not
change the meaning, one for the other is not counted wrong. These are noted in
the elaborated transcription of the final SRT form.
Specific Comments:
1. The following chart summarizes the scoring system and suggests ways to mark
the different type of errors. Such markings are used on the training sheets.
3 points perfect, no errors in the sentence
2 points one error in the sentence
1 point two errors in the sentence
0 points three or more errors in the sentence
o a word omitted from the sentence
w a wrong word or word ending (grammatical error),
including a word substituted for another
> or < any change of word order (counts as a one error)
~~ a word distorted so as to alter meaning
+ a word or phrase added to sentence
92 R a word or phrase repeated (counts as one error)
2. For repeated words, if it was just a trip up and they corrected and went on I
(hereafter, Varenkamp) tended not to count this as a mistake. If they intentionally
repeated, I did, or if they repeated the word elsewhere in the sentence.
3. When a phrase was misplaced either forward (<) or backward (>), I counted it
only as one mistake, not 1 per word.
4. Sometimes if the sentence was full of errors, I just drew a squiggly line under it,
not noting each error. Or if they simply “died” on the sentence and stopped trying
(or never said anything) I simply drew a straight line under it.
5. The rest of the specific comments can be found detailed for each sentence in the
elaborated transcription of the final SRT form.
93 Appendix 3. Proficiency Description of RPE
RPE level 0+
Very minimal proficiency.
RPE level 1
Minimal, limited proficiency.
A person at this level has a very heavy accent which makes understanding difficult and forces people to ask for repetition. There seem to be more mistakes in grammar than correct usage, except for stock phrases. Vocabulary is limited to basic personal and survival areas. Speech is slow and halting except for short or routine sentences.
Understanding is limited to slow, very simple speech, with very frequent repetition and rephrasing.
RPE level 1+
Limited, basic proficiency.
RPE level 2
Adequate, basic proficiency.
A person at this level has a heavy accent that forces people to concentrate when listening and sometimes causes misunderstanding and gives the appearance of errors. Some important grammatical rules are not controlled which occasionally causes misunderstanding and even irritation. Vocabulary is broad enough for daily topics, but limited in some common domains and sometimes inaccurate. Hesitations and jerkiness
94 are frequent. Sometimes sentences cannot be completed. Understanding is possible if people speak carefully and simplify their speech somewhat, but they must repeat and/or rephrase frequently.
RPE level 2+
Good, basic proficiency.
RPE level 3
Good, general proficiency.
A person at this stage has a marked ‘foreign’ accent, with occasional mispronunciations, but these do not interfere with understanding. Imperfect control of some grammatical patterns causes occasional errors, but understanding is not affected. Vocabulary is adequate to cope with varied social situations and special interests in professional domains with some circumlocutions. Speech is occasionally hesitant and perceptibly nonnative in speed and evenness. Normal educated speech is understood quite well, with only occasional need for repetition or rephrasing.
RPE level 3+
Very good, general proficiency.
RPE level 4
Excellent proficiency.
95 A person at this level still has a very slight accent but no longer mispronounces words.
No patterns of grammatical error remain and only rarely are errors made. Vocabulary is broad and precise, adequate for all technical, social, and practical situations. Only a slight difference in the speed and evenness of speech separates this speaker from a native speaker. Comprehension is complete except for very slurred or rapid speech or perhaps uncommon words or idioms.
RPE level 4+
Approaching native speaker proficiency.
96 Appendix 4. Bio Data
1) Bio Data and Scores for Each Test: Class V
Key:
Hm=language used at home
ML=medium language in class
HSRT=Hindi Sentence Repetition Test
HC=Hindi Cloze Test
HW=Hindi Writing Task
SoSc=Social Science
Scie=Science
MEHFS=Moral Education and History of Freedom Struggle
NPV=Non-Pattan Valley
Total=Total of Hindi, English, Math, Social Science, Science and MEHFS
Sub Hm ML
ID Age Sex Class L HSRT HC HW Hindi English Math SoSc Scie MEHFS Total
S1-1 10 f 5 P P 21 3 39 36 36 43 23 45 36 219
S1-2 10 m 5 P P 27 10 41 35 44 42 26 47 34 228
S1-3 10 F 5 P P 15 5 47 42 45 44 26 46 37 240
S1-4 10 M 5 P P 32 8 43 42 47 48 41 49 44 271
S2-1 11 M 5 P P 19 10 38 36 40 44 39 45 43 247
S2-2 10 F 5 P P 32 7 40 34 45 47 32 46 45 249
S2-3 M 5 P P 41 47 48 31 47 48 262
S3-1 9 M 5 P P 29 8 43 42 39 49 35 42 36 243
S3-2 9 M 5 P P 23 8 42 18 32 23 22 30 25 150
S3-3 9 F 5 P P 23 4 27 34 25 26 32 28 172
S4-1 F 5 P P 28 8
97 S4 -2 M 5 P P 28 8
S5-1 12 M 5 P H 19 12 42 41 40 36 42 44 43 246
S5-2 13 M 5 P H 25 4 36 17 25 41 19 25 19 146
S5-3 10 M 5 P H 10 8 33 28 28 17 28 33 21 155
S5-4 12 M 5 P H 11 4 37 17 17 17 22 37 17 127
S5-5 9 F 5 P H 16 3 37 25 34 21 21 33 20 154
S5-6 11 F 5 P H 19 3 32 30 41 17 25 34 26 173
S5-7 9 M 5 H H 24 47 45 39 47 42 39 259
S5-8 11 M 5 H H 30 12 44 44 42 27 41 41 38 233
S5-9 9 M 5 H H 18 8 42 44 46 39 42 40 38 249
S5- 9 F 5 H H 19 8 45 40 38 17 42 43 40 220
10
S5- 10 M 5 H H 26 7 47 46 48 37 41 42 36 250
11
S5- 9 M 5 N H 13 7 34 11 10 8 19 20 19 87
12
S5- 13 M 5 N H 18 5 34 27 37 17 20 25 20 146
13
S5- 11 M 5 N H 13 6 40 27 25 17 30 26 21 146
14
S5- 10 F 5 N H 15 4 37 18 25 17 18 27 19 124
15
S5- 11 F 5 N H 13 10 34 42 39 24 39 42 40 226
16
S6-1 10 M 5 P H 18 5 39 34 34 36 33 36 34 207
S6-2 10 F 5 P H 4 1 28 25 17 29 30 25 23 149
S6-3 9 M 5 P H 22 2 33 34 33 33 32 36 25 194
S6-4 11 M 5 P H 19 5 36 22 34 34 26 23 28 167
S6-5 10 M 5 P H 18 1 33 26 28 38 29 30 30 181
S6-6 10 F 5 P H 28 3 36 32 23 37 30 33 32 187
98 S6-7 10 M 5 P H 14 1 27 26 22 38 29 33 29 177
S7-1 10 F 5 P H 21 2 38
S7-2 10 F 5 P H 14 2
S7-3 11 M 5 P H 18 4 29
NPV- 10 F 5 G H 12 7 25 25 17 37 28 19 25 148
1
NPV- 9 F 5 G H 8 7 41 39 47 48 35 38 39 246
2
NPV- 10 F 5 G H 18 7 45 40 46 49 36 40 40 251
3
NPV- 10 F 5 G H 11 7 42 38 44 47 34 38 38 239
4
NPV- 10 M 5 CH H 15 7 35 32 42 46 34 40 36 230
5
NPV- 11 M 5 G H 24 5 28 22 17 37 25 24 23 148
6
NPV- 10 M 5 G H 13 8 28 36 31 43 32 30 28 200
7
NPV- 10 M 5 P H 23 7 38 32 38 32 32 35 34 203
8
2) Bio Data and Scores for Each Test: Class X
Key:
PM: Primary School Medium Language
HL: Language Used at Home
HSRT: Hindi Sentence Repetition Test
H. Cl.=Hindi Cloze Test
H. Wr.=Hindi Writing Task
99 Sub ID Age Sex Class PM HL HSRT H. Cl. H.Wr.
SS1-1 16 F 10 P P 34 15
SS1-2 17 F 10 P P 27 9
SS1-3 16 F 10 P P 39 14 43
SS1-4 15 M 10 P P 33 13 37
SS1-5 16 M 10 P P 40 10 43
SS1-6 16 M 10 P P 29 10 28
SS1-7 16 M 10 P P 30 9 44
SS1-8 16 F 10 P P 35 12 34
SS1-9 15 F 10 H P 19 12 41
SS1-10 15 M 10 H P 24 9 32
SS1-11 15 F 10 H P 32 9 33
SS1-12 15 M 10 H P 20 11 36
SS1-13 16 F 10 H P 28 5 33
SS1-14 16 F 10 H P 23 6 22
SS1-15 16 M 10 H P 31 11 36
SS2-1 15 M 10 P P 39 16 46
SS2-2 15 M 10 P P 34 15 49
SS2-3 18 M 10 P P 33 11 37
SS2-4 13 F 10 P P 28 13 46
SS2-5 16 F 10 P P 31 13 42
SS2-6 15 F 10 P P 21 12 39
SS2-7 16 F 10 P P 33 18 50
100 SS2-8 17 F 10 H P 22 17 49
SS2-9 17 F 10 H P 16 11 36
SS2-10 17 F 10 H P 14 18 47
SS2-11 16 F 10 H P 10 13 40
SS3-1 16 F 10 P P 32 9 49
SS3-2 16 F 10 P P 31 14 49
SS3-3 15 F 10 P P 36 16 42
SS3-4 15 M 10 P P 29 14 32
SS3-5 15 F 10 P P 30 15 35
SS3-6 15 M 10 P P 36 10 30
SS3-7 15 F 10 P P 34 15 36
SS3-8 17 M 10 P P 18 11 32
101 Appendix 5. Hindi Cloze Test Sheet
Hindi Cloze Test Sheet
भारत म कसान कई जानवर को पालता है। उन म से कुछ जानवर उस
______दधू देते ह और कुछ उस ______दसूरे काम म सहायता देते
ह । ______भ स, बकर आ द से वह दधू ______है। उस को बेचने से
कसान ______कमाता है। वह बैल से ेत ______हल चलाता है
और घोड़े को ______म जोतता है। घोड़े के अलावा ______, गधा और
ऊँट सामान ोने का ______करते ह । अनेक देश म सुअर ______
पाला जाता है। गाय, भ स जैसे ______का केवल दधू ह नह ब क
______का गोबर भी कसान के काम ______आता है। इन का गोबर
ेती ______िलए अ छ से अ छ ोद म ______एक है। आज
गोबर का उपयोग ______बनाने म भी हो रहा है। ______से गाँव-गाँव
म बजली पहुँचायी जा ______है। कुछ लोग जानवर का दसूर
______से उपयोग करते ह । कोई इन ______माँस ाता है तो कोई
चमड़े से जूते, पस आ द बनाता है।
102 Appendix 6. Hindi Cloze Test with Answers
Hindi Cloze Test with Answers
भारत म कसान कई जानवर को पालता है। उन म से कुछ जानवर उस
(को) दधू देते ह और कुछ उस (को) दसूरे काम म सहायता देते ह । (गाय)
भ स, बकर आ द से वह दधू (लेता) है। उस को बेचने से कसान (पैसे)
कमाता है। वह बैल से ेत (म ) हल चलाता है और घोड़े को (गाड़ ) म
जोतता है। घोड़े के अलावा (ख़ चर), गधा और ऊँट सामान ोने का (काम)
करते ह । अनेक देश म सुअर (भी) पाला जाता है। गाय, भ स जैसे
(जानवर ) का केवल दधू ह नह ब क (उन) का गोबर भी कसान के काम
(म ) आता है। इन का गोबर ेती (के) िलए अ छ से अ छ ोद म (से)
एक है। आज गोबर का उपयोग (गैस) बनाने म भी हो रहा है। (गोबर-गैस)
से गाँव-गाँव म बजली पहुँचायी जा (रह ) है। कुछ लोग जानवर का दसूर
(तरह) से उपयोग करते ह । कोई इन (का) माँस ाता है तो कोई चमड़े से
जूते, पस आ द बनाता है।
103 Appendix 7. Hindi Writing Task Sheet
HINDI WRITING TASK SHEET
नाम: िल ग: उ :
िच के अनसुार ह द म ल ब ी से ल बी अपनी कहानी बनाओ।
104 Appendix 8. Evaluation Criteria for Hindi Writing Task
Point Allocation:
Length of the Story: 30
Syntactic Ability: 10
Spelling of Words: 10
Total: 50
§ Syntactic Ability: gender-number-person agreement, dative subject, direct or oblique case, transitive or intransitive verb, wrong postposition
§ Spelling Correctness:
· The missing of bindi that makes the plosives become fricative is not counted as
errors, i.e. “दौ ”, “पे ”.
· However bindi or candra bindu above the Chat are considered as significant error
because it is understood either as a letter, i.e. nasal or nasalisation, which is
significant in Hindi syntax, i.e. है and ह .
· In many cases, full stop “।” is omitted, this is not counted as a mistake.
· “धीरे-2”: counted as two words
§ -Length of Story
There are different criteria for the amount of words applied according to the two different groups of students, i.e. Class X and Class V. Although two words are connected they are
105 counted as separate word. For instance, “उनने”, “केिलए” and “उसका”, etc. are counted as two words, whereas “उसे”, “मुझे” and “दे कर”, etc. are counted as one word.
· For Class V Students
50 words and onwards: 30 points
49 ~ 40 words: 25 points
39 ~ 30 words: 20 points
29 ~ 20 words: 15 points
19 ~ 10 words: 10 points
9words and below: 5
· For Class X Students
150 words and onwards: 30 points
149 ~ 130 words: 25 points
129 ~ 110 words: 20 points
109 ~ 90 words: 15 points
89 ~ 70 words: 10 points
69 words and below: 5 points
106 Appendix 9. Annual Exam Sheets
Hindi ( ह द )
Time Allowed-2 ½ Hours Maximum Marks-50
नोट: सुले का वशेष यान र ।
1. कसी एक प ाश का सरलाथ िल ो: -
(क) वन-उपवन पनप गए सब,
कतने नव अक ुर आए।
व ेपीले-पीले प लव,
फर से ह रयाली लाए।
( ) ऐसी वानी बोिलए, मन का आपा ोय।
औरन को सीतल करै, आपहु सीतल होए।
(5)
2. िन निल त न से क ह पाचँ के उ र दो:-
(क) वरदराज कौन था?
( ) हम कमरे क ड़ कया और रोशनदान ोल कर य सोना चा हए?
(ग) मै म यरू को नोबेल परु कार य दया गया?
(घ) अिभम य ुने य कहा – आज म यु करने जाऊँगा?
(ङ) ाय के ब च े कले से बाहर िनकल कर य ुश थे?
(च) कन किमय के कारण आ ँ राब हो जाती ह ?
107 (छ) मुरलीधर को उसक मा ँने या सी द ?
(5)
3. र त थ ान क पिुत करो:–
(क) राज थ ान म …………… प थर िमलता है।
( ) साहसी य तय के िलए कोई काम ………….नह ।
(ग) जब तक ाय वाले ………….ह , यूनािनय ने नगर पर …………. कर िलया।
(घ) भारत म लोग आिधकतर ………… ारा समाचार ा त करते ह ।
(5)
4. पाठ के आधार पर ठ क वा य पर (v) और गलत पर (x) का िच ह लगाओ:–
(क) दलवाड़े के म दर क सभी कला र याँ एक जसैी ह ।
( ) मन ूको घुड़सवार का शौक नह था।
(ग) बचपन से ह मै म य ूर क व ान म िच थी।
(घ) भा ड़ा बाधँ एिशया के सबसे ऊँचे बाधँ म से एक है।
(ङ) भारत के दो रा य पव द वाली और दशहरा ह ।
(5)
5. िन निल त म एक वषय पर स ुद र िनब ध िल ो:–
(क) मेरा व ालय (पाठशाला)
( ) द वाली
(ग) मेर य िम
(घ) हमाचल देश
108 (10)
6. अपने मु या यापक जी को फ स माफ के िलए ाथ ना प िल ो।
अथवा
अपने चाचा जी को उपहार के िलए ध यवाद प िल ो।
(5)
7. िन निल त मुहावर तथा क ठन श द म से क ह पाचँ के अथ िल कर वा य म
योग करो:–
काम तमाम करना, लोहे के चने चबाना, टूट पड़ना, ून ौलना, नतून, ममता,
अपमान।
(5)
8.
(क) क ह पाचँ के वचन बदलो:–
रानी, घोड़ा, बेटा, प ु तक , सेवक, दासी।
( ) क ह पाचँ के वलोम श द िल ो:–
उिचत, श त शाली, स न, घणा, यो य , उप थत, मान।
(ग) क ह पाचँ के िलग बदलो:–
वीराग ना, सेवक, अ यापक, बालक, चहूा, नौकर, मान
(घ) सवन ाम कसे कहते ह ? भेद िल ो।
109 ENGLISH
1. Translate into Hindi any ten of the following sentences: - (1) Himachal Pradesh is a land of fairs and festivals. (2) The diamond was as big as almond. (3) He was ill. (4) There are sixty minutes in one hour. (5) Tiger is our national animal. (6) Anju is singing (7) The Sun rises in the East. (8) Good morning, Madam. (9) You are an honest man. (10) What is your name? (11) He loves all of us. (12) The boys are playing cricket. 10 2. Fill in the blanks by using these words: - wind, nest, green, seven, rest (1)The colour of the grass is ………. . (2)Birds live in ………… (3)There are ………… colours in a rainbow. (4)The ……….. can never be seen. (5)Trees always appear to be taking ……… . 5 3. (a) Write the opposite words. (Any three) : - Happy, In, Up, Small 3 (b) Write the name of six colours. 3 (c) Correct the spellings of any four : - Madem, Chiar, friend, buk, tabel 2 (d) Change the number :- Chair, doll, man, day 2
4. Give three forms of following verbs (Any five) : - go, see, want, make, find, tell, ask, call 5
110 5. Answer the following questions in English. (Any five) : - (1) What is Rampur famous for? (2) Which is the holy book of Hindu? (3) How old are you? (4) In which class do you read? (5) What is your father? (6) What is the full name of JRD? (7) What do we call our national flag? 5 6. Write an Essay any one of the following :- The Cow, My Best Friend, The Table 5 7. Write an application to your Headmaster for one day sick leave. 5 8. Translate any five sentences into English : -
(1) मोहन एक बहादरु लड़का है।
(2) वह मेर बहन है।
(3) मेरा कूल का थलैा कहा है?
(4) सूय पुव दशा से िनकलता है।
(5) राम मेरा प का िम है।
(6) म िशमला गया।
(7) एक घ टे म 60 िमनट ह ।
(8) आपका या हाल है? 5
111 MATHEMATICS (ग णत)
‘भाग क’
( ) (क) स य ा नाम िल ए:–
54537619
1½
(ग) िन न स या क को अ त रा य थ ानीय मान सारणी क सहायता से
दोबारा िल ए और येक के अन ुप स य ा नाम िल ए:–
743589162
1½
2. (क) 2/3×3/4×5/6 का गुणनफल ात करो।
1½
( ) 15.15÷0.75 का भागफल ात करो।
1½
3. 1/2 + 3/10 ÷ 3/5 - 1/3 × 5/2 को सरल करो।
5
4. एक ए स से गाड़ 914.5 क०मी० दरू 10 घ ट म तय करती है। य द येक
घ टे म बराबर दरू तय करती है वह घ टे म कतनी दरू तय करती है?
4
5. एक वगाक ार टाइल क भुजा 10 स०ैमी० है। एक द वार क एक ओर जो 2.5
मी० ल बी और 2 मी० ऊ जी है, कतनी टाइल लगाई जा सकती ह ?
112 5
6. एक स त ाह म एक क बे का तापमान (स०ै े०म ) 43, 40, 39, 40, 36, 43
और 39 था। उस स त ाह म क ब ेका दैिनक औसत तापमान या था?
5
7. एक ेन जो क 70 क०मी० ित घ टा क गित से चलती है, एक टेशन से
दसूरे ट ेशन पहँुचने म 2 घ टे 30 िमनट लेगी है। दोन टेशन के बीच क दरू
ान क जए।
5
8. एक घड़ साज ने एक परुानी घड़ 85.00 ० म र द । उसने उसक मरु म त म
8.00 ० यय कये और तब उसको 100.00 ० म बेच दया। उसका लाभ या
हािन ात क जए।
5
9. अिमता ने एक व ान क पर ा प म , जसम 20 न थे और सभी न के
िलये बराबर अक िनधा रत थे 80% अक ा त कये। उसने कतने न के
उ त र सह दये?
या
सुरेश ने शमीम से 650 ० 8% ितवष क दर पर उधार िलये। उसने 6 मास
बाद रकम लौटाई। उसने कुल कतनी रकम शमीम को द ?
5
113 ‘भाग ’
नोट:– कोई दो न क जए।
1. िन न या के त ी िचए:–
(क) 1.3 सै०मी०
( ) 4.5 स०ैमी०
(ग) 5.6 स०ैमी०
(घ) 6 स०ैमी०
5
2. एक 6 स०ैमी० ल बा रे ा क ी चो। क तथा को के मान कर
मश: 2 स०ैमी० तथा 4 स०ैमी० या के वत ीच ो। या ये वत एक दसूरे को
पश करते ह ?
5
3. चा दे क सहायता से िन न माप के कोण क रचना क जए।
(क) 30०
( ) 90०
(ग) 150०
(घ) 75०
5
114 SCIENCE ( व ान)
1. िन निल त म से कोई छ: न करो। येक न के अक समान ह ।
(क) कन कन गुण क वजह से पेड़ पौधे ज त ुओ से िभ न होते ह ?
( ) ऐसे पाचँ धन के नाम बताओ जनके जलने से ऊजा िनकलती ह ?
(ग) अ थ पज र के काय िल ो?
(घ) प रवार म य द कसी को स ामक रोग हो जाये तो कौन कौन सी
सावधािनया ँबरतोगे?
(ङ) जब कसी व त ुको ऊपर क ओर फ कते ह तो वह नीजे य आती है?
(च) हम सरल मशीन का योग य करते ह ?
(छ) दघु टनाओ से बचने के िलए हम य ा करना चा हए?
(ज) ह रत ाि त का वणन करो। इसे ह रत ाि त य कहा जाता है?
(18)
2. ाली थ ान को भरो:–
(क) श रर को ………… और ………… के िलए भोजन क ज रत होती है।
( ) अपरदन से िम ट क ………… मता कम हो जाती है।
(ग) वायु का अपना कोई आकार ………… होता है।
(घ) भोजन म …………… क कमी से रतध ी रोग हो जाता है।
(ङ) िम ट हमार …………… स पदा है।
(5)
3. नीचे कुछ कथन दये ह । सह के आगे ( v ) तथा गलत के आगे ( x ) का
िच ह लगाओ:–
115 (क) तेज़ हवाओ से िम ट का अपरदन नह होता।
( ) साँस लेने के िलए द ूषत वाय ुठ क होती है।
(ग) धकेलने या ी चने पर कोई व त ुगितशील हो सकती है।
(घ) िघरनी एक सरल मशीन नह है।
(ङ) अपारदश व तुए जब काश के माग म आ जाती ह । तब उनक छाया
बन जाती ह ।
(च) ब च को ज म देने के िलए िततिलयाँ अ े देती ह ।
(छ) पपीते म वटािमन सी चरु मा ा म होता है।
(ज) आलुओ म काब हाई ेट होता है।
(झ) सभी तरह के जीवाण ुबीमार फैलाते ह ।
(ञ) सभी बीमा रया ँभतू ेत के कारण होती ह ।
(10)
4. िन निल त न के चार स भा वत उ त र दये गये ह । उपयु त उ तर के
सामने ( v ) का िच ह लगाओ:–
(क) ितल च ट पर जब अचानक काश ाला जाता है तब:–
(1) व े काश क ओर आते ह ।
(2) व े काश से दरू चले जाते ह ।
(3) व ेस चािलत ह नह होते।
(4) व ेइधर उधर भागने लगने ह ।
( ) िन न जीव ज तओु म से कौन सा ज त ु अ े देता है:–
(1) घोड़ ।
116 (2) साँ पन।
(3) शेरनी।
(4) चु हया।
(ग) बाघ के िछपने के िलए उ त म थ ान कौन सा है:–
(1) ल बे व ।
(2) गहरे बल।
(3) ल बी घास।
(4) बालू िम ट ।
(घ) िन निल त म से कौन सा ह य का जोड़ जो गित नह करता:–
(1) कलाई क ह याँ।
(2) चेहरे क ह या।ँ
(3) ोपड़ के ऊपर क ह या।ँ
(4) क धे क ह याँ।
(ङ) टाईफाई फैलता है:–
(1) म छर के कारण।
(2) म य के कारण।
(3) कु ते के काटने के कारण।
(4) दगु ध त हवा के कारण।
(5)
5. वायु म कौन कौन सी गसै ह ? उनके उपयोग िल ो?
अथवा
117 हम सरल मशीन का योग य करते ह ।
(6)
6. य द जग ल को न ट कर दया जाये तो बताओ या हो जायेगा?
अथवा
ोपड़ इतनी कठोर तथा मज़बतू य होती है?
118 SOCIAL SCIENCE (सामा जक व ान) (Hindi Version)
1. वषवुतीय देश क जलवाय ुक वशेषताए बताइए।
अथवा
हम प व ी चपट य द ाई देती है?
(5)
2. स चार के कौन-कौन से साधन जन (स चार) साधन कहलाते ह ?
(5)
3. स यु त रा स घ क थ ापना कन उ े य को लेकर क गई?
(5)
4. हम या होते ह ?
(5)
5. तार क अप ेा टेलीफोन म कौन सी वशेषताए ?
अथवा
अ ाहम िल कन क ह या का कारण या था?
(5)
6. आज व व के सामने या- य ा सम याए ह ?
(5)
7. िन निल त म से क ह पाच शन के उ तर दो:–
(क) ुव को िमलाने वाले अ व त ाकार को या कहते ह ?
( ) ा ट र थमाम ीटर कस काम आता है?
119 (ग) िच िल प कसे कहते ह ?
(घ) िन निल त या ह :–
(1) हारपनू
(2) लेज
(ङ) र च कसे कहते ह ?
(च) िनज तेल को ‘तरल सोना’ य कहा गया है?
(15)
8. पाँच ाली थ ान भरो:–
(क) ुव ………… है।
( ) सम जलवायु वाला थ ान जाड़ म ………… होगा।
(ग) हमारे देश म सबसे पहली रेलगाड़ ………… से ………… तक चलती
थी
(घ) 15 अग त 1947 ई. को हमारा देश ………… हुआ था।
(ङ) ‘करो या मरो’ का नारा ………… ने दया था।
(च) उ त र गोला म कुल ………… अश अ ा श है।
(5)
120 MORAL EDUCATION & HISTORY OF FREEDOM STRUGGLE
(नैितक िश ा एव भारतीय व त ता स ाम का इितहास)
(Hindi Version)
आव यक िनद श:–
(क) इस शन प के दो ह । येक के िलए 25 अक िनधा रत ह ।
( ) येक न के अक उसके सामने दशाए गए ह ।
(ग) न के उ त र सा त तथा सारगिभत ह , अनाव यक बढ़ाव न द ।
(घ) ले सु दर तथा सुपा य हो।
– क
1. हमार दनचया म शर र के अग के ित कौन-कौन सी व छता ज र है?
(3)
2. अपने व ालय के ित अपने क त य का उ ले स त म कर ।
(3)
3. राजा सू क कहानी से हम या िश ा िमलती है?
(3)
4. य ा हम पश-ुप य से मे और दयालतूा होनी चा हए। यद हा ँतो कैसे?
(3)
5. सामुदाियक काय करने के िलए कन- कन बात का होना आव यक है?
(3)
6. भारतीय स कित के अनुसार धम के य ा ल य ह ?
121 (3)
7. गु नानक देव क यापार म िच य नह थी? उनके पता का या नाम था?
(3)
8. हम वातावरण को व छ कैसे र सकते ह ?
(4)
–
9. चौर -चौरा क घटना या थी?
(4)
10. वत भारत के थम धानम ी कौन थे?
(3)
11. पहाड़ गाध ी का परूा नाम बताओ। आज़ाद िमलने तक इनक या ित ा थी?
(4)
12. सुभाष च बोस ने आज़ाद ह द फौज का गठन कस कार कया?
(4)
13. भारत छोड़ो आ द ोलन के समय महा म ा गाध ी का य ा नारा था?
(4)
14. स त नोट िल :–
(क) हमारा रा य झ ा
( ) असहयोग आ दोलन
(3+3=6)
122 Appendix 10. Thomas & Collier’s Graph
Following are descriptions (adapted by Malone & Malone 2006) of the bilingual programs that were examined in this study, beginning with the strongest in terms of providing long-lasting educational benefits.
Program 1. Two-way developmental bilingual education. Minority language-speaking and English-speaking children share the same classrooms, from kindergarten to grade 12.
Both languages are used for instruction according to a specific plan (e.g., one language used one day, the other language used the following day). The most common alternation
123 between the two languages of instruction is a half-day in each language. The objective is that both groups of children—minority and majority language speakers—will become fully proficient in both languages.
Program 2. One-way developmental programs. Like Program 1, this is an enrichment program that aims at full bilingual competence. The primary difference between these programs and the two-way programs is the absence of mother tongue-speakers of the majority language in these classrooms. Minority language children receive at least 8 years of education in their mother tongue (MT) from bilingual teachers who are also MT speakers of the minority language and who use the MT as medium of instruction. The
MT is also used to introduce the children to reading and writing. In some programs,
English is introduced orally with later introduction to reading and writing in that language. In other programs, L1 and L2 literacy are learned at the same time and both languages are used for instruction according to a specific plan (as described in Program
1). The objective is that the minority language children will be fully proficient in both languages by the end of Grade 8. In this model, students may have access to some courses in high school taught through their MT as well as the many courses taught in
English.
Program 3 – Transitional bilingual education programs that introduce English by teaching content. The first two or three years of education provide children with instruction in the MT by teachers who speak the MT as their first language. The minority language is used as medium of instruction and reading and writing are introduced in that language. English (majority language) is introduced orally with some instruction in basic
English literacy (typically in a 50:50 time ratio), beginning in the first year of school.
124 Both languages are used for instruction according to a specific plan. The idea is that children learn English through learning in English—that is, the children learn the new language at the same time that they are learning new content. The expectation is that the children will have learned enough academic content that they will not be behind native speakers of English when they enter full English language classes.
Program 4 – Transitional bilingual education with language-based ESL (another type of early- exit program). Language minority children receive 2-3 years of education in their MT from MT teachers who use the MT as medium of instruction and who introduce initial literacy. As above, English may be introduced orally with basic
English literacy later but it is taught as a subject, not used for learning content of other subjects. The objectives are basic literacy in both languages and sufficient proficiency in
English to enter the mainstream by the end of the 3rd grade.
Program 5. Content-based ESL. In these programs, as in Program 3 above, minority language children learn English via content instruction by teachers who have been specially trained for this type of ESL teaching. This learning often takes place in self- contained ESL content classrooms, taught by ESL teachers. As the children move along in ESL development, they may spend a part of the day in mainstream classes until they are fully mainstreamed after 2-4 years. The objective is that the children will have acquired enough English so they can function in the mainstream classes without lagging too far behind in the content areas.
125 Program 6 – Language-based (traditional) ESL. Language minority children receive basic or traditional ESL instruction usually in pull-out classes. The objective is that they will acquire sufficient mastery of English to function in English mainstream classes.
126 Appendix 11. The Prism Model
127 Appendix 12. Map of Lahul and Spiti District
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