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Overview of Graphics Systems

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Overview of Graphics Systems hearn-50265;ISBN: 0-13-015390-7 book August 8,2003 14:44 CHAPTER 2 Overviewof GraphicsSystems Awide,curved-screen,computer-graphicspresentation system and its control desk. (Courtesy of Silicon Graphics,Inc.and Trimension Systems. c 2003 SGI.All rights reserved.) [ 34 hearn-50265;ISBN: 0-13-015390-7 book July29,2003 14:54 2-1 Video DisplayDevices 2-6 GraphicsNetworks 2-2 Raster-ScanSystems 2-7 Graphicson the Internet 2-3 GraphicsWorkstationsand Viewing 2-8 GraphicsSoftware Systems 2-9 Introduction toOpenGL 2-4 Input Devices 2-10 Summary 2-5 Hard-CopyDevices he powerand utility of computergraphicsiswidelyrecognized,and abroadrange of graphicshardwareand softwaresystemsarenow available forapplicationsin virtuallyall fields.Graphicscapabilities T forbothtwo-dimensionaland three-dimensionalapplicationsare nowcommon,even on general-purposecomputers and handheld calculators.Withpersonalcomputers,wecanuseavariety of interactiveinput devicesand graphicssoftwarepackages.Forhigher-quality applications,wecan choosefrom anumberof sophisticated special-purposegraphicshardwaresys- temsand technologies.Inthischapter,weexplorethe basicfeaturesof graphics hardwarecomponents and graphicssoftwarepackages. 2-1 VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES Typically,the primary output deviceinagraphicssystem isavideo monitor (Fig. 2-1). The operation of most video monitors isbased on the standard cathode-raytube ( CRT )design,but severalothertechnologiesexist and solid- statemonitors mayeventuallypredominate. FIGURE 2-1 Acomputer-graphicsworkstation. ( Courtesy of Silicon Graphics,Inc.,WhyNotFilms,and 525Post Production. c 2003 SGI.All rights reserved.) [ 35 hearn-50265;ISBN: 0-13-015390-7 book July29,2003 14:54 36 CHAPTER 2 Overviewof GraphicsSystems RefreshCathode-RayTubes Figure2-2illustratesthe basicoperation of aCRT.Abeamofelectrons( cathode rays),emitted byanelectron gun,passesthrough focusing and deflection systems thatdirectthe beamtowardspecified positionson the phosphor-coated screen. The phosphorthen emits asmall spotof lightateachposition contacted bythe electron beam. Becausethe lightemitted bythe phosphorfadesvery rapidly, some method isneeded formaintaining the screen picture. One waytodothis istostorethe pictureinformation asacharge distribution within the CRT.This charge distribution canthen beused tokeep the phosphors activated. However, the most common method nowemployed formaintaining phosphorglowisto redrawthe picturerepeatedlybyquicklydirecting the electron beambackoverthe same screen points.Thistype of displayiscalled a refreshCRT, and the frequency atwhichapictureisredrawnonthe screen isreferred toasthe refreshrate. The primary components of anelectron guninaCRT arethe heated metal cathode and acontrol grid (Fig. 2-3). Heatissupplied tothe cathode bydirecting acurrentthrough acoil of wire,called the filament,inside the cylindricalcathode structure. Thiscauseselectronstobe“boiled off” the hotcathode surface. In the vacuuminside the CRTenvelope,the free,negativelycharged electronsare then accelerated towardthe phosphorcoating byahigh positivevoltage. The accelerating voltage canbegenerated withapositivelycharged metalcoating on the inside of the CRTenvelope nearthe phosphorscreen,oranaccelerating anode,asin Fig. 2-3,canbeused toprovide the positivevoltage. Sometimesthe electron gunisdesigned sothatthe accelerating anode and focusing system are within the same unit. Magnetic Deflection Coils Phosphor- Focusing Coated System Screen Base Electron Connector Electron Beam Pins Gun FIGURE 2-2 Basicdesign of amagnetic-deflection CRT. Electron Focusing Beam Cathode Anode Path Heating Filament Control Accelerating FIGURE 2-3 Operation of Grid Anode anelectron gunwithan accelerating anode. hearn-50265;ISBN: 0-13-015390-7 book July29,2003 14:54 2-1 Video DisplayDevices 37 Intensity of the electron beamiscontrolled bythe voltage atthe control grid, whichisametalcylinderthatfits overthe cathode. Ahigh negativevoltage ap- plied tothe control grid will shut offthe beambyrepelling electronsand stopping them from passing through the small hole atthe end of the control-grid structure. Asmallernegativevoltage on the control grid simplydecreasesthe numberof electronspassing through. Sincethe amountof lightemitted bythe phosphor coating dependson the numberof electronsstriking the screen,the brightness of adisplaypointiscontrolled byvarying the voltage on the control grid. This brightness,orintensity level,isspecified forindividualscreen positionswith graphicssoftwarecommands,asdiscussed in Chapter3. The focusing system in aCRT forcesthe electron beamtoconverge toasmall cross section asitstrikesthe phosphor.Otherwise,the electronswould repel each other,and the beamwould spreadout asitapproachesthe screen. Focusing is accomplished witheitherelectricormagneticfields.Withelectrostaticfocusing, the electron beamispassed through apositivelycharged metalcylindersothat electronsalong the centerline of the cylinderareinanequilibriumposition. This arrangementformsanelectrostaticlens,asshowninFig. 2-3,and the electron beamisfocused atthe centerof the screen in the same waythatanopticallens focusesabeamoflightataparticularfocaldistance. Similarlensfocusing effects canbeaccomplished withamagneticfield setupbyacoil mounted around the outside of the CRTenvelope,and magneticlensfocusing usuallyproducesthe smallest spotsizeonthe screen. Additionalfocusing hardwareisused in high-precision systemstokeep the beaminfocus atall screen positions.The distancethatthe electron beammust travel todifferentpoints on the screen variesbecausethe radius of curvaturefor most CRTsisgreaterthanthe distancefrom the focusing system tothe screen center.Therefore,the electron beamwill befocused properlyonlyatthe center of the screen. Asthe beammovestothe outeredgesof the screen,displayed imagesbecome blurred. Tocompensateforthis,the system canadjust the focusing according tothe screen position of the beam. Aswithfocusing,deflection of the electron beamcanbecontrolled witheither electricormagneticfields.Cathode-raytubesarenowcommonlyconstructed withmagnetic-deflection coilsmounted on the outside of the CRTenvelope,as illustrated in Fig. 2-2.Twopairs of coilsareused forthispurpose. One pairis mounted on the top and bottom of the CRTneck,and the otherpairismounted on oppositesidesof the neck. The magneticfield produced byeachpairof coils results in atransversedeflection forcethatisperpendiculartoboththe direction of the magneticfield and the direction of travel of the electron beam. Horizontal deflection isaccomplished withone pairof coils,and verticaldeflection withthe otherpair.The properdeflection amounts areattained byadjusting the current through the coils.When electrostaticdeflection isused,twopairs of parallel plates aremounted inside the CRTenvelope. One pairof platesismounted horizontally tocontrol verticaldeflection,and the otherpairismounted verticallytocontrol horizontaldeflection (Fig. 2-4). Spots of lightareproduced on the screen bythe transferof the CRTbeamen- ergytothe phosphor.When the electronsin the beamcollide withthe phosphor coating,theyarestopped and theirkineticenergyisabsorbed bythe phosphor. Part of the beamenergyisconverted byfriction intoheatenergy,and the remain- dercauseselectronsin the phosphoratomstomoveuptohigherquantum-energy levels.Afterashort time,the “excited” phosphorelectronsbegin dropping back totheirstable ground state,giving uptheirextraenergyassmall quantumsof lightenergycalled photons.Whatwesee on the screen isthe combined effectof all hearn-50265;ISBN: 0-13-015390-7 book July29,2003 14:54 38CHAPTER 2 Overviewof GraphicsSystems Vertical Phosphor- Focusing Deflection Coated System Plates Screen Base Electron Connector Electron Horizontal Beam FIGURE 2-4 Electrostatic Pins Gun Deflection deflection of the electron Plates beaminaCRT. the electron lightemissions:aglowing spotthatquicklyfadesafterall the excited phosphorelectronshavereturned totheirground energylevel. The frequency(or color)ofthe lightemitted bythe phosphorisproportionaltothe energydifference between the excited quantumstateand the ground state. Differentkindsof phosphors areavailable foruseinCRTs.Besidescolor, amajordifferencebetween phosphors istheir persistence: howlong theycon- tinuetoemitlight(thatis,howlong beforeall excited electronshavereturned tothe ground state) afterthe CRTbeamisremoved. Persistenceisdefined as the time thatittakesthe emitted lightfrom the screen todecaytoone-tenthof its originalintensity.Lower-persistencephosphors requirehigherrefreshratesto maintain apictureonthe screen without flicker.Aphosphorwithlowpersistence canbeusefulforanimation,while high-persistencephosphors arebettersuited fordisplaying highlycomplex,staticpictures.Although some phosphors have persistencevaluesgreaterthan1second,general-purposegraphicsmonitors are usuallyconstructed withpersistenceinthe range from 10to60 microseconds. FIGURE 2-5 Intensity Figure2-5 shows the intensity distribution of aspoton the screen. The in- distribution of anilluminated tensity isgreatest atthe centerof the spot,and itdecreaseswithaGaussian phosphorspoton aCRT distribution out tothe edgesof the spot.Thisdistribution correspondstothe screen. cross-sectionalelectron density distribution of the CRTbeam. The maximumnumberof points thatcanbedisplayed without overlapona CRTisreferred toasthe resolution. Amoreprecisedefinition of resolution isthe numberof points percentimeterthatcanbeplotted horizontallyand vertically, although itisoften simplystated asthe totalnumberof points in eachdirection. Spotintensity hasaGaussiandistribution (Fig. 2-5),sotwoadjacentspots
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