Vietnam’s Struggle for Independence

(A short sentence outline/timeline of events. Although not described here, there was continuous fighting just about every day in some form or another from the 1900s to 1975, then the Khmer Rouge episode in the late 70s )

1850s: French invade (1858) Vietnam near Da Nang; consolidate Indo- in 10 years. Established puppet Emperors….colonization. Early 1900s: Rise in nationalism; hatred of French. 1919: WWI Armistice discussions. Young nationalist, Ho Chi Minh, petitions President Wilson for release from colonial rule..just wanted his country back. No response. 1920s/30s: Ho Chi Minh studies Lenin in Russia; becomes Communist. He travels to NYC, works menial jobs in exile. 1940-41: Japan takes control of Indo-China from French 1941: Ho Chi Minh returns to Vietnam, setting up “headquarters” in the mountains near Chinese border. He hates the Japanese (starved Vietnamese) and the French collaborators. While in hiding, Ho forms the Vietnam Independence League (Viet Minh). Everybody wants to join! Including Giap, who became a general and worked with Ho to formulate a plan of guerrilla warfare. 1941-1945: Ho Chi Minh invades French storehouses and redistributes the rice to Vietnamese. Early 1945: America looking for ally to overthrow Japan. O.S.S. air-drops into Ho’s encampment to meet the Viet Minh. American Medic helps Ho Chi Minh, who is deathly ill, to regain health. Although a Communist, Ho viewed Americans as liberators/saviors. 1945: Japan is defeated by the Americans. Ho Chi Minh calls on all people to rise up and take back the country before the French can re-establish power. And they did. September 1945: Ho Chi Minh makes speech in Hanoi, quoted Thomas Jefferson…”…all created equal… Rights… Life, Liberty, etc…” Ho had great hope that U.S. would support their independence. Roosevelt believed and respected the right of all peoples to have the type government they choose. Sadly, the promises Roosevelt made for the post war world died with him. Enter Truman: The alliance with Russia collapses with Soviet expansion, followed by the . Enter De Gaul: If U.S. does not support French colonies, he would take France into the Russian orbit. (WHAT!!?) The U.S. is officially neutral, however O.S.S. had 7-man secret operation to try and have the Viet Minh and the French work out a solution. Not to be; continued low- level warfare. Following WWII, Allied leaders agreed to divide Vietnam into 2 separate zones. The Nationalist Chinese troops in the North, and British in the South. Continued unrest in South. O.S.S. still trying to work with French and Viet Minh with the objective of Vietnam independence. British upset, feel O.S.S. is a subversive force….The British wanted the French to retake control. Fighting continues…. O.S.S. departs Vietnam. While leaving, the mission leader (Dewey) is shot and killed by Viet Minh by accident/mistake. Ho laments the death and wrote letter to U.S. Fall of 1945: More French troops arrive to take over for British. French (heavier firepower then Viet Minh) establish control in South. Chinese remain in North. Ho Chi Minh believed in the American ideal in that America liberated Europe and Pacific, and never occupied anything in Asia and never exploited the Asians. He went on in a letter to Truman, do not be blinded by the issue of Communism, support our independence. The letter is in the current C.I.A. files. Truman never saw the letter. 1946: Ho Chi Minh goes to France to see if they would live up to the promise of more autonomy for their country. Fruitless attempt. In Ho’s absence General Giap cleans house with ruthless force in the South and wiped out other small nationalist parties/factions, as well as Vietnamese/French collaborators. He wanted a Communist system. December 1946: Ho calls for huge uprising to “fight with what you have”….big time nationalism movement. Became a civil war at the family level, in that, some supported Viet Minh, some the French. French had been there a long time….business arrangements, marriages, etc. 1948: Another French build up. This time with “pacification objective”…built roads, canals, vaccinated citizens, etc. Viet Minh conducting guerilla warfare. People of South lived under two aggressors: The French during the day and the Viet Minh at night. Things deteriorated for the French. Low morale, homeland didn’t care, etc. They were losing…. 1949: Cold War heats up between Russia and U.S. Russia has nuclear bomb, Chinese communists take over China. Dominos falling. Burma and Malaya, and others…? 1950: Mao recognizes Ho’s insurgency and provides military support. Soviets as well. Korean war starts; is Chinese ally. Truman encounters great political pressure for not containing communism. He approves $23 Mil aide program for French in Vietnam. U.S. is no longer neutral in Vietnam. Truman commits thousands of troops to South Korea. At the same time China is building a fighting force in North Vietnam to conquer French occupiers…. Truman supplies 35 advisors to Vietnam….nobody spoke Vietnamese. More U.S. supplies continued to flow. U.S. officially in Vietnam. Fall 1951: Senator Kennedy visits Vietnam with delegation. The French, assured Kennedy and delegation that with more support they would prevail. Kennedy learned otherwise from reporters that the French were losing, and many of the Vietnamese despised the U.S. for helping the French. 1952: Eisenhower elected president, pledges tougher stance on communism. U.S. funding already at 30% of war effort. In 2 years it grew to 80%. V.P. Nixon briefs U.S. people on the strategy; essentially containing the ‘domino effect’. 1953: French are failing after 7 years of war…..In France it was viewed as a dirty war and the returning veterans were treated poorly. July 1953: Korean War ends; proof that communism could be contained. Fall 1953: Ho Chi Minh and French agree to meet. Both sides seek to improve their positions before negotiations. French build fortification at Dien Bien Phu to lure Viet Minh into decisive battle. 11,000 French soldiers and heavy artillery and armaments. General Giap sees the opportunity: 250,000 porters move 200 big guns and supplies into placements surrounding the valley. 50,000 Viet Minh soldiers in place. A huge logistical victory. March 1954: Viet Minh attack. French getting beat: need airlift to help French during siege. French seek Ike/American help. Ike refuses without Congressional support. Congress says “no”. Europe says “no”, Britain says “no”. Ike sends aide in secret to no avail. May 1954: After 55 day siege, French surrender. French lose 8,000 men, Viet Minh lose 24,000 men but achieve victory! General Giap defeats the French!! It should have been the end of Colonial Rule….. The U.S. viewed it as another potential domino. 1954 Geneva Talks: 9 nations to decide the future of Vietnam. Despite Ho’s victory at Dien Bien Phu he still needed support to continue to build a country. The Chinese lost thousands in Korea, said “no”. Soviets wanted to appease the West, said “no”. Both urged Ho to negotiate a settlement. The Geneva Accords: The 9 nations settled after 2 and one half months of negotiations by dividing the country at the 17 parallel….just like Korea. Ho had no options. No one is satisfied. French had to withdraw to the South. The Viet Minh moved to the North. Country divided by DMZ. Furthermore, there was a clause in the settlement promising an election to re-unify the country. That election which all knew that Ho would win, never happened. Now it gets really messy…. Families/civilians had 300 days to relocate to the North, or to the South. Approximately 900,000, mostly Catholics and Buddhists left the communist north on American ships. Most nationalist, including Viet Minh in South Vietnam, moved north resulting in split families and much discontent. 1955: Ngo Dinh Diem, a skilled politician who hated the communists and the French was supported by U.S. proclaimed President and created new government. He starts to clean house of several political parties, paramilitary units, syndicates, and armed gangs in South Vietnam. Dinh is ruthless against Buddhists, uprising in streets, much killing…. Dinh is deemed a Messiah without a message. U.S. (Ike) cuts support of Dinh. U.S. wants legitimate government and calls for referendum on Dinh government. Amazingly he gets 98% of the vote. The French depart Vietnam. Now Dinh is a hero….drove French out. In fall of 1955 Dinh goes to Washington to seek aide. Kennedy says we’re locked in, Ike had no choice but to support him. Late Fall ‘55/Early ’56: Ike sends American civilians and advisors to build ARVN. Utilized/taught conventional, instead of guerrilla warfare…..it seems that’s all we knew. Dinh aggressive/ruthless behavior against the remaining Viet MInh and political enemies got attention in North Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh still focused on reunification of country but not aggressive enough for some. 1959: North Vietnam policy change….hardliners gain control with a much more aggressive intent. Build up Viet Minh in south (via Ho Chi Minh trail) and eliminate Dinh by force. Fighting starts. First American Advisor is killed by Viet MInh. 1960: Kennedy elected. Very noble speech about American role in world to support the freedom of choice, etc. In South Vietnam the National Liberation Front is formed (orchestrated from the North)…… later known as the Viet Cong. 1961: Another Presidential speech by Kenney elaborating again on our noble efforts for democracy, supporting freedom, confronting communism, and curtailing aggressive dictators the world over. Kennedy and close advisors agree that communist dictators must be stopped. In South the V.C. trying to overthrow Dinh oppressive regime. In North Ho shared power with the more aggressive La Zuan. To them the French left, and the Americans came in….. Now even more intent on reunification. 1960-1963: U.S. trying to understand the country they supported. We did not know the enemy. Our conventional strategy wasn’t working…..meanwhile: Cuba/Bay of Pigs, Khrushchev bullied Kennedy, crucial time; Berlin Wall goes up. Kennedy announces “Limited wars” strategy; counterinsurgency. Starts defoliant campaign and napalm introduced; a deep involvement became a secret war. A major effort to bolster ARVN. U.S. covered up the scale of the buildup. In 1962 we had 11,300 Americans involved. American pilots supporting the Vietnamese. We thought we were achieving goals against V.C. We supported “Strategic Hamlet” program (centralized fortifications). Forced people to move…..alienated the people, and the ranks of the V.C. grew. During this time: Civil Rights movement in U.S. gains momentum, there is nuclear proliferation, Kennedy swaps Turkish missile buildup for Cuban missiles withdrawal, and Quan Duc, a monk burns himself to death in Saigon….International news. Press releases reveal major problems in South Vietnam; weak ARVN, weak government, Dinh oppressed Buddhist population, and no commitment to win is apparent. There’s no open society, and Dinh is not connected to the people. Kennedy sends Henry Cabot Lodge to persuade Dinh to change tactics. Dinh not impressed. ARVN (supported by U.S.) are defeated in Battle of Ap Bak. Big confidence builder for V.C. November 1963: U.S. (Kennedy close advisors divided), but allows ARVN Generals to carry out coup in Saigon. Dinh and Nhu (brother) ousted, not exiled as agreed, but killed/murdered. Kennedy appalled by killings. 18 days later Kennedy assassinated. U.S. had 16,000 in South Vietnam. President Johnson continues to prosecute the war. General Thieu becomes leader in South. Continued pressure from North Vietnam (La Zuan). Over next couple of years the build-up of troops reached 184,000. War rages. U.S. allies included Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and Thailand. Westmoreland is in command. Britain, France, and Canada say no. 1965: At year-end ’65 the bombing was suspended. 1966: The Fullbright hearings begin….a public debate on the war. Johnson invites Thieu and Ky (Air Marshall) to U.S. to discuss Economic and Social reforms. Fullbright wanted negotiated settlement without loss of integrity. George Keenan wanted a strategy of containment. Westmoreland wanted to continue strategy of attrition with firepower, technology and mobility. Bombing resumed. North Vietnamese regulars joined the V.C.. Became a war of attrition, i.e. we are killing more than they can re-supply….(There’s is a critical tipping point, that’s when you start to win the battle/war). The tactic of “search and destroy” was instituted by U.S. in the south. Village by village, close- up, intense fighting…..then burn the village. Eventually rendered 20% of the total population homeless….not well received, more joined the ranks of the V.C. Supplies continue down the Ho Chi Minh trail through Laos. U.S. defoliates, and drops 3 million tons of bombs on the Laos portion of trail. By the end of the war Laos became the most heavily bombed (on a per capita bases) country in the world, ever. In the U.S. the draft is expanded to include college age students at a rate of 10,000 per month, grew to 30,000 per month. Triggered more protests….and counter protests. Carmichael , Buckley and others became prominent figures. The Rand Corporation put out a report that countered the U.S. will to win. In Saigon there was chaos….with changes in the government. “Rolling Thunder” initiated…..bombing with the objective to get the North Vietnamese to the negotiation table. Bombs hit targets, but collateral damage and killing civilians was revealed. 1967: Dr. , much loved pediatrician/author, voices opinion that war was unwinnable, and that U.S. was sacrificing lives to save face. Dr. King, “Silence is betrayal”; becomes more vocal regarding discrimination in military and causality ratios. Huge demonstration in New York. “Stop the bombing, save our honor”, resurgence in anti-war movement. Westmoreland addresses people in U.S. “we will defeat communism and we will win. Country split: anti-war takes the look of a new form of patriotism. Westmoreland requests additional 200,000 troops…….Johnson states the enemy will just grow too. McNamara even less confident; Pacification not working, urges bombing to stop, and limit troop growth. LBJ agrees to limit escalation to 500,000. It’s clear the leadership is out of touch with what’s happening on the ground. People felt the government was corrupt, pacification dollars not reaching intended use…..into official’s pockets. In late 1966 LBJ still outwardly optimistic….believes the V.C. grip is being broken. Believes the body count crossover point has been reached. LBJ domestic programs and still pursuing caused a tax increase….War on Poverty, racial unrest in the cities, and, to date the U.S. had incurred 75,000 casualties with 14,624 KIA. 1966-67: Fighting continued in all 4 sectors (Corps) of the country (South Vietnam). Poor tactics (more conventional), always getting ambushed, and being out flanked. U.S. morale faltered badly and G.I.s had little respect for the Vietnamese. Viet Cong and NVA always had the advantage…..M-16 plagued with failures, and is no match for the AK-47. . 1968: Watershed Year. La Zuan planned major offensive against Khe Sanh and several strongholds near the DMZ. U.S. up to 485,000 troops and U.S. leaders telling people that victory is in sight. U.S. knew an offensive was coming, but not sure in what form. In January Khe Sanh and several strongholds near DMZ came under attack. Heavy bombardment with big guns and the siege began. Westmoreland thought that Khe Sanh was the offensive target……it turns out that Khe Sanh was a diversion for a massive attack against 36 of 42 Provincial Capitols and major ARVN/U.S. installations throughout the country. The TET Offensive of 1968….proved to be a major surprise; many ARVN were at home for celebration of the Lunar New Year. There was a truce violation by the North Vietnamese. La Zuan believed that the people of South Vietnam would rise up and join the fight and the U.S. would withdraw. That did not happen. The TET Offensive looked bad to the American people; we were surprised and in a few cases were nearly overrun. The counter attack by the ARVN and U.S. was massive and brutal and lethal. Some reports are that 58,000 North Vietnamese/VC were killed, wounded, or captured. Again it seems body count is all that matters. The press portrayed it as a defeat for the Americans. It contradicted what the Administration was telling the press. In reality the NVA did not achieve their objective, and the counter attack was prolonged and lethal. It appeared for a short while that it was a last gasp for the NVA. The brutality of the war was revealed on American television. Walter Cronkite very critical and encouraged a “negotiated honorable peace.” Robert Kennedy enters presidential race as a peace candidate. LBJ seeks “”, and agreed to disengage, stops the bombing to encourage North Vietnam to come to table. Westmoreland is replaced with Abrams. (Lt Guy Hatlie gives General Abrams his orientation tour of outposts, etc. of the Mekong Delta; Receives Defense Service Cross and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Just kidding) The General thanked me nicely. Hanoi agrees to negotiate, but fighting continues. Martin Luther King is assassinated. Uprising,….riots break out in major American cities. There are protests around the world. LBJ announces he is not running for President. Robert Kennedy is assassinated. Then there are Convention riots in Chicago…. McCarthy is favorite of protesters. McGovern is a peace candidate, and George Wallace is making noise. Humphrey takes a position on the war in opposition to Johnson, wins Democratic nomination. Nixon makes a case for ending the war, wins Republican nomination. In September LBJ stops bombing, progress in Paris Talks, but South VN President Thieu balks. Nixon “supporters” (before election) convince So. Viet delegation to boycott talks…..get a better deal with Nixon as President. Nixon wins 43% to 42% for Humphrey ….and in Paris they argue for 2 months about the table configuration…… The tone of the war, the strategy, morale of troops, all changes in 1968, and there is civil unrest in the U.S. A false economy or black market develops in South Vietnam, there is corruption and crime in the streets. Estimated cost to U.S. is about $2 Bil/yr. The war goes on; U.S. population losing patients. Nixon knows military victory not possible and the North is demanding the So. Vietnamese government be replaced, and the U.S. must leave. One tactic that was attempted: Nixon suggested that word get to North Vietnam that he is a passionate anti-communist, and not afraid to potentially use nuclear arms. Ho Chi Minh is old and ailing. Threat not effective. La Zuan continues forward. In the meantime, there are campus riots, racial unrest, and the women’s liberation movement is in gear. In Paris the U.S. demands all prisoners to be returned and a full accounting of their status. Nixon goes public with the demands. Bracelets with individual POW/MIA names become popular. 1969: Nixon pledges to restore order within the U.S. and to stop the war and have peace with honor. Then initiates secret bombing of Cambodia to stop further supplies from reaching the V.C. In April 1969 there were 543,000 U.S. troops deployed, the high point. Abrams ordered to start gradual withdrawal of troops, and train, etc. the ARVN to take over the major fighting. Nixon meets Thieu in Guam; tells him training going well and Thieu has no choice but to go along with the plan. U.S. increases equipment and training for ARVN….grew by 1,000,000 soldiers. Some units performed well, but accomplishments were over looked. In Vietnam there was clearly racism among the troops, Hispanic unrest…. Sadly, “fragging” increased, and the drug use increased. Meanwhile in the U.S.: Woodstock!! Peace talks continue in Paris. Secret talks were setup between U.S. and North Vietnam. Kissinger and Lee Duc Tho. No progress. Ho Chi Minh dies. La Zuan follows through and refocuses on reunification. Lottery draft setup to appease minority disproportions serving and dying. Weathermen…..4 days of rage….rioting. Black Panthers: Denounce Weathermen, and oppose armed resistance. October 15th: National Moratorium (silent), Opposition to war, peaceful because middle class families participated….huge nationwide demonstration. November, 1969: My Lai massacre, 25 officers and men indicted. (Incident in 1967.) Big protest followed, bombings in cities, anti-war violence. Returning veterans being mistreated during this time. February 1970: Secret negotiations in Paris between Kissinger and Lee Duc To….. continued. April 1970: Bombing in Cambodia followed by huge ARVN invasion to stop southbound supplies. May 1970: Big protest, Kent State, 4 students killed, 9 wounded by National Guard. Polls show 57% of Americans okay with the way the Guard handled things. Jackson State protest, 2 killed. 1970-73: Nixon felt he had the with him. Withdrawal from Cambodia. More troops withdrawn from Vietnam. Nixon felt the protests were driven by the communists. Students felt that violence was their only choice to be heard. 1970: ARVN invade Laos to stop NVA incursions. Invasion failed, 50% ARVN force killed. April 1970: Nixon, “Must claim victory”; “ is working”, withdraws more troops. By 1973: Vietnam having full on civil war. U.S. military not terribly supportive; felt killing for peace not right, morale very low, addiction very high (40,000 addicted to heroin and other drugs.) General Abrams : “I must get Army home to save it”. Calley verdict: 79% of population disagreed with verdict. Nixon intervened….in the end it was virtually parole. “Veterans for Peace” protest…..veterans protesting while the war is still going on! John Kerry addresses Congress: very eloquent speech conveying the opinion of a senseless war, very convincing, but then he went on to describe the atrocities of the war by American soldiers, big mistake. May Day Protest: 4 days of militant lawlessness. Turned off the general public. Poll published indicating the belief that the government lies to the public. “Pentagon Papers” surface in press. Proved that close advisors to the president knowingly steered him wrong. Furthermore, there were routine lies to Congress and the American people. Daniel Ellsberg becomes high profile regarding the immoral war. In 1971 (stepping back a bit) there was a major change in the attitude of American people toward their presidents. Nixon had his “Plumbers” gather material on Ellsberg, and the Brookings Institute. Meanwhile, secret talks continued. Demands included the ouster of Thieu, we wanted all prisoners, then we’d leave. February 1972: Nixon goes to China….opens trade. April 1972: ARVN “Easter Offensive.” A conventional attack, to force negotiations forward. May 1972: U.S. “Operation Linebacker”, B-52 bombing strikes over Hanoi and North Vietnam….recommended by Kissinger. With American airpower the ARVN stood fast, proved they could fight. Hai Phong Harbor is mined by U.S. May 1972….U.S. signs Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviets. June 1972: The photo of the naked girl (Kim Pho) running from a napalm attack is published….American people ……”enough is enough”! McGovern contacts Russians to inquire about the progress in American POW release/exchange. He denied interfering. The Watergate Break-in….. In 1972 Jane Fonda visits Hanoi….heavily publicized. Tom Hayden, Joan Baez, among others to visit Hanoi…. In Paris Lee Duc Tho and Kissinger agree on cease fire, 60 day suspension, withdrawal, POW exchange, no more bombing, and we agree that NVA can stay in South Vietnam. President Thieu had no input, did not know of the negotiation…did not accept it. November 1972: Nixon reelected. Nixon sends enormous amount of supplies to South Vietnam to support ARVN taking over. Paris Peace Talks suspended. December 1972: More airstrikes…”The Christmas Bombings” triggering around the world protests;15 B-52s lost! In the end concessions were accepted, Thieu signed agreement. 1973: Nixon announces the war ended…Peace with Honor achieved. 591 POWs released, all U.S. combatants are out of Vietnam in March. Remaining 200 guards, and ‘000s of contractors. How long could South Vietnam hold out? May 1973: Nixon hosts POWs at White House. Then the …abuse of power fully disclosed. Cease fire failed, Nixon weakened and Congress wanted out completely. Impeachment voted, Nixon resigns in August. Thieu is screwed, U.S. support drys up. ARVN begin to really fall apart. Pay cuts, rationing of ammo, etc., etc. Le Zuan sustains aggressive position. Assigns General Giap to take Saigon and South Vietnam in its entirety. The “Convoy of Tears”, 400,000 civilians go to the South, huge numbers died enroute. Thieu resigns in exile in . President Minh takes over. April 1975 the main assault to the South begins. On April 29th Saigon and Tan Son Nhut come under heavy attack. On the 30th Ambassador Martin evacuates. Then we have the image of the last helicopter…. President Minh surrenders. End of 30 years of War.

The communists shut down the country for 20 years! Re-education camps for 1.5 million people. Many graves were desecrated. 3 million people had died. Washington set up embargo. Collective farming established. Industry was nationalized. Complete economic failure. Rationing and stipends established, woefully inadequate. Most all rice in Delta shipped North, ….people starved, especially in the South. 1978: Vietnam enters another 10 year war with the Khmer Rouge. 400,000 Vietnamese made it to America 1985: John McCain, John Kerry, Bob Kerry visit, good will trip. McCain revered because his father was an Admiral. 1986: La Zuan successor is more liberal…progressive. 1994: U.S. lifts trade embargo 1995: Normalization essentially achieved.

Potential reading material for those interested: First I would listen to the multipart series on Netflix entitled “Vietnam” by Ken Burns. There are scores of books on this subject…I’m not a book critic and won’t recommend any specific book…. “Why Vietnam” “Mourning Headbands for Hue” “The Things they Carry” “The Fog of War” “Dereliction of Duty” “A Bright Shinning Lie” Of course there are hundreds more….