African American Women in Higher Education

Home , Finer Things

From Struggle to Higher Education: African American Women in Higher Education

Tia Parks

A narrative autoethnography submitted to the faculty of

Wilmington University in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

Higher Education Leadership and Innovation

Wilmington University

October 2018

From Struggle to Higher Education

Tia Parks

I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standards required by Wilmington University as a dissertation for the degree Doctor of Education in Higher Education Leadership and Innovation.

George Cooper, Ed.D., Chair and Dissertation Advisor

James Cananica, Ed.D., Member of Dissertation Committee

John C. Gray, Ed.D., Dean, College of Education

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. George Cooper of Wilmington University for guiding and assisting me with my dissertation project. I would also like to thank and Dr. James Canonica for being on my committee as well. This process while difficult could not have been completed without the committee. Thank you to the chair of the program Dr. Nina Buchanan for support and caring about all the students in the program.

I would like to extend a special THANK YOU to my husband Larry Parks who has supported my goals and dreams from the beginning. I couldn’t ask for a more supportive spouse and best friend.

To my five children: Dillon, Darrian, Devon, Talia, and Nolan, THIS IS FOR YOU! I love you all.

To my parents who have always been proud of me I appreciate the both of you. Karen

Davis and Milton Downing, without the both of you none of this would be possible.

To Ms. Thelma, you told me when I was in third grade that I would be successful and own my own businesses. You saw something in me that I was unable to see in myself. THANK

YOU.

I saved the best for last, to my grandmother Marvin Sellers, thank you for raising me and showing me the finer things in life! I love you and could never thank you enough.

Abstract

The Struggle is Real! (A slang term used in the Black Community). Everyone has a story.

Everyone has a journey, regardless of race, color, or creed. However, what research and lived experiences of African American women such as myself reveals is that “the struggle” is different for African American women and we encounter more barriers to accomplish any goal. In this dissertation “the struggle” of the African American woman in higher education and how the transitions from elementary, secondary, and postsecondary institutions play a role in the success or failure of completing high school and earning a college degree is presented. College is not impossible to accomplish; one just needs the confidence, and to surround oneself with supportive family, friends, and educators.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ...... iv

Abstract ...... v

List of Figures ...... iv

Chapter I Introduction and Overview of the Study ...... 1

Introduction ...... 1

Statement of the Problem ...... 4

Statement of the Purpose ...... 4

The Need for the Study ...... 5

Research Questions ...... 12

Operational Definitions ...... 12

Summary ...... 14

Chapter II Literature Review ...... 16

Introduction ...... 16

Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria ...... 17

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework ...... 19

Stages of Psychosocial Development ...... 20

Background on First-generation Female African American Students ...... 22

Challenges African American Female Students Face ...... 22

Challenges of African American Females ...... 23

Social Issues ...... 23

Impact of Parents on Child Development ...... 24

Abuse that Impacts Learning ...... 24

Substance Abuse among African Americans ...... 27

Poverty That Impacts Learning ...... 27

Low Self-esteem that Impacts Learning ...... 29

Self-confidence ...... 37

Poverty ...... 37

Conclusions of the Literature ...... 38

Common Themes in the Literature ...... 39

Summary ...... 39

Chapter III Methodology and Narrative of My Life ...... 41

The History of Autoethnography ...... 41

Autoethnography...... 42

Autoethnographic Narratives of Other Similar Individuals ...... 43

Strengths ...... 45

Criticisms of the Study...... 46

Best Choice for My Topic ...... 48

Narrative of My Life ...... 48

Background ...... 48

Jackie Robinson Housing Project ...... 49

Sexual Abuse ...... 50

Elementary School Age Events and Issues ...... 52

Reflecting on My Elementary School Education Years ...... 55

Secondary School Age Events and Issues ...... 58

Postsecondary and Life After...... 59

My Light Bulb Moment ...... 61

Summary ...... 65

Chapter IV Education Support in the 1980-1990s in New York City and Parental Support ...... 67

Parental Support ...... 68

Available Support for Elementary School Students ...... 69

Available Support for Secondary School Students ...... 69

Available Support for the Postsecondary School Student ...... 70

Ways to Support African American in Poverty ...... 71

Ways to Provide Support for African Americans and Female ...... 72

Ways to Help African American Students Attend College ...... 74

Limitations of the Study...... 74

Summary ...... 75

References ...... 79

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List of Figures

Figure 1. Percentage of men and women in poverty by race/ethnicity ...... 5

Figure 2. Black Student College Graduation Rate, 1990–2007 ...... 7

Figure 3. Percentage of Black families in poverty, 1967–2014 ...... 8

Figure 4. Educational attainment of Blacks 25 years of age and older in the labor force in

1992 and 2009 ...... 9

Figure 5. Black population, educational attainment, salary, and occupation (2011) ...... 9

Figure 6. Median household income (2005–2011) and Black household makeup (2011) ...... 10

Figure 7. Weekly earnings of Black fulltime wage and salary workers aged 25 years and older by educational attainment, 2009 ...... 11

Figure 8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ...... 20

Figure 9. Jackie Robinson Housing, Brooklyn New York, 1983-1993 ...... 50

Chapter I

Introduction and Overview of the Study

YIKES! What is that NOISE? Oh, that is just the sound of gunshots and sirens again. A

5-year-old African American little girl living on the top floor of the Jackie Robinson housing project in Brooklyn, New York once again wakes up to sirens and gunshots as she opens her eyes and sees her mother wearing dirty clothes from the night before just coming in the apartment from being out all night. Her mother is high on crack cocaine, skin looking gray and hard. She passes out from exhaustion on the couch while the little girl gets ready for school. As the girl gets dressed for school, she sees despair; she sees drugs; she sees poverty; she sees abuse; and she sees crime all around her. That little girl is me.

Introduction

I think we all can agree that all students, regardless of color, need to be supported at every level of education. A study conducted by Caldwell and Obasi (2010) examined motivation achievement, and educational value, and how it relates to academic performance in African

American students. The findings suggested that how students value their education regulates the connection between motivation and academic performance. Family socioeconomic status play a role in college choice of African American students (Willie & Reddick, 2010). According to

Lauren Camera, education reporter for the U.S. News & World Report, “After 50 years, the achievement gap between White and Black students has barely narrowed” (Camera, 2016, para.

1). A significant body of research has found that the need to belong and peer allegiance often take procedure in the lives of African American students (Moore, Phelan, & Yue Davidson,

1994). Austin (2012) reports that the percentage of Black college students receiving their degree is a meager 20%. African American children have unique needs compared to other races. Those

students with the most difficulty in accessing college are often those who are the first-generation to attend college, children from immigrant families, and those from low socioeconomic status homes (Choy, 2001; Haycock & Huang, 2001; Martinez & Klopott, 2005; Noeth & Wimberly,

2002; Warburton, Bugarin, & Nuñez, 2001). The majority of underserved populations in postsecondary education are from economically depressed urban areas and remote rural locations

(Bragg, Kim, & Rubin, 2005). As a child I went through so much pain and disappointment. I had to grow up fast and understand adult situations. I just wanted to be a kid. I was dealing with three major transitions: the divorce of my parents, moving to Brooklyn, New York, and my mother becoming addicted to crack cocaine. I was 4 years old when my parents were divorced; therefore, I did not know exactly what that meant at the time, however I knew my father was no longer living in our home. I spent a lot of time with my father and my mother did not realize the impact the separation from my father affected me. I missed living in Philadelphia. I went from a two-parent household to an apartment full of family and my mother. My mother registered me for school the fall of 1984. I was distracted from the beginning without realizing the significant changes in my life I felt disconnected from my new surroundings because my father was no longer around.

Moving to Brooklyn to live my grandmother was probably one of the worst decisions my mother could have made for us. I went from having both my parents in a house full of love and care to an apartment in the housing projects that had eight people living in a three-bedroom apartment. My mother and I shared a room for a short period of time. Once my cousin and aunt moved in my mother and I were moved to the living room. I was living in a real life “Good

Times” (referring to the sitcom of the early 70s). I remember the first day of school my mother was not going to send me to school because she was so exhausted from being out all night me

going to school was not the priority. My aunt on the other hand was upset that I was not going to school therefore she started an argument with my mother and my mother jumped up out her sleep to hit my aunt. A fight broke out between them and I was crying and begging them to stop. Once they stopped fighting, I remember looking across the living room only to see my grandmother in her pink night gown smoking a cigarette laughing at the situation. All that drama and I still missed the first day of school.

The change began when my mother started dating a man that she thought she was in love with. I found out later that man introduced my mother to crack cocaine. When my mother became addicted to drugs my educational attainment was not a priority for her. I missed over 50 days of school when I was in the second grade. Instead of my mother sitting down and helping me with my homework she would just do my homework for me. I knew and understood what was happening because my grandmother but everything in my face. My grandmother would tell me “your mother is on drugs.” Your mother is a crack head. My grandmother is the type of person that has the same conversation with a child or adult. She made sure I knew. I spent so many nights crying and wishing for my mother to straighten up. I wanted my mother to do my hair and take me to school. When my mother went to rehab, I thought she was going to come home and be loving and caring but my wish never came true.

Throughout this document you will learn more about my life experiences and the research that supports some of my challenges as a child and now as an adult. This document explores the possible support systems that I may have benefited from through the transitions of my life at the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary levels of education. Additionally, this document examines what the possible outcomes could be if institutions provided more support

for African American women in education who have suffered abuse, had non-supportive parents, and experienced poverty, feelings of not belonging, and isolation.

The education system needs a strong support system in place to create a better outcome for African American students. This dissertation presents the problem, purpose, the need for the study, and why this is so important to African American students. The literature review supports my claim that African American students need to be supported more by educators and parents.

“The barrier that accompany race are a constant obstacle for African American woman . . .

African American women are seen as outsiders and, not belonging” (Johnson-Bailey & Cervero,

2008, p. 320).

Statement of the Problem

It is unknown if there were support services available as I transitioned through educational stages, that benefit African American female students who have suffered abuse, non- supportive parents, poverty, feelings of not belonging, isolation, and low self-esteem. It is unknown if It is also unknown if institutions of higher education need to provide more support for African American women who have suffered abuse; had non-supportive parents; experienced poverty, feelings of not belonging, isolation, and low self-confidence; and if doing so would enhance those students’ chances for success in obtaining a college degree.

Statement of the Purpose

The purpose of the study was to examine how the transitions in my life had an impact on my education. How can African American female students be better supported through educational transitions: elementary, secondary, and postsecondary level? How can institutions of higher education can better support African American women who have suffered abuse, had non-

supportive parents, and experienced poverty, feelings of not belonging, isolation, and low self- esteem?

The Need for the Study

The need for the study is to demonstrate the relationship between economic factors and educational experiences. Collins (1989) affirmed that “many African American women in the

United States experience unique stressors such as social isolation, racism, sexism, and low socioeconomic status that adversely impact their ability to effectively cope with various psychosocial issues” (p. 18). Figure 1 demonstrates the percentages of men and women in poverty by race and ethnicity. The number of African American women in poverty is almost twice that of white women. There are endless statistics that support the claim of poverty among

African American students and their peers. The educational attainment gap between African

American women and men is well documented. Throughout the need for the study you will see an overview of the gaps and why it is so important to do more for African American students than what is currently in place. You are also going to see how the socioeconomic status of a household can weigh heavy on educational attainment among African American students.

Figure 1. Percentage of men and women in poverty by race/ethnicity. Source: U.S. Census

Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2008 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.

The African American graduation rate for men versus women has always been higher.

Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) state that “lower-income first-generation students are not only disadvantaged by their parents’ lack of experience with and information about college, but also by other social and economic characteristics that constrain their educational opportunities” (p.

418).

Many experts have asserted that achievement gaps are the result of more subtle environmental factors and opportunity gaps in the resources available to poor versus wealthy children. Studies have also found that children in poverty whose parents provide engaging learning environments at home do not start school with the same academic readiness gaps seen among poor children generally. Catsambis (1994) suggested that “young Black woman are most hampered in their mathematics development due to limited exposure to rigorous coursework”

(Catsambis, 1994, p. 199). “When students are initially sorted by ability young Black girls are perceived as less attentive and more disruptive than girls of other races or ethnicities” (U.S.

Department of Education, 2000; Viadero, 2000; Sparks, 2011, p. 401). JBHE has consistently documented the fact that black women hold a large lead over black men in almost every facet of higher education. Black women currently earn about two-thirds of all African-American bachelor’s degree awards, 70% of all master’s degrees, and more than 60% of all doctorates.

Black women hold majority of all African American enrollments in law, medical, and dental school degrees. The fact that far more black women than black men will achieve the credential of a diploma from these top schools means that far more women than black men will be admitted to the nation's best graduate and professional schools. In turn, far more black women than black men will go on to become lawyers, doctors, and corporate leaders.

Figure 2 demonstrates the African American student college rate between men and women. The literature and data support the claim that Black women are graduating at much higher rates than Black men for decades. In 1990 Black women were at 34% while Black men were at 28% and this goes until 2017 (according to the graph). In 2007 Black women graduation rate was 48% while Black men were at 37 Black women have been more successful than Black men in closing the gap when it comes to college degrees. According to official estimates from the 2013 U.S. Census Bureau about 22% of Black women have a bachelor’s degree compared to

30% of ‘all women.’ The number of Black women who finished high school but did not pursue higher education is about the same as it is for ‘all women,’ 27% compared to 28%, respectively.

Black men have always been behind African American women in education as well as other races. While there has been some increase with regards to education attainment among African

American men there is still a significant gap between African American men and women.

Figure 2. Black Student College Graduation Rate, 1990–2007. Source: The Journal of Blacks in

Higher Education.

“U.S. Census Bureau 2008 affirm the poverty level has always been higher for African

Americans compared to other races” (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008, p. 1). In 1967, the poverty rate

for Black families was 33.9%, while only 11.4% of all families were living in poverty; that is triple the number.” In 2014 the poverty level for all families was 11.6%, while African

Americans are on the rise for living in poverty (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008; see Figure 3). “To be

Black and a woman, to possess a dual consciousness, defined by both race and gender causes one to examine and interact with the world differently” (Lorde, 1984, p. 331).

Figure 3. Percentage of Black families in poverty, 1967–2014.

Rodgers (2008) affirms that “African American men working full time and year- round have 72 percent of the average earnings of comparable white men. For African American and white women, the ratio is 85 percent” (para. 1). Figure 4 demonstrates the educational attainment of Blacks in the labor force, 25 years of age and older, in 1992 and 2009. According to Bureau of

Labor Statistics (1992 and 2009)

in 1992 40% of Blacks earned a high school diploma but did not attend college, and only 16% held a bachelor’s degree or higher. In 2009 34% of high school graduates with no college and 24% held a bachelor’s degree or higher. While the bachelor’s degree

attainment increased from 16% in 1992 to 24% in 2009, the high school graduation rate dropped from 40% to 34%. (p.1)

Figure 4. Educational attainment of Blacks 25 years of age and older in the labor force in 1992 and 2009. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

“A large percent of women today, work in gender specific occupations such as teaching, nursing, social work, office work or librarian” (Murrell, Frieze, & Frost, 1991, p. 332).

According to Figure 5, the median yearly African American female earnings were $33,324.

Figure 5 also breaks down the percentages of age brackets of African Americans by gender.

Figure 5. Black population, educational attainment, salary, and occupation (2011).

Researchers have confirmed that “African American household average income was around $35,000” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2009, p. ??). Figure 6 shows the median household income of African Americans as well as the household makeup. In 2008 the median income was

$35,600. Figure 8 illustrates the median weekly earnings of African American fulltime wage and salary of workers 25 years by educational attainment in 2009. In 2011, African Americans with some college or an associate degree earned $608 per week and African Americans with a bachelor’s degree or higher earned $921 per week. Even with a conferred degree African

Americans are earning less than other races.

Figure 6. Median household income (2005–2011) and Black household makeup (2011).

While we are discussing the median household income of African Americans, Figure 7 demonstrates the weekly earnings of African Americans with college degrees and less. The average salary for a Bachelor’s degree or higher is $921 a week and less than a high school the diploma those earnings are cut more than half. African Americans have always earned less than other races.

Figure 7. Weekly earnings of Black fulltime wage and salary workers aged 25 years and older by educational attainment, 2009. Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

The purpose of this dissertation is to benefit the ‘next’ Tia. How can we best support and create a pathway of achieving higher education? How can the next Tia be best supported despite the challenges she faces? It is my hope that educational leaders read this dissertation and look through the lens of an African American female student’s challenges and provide the support she needs to achieve a conferred degree.

Sometimes looking through the lens of someone else’s life can give one the courage and strength to push forward and complete a degree. The intent of this dissertation is to inspire and create change. The intent of this dissertation is not to create a sense of sadness or pity for me or anyone else. Life brings challenges and uncomfortable situations that can be life changing; however, it is how one deals with the challenges and uncomfortable situations that determines a person’s life outcomes. Higher education institutions (HEIs) should offer strategies to support

African American women in higher education and give recommendations based on research and data analysis to help them achieve and be successful in college despite their story. Ricks (2014) affirms the needs of Black females are often overlooked by teachers, administrators, and policymakers. This oversight has contributed to a lack of educational programming and policies

that address the impact of the intersection of racism and sexism on the educational experiences of Black females, with some attention to the achievement gap (Ricks, 2014).

Research Questions

My narrative analysis of living in poverty, drugs, and abuse will be built around these questions along with what the research tells us:

1. What support services were available as I transitioned through educational stages, that

benefit African American female students who have suffered abuse, non-supportive

parents, poverty, feelings of not belonging, isolation, and low self-esteem?

2. What role did my parents play in impacting my ability to transition between

educational stages?

3. What support mechanisms are currently in place at all levels of education for African

American female students who have suffered abuse, non-supportive parents, poverty,

feelings of not belonging, isolation, and low self-esteem, and in doing so enhance

those student outcomes?

Operational Definitions

African American, or “Black”—According to the State Council of Virginia Higher

Education, “the new definition of Black or African American is a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The old definition of Black, non-Hispanic is a person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa” (except those of Hispanic origin; IPEDS, year).

At-risk students—Chen and Kaufman (1997) identified five risk factors for at-risk students. They considered students at risk if they exhibited one or more of the following characteristics: (a) are from a low socioeconomic status, (b) are from a single parent family, (c)

have an older sibling who dropped out of school, (d) the students themselves changed schools two or more times, (e) had average grades of “C” or lower from sixth to eighth grade, and (f) repeated a grade. At-risk students are students who are not experiencing success in school and are potential dropouts. They are usually low academic achievers who exhibit low self-esteem.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)—Thurgood Marshall argued several cases before the Supreme Court, including Smith v. All wright (1944), Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), and Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), which held that racial segregation in public education is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka was a landmark 1954 Supreme Court case in which the justices ruled unanimously that racial segregation of children in public schools was unconstitutional.

Child Abuse—According to Child Welfare Information Gateway (2016),

Child abuse and neglect are defined by Federal and State laws. At the State level, child abuse and neglect may be defined in both civil and criminal statutes. At the Federal level, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) defines child abuse and neglect as: any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker, which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation, or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm. (CAPTA Reauthorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-320), § 5101, Note (§ 3))

First-generation students—The U.S. Department of Education (2008)

defines first-generation students as those whose parents’ highest level of education is a high school diploma or less. In cases where parents have different levels of education, the maximum education level of either parent determines how the student is categorized. In this analysis, these students are compared with two other groups—those whose parents have attended some college but have attained less than a bachelor’s degree, and those whose parents have attained a bachelor’s degree or an advanced degree. (Stats in brief U.S. Department of Education, 2008, p. 2)

HBCU—Historical Black College University. The higher education act of 1965, as amended, defines an HBCU as any historically Black college or university that was established prior to 1964 who principal mission was and is, the education of Black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the secretary of education. HBCU’s offer all students regardless of race an opportunity to develop their skills and talents.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)—A written document developed for each public school child who is eligible for special education services. The IEP is created through a team effort and reviewed at least once a year. Before an IEP can be written, the child must be eligible for special education. By federal law, a multidisciplinary team must determine that the child (a) has a disability, and (b) requires special education and related services to benefit from the general education program. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), a federal law, requires certain information to be included in the IEP, but does not specify how the

IEP should look. Because state and local school systems may include additional information, forms differ from state to state and may vary between school systems within a state.

Summary

Chapter I included the foundation of this dissertation. Chapter I provided a snapshot into the narrative of my life dealing with poverty, my mother, my childhood, and overall perspective on the needs of African American women. The problem, purpose, operational definitions, and the need for the study were discussed. Background information on first-generation African

American students and financial barriers that African Americans face living in poverty every day was explained. In Chapter I there were also statistical data that supported the claim that African

American female students suffer from economic factors trying to earn an education.

Education is a civil right. Brown v. Board of Education addressed the unequal and racist educational structure in America. While Black women continue to achieve educational attainment, there is still a large gap between Whites and the Blacks. Throughout the literature there is discussion of the lack of STEM-enrolled African American students and there is a lack on enrollment in Mathematics (Civil Rights Data Collection; U.S. Department of Education,

2016). Chapter II, the literature review, presents scholarly research and study on the problem, purpose, and need for the current study. Strategy and search criteria are also introduced in

Chapter II.

Chapter II

Literature Review

Introduction

“The ‘achievement gap’ in education refers to the academic performance between groups of students.” The achievement gap is displayed “in grades, standardized-test scores, course selection, dropout rates, and college-completion rates, among other success measures”

(Ansell, 2011, para. 1). Ricks (2014) affirmed, “the needs of Black girls are often overlooked by teachers, administrators, and policymakers” (p. 10). The author states that “this oversight has contributed to a lack of educational programming and policies that address the impact of the intersection of racism and sexism on the educational experiences of Black girls, with some attention to the achievement gap” (p. 10). The literature review discusses the current laws, substance abuse, poverty, financial barriers and how all of that has an impact in African

American students. Closing the educational achievement gap has been an issue since Brown v.

Board of Education (1954). Young, Wright, and Laster (2005) confirm the learning achievement of elementary, secondary, and postsecondary African American students has been an issue across the United States. Girls whose lives are locked in what is hoped to be temporary poverty are showing their private pain through early motherhood, chronic truancy, drug and alcohol abuse, and antisocial attitudes. According to hooks (1981), “African American women often have to pick choose the struggle of racial equality over the struggle of women’s rights, which can contribute to the divides in their identity” (Hooks,1981 p. 516). When discussing the achievement gap, Black students male and female are still behind White students (Barton &

Coley, 2009).

Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria

The journal articles used in this literature review were retrieved from the U.S. Census

Department website, the New York Department of Education website, Wilmington University

Library Database, Google Scholar, and peer-reviewed articles from the Internet. In the research the literature offered common themes that support my story and other experiences of African

American women in education. All of these resources offered the information needed to support my research and the experiences of my personal life. In the review of the literature, one will see how the articles relate to the research questions and expose the gaps in educational achievement among African American female students.

While signing the No Child Left Behind Act on January 8, 2002, George W. Bush stated that the act was designed to close the gap among groups regardless of the zip code in which they live. “The fundamental principle of this bill is that every child can learn, we expect every child to learn, and you must show us whether or not every child is learning” (No Child Left Behind Act

200, P.L 107-110 U.S.C 6319.2002). “No Child Left Behind” would later be replaced by

President Obama’s “Every Student Succeeds Act.” According to the U.S. Department of

Education, the Every Students Succeeds Act (ESSA) law was designed to protect American’s disadvantaged and high student needs and maintain expectations of accountability. These two laws are important because they govern the way all students are supported in school systems in the United States. No Child Left Behind was designed for minority children who live in poverty, students receiving special education services, and children who spoke and understood a very limited amount of English. No Child Left Behind was implemented to support Elementary and

Secondary Education (K-12). The law was intended to hold schools accountable for how children

learned and achieved. The law was controversial in part because it’s penalized schools that did not show improvement.

The Every Student Succeeds Act, a reauthorization of the 1965 Elementary and

Secondary Education Act, is much more specific about which schools need intervention but much less specific on what those interventions school be. Schools at the bottom 5% of assessment scores (as defined by state), high schools that graduate less than 67% of students, or schools in which subgroups are consistently underperforming would be considered failing and could be subject to a takeover. Why is this important? In the review of the literature and reading numerous journals, issues such as poverty, abuse, and non-supportive parents are discussed.

However, before one can address the issues that surround poverty, abuse, and non-supportive parents, one must understand the education system and the state laws regarding children and education. Throughout the review of the two acts the common goal is to support all students, but especially African American female students, who suffer the most, according to the research.

How do we support students who learn differently or students who are experiencing poverty, abuse, and non-supportive parents, and how does this impact learning?

“African American students do illustrate the need for a more comprehensive understanding of factors that influence scholastic achievement among African American students” (Marchant, 2001, p. 42). Saunders Thompson (2005) affirmed, “African American parents face the same challenges as other parents but have the additional challenge of raising their children within the context of racial bias” (Sanders Thompson, 1994, p. 175). Sanders

Thompson’s (1994) study did not seek to identify all factors predictive of academic achievement among African American adolescents, but instead to serve as a starting point for developing a causal model. The study examined the background challenges that affect the progress of African

American female students in higher education. The literature will serve as the foundation for educational leadership practices. “African American youth experience significantly higher levels of racial discrimination than European American, Latino, and Asian youth” (Fisher, 2000, p.

533). The literature review discusses the following: Maslow’s conceptual framework, psychological development, first-generation African American females, and challenges of

African American females.

Once educators have understood what the law states then educators can examine what theory states about the impact of poverty, abuse, and non-supportive parents on a child’s success in elementary education, secondary education and higher learning. What makes children living under these circumstances successful? How do students become successful through each level of learning? Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory speaks directly to motivation, which creates a self- awareness of overcoming challenges that some children face every day (Maslow, 1943).

Maslow’s theory supports that children need to feel safe and have a social being to reach their full potential.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Maslow (1943), in his seminal paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” outlined five basic needs humans need to have met to achieve self-fulfillment. Maslow’s self-actualization need is the full realization of one’s potential and of one’s true self. Maslow proposed that motivation is the result of a person’s attempt at fulfilling seven basic needs, listed below in ascending order, with the most basic first (see Figure 8). Maslow was criticized for his theory but

Maslow’s theory on human motivation has been examined and used for decades.

1. Self -Actualization

2. Esteem Needs

3. Social Needs

4. Security Needs

5. Survival Needs

Figure 8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Source: Pearson Education, Inc. 2015.

Maslow (1943) confirmed that people need both esteem from other people as well as inner self-respect; both of these needs must be fulfilled in order for an individual to grow as a person and achieve self-actualization. It is important to note that self-esteem is a concept distinct from self-efficacy, which involves how well you believe you will handle future actions, performance, or abilities.

Stages of Psychosocial Development

It can be difficult for African American children to transition between these stages properly and freely (Erikson, 1966). “African American parents are considered hostile, non- participatory adults with a minimal understanding of education” (Cooper, 2007, 2009; Durand,

2010, 2011, p. 207). Figure 9 illustrates the stages of psychosocial developmental through which children progress: Infancy (trust vs. mistrust); Early childhood (autonomy vs. shame and doubt);

Preschool (initiative vs. guilt); School age (industry vs. inferiority); Adolescence (identity vs. role confusion); Young adulthood (intimacy vs. isolation); Middle adulthood (generativity vs. stagnation); and Maturity (ego integrity vs. despair). “Children are expected to adapt and change according to the stages of development regardless of environment, culture and social issues”

(McElhaney & Allen, 2001, p. 220). “Students are expected to make these adjustments from society, family, friends and teachers” (Susman & Dorn, 2009, p. 932). According to Cooper

(2007), the responsibilities of raising children can be difficult and that responsibility falls on women. Women are expected to see to the educational needs of their children (Cooper, 2007).

Duckett (2009) conducted research that directly examined Black adolescent mothers and their families. According to Duckett, Black parents do not always connect and understand the stages of development in their children as young mothers. Furthermore, these parents are children themselves and in most cases the mother and child are being raised by the grandmother. In fact, in most African American house-holds children are raised by a grandmother or single mother.

See Figure 9 for the stages of psychosocial development (Duckett, 2009).

Figure 9. Stages of psychosocial development. Source: Verywellmind.com.

Background on First-generation Female African American Students

First-generation college students need customized attention and support that differs from students whose parents have earned a degree. They need to feel as if they belong at their college or university and deserve to be there. Since the Emancipation Proclamation, education has held the promise of self-improvement and racial uplift for African American women.

Some of the barriers to obtaining postsecondary education include low levels of parental support, low levels of parental education, limited resources to pay for college, low self- confidence, and limited social expectations for African Americans. Although a 3% gap may not seem like much, it means that every year about a quarter of a million African American students do not complete their high school education, although they could graduate if they had the same completion rates as Whites (Leinbach & Bailey, 2005).

According to Craig, Thompson, Washington, and Potter (2004), “African American students perform disproportionately more poorly on standardized reading assessments than their majority peers. Poor reading performances may be related to test biases inherent in standardized reading instruments” (p. 195). Several factors were identified as contributors to the low literacy levels of African American students (Craig et al., 2004). Poverty and risk factors associated with low socioeconomic status play a contributing role in poverty among African American children.

African American children are three times more likely than mainstream peers to live in poverty

(Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2002).

Challenges African American Female Students Face

Not all first-generation college students are the same, but many experience difficulties within the four distinct domains of (a) professional, (b) financial, (c) psychological, and (d) academic.

The 2014 census data about work life earnings indicate White women make more than

African American women among fulltime year-round workers, regardless of the degrees they have obtained (Black Demographics.com). The college graduation rate of African American women for the 2004 cohort was 24.1% and has not increased at the same rates of White, Latinas, or Asian American women. According to a publication of the Institute for Higher Education

Policy (IHEP, 2010), in 2007–2008, 49% of African-American students were first-generation college students and 46% had taken remedial courses, reinforcing the need for academic and social supports such as bridge programs, first-year experience courses, learning communities, and financial literacy programs.

Challenges of African American Females

According to the 2004 U.S. census, African American students who did not enroll in college are likely to report the need to work was important in their decision not to enroll in college. About 46% of all African American undergraduate students receive federal fund grant awards, accounting for approximately one-fourth of all recipients. In 2003–2004, African

American students were more likely to have financial needs after grants compared to their peers;

70% of African American students had remaining need. Barton (2003) commented that it appears that the attainment of higher education will continue to be one of the most important requirements for occupational and economic success. Lack of money is one of the biggest hurdles for prospective college students, particularly African Americans and other minority students whose families, on average, have lower incomes and less wealth than Whites. (p. 1)

Social Issues

Elmore and Gaylord-Harden’s (2013) study on “the influence of supportive parenting and racial socialization messages on African American youth behavioral outcomes supports the

theory that parental evolvement is critical to the development of children” (p. 64). The literature concludes that a warm and supportive parent-child relationship is one of the most crucial determinants of positive outcomes in racially and socioeconomically diverse youth. Work is a very important factor in the life of most African American college students. (King, 2002)

Impact of Parents on Child Development

Hundleby and Mercer (1987) identified supportive parenting as a critical factor for positive youth development. “Supportive parenting gives children an internal representation of acceptance.” “Unsupportive parenting behaviors may contribute to negative youth outcomes such as depression, substance usage, delinquency, and aggression” (Hundleby & Mercer, 1987, p. 64). Parenting behavior and the parent-child relationship may be especially important for

African American youth because of the strong value placed on family relationships in the Black community (Larson, 2001). While supportive parent-child relationships are very important and critical to the academic success of children, the educational expectations carry a heavy weight as well. Newton and Onésimo Sandoval (2015) examined the expectations and value of education among St. Louis, suburban, low to moderate income, African American male and female adolescents. The factors of perception of parents’ expectations, teachers’ expectations, and neighborhood quality were examined to explore the academic gender disparity among African

American students. The findings were that “no significant gender differences emerged between

African American males and females for educational expectations” (Newton & Onésimo

Sandoval, 2015, p. 142).

Abuse that Impacts Learning

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014), an estimated

702,000 children were confirmed by child protective services as being victims of abuse and

neglect in 2014 the CDC. At least one in four children has experienced neglect or abuse

(including physical, emotional, and sexual) at some point in their lives, and one in seven children experienced abuse or neglect in 2017” (p. 111).

Prepubescent children who are abused or neglected show impairments in cognitive development in adolescence (Walsh, 2006). Findings of adverse cognitive consequences for both abuse and neglect support the notion that child neglect has developmental long-term effects (U.S.

Census, 2010). “Thirty percent of Black women with documented histories of childhood sexual abuse were sexually assaulted in adulthood” (Siegel & Williams, 2003, p. 56). Some women do not report rape because of shame, embarrassment and the feeling that their experience will not be believed (U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009, p. 1). “Black girls and women 12 years old and older experienced higher rates of rape and assault than White, Asian and Latina girls and women from 2005 to 2010” (Planty, Langton, Krebs, Berzofsky, & Smiley-McDonald, 2013, p. 1).

Being poor increased the likelihood of becoming more economically disadvantaged. According to Black Women’s Blueprint sixty percent of Black girls have experienced sexual abuse at the hands of Black men before reaching the age of 18. Barrett (2009) conducted a study to investigate the impact of child sexual abuse on the five dimensions of adulthood parenting. The qualitative study sample used was African American mothers receiving public assistance. The purpose of the study was to explore the association between childhood sexual abuse and adulthood parenting in a predominantly African American community of sample mothers receiving public assistance in the state of Illinois. The methods used to conduct the study were interviews and surveys. The study looked at childhood physical abuse, perception that one child had neglected in childhood, violence in childhood, childhood poverty, and living apart from one or both parents for all or a portion of their childhood prior to the age of 16. “The data showed

that childhood sexual abuse survivors reported lower rates of parental warmth, higher rates of psychological aggression, and more frequent use of corporal punishment than mothers who had not experienced childhood sexual abuse” (Barrett, 2009, p. 489).

The correlation between poverty and childhood maltreatment has been noted throughout the literature. “Welfare recipients are at a higher risk for abuse” (Taylor & Barusch, 2004, p.

707). Finkelhor and Browne (1985) examined the possible mediators of the severity of sexual abuse. Finkelhor and Browne (1985) identified four trauma genic dynamic models (traumatic sexualization, betrayal, powerlessness, and stigmatization) with 178 low-income African

American, European, and Mexican American women. Modeling showed powerlessness and stigmatization largely medicated the effects of sexual abuse severity on women’s psychological distress in adulthood. (Finkelhor & Browne. 1985). Singh, Garnett, and Williams (2013) conducted a study that explored “the daily lived experiences of African American women . . . who have survived child sexual abuse” (p. 1093). The six themes used in the data were:

(a) understanding traumatic symptoms, (b) externalizing racist and sexiest stereotypes of African

American women, (c) negotiating family relationships and accessing community support, (d) transforming religion and spirituality into sources of healing, (e) reclaiming sexuality, and (f) integrating multiple identities as a survivor. (p. 1093) Some African American girls do not always divulge when they are being abused because of shame or a fear that people will not believe them or being blamed for the abuse taking place. African American girls may feel shame or guilt related to their abuse (Bowens, 2007; Brazelton, 2011; CDC, 2011; Glamb, 2011). There are several short- and long-term consequences for survivors of child sexual abuse; for example, some girls may experience sleeping problems, challenges with sexuality, and chronic pelvic pain

(American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry [AACAP], 2011; CDC, 2009).

Substance Abuse among African Americans

Researchers have affirmed that “African Americans suffer from substance abuse more than any other ethnicity” (Addiction Treatment.Org, 2012). According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration (2015), “The majority of these individuals are descendants from Africans who were brought to the United States as slaves, and the repercussions of slavery, sharecropping, and racial segregation continue to exert a negative influence on their socioeconomic and political status. The rates of illegal drug use may be higher among African

Americans, as statistics show that more members of this group receive treatment at specialized facilities than Hispanics or Whites. In 2013, the NSDUH reported that among those Americans who needed treatment for illicit drug use, 21.3% of Blacks received treatment at a specialty facility, such as a clinic or rehabilitation center, compared with 17.3% of the rest of the population. Similarly, more African Americans received treatment for alcohol abuse at a specialty facility than other groups (13.5% vs. 7.6%). Individuals who grew up in impoverished neighborhoods are at greater risk for a variety of poor mental and physical health outcomes in life, including increased risk of depression, substance abuse, and cardiovascular disease

(Boardman, Finch, Ellison, Williams, & Jackson, 2001; Cutrona, Wallace, & Wesner, 2006; Diez

Roux, 2001).

Poverty That Impacts Learning

Nettles and Gosman (1986) affirmed that African American women who seek higher education face many barriers to their success. Some of these impediments include low levels of parental support, low levels of parental education, limited resources to pay for college, low self- confidence, and limited social expectations for African American women. Every year as many as

1.7 million first-year students entering both 2- and 4-year colleges will take a remedial course to

learn the skills they need to enroll in a college level course. African American, Hispanic, and low-income students represent the largest populations of entering college freshmen who require remedial courses. Remediation will be required for 64.7% of low-income students who are enrolled in a 2-year college and 31.9% enrolled in a 4-year college. Some of that factors that are common in the literature for these results are lack of exposure, language barriers, lack of stability, lack of role models, and first-generation students. Chen, Miller, Brody, and Lei (2015) state that “to succeed under contexts of high neighborhood poverty, resilient youth need to develop high levels of self-regulation, control, and competence.

Farmer et al. (2004) state the concept of “at risk” is commonly used to characterize minority youth from ethnic minorities are disproportionately more likely to live in high poverty area and have to adjustment difficulties in adolescence and adulthood, and many minority youth- from poor communities do not appear to experience negative outcomes. Much of the research on

“at risk” youth from low-income communities has focused on the inner-city neighborhoods.

American inner cities have been identified as experiencing a high level of poverty and associated risks (Anderson & Burton, 1994). Two studies were conducted to explore the degree to which single- and multiple-risk profiles were evident in samples of African American early adolescents in low-income, inner city, rural and suburban schools. Overall, more than 60% of African

American youth in these two low-income samples did not evidence risk for later adjustment problems. The sample consisted of 475 African American male and female students. Despite the challenges that young African American women face, some of them beat the odds (Todd &

Worell, 2000). A study was conducted focusing on

the resilience of poor women and to determine if being a poor Black woman leads to a positive and productive life. Fifty low-income, urban, African American women were interviewed, and factors that contribute to their resilience were explored. The women in

the sample were between the ages of 19 and 54, were employed at least 20 hours per week, and had at least one child under the age of 13 at home. . . . Multiple regression analyses revealed the problematic social ties and downward social comparison together predicted over 48% of the variance in resilience. Many people living in poverty do not exhibit poor mental health and negative well-being and, to the contrary, continue to have a positive sense of well-being; that is, many are resilient. According to the participants some factors identified as contributors to well-being included social support, children, spiritual belief, determination to survive or prevail, and self-efficacy. (Todd & Worell, 2000, p. 119)

While “African American women may struggle with everyday life that their environment brings there is still determination and a willingness to achieving” (Todd & Worell, 2000, p. 120).

Low Self-esteem that Impacts Learning

Hatcher (2007) states “that self-esteem is a critical element of the health of African

American women. Poor self-esteem is associated with a broad range of mental disorders and social problems, such as depression, suicidal tendencies, and anxiety” (p.5). Hatcher’s article

“critically reviews the state measurement of self-esteem in African American women. The

Rosenberg self-esteem scale, the Tennessee self-concept, and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem

Inventory are three commonly used measures” (Hatcher 2007, p. 224). Watt (2006) conducted a study to examine racial Identity attitudes, womanist identity attitudes, and self-esteem of 111

African American college women who attended HBCU. According to Mann, Hosman,

Schaalma, and de Vries (2004), those with poor self-esteem can struggle depression, suicidal tendencies, eating disorders, and anxiety. There are five stages of racial identity development. In the Pre-encounter stage a person views the world through the eyes of a European American and he or she values the dominant culture.

Watt (2006) conducted a study with over 100 African American female college students who were enrolled at HBCU’s Watt surveyed them about their attitudes about racial identity,

womanist identify attitudes and self- esteem. Fleming (1983, 1984) discovered that perceptions of race and gender can play a significant role in how students feel about themselves and how they process information that is given. The literature notes that African American woman attending HBCUs have higher self-esteem and have more access to develop their leadership skills, and it has been noted that African American women attending HBCU have a greater sense of well-being (Madrazo-Peterson & Rodriquez, 1978; Watson & Kuh, 1996).

Chavous, Rivas-Drake, Smalls, Griffin, and Cogburn (2008) investigate relationships between racial discrimination experiences and academic engagement outcomes for adolescent boys and girls in grades 8 and 11. Chavous and colleagues affirmed through their findings that racial centrality related positively to school performance and school importance attitudes for boys. Furthermore, regarding lower race-central girls, “peer discrimination related positively to academic self-concept” (p. 637). Kaba (2005) confirmed, “Socioeconomic background moderated the relationship of discrimination with academic outcomes differently for boys and girls” (p. 6). In conceptual frameworks linking perceptions of group status, racial identity, and achievement outcomes in learning (Kaba, 2005; Saunders, Davis, Williams, & Williams, 2004).

For more than 20 years scholars have theorized that race-related beliefs and experiences in academic achievement of African American adolescents (Fordham & Ogbu).

The literature continues to point out that there is still some work to be done to support

African American women in higher education. The literature indicated African American women are more vulnerable to persistent poverty and sexual assault. African American women who live in low-income housing complexes or who are homeless most often are in communities with high rates of violence and substance use and abuse that ultimately increase their vulnerability to being sexually assaulted (Abbey, Parkhill, Jacques-Tiura, & Saenz, 2009).

Being a part of social clubs help African American students feel more connected to the university. Social clubs help students feel more connected and gives a since of school pride.

(Bartman, 2015). For example, cross cultural mentoring, sorority engagement and population specific counseling techniques (Bartman, 2015). Higher education professionals must give voice to the need for continued and focused intervention strategies to build further success on the achievements that these students have already realized (Bartman, 2015).

The purpose of the literature is to provide insight into the experiences of the nontraditional African American female undergraduate students attending a Hispanic-serving institution (HSI). The findings suggest that academe must address the unique academic and social integration issues these students present from vantage points recognizing their African

American female nontraditional students.

Hughes and Howard-Hamilton (2003) emphasized the “responsibility for providing supportive environments for African American women should not be left to women of color only” (p.1). The literature suggested a serious lack of African American women faculty and staff members working in institutions of higher education; this also impacts the experiences of

African American female college students. African American women seek role models and mentors in the college setting, but they must often look outside of their own cultural group due to the small number of African American female faculty and staff.”

Several scholars have discussed the challenges and obstacles African American women face in higher education (Fredah Mainah Western Michigan University & Vernita Perkins

Chicago School of Professional Psychology, 2015). Perkins (1997) discussed the history of education of African American women and the point was made that higher education opportunities for African American women in the 19th century included a growing number of

Black colleges in the south, which were mostly still high school grade, although they were called

“colleges.” Understanding the laws and history are very important because in order to move forward and create a model of change one must be able to relate everything to the future as a people. African American students have not experienced a soft place to land in our education system.

Despite 60 years of struggle and reform since Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, education for African American students continues to be mired in the nation’s failure to provide equal access and educational equity. “High school graduation rates and school performance data reveal that 24 states have an African American graduation rate that is below the national average of 73%” (Snyder & Dillow, 2015, p. 56).

“Compared to other racial groups across the nation, only 7% of African American high school seniors reached proficiency in mathematics and 17% reached proficiency in reading” (National

Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2016, p. 1). Additionally, according to reports from the

College Board (2015), African American students are less likely than their peers to complete fundamental coursework essential to college access, including Advanced Placement (AP) courses and International Baccalaureate (IB) Programs.

In higher education, African American undergraduates tend to be less academically prepared for college (Bryant, 2015). Only 20% of African Americans graduate in 4 years. With only 20% of African American students completing a bachelor’s degree in 4 years, it comes as no surprise that African American college student outcomes are grave (U.S. Department of

Education, 2016). Higher percentages of African American students (30%) take remedial college courses compared to their peers (Whites 20%, Asian 23%, and Hispanic 29%; Woo, Green, &

Matthews, 2012). “Additionally, several researchers revealed that African American

undergraduates have lower grade point averages and lower levels of academic persistence than their White colleagues” (Bowen & Bok, 2016; Ross et al., 2012; Woo et al., 2012, p. 15).

“According to the most recent data from the U.S. Department of Education, racial disparities exist in college grade point averages; 55% of African American college completers had a GPA average of 3.0 or higher compared to 75% of White bachelor’s degree-holders.

African American students (15%) were three times as likely as their White peers (6%) to graduate with a GPA below 2.5 (Woo et al., 2012). “Another trend is that African American women outnumber African American men in college completion” (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013;

Harper, 2012, 2015, p. 66).

African American families vary in father residency, presence of grandparent or extended kin in the home, and other forms of family structure. There is limited knowledge on how differences in household makeup affect African American parenting (Apfel & Seitz, 1997).

There is a decrease in marriages and an increase of divorce rate. Moreover, more households are headed by females in the African American community (Murry et al., 2001).

There is still a range of opinion as to the effect that the sexual abuse of children and adolescents has on their psychological well-being. The arguments range from those who are convinced that there are few, if any, harmful effects (Bender & Grugett, 1952; Gagnon, 1962;

Landis, 1956), to those who are equally as adamant that the effects are both immediate and pervasive throughout adulthood (Bagley & Ramsay, 1985-1986; Briere & Runtz, 1988;

Finkelhor, 1980, 1988; Fromuth, 1983; Lewis & Sarrell, 1968; Lukianowicz, 1972; Nakishima &

Cakus, 1977; Peters, 1988; Russell, 1983; Russell et al., 1988; Seidner & Calhoun, 1984; Silver et al., 1983; Tsai et al., 1979). There is reason to suspect that we may not have accurate descriptions of the aftermath of child sexual abuse for several reasons. The first is that children

tend not to reveal feelings in such a way as to indicate the seriousness of events of this nature

(Corwin, 1988; Sgroi, 1978; Summit, 1988).

Consequently, should disclosure of the incident take place, it may be limited in detail and in affect, depending upon the consequences of the disclosure and to whom or what the subject attributes the incident’s occurrence. If the incident is not revealed, the child may exhibit some symptoms that are misinterpreted by parents and professionals (Katz & Mazur, 1979; Peters,

1984; Wyatt & Newcomb, in press). Another reason that descriptions of abuse may not fully reflect the experience is that there have been ethnic differences noted in reporting patterns about child sexual abuse.

Depending upon the sample studied and the ethnicity of the perpetrator, the reasons for not reporting child sexual abuse may vary. For example, Black women have been found to be less likely to report child abuse to anyone, even to members of their family, particularly if the perpetrator is White (Adams-Tucker, 1982; Katz & Mazur, 1979).

Parental influence has an impact on educational attainment throughout elementary, secondary, and postsecondary:

Moreover, the implementation of policies such as welfare reform disproportionately affects poor families, such as African Americans, and may indirectly influence family structure, for example by a reduction or elimination of welfare benefits to mothers when fathers reside in the same household. (McLoyd, Cauce, Takeuchi, & Wilson, 2000, p. 1070)

Harper (2015) notes that “African American men’s bleak college underrepresentation, disengagement, underachievement, and low rates of bachelor’s degree completion are among the most demanding and difficult issues in American higher education” (p. 646). “With these issues is the continued mishandling of African American male students by educators, policymakers, and concerned others throughout the educational pipeline” (Harper, 2015, p. 674).

Unfortunately, intensifying the focus on the troubled status of African American male students at all levels of education has provided few solutions. This trend provides support for the need to mend the deep cracks in the education pipeline, which appear to be deeply severed for

African American students. “Although African American students have made small gains in achievement and college enrollment over the last two decades, cracks in the education pipeline continue to hinder the academic success and graduation rates of African American learners”

(Ryan & Bauman, 2016, p. 105).

These outcomes have deep negative impacts at all levels, as successful education is directly correlated to the ability of new members of the workforce to access careers and become national and world leaders in an increasingly global market. Ewell, Jones, and Kelly (2003) affirm that the concept of the educational pipeline is linked not only to educational attainment but is also a social asset as economic capital for the individual, community, and larger municipal structure. Schools, communities, parents, teachers, researchers, and other key stakeholders should all be impatient about improving outcomes and mending the pipeline cracks for students who experience these gaps in education.

In a qualitative study conducted by Russell, Jackson, Blanchard, and Louis (2014), the participants noted that “self confidence in their success as students was directly related to their relationship with their African American mentors” (p. 62). These situations add to the isolation, lack of belonging, and stress. Targeted interventions are required to help assist these students successfully manage these challenges (Zamani, 2003). All women, regardless of race, were educationally disadvantaged prior to the Civil War because of social norms which dictated that only White men should receive formal postsecondary education. Colleges for women were founded to offset the situation.

Today, there are 82 women colleges in 25 states. Zamani (2003) affirmed that the inequities faced by African Americans as a group have been particularly oppressive for African

American women. According to Lerner (1992), African American women have always been more conscious of and more handicapped by race oppression than by sex oppression. The value

African Americans place on education has always been extraordinarily high because of their deep historical and cultural belief in the efficacy of education.

Ortega-Liston and Rodriguez Soto (2014) investigated the challenges, choices, and decisions of women professors in higher education of Hispanic, African American, and Asian women compared with their White peers. The study concluded that while women comprise nearly half of all postsecondary teachers, they are not keeping up with the pace of White males in terms of promotion or tenure. The reason for including this information is to illustrate that even after earning a conferred degree there still will be challenges presented to women in the higher education workforce.

Bush, Chambers, and Walpole (2009) explored the educational experiences of African

American women from the time they earned their high school diplomas through graduate study with a focus on their doctorate studies and individual paths and challenges.

Schwartz and Washington (1999) examined the academic success and retention of first- year female African American college students at a historically Black, private, liberal arts college in the southeast. The women were surveyed about their preparation and readiness for college their first weeks on campus. The study supported my statement of the problem in Chapter

I that African American women suffer from many factors that prohibit them from degree completion. Schwartz and Washington’s (1999) research study affirms that some African

American women have low levels of parental support, low levels of parental education, limited

sources to pay for college, low-confidence, and limited social expectations. The purpose of the research was to determine if there are specific cognitive, non-cognitive, and demographic variables that could predict academic success and retention of African American females. This research was selected because the information strengthens my agreement regarding African

American women challenges in higher education. While the cognitive and non-cognitive variables are important to examine, the insights and experiences that African American female students have had will help to provide understanding as well.

Self-confidence

Confidence can be described as a belief in one’s self and one’s ability to succeed.

Striking a healthy balance between too much and too little confidence can be challenging. Too much confidence can result in one being perceived as cocky and one can stumble into unforeseen obstacles in overestimating one’s own abilities or fail to complete projects on deadline because one underestimates the time and effort they require. Having too little confidence can prevent one from taking risks and seizing opportunities in school, at work, in one’s social life, and beyond.

Projecting just enough confidence helps you gain credibility, make a good lasting first impression, deal with pressure, and meet personal and professional challenges in a straightforward manner.

Poverty

Poverty is the state of being extremely poor—the condition where people’s basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter are not being met. Poverty is generally of two types:

(1) Absolute poverty is synonymous with destitution and occurs when people cannot obtain adequate resources (measured in terms of calories or nutrition) to support a minimum level of physical health. Absolute poverty means about the same everywhere and can be eradicated as demonstrated by some countries. (2) Relative poverty occurs

when people do not enjoy a certain minimum level of living standards (as determined by a government and enjoyed by the bulk of the population) that vary from country to country, sometimes within the same country. (Poverty, 2018, para. 1)

Poverty increases exposure to negative physical, psychological, behavioral, and social environments that influence health (Halfon & Hochstein, 2002; Link & Phelan, 2000).

“Perceived causes of poverty are affected by one’s status and location” (Madagascar, 1966, p.

27).

Conclusions of the Literature

The literature supports the statement of the problem and supports the purpose of this project. Institutions of higher education can better support African American women who have suffered abuse, non-supportive parents, poverty, feelings of not belonging and isolation, and low self-confidence, and in so doing enhance those students’ chances for success in obtaining a college degree. The review of the literature confirms the challenges that African American students face in higher education. Throughout the literature there is some similar information that present a correlation between low socioeconomic status and academic success of African

American female students in higher education. Many Black students who enroll in college are not adequately prepared for the college-level curriculum. Many researchers conclude that poor preparation in K-12 education leaves many Black students without a sufficient academic foundation to succeed in college. Poor grades then lead to frustration, which increases the likelihood that these students will drop out of high school. What we know from the research is that while students drop out in high school, that decision is typically made in middle school

(Tyrone Howard, Professor, Graduate School of Education & Information Studies, University of

California at Los Angeles).

“Some researchers have found grandmother support to be positive and adaptive to

African American adolescent mothers (Leadbeater & Linares, 1992, p. 107) but others find less adequate parenting by adolescents experiencing high levels of grandparent involvement (Black

& Nitz, 1996, p. 431). Depending on the nature of the sample, conflicting findings may emerge about positive versus negative effects of social support.”

Common Themes in the Literature

College success for African American first-year women students is a function of the background characteristics students bring to college and their own initial commitment to a college education. Pre-college characteristics are critical for students to be able to successfully integrate themselves into a college environment. A student who is committed to her educational goals and satisfaction as result of her interaction with the college is more likely to persist in college. Pre-college characteristics students bring to college are critical for students to be able to successfully integrate themselves into the college environment. Despite the obstacles African

American women face in higher education, a large number of African American females are successful. High school grades and rank remain significant predictors of academic performance regardless of race. Studies showed that with multiple interactions with first-generation Black female students both parents were not supportive. The mother was found to be more supportive than the father, if the father was supportive at all. The support extended family members extended was also salient, as was support from teachers, which was mentioned by both high- and low-performing students (Levine & Nidiffer, 1996).

Summary

To be Black and a woman, to possess a dual consciousness defined by both race and gender causes one to examine and interact with the world differently (Lorde, 1984). Chapter II

offered the search strategy and the inclusion criteria used throughout the dissertation. The literature examined the background challenges that African American girls and women face while trying to earn an education. This includes elementary, secondary, and postsecondary education. Chapter II also discussed the laws associated with education and how the laws impact

African American female students. The literature speaks to poverty, abuse, low self-confidence, and non-supportive parents in relation to African American girls and women. The conclusion of the review of the literature was that while educational attainment of African American female students has increased over the years, the gap between African American female students and other races related to educational attainment, wage earnings, and promotions in higher education still exists. Throughout the literature racial identity is a component tied to low self-confidence of

African American women and educational attainment. Racial identity becomes increasingly salient for ethnic minority adolescents as they explore the significance of their racial group membership in defining who they are (Phinney, 1990; Spencer & Markstorm-Adams, 1990) and has been linked to various youth outcomes (Sellers, Copeland-Linder, Martin, & Lewis, 2006;

Spencer et al., 2001; Wong et al., 2003). Throughout the literature researchers’ findings are very similar in that there is a gap in educational attainment, wage earnings, and factors that make it more difficult for African American female students to earn an education at the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary levels. Chapter III explains the methodology and goes into detail about my life. Chapter III also answers the question, “Why autoethnography?”

Chapter III

Methodology and Narrative of My Life

Chapter III begins with an explanation of why the methodology of autoethnography was used to construct this dissertation. After the methodology is explained a narrative is presented concerning the struggles of a young African American woman who survived abuse, poverty, and feelings of non-supportive parents. This narrative gives one the framework to understand why this particular methodology was used. The author combines the methodology of autoethnography and storytelling to demonstrate why African American female students need more support at the elementary, secondary, and postsecondary levels of education in order to realize academic achievement among this population. Reviewing the history of the study, strengths, weaknesses, criticisms of the study, and why autoethnography was the best choice for the study. Examining the common themes among the literature.

The History of Autoethnography

Autoethnography tries to describe a very particular “What Is” in order to point towards

“What Ought to be.” Autoethnography is an approach to research and writing that seeks to describe and systematically analyze (graphy) personal experience (auto) in order to understand the cultural experience (ethno). Writing personal stories can also be therapeutic for authors as they write to make sense of their experiences. “In the 1980s, scholars became interested in the importance of culture and storytelling as they gradually became more engaged through the personal aspects in ethnographic practices” (Ellis, Adams, & Bochner, 2010, p. 1, para. 5). “At the end of the 1980s, scholars applied the term ‘autoethnography’ to work that explored the interplay of introspective, personally engaged selves and cultural beliefs, practices, systems, and experiences” (Ellis et al., 2010, p. 1). “In the 1990s an emphasis was placed on personal

narratives; hence, the expansion of the use of ‘autoethnography.’ Embracing personal thoughts and feelings generates a better understanding of the research topic” (Adams & Holman Jones,

2008, p. 1).

Autoethnography

“Autoethnography is a form of self-reflection and writing that explores the researcher’s personal experience and connects this autobiographical story to wider cultural, political, and social meanings and understandings” (Pavlenko, 2002, p. 282). “This method involves self- observation and reflective investigation in the context of ethnographic fieldwork and writing.

Autoethnography combines characteristics of autobiography and ethnography” (Pavlenko, 2002, p. 282). Some of the main advantages of personal narratives is that they give us access into learners’ private worlds and provide rich data. Another advantage of conducting an ethnography study is that most of your data is coming from personal experiences. However, there is a limitation placed on a personal narrative (Pavlenko, 2002, 2007).

The product of ethnography is an interpretive story or narrative about a group of people

(LeCompte, 1999). Ellis (2004) states that ethnography is a research approach that describes people and culture. In autoethnography, the researcher is the subject, and the research’s interpretations of the experience are the data (Ellis & Bochner, 2000, p. 281). The inquiry method allows the researcher easy access to the primary data source, which is the researcher.

This easy access makes the researcher’s perspective a privileged one over other researchers in data collection and analysis (Chang, 2008). Since its inception nearly 2 decades ago, autoethnography’s meanings and applications have evolved. “Autoethnography is also described as personal narratives of the self, personal experience narratives and self-stories, first person accounts, and personal essays” (Ellis & Bochner, 2000, p. 281).

Ellis (2004) further expounds that autoethnography is writing about the personal and its relationship to culture. “Because culture is comprised of self and others, autoethnography is not a study of self alone” (Chang, 2008, p. 65). Autoethnography is a study of self as the main character with others as supporting actors in the lived experience (Chang, 2008).

Autoethnographic research privileges and forefronts the perspective and experiences of the researcher. For example, Delamont (2007, 2009), a strong opponent of autoethnography, has argued autoethnographic studies are self-indulgent, focus on experiences rather than analysis, and cannot be written ethically. However, I take Delamont’s critique not as an attack but as a warning, one that reminds me to be mindful of the pitfalls of the autoethnographic process.

Furthermore, Delmont’s critique also points to our responsibilities as researchers in a formal institution to contribute to the pool of knowledge and to pay due diligence to those involved— directly and indirectly—in our research.

Autoethnographic Narratives of Other Similar Individuals

Autoethnography is an emerging research method, methodology, and form of lived inquiry that uses the experiences of the researcher as a site to develop understanding of social phenomena (Wall, 2006). The earliest use of the term autoethnography can be traced back to anthropologist Hayano (1979) in his essay, “Auto-Ethnography: Paradigms, Problems, and

Prospects.” In Hayano’s essay he proposes that individuals who study people, culture, and social phenomena, such as anthropologists, write and conduct ethnographies of their “own people.” In conceptualizing the term, Hayano expresses three reasons why he believes there has been a turn toward autoethnography within schools of anthropology in the United Kingdom and America.

First, Hayano (1979) mentions how it has become almost impossible to study “small isolated tribal groups as if they existed apart from other peoples or world economic and political forces”

(p. 99). Second, Hayano saw that a greater number of minority and foreign anthropologists were being trained and that many of them, either by choice or restriction, chose to study their own communities and people. Hayano (1979) also notes that since there was a growing popularity for courses which studied ethnicity and minority cultures, the need for minority social scientists to study their “own people” grew. Third, Hayano (1979) acknowledges that due to a decrease in funding, social science research and an increase in competition for funding that supports research abroad had waned significantly. Autoethnography has become a significant yet controversial form of qualitative inquiry (Delamont, 2007, 2009). However, through the continued work of social scientists such as Denzin (2010, 2013), Bochner and Ellis (2002), and Sparkes (2002), autoethnography would gain a presence and legitimacy in the world of qualitative research.

The formation and purpose of autoethnography, as Jones, Adams, and Ellis (2013) write, are attributed to four interrelated historical trends in social science research:

(1) a recognition of the limits of scientific knowledge and growing appreciation for qualitative research; (2) a heightened concern about the ethic and politics of research; (3) a greater recognition of and appreciation for narrative, the literary and aesthetic, emotions and the body; and (4) the increased importance of social identities and identity politics. (pp. 25–26)

Autoethnography does not claim to produce better or more reliable research than other methods.

Rather, it is another approach to research that tries to account for the personal in an effort to render research as a complex decision-making process that is composed of “intuitive leaps, false starts, mistakes, loose ends, and happy accidents” (Ronai, as cited in Jones et al., 2013, p. 33).

Autoethnographers such as Anderson (2006) have begun to make a distinction between two forms of autoethnography—evocative and analytical.

The personal experiences and turning points in my life will be the focus on what the research has to say about non-supportive parents, poverty, and abuse among African American

females in education. In autoethnography the researcher has the inside status or insider information. The researcher writes to create a story that connects with what is happening inside of her. This research method does not mean one is an expert or trained on the subject matter but rather relying on one’s own personal experiences to support the research. The reader is not expected to trust me as the writer or author as an expert in the field, but to read the accounts of my life and subject matter to inspire and motivate.

Narrative autoethnography is embedded in the understanding that ethnography is always a depiction of the ethnographer’s experience. Ellingson and Ellis (2008) affirmed autoethnography recently began to make a distinction between two types of autoethnography— analytic autoethnography and evocative autoethnography. According to Anderson (2006), evocative autoethnography draws on the postmodern sensibilities and those advocates distance between themselves from realist and analytic ethnographic traditions. Analytic autoethnography refers to research in the which the researcher is a member in the research group or setting.

Furthermore, is committed to developing theoretical understanding of broader social phenomena

(Anderson, 2006). Narrative autoethnography is a natural extension of elements already ingrained in the ethnography tradition. The history of ethnography shows that ethnographers have always—in one way or another—been trying to determine where they stand in their own depictions of study (Berger, 2001).

Strengths

Autoethnography must not only use their methodological tools and research literature to analyze experience, but also must consider ways others may experience similar epiphanies; they must use personal experience to illustrate facets of cultural experience and in so doing make characteristics of a culture familiar for insiders and outsiders. To accomplish this might require

some comparing and contrasting of personal experience against existing research. Ethnographers bring their own experience to bear in pursuing questions to ask and reviewing data, which can lead to biases in directions of inquiry and analysis (Huddle, 2018).

Ethnography relies heavily on storytelling and the presentation of critical incidents, which is inevitably selective and viewed as a weakness by those accustomed to the scientific approaches of hypothesis testing, quantification, and replication. Ethnography immerses the project team in participants’ lives and enables a relationship to develop with research participants over the period of study. Carrying out research in the everyday life environments of participants helps to identify discrepancies between what people say they do and what they actually do is personalized (Ellingson & Ellis, 2008):

• Ethnography provides a rich source of visual data and helps to reveal unarticulated

needs

• Ethnography captures behavior in the different contexts of everyday life

• Ethnography places a human face on data through real-life stories to which teams can

relate and remember

• Ethnography provides understanding behind “statistics”

• Ethnography allows emotional behavior to be captured

Criticisms of the Study

Closely related to reliability are issues of validity. Critics want to hold autoethnography accountable to criteria normally applied to traditional ethnographies or to autobiographical standards of writing. Thus, autoethnography is criticized for either being too artful and not scientific, or too scientific and not sufficiently artful. “As part ethnography, autoethnography is dismissed for social scientific standards as being insufficiently rigorous, theoretical, and

analytical, and too aesthetic, emotional, and therapeutic” (Ellis, 2009; hooks, 1994; Keller, 1995, p. 105). “Auto-ethnographers are criticized for doing too little fieldwork, for observing too few cultural members, and for not spending enough time with” (different) others (Buzard, 2003;

Delamont, 2009; Fine, 2003, p. 194). Furthermore, in using personal experience, autoethnographers are thought to not only use supposedly biased data (Anderson, 2006; Atkings,

1997; Gans, 1999), but are also navel-gazers (Madison, 2006)—self-absorbed narcissists who do not fulfill scholarly obligations of hypothesizing, analyzing, and theorizing. “Auto ethnographers are viewed as catering to the sociological, scientific imagination and trying to achieve legitimacy as scientists. Consequently, critics say that auto-ethnographers disregard the literary, artistic imagination and the need to be talented artists” (Gingrich-Philbrook, 2005, p. 68).

In social sciences, we have never overcome our insecurities about our scientific stature.

In our hearts, if not in our minds, we know that the phenomena we study are messy, complicated, uncertain, and soft. Somewhere along the line, we became convinced that these qualities were signs of inferiority, which we should not expose. It appeared safer to keep the untidiness of our work to ourselves, rather than run the risk of having our work belittled as “unscientific” or

“unscholarly.” We see uncommonly neurotic in our fear of having our little secret discovered, so we hide behind the terminology of the academic language games we’ve learned to play, gaining some advantage by knowing when and how to say “validity,” “reliability,” “grounded,” and the like. Traditionally we have worried much more about how we are judged as “scientists” by other scientists than about whether our work is useful, insightful, or meaningful—and to whom. We get preoccupied with rigor but are neglectful of imagination (Bochner, 2000).

Best Choice for My Topic

Autoethnography was chosen and used as my research methodology because of its ability to implement storytelling. It was the best way to determine how to tell my story and incorporate research to bring the two ideas together. Of course, knowing the dissertation had to be more, it is not enough to just tell a story. After reviewing autoethnography history, background, and how to apply the theory, I decided this would be the best course of action for my paper. This research design allowed me to be expressive and emotional, and added some peace in my heart.

Autoethnography allows creativity as opposed to a traditional research approach. Some people are not traditional and want to be self-expressive and enjoy telling a story in hopes of inspiring someone else to visualize themselves achieving similar goals.

Narrative of My Life

My life was full of up and downs, hurt and pain throughout the years but with each obstacle and challenge that I was able to take my struggle and turn my struggle into progress.

The struggle is real (a slang term used in the Black community). Frederick Douglas said it best in his quote about struggle:

If there is no struggle there is no progress. Those who profess to favor freedom and yet deprecate agitation, are men who want crops without plowing up the ground, they want rain without thunder and lightning. They want the ocean without the awful roar of its many waters. This struggle may be a moral one, or it may be a physical one, and it may be both moral and physical, but it must be a struggle. Power concedes nothing without a demand. It never did, and it never will. (Douglass, 1857, para. 7)

Background

I was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania at Temple Hospital on October 26, 1980 to

Milton Downing and Karen Davis. My parents loved each other and had dated for a very long time before getting married. My parents got along very well. My parents got married when I was

1 years old and they were divorced by the time I was 6 years old. My mother was tired of struggling with my dad financially. My parents could barely afford where they were living. My father was a struggling young artist who attended Temple University and then went on to the

Tyler School of Art in Philadelphia. He worked part- time in a retail store in Germantown.

Shortly after my parents separated my father remained in Philadelphia for a short time before moving to Delaware. My father landed a good pay job in Camden New Jersey teaching art at

Camden Middle school. My mother and I moved to Brooklyn, New York to live with my grandmother. When we arrived in Brooklyn I was excited about being with my grandmother; she always spoiled me. I was her only granddaughter at the time. Although I missed my father very much. I felt like living with my grandmother was going to be great. Not having both parents in the house made me feel sad. My mother is a vital part of my world and she has always been a caring, hardworking, and loving person. My mother is a high school graduate of Boys and Girls

High School in Brooklyn, New York. I remember when I was about 5 years old my mother went through several training programs, such as Medical Assisting and Dental Assisting. My mother never had consistent employment. She always bounced around from job to job. The last job I recall her having was at the post office at night. I was about 10 years old when she lost her job because drugs became the priority. At this point my father was doing really well financially and he was living in Delaware working in Camden. He would later accept a part-time job teaching art to children and adults at Christina Cultural Arts Center in Wilmington Delaware were he still remains today.

Jackie Robinson Housing Project

Jackie Robinson was a neighborhood were people looked out for each other. Children could go outside and play without getting mixed up with adults disrespecting children like they

do today. My neighborhood while full of poverty, crime and drugs there was a lot of love and an environment that I felt like I belonged in. You could not come to my block and hang out unless you lived there. There was respect for old people and the church that was located across the street. There was a code; people stood for something. Again, the situation was not the best at the time, but it was our situation and we felt that was our safe space. For example, in baseball you have home plate. At home plate you are safe; no one can count you out. Jackie Robinson

Housing project will always be my foundation that created the rock that I am today. I learned my

“street smarts” and survival skills from this place. From watching people go back and forth to work; to watching the guys on the corner play dice. I could walk pass anywhere in my neighborhood and people would look out for you. Everyone called me “lil Tia.” Chauncey Street.

Home! Shown in Figure 9 is a picture of the place where I grew up. This is Fulton Street side; that faces Utica Avenue. I lived in the back of this building. All the buildings connect throughout the project.

Figure 9. Jackie Robinson Housing, Brooklyn New York, 1983-1993. I was 4 years old when I moved to Brooklyn. We lived in a three-bedroom room apartment with six other family members.

Sexual Abuse

I spent every summer in Washington, North Carolina with my grandmother on my father’s side. Grandma Mildred is the kind of grandmother who bakes pies and gives you a shirt

with an animal on it. Grandma Mildred is a “traditional” grandmother. She was very involved in her church and she taught me about the Bible. She taught me the Lord’s Prayer and made me recite the Lord’s Prayer every night before I went to bed. My grandmother worked at a shoe store and cleaned houses for a living. She would often have to leave me with my great grandmother, great aunt, and cousin, who lived in the same house. I spent a lot of time with them while my grandmother was at work.

One sunny summer day my grandmother asked my great aunt and great grandmother to watch me and they did. It was completely normal for her to ask them to watch me. My cousin, who was about 18 years old at the time, called my name and I answered. He asked me to come in his room and close the door. He was completely naked laying on the bed. I closed the door and stood at the door. He asked me to put this lotion on his private area. I refused to do it. He insisted that I do it and I proceeded to lotion his body. I was 6 years old and I felt like something was not right about what he was asking me to do. I tried to move back away from the bed and reach for the bedroom door, but he wouldn’t let me get past him. He proceeded to take my hand and make me touch him. I will never forget this day for as long as I live. I felt weird and dirty. I am 37 years old as of this writing and I have never shared this story until now. I had not seen him since that summer until a few years ago at my great Aunt Ann’s funeral in North Carolina. I could not even bring myself to even speak to him. In the back of my mind I was 6 years old again. When I went back to North Carolina that next summer he was gone. He was always in the army serving our country. Deep down it was a relief that he was no longer there. I did not realize the impact this incident has made on my life until now. I do not allow anyone to watch my children other than their fathers. I do not allow my children to sleep over with friends and friends are not allowed in my home. My children have not spent any time alone time with any of my family

members without me. I do not trust people very easily and I’m always thinking the worst intentions of people. Let the healing begin! I just exhaled!

Elementary School Age Events and Issues

In the1980s, New York was hit hard with a cheap drug that was overtaking Black people by the millions. “Crack cocaine was popularized because of its affordability to the poor. The crack epidemic had devastating effects in African American communities of inner cities causing an increase in addictions, deaths, and drug-related crimes” (Turner, 2016, p. 106).

My mother got caught up in the crack cocaine epidemic. Crack hit hard and fast. I was about 7 years old when I started to notice the change in her slowly over time, as she stopped being motherly. She stopped paying attention to my needs. She stayed out all night and did not come home for days at a time. My mother did not care if I went to school or not. My mother no longer did my hair or spent time with me the way a mother should. Again, although I was young,

I still had the capability to recognize when something was wrong. Things in my grandmother’s apartment started going missing from the china cabinet and my grandmother was missing money from her purse. Stealing, begging, and borrowing became my mother’s way of life. She was always up to something and I knew she was trying to do whatever she could to get high. One day

I was playing with my toys and I found a glass pipe in my toy box. I picked it up and looked at it for about 5 minutes. I held the glass pipe in my hand, I smelled it and just stared at it. I was thinking to myself “why did my mother put this with my toys?” I felt sad, confused and did not understand why this was happening to me. While I did not know exactly what it was that was in my toy box, I knew it was nothing good. I knew it was something bad. At the time I did not know that I was looking at a crack pipe until I saw a movie titled “New Jack City.”

One day my grandmother sent me to the store to get some milk and bread; when I arrived at the store my mother was coming out of the store. You can just imagine that anytime I could see or touch my mother was a joyous moment for me. My mother asked me what I was doing in the store. I replied, “Going to the store for grandma.” She said, “Ok.” Then, she leaned down to my height and gave me a hug. I did not realize that she had reached into my coat pocket and took the money from me while hugging me. I had no idea what she was doing. I was just happy that my mother wanted to hug me; this was something I did not receive from her every day. I went to the register with the milk and bread, but the money was gone. I started to replay where I had put the money, or if I had dropped the money. But I knew she stole the money from me. This left me heartbroken and less trusting of people in general. Her behavior left scars on my heart. On several occasions my mother has hurt my feelings and left me disappointed. She would make promises and break them. I remember there was a commercial that said “it’s 10 pm, do you know where your kids are?” I would act out the commercial replacing the words with “mother.” She was never home and when she was, she was asleep. My mother would sleep for hours at a time.

When she was awake, she was plotting and getting high. My mother would look for me outside and make me come with her to various people houses to beg for money. She would say, “Tia is going to Delaware to visit her dad and she needs money for a train ticket” or “Tia is hungry”,

“Tia needs clothes.” When in fact I was not traveling anywhere or hungry and did not need clothes. This would make me feel like I was being sold or used as a pawn for gain. When the person would give her the money we would leave and once we got down the hallway, she would pass me $5 or $10 for coming with her to lie to people. I became use to it and would be waiting for my cut of the money. If I was asked, how does all this make me feel? I would simply say,

“sad.” I felt like “why me?” “why my mom?” I believe that my mother is the reason I do not

drink or do any type of drugs at all. Drugs destroyed my family. I’m afraid of becoming addicted so I just stay away from everything.

While we lived with my grandmother, I witnessed much hurt, anger, and violence. I barely went to school because my mother did not make me go. My mother did not wake me up for school and my mother did not value education the way my father valued education, but he was in Delaware. I was dealing with my pain alone and felt like I was trapped in this bad dream.

I did visit my father on holidays and summers. My father had re married and his new wife did not like me being around. I do not care how old you are; you know when someone does not like you or want you around. My father was not around enough in this period of my life to have an impact.

I witnessed the police beat people up all the time. I would hear people yell out, “Five-O,” which was the code for police. I witnessed the police chase residents and run up in residents’ apartments destroying their furniture and other belongings. I remember this officer chasing a man through the building and he stopped and ask me “which way did he go?” I just pointed into the opposite direction. I was about 7 years old at the time. My perception at the time was that the police were mean and did not like Black people. I remember telling my grandmother that I wanted to be White because the police did not beat up White people. At this point on television were shows like “Growing Pains,” “Family Ties,” and the “Cosby Show.” The “Cosby Show” was the only show on at the time that depicted Blacks as a family that had values, education and structure. I was pretended to be “Rudy.” She was about the same age as me when this show was on.

My grandmother would try to compensate for the absence of my mother by buying me things and making sure I had nice clothes and plenty of food. While these things made me happy

momentarily, I was still distracted by my mother’s lack of involvement in my life. I managed to pass each grade by doing only what I needed to do to pass each class—nothing more, nothing less. I found myself lost and embarrassed by my mother’s appearance. My grandmother would argue and fight with my mother. My aunt would fight with my mother about her drug habits. My mother has been beaten, raped, and treated like nothing while out in the streets. This made me feel sad, hurt and confused. I feel like I had to grow up fast and understand things way beyond my years. My mother would owe people money and never pay them. I remember a man coming up to me saying, “your mother owes me $10 and if she does not pay me I’m going to beat her up.” I used to pack bags at the grocery store and would make money daily from tips. I gave the man the $10 for my mother’s debt and I told him not to touch my mother. He took the money and laughed at my remark. I was so upset, hurt, angry and confused. Always saying to myself,

“why my mother?” I think “why my mother” was my constant thought at the time.

One day, I was in the elevator that smelled like urine and feces because residents and non-residents would use the elevator as a bathroom. I looked over and a young man was urinating right in front of me. I was going outside to look for my mother as I often did. When I found her, my mother’s appearance was horrible and hard to look at. My mother was dirty and smelled bad most of the time. She lost a lot of weight and had a very bad attitude towards the entire family. I knew deep down that the behavior and habits were not hers, it was the drugs. I grew up very fast because there was so much going on around me. I had to understand situations at an early age and I was exposed to a great deal of adult behavior.

Reflecting on My Elementary School Education Years

Although I attended Catholic school from 4 to 12 years of age, I was still living in the middle of a danger zone. I attended Holy Rosary which was located across the street from our

housing project. I remember always being called to the office on several occasions because my mother never paid the bill or never paid the tuition in full or on time. The nun would pull me out of class and have me sit in the office while she tried to reach my mother for non-payment.

My mother would almost never answer the phone, and when she did, she would get smart and hang up. I would feel like I was in trouble because she did not pay the bill and I would miss class. My mother did the same thing with the candy drive! Every child would get a box of candy to sell to raise money for the school. My mother would neither sell the candy nor pay for the candy. My mother would give the candy to my cousin and I until it was gone. I would be called to the office for the candy monies as well. Once again, I would sit in Sister Edward’s office while she tried to locate my mother. The same routine would occur every day until my grandmother would come to my school and pay everything.

As I think back, second grade is really when my mom’s drug problem became a distraction for me academically. My homework was always incomplete or I did not do it at all.

Neither my mother nor my grandmother checked my homework, or even asked if I had homework. One day I asked my mother to help me with my homework; instead, she completed the writing assignment and told me to turn it in. As soon as I handed it to my teacher she looked and me and said, “I know this is not your work, Tia.” I served a detention and received a zero for the assignment. My mother did not even care about the detention or the zero I received. The same pattern was repeated in third, fourth, and fifth grade. I received poor grades and was still passed to the next grade. I never attended summer school or was retained for my grades. These times for me were getting more difficult to deal with because I was getting older and understanding more and more about what was going on in the world around me.

When I turned 12 years old my grandmother decided I should move to Delaware and live with father. My grandmother told me several times she was tired of me watching my mom destroy herself because in return, her actions were destroying me. I only spent time with my father in the summer and on holidays. He was married to a woman whom I hated with a passion.

I knew in my heart that she did not like me because of my mother. I felt very uncomfortable and a sense of not belonging. I went from one bad situation to another. I hated Delaware because it was so different from New York. New York is a fast pace place. There are a lot of people in New

York. I was used to going to sleep to sirens and gun shots. Delaware is very quiet and slow- paced compared to New York. In Delaware everyone knows everybody, and families are connected. Take a second and picture New York, and then think about Delaware—suburban and quiet. I truly missed the noise of sirens and fire trucks. When I arrived in Delaware, I entered

Stanton Middle School at the end of sixth grade. The teachers at the new school could not believe the grades I previously had and the grades I currently had—there was a big difference because I was away from all the distractions and I was able to concentrate on my schoolwork. I went from having D and F’s to having A’s and B’s within one marking period. The teachers were more supportive and understanding of my circumstances. The kids at the school did not like me because I was different from them and I had nice clothes. I have a very cocky kid with

“Brooklyn Swag” and I dressed up every day like I was going to rip the runway. My grandmother only shopped at Macy’s so all my clothes were name brand and expensive. I had two friends from middle school whom I still interact with today. In seventh grade I started to earn good grades and for a brief -moment I learned to have a positive attitude towards education.

I always came back to New York to visit my family and see my friends every chance I got.

Secondary School Age Events and Issues

High school was a very fun and exciting time in my life. I had many friends and I was very popular in school. I was a part of several different clubs and I played field hockey all 4 years of high school. I was not good at field hockey and if I recall correctly, we only won one game. We would sing this chant: “Everywhere we go, people want to know who we are, so we tell them we’re from Delcastle, couldn’t be prouder. If you didn’t hear me, I will say it a little louder.” I remember the days of just enjoying being a teenager and I thought I knew everything.

However, my father was going through a divorce during my 10th-grade year, which put a strain on him financially and mentally. I worked two jobs in high school to buy the things I wanted and needed. I helped my dad with money when he asked. I missed a lot of high school because my dad was so distracted with his personal issues that I realized I could do whatever I wanted. I barely graduated high school. I had to take a summer course to earn my diploma. I graduated high school with a 1.8 GPA in 1998. I was told by my teachers early in school that I was not going to be anything or amount to anything. I remember my high school history teacher—an African American woman—told me I was not going to be anything because I was lazy and could not be helped.

I was told that I was not college material and I should just get a job. In my senior year,

1998 I applied to several schools and was accepted to Virginia State University. I thought because I needed to go to summer school that I could not go that August 1998, but I was wrong.

Years later, I realized that I could have attended the university in the Spring of 1999. I found myself lost and with my father being distracted with his divorce and custody battle over my stepsister, he was not paying any attention to my future. My father had no idea I was even accepted to Virginia State because I did not tell him. I did not attend Virginia State University.

Postsecondary and Life After

At the age of 19, I became pregnant with my first child and gave birth when I was 20 years old. I gave birth to a child from 2001 to 2004. My first three children have the same father who I was with for several years. We were both young and at the time he was not ready to be with one woman. He cheated on me our entire relationship and I continued to stay until one day I realized I deserved a better man. I deserved someone who was going to put me first and love me the way I needed to be loved. I remember like it was yesterday—my baby boy Devon was 3 weeks old at the time and I used the money I received from maternity leave to pay the first and last month’s rent for a duplex. I took my three children and left their cheating father and never looked back.

We moved to Hampton Green in New Castle, Delaware the summer of 2004. We moved into a two-bedroom, one-bathroom duplex with a private entrance. I did not have a bed to sleep in, but I did not care—as long as my children had what they needed, that is all that mattered to me. I remember waking up some mornings not knowing how I was going to pay the rent or buy food. One thing that has remained constant throughout my life is that I always managed to find a way to make something happen. During this period of my life I was working at a dentist office making $11.00 an hour and trying to pay for daycare, which was nearly impossible since I had three children in daycare.

In 2004, I met and later married a man who I thought was going to be the answer to my prayers. I later learned that I was wrong. I had my fourth child by my husband at the time and everything was wonderful; then one day, everything changed. I stayed home with my daughter for the first year of her life; my husband struggled to pay the bills alone, but that is the way he wanted it. He did not want our daughter in daycare. I later learned that his caring, loving, and

giving way allowed him to control me. He controlled my relationships with my friends and family. He could not separate his daughter mother from a previous relationship that he had with his oldest daughter’s mother. She tried everything to make herself known and used her daughter against my husband at the time. While dealing with that situation I had to contend with his controlling ways. You cannot go here or there. I always had to stay in the house. He never hit me; he did push me a few times, but nothing that hurt me physically.

After being married for only a year we found ourselves in family court getting a divorce.

We both were young; I do not think either of us was ready for marriage at the time. In the process of getting a divorce I found myself in love again with the man to whom I am currently married. I have been living on the edge of love. While dating my husband for a very short time and moving very quickly with our relationship, I would later learn that he had a problem with alcohol. I remember watching him one day thinking, “He’s really drinking beer this early in the morning?”

His alcohol problem quickly became a problem in our relationship and later in our marriage, until one day I had enough of his foolishness and said to him, “It’s either your family or the alcohol.” He did not say anything at the time and he did not even look at me, as I remember. However, the next week he stopped drinking cold turkey and started attending

Alcoholics Anonymous meetings for the next few months. My husband has not had an alcoholic beverage in 8 years. My husband and I have a blended family; he has four children and I have four children from prior marriages. All of my children lived with me and his children lived with their mothers. One day he asked me if his two younger children could come stay with us because their mother was having some stability issues. I said yes, and his children lived in and out of our house for years.

One day the unthinkable happened. In 2012 my husband’s youngest son at the time was shot and killed at the age of 16. His son got into an argument with another young man in front of a gas station. I watched the video that was captured by the gas station owner. On the tape one could see my husband’s son crossing the street walking towards the young man and one could see words being exchanged but I could not hear what they were saying. Only their actions were caught on camera by the gas station.

One could see my husband’s son punch the young man in the face; the other guy staggered back and reached in his coat for a gun. He pulled the gun out and shot once, hitting my husband’s son in the chest, and then running away from the scene. My husband’s son was pronounced dead at Christiana Hospital some hours later. The entire evening felt like a bad dream. This horrible act of violence almost resulted in divorce because the mother of the child was losing her mind, which was understandable, but she was disrespecting me, and my husband was not doing anything about it. I felt like an outsider throughout the entire situation and I felt like my husband’s mind was gone.

I tried to forgive and forget but it is very hard for me to forgive and forget. Over the years she has been a handful to deal with, but I would never let another woman dictate my relationship with anyone. I made that mistake in my first marriage. Blended families are difficult and require effective communication to survive. I know that I am not a perfect person and I have many flaws that interrupted previous and current relationships that I have with family and friends. I can be selfish, stubborn, and vain at times because I refuse to let anyone take advantage of me.

My Light Bulb Moment

In my case I did not have the support of my parents early in my life; therefore, it took me longer to arrive at my light bulb moment, a moment of realization and inspiration when one

thinks to oneself, “I should be doing more with my life.” More can mean various things, but to me more meant going back to school and fulfilling degree requirements to earn a degree. One day I woke up and realized I was 29 years old and was no longer going to allow the rollercoaster of my childhood to hold me back from creating a future that I could pass down to my children.

Therefore, I started applying to colleges in the tri-state area and applied for financial aid. I was awarded a full Pell grant and loans. In the process of applying and waiting to hear back from different schools, Wilmington University accepted me with open arms.

The assistance I received from the admissions office was beneficial and I felt connected to the university from the beginning. I felt confident that I could achieve and be successful academically. I registered for six classes my first semester in August of 2011 and continued that pattern until I was finished my master’s degree.

I am an adult learner, or non-traditional student. Adult learners or non-traditional students are usually adult students who work and take care of a family. Knowles (1984) affirms adult learners need more explanation of the “why” of changes, not just the “how.” Adult learners are generally more practical, multi-tasking, purposeful, self-directed, experienced, and less open- minded and receptive to change. All these traits affect their motivation, as well as their ability to learn. As an adult learner I am more focused on my education. I am aware of the cost of my education and time that I spend learning is valuable to me. I did not participate in a TRIO program or EOF programs which are designed to support low-income and/or first-generation college students.

After being at Wilmington University for one semester my English professor recommended me to be a peer mentor. I went through the interview process and was selected to be a part of the peer mentoring program. Through the peer mentoring program, I started sharing

my story with other nontraditional students. While being a peer mentor I was asked to assist with walk-in registrations. Walk-in registration was held daily in the computer lab and I would assist students with selecting and registering for their upcoming classes. It was through this experience that I fell in love with higher education as a career. It did not feel as if I was working. The sessions felt more like I had company in my living room and it was my job to make my company feel at home. I became the most sought-out person in the advising department. Students would look for me to help them; if I was not around, they would wait for me or leave and return later.

I really enjoy public speaking and I thoroughly enjoy talking about myself! I found that sharing my story has not only inspired the non-traditional students but inspired me as well.

Telling my story kept me striving for excellence in everything that I did and continue to do. I was a peer mentor for 4 years. Since I was successful with the walk-in registration I was asked to help directly in the office of academic advising. My responsibilities were to answer phones, schedule appointments, and assist students with course registration.

In 2013, I created a club called Bridging the Gap. I designed the club for students such as myself to have a place to receive support and guidance. After the club was approved our first meeting had 40 students in attendance. There was standing room only, which made me very happy. I was so excited and knew I was doing the right thing based on the turnout and responses

I received from students.

In 2013 I asked to assist with the Wilmington University dance team; after one season I became the dance team coach. I really enjoyed working with the young ladies, not only with dance, but being able to mentor several of them was a way for me to make a difference. Later that year I was asked by my manager at the time to help with Ronald McDonald House on a

Saturday morning cooking breakfast for sick children and their families. I had so much joy

assisting with this initiative that I committed to it for the year. Once a month on a Saturday I donated my time.

I walked with my master’s degree in School Counseling in May of 2014. I also received the service award at graduation for outstanding service on and off campus. Two weeks later I was offered a part-time position as an academic advisor. I was completely surprised and excited for the opportunity. My experiences at Wilmington University have led me to my love for higher education. My long-term goal is to be Vice President of Student Affairs. I know this dream will come true if I apply myself and execute the plan.

Working on this final degree has been an exciting and nervous process for me. I was denied the first time I applied in 2014. I reapplied in 2015 and was accepted after going through the application process. I would have never thought in a million years that I would be working on a doctoral degree and reaching for goals that are taller than I am. While in the program I have had 4 operations and have suffered some periods of depression and isolation. I was really depressed when I had a tubal reversal in 2015 and when I woke up from surgery I had only 1 tube. I was so upset, confused, and angry. I later became pregnant in my tube and had to have emergency surgery in which I lost my only tube and pregnancy. During this process I did not miss a class or assignment. However, my grades in the first 2 classes I earned a “C” and was on academic probation. Once I got off probation, I tried my best to never get a grade lower than a

“C” again. I later went through the process of IVF and became pregnant with twins my first round. I lost twin A week 8 into my pregnancy and I’m proud to say that twin B I carried successfully and today I call him Nolan. One day I was combing my hair and I felt a knot on my scalp and I had to get the knot removed from my scalp. I happy the knot was non-cancerous and is now gone. Part of me feels like this is an impossible dream and I find myself doubting the

completion. But then something inside of me says “Keep going Tia, you’re almost there!” This degree is for my children; I hope they know and understand that without higher education, their future will be lost. Aristotle said it best “the roots of education are bitter; but the fruit is sweet.”

I’m ready for the sweet.

Summary

Chapter III described the methodology used in this dissertation. A detailed explanation was provided for the rationale behind autoethnography being selected as the methodology.

Autoethnography shows the “real” (a slang term used in the Black community). In review of other autoethnographies with similar topics and a similar outlook on the educational journey of

Black women, the findings closely matched mine with experiences of financial hardship, poverty, sexual abuse, or abuse and low self-esteem. Although, they were told that their institution accepted non-traditional methods of research (service-oriented, community-based),

African American researchers using autography were not rewarded regarding promotion or tenure at their university. Using autoethnography as a research method is a risk that I was willing to take. I stood my ground on the methodology and offer the experiences of my life to inspire someone else who reads this dissertation. According to Boyd (2008), “autoethnography is an emerging qualitative research method that uses autobiographical materials of the researcher as the primary data source and emphasizes cultural analysis and interpretation of one’s behaviors, thoughts, and experiences in relationship to others in society” (p. 2). Being able to speak out about childhood sexual abuse, drug use by a parent, poverty, and experiences of low self- confidence is a step in my healing process. It was not until I began to write this dissertation that I realized pain was still in my heart from the experiences of my childhood. That is the beauty of using autoethnography as a research method. The narrative of my life includes how I became an

adult learner and the events that transformed me into the person that I am today. Today I am a confident, strong, successful leader who is no longer using the past as an excuse not to excel and reach my full potential.

Chapter IV

Education Support in the 1980-1990s in New York City and Parental Support

I hope to make a strong argument that developing an ethnographic stance among teachers and learners of literacy can promote a critical and reflective (as opposed to a prescriptive) literacy curriculum, which makes effective use of the full range of available methods and content. Indeed, Shirley Brice Heath, who laid many of the foundations for the new literacy studies, devotes two chapters of her seminal book Ways with Words to describing how ethnographic methods can be used to make the links between the worlds of literacy outside the classroom and those within schools (Heath, 1983). Though her book is mainly quoted for its insights into the different literacies into which children are socialized in the black community of

Traction, the white, working-class community of Rockville and among the middle class

‘townspeople,’ her bigger project was to enable school teachers to make active use of this ethnographic information in their practice in the desegregated schools in the USA in which she had worked.

Chapter IV examines the educational support and lack of support in the 1980-1990s in

New York City for elementary, secondary, and postsecondary education for African American students also reviews parental support and how it plays a part in a child’s educational success or failure. In the 1980s and 1990s there was little to no support for academic achievement among

African American students. According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the

Census, the Black-White difference in dropout rates early in high school is large. Blacks in the eighth-grade class of 1988 were almost twice as likely as their White classmates to drop out of school between the eighth and tenth grades.

“At age 13, Black children are more likely than White children to perform below grade level for their age. Black children are less likely to be enrolled in preprimary education and are more likely to be below modal grade for their age.” Gaps in reading, mathematics, and science achievement appear as early as age 9, and do not narrow with age. Black students are still less likely than White students to take advanced science and mathematics courses or to study a foreign language. Younger Black girls are perceived as less attentive and more disruptive than girls of other races or ethnicities (Francis, 2012). The perceptions may be due to cultural mismatch and the ascription of behaviors such as communal problem-solving to poor behavior

(Boykin, Tyler, & Miller, 2005; Francis, 2012; Tyler, Boykin, & Walton, 2006). Therefore, young Black women are at a disadvantage for honors recommendations (Battey, 2013; Darity et al., 2001; Francis, 2012; Strayhorn, 2010).

Parental Support

According the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, the degree to which parents are involved in their children’s education is another factor linked to effective schooling.

While all levels of education have a duty and responsibility to educate and provide and hold true to their academic standards, parents play a vital role in providing support for their children at home. Getting a high-quality education has always been one of the best ways to improve one’s social and economic prospects, especially for someone who is socially or economically disadvantaged. Black children are at an educational disadvantage for a number of reasons, including lower levels of parental education, a greater likelihood of living with one parent, an environment of income based on residential segregation, and living in a family with an income level below the poverty line.

Connect what your child learns to everyday life. Make learning part of your child’s everyday experience. Connect what your child learns to the world. Help your child take charge of his learning. Don’t overschedule your child. Keep TV to a minimum. Learn something new yourself. Learning something new yourself is a great way to model the learning process for your child.

Available Support for Elementary School Students

The purpose of this study, describing the environment of the democratic classroom, is compatible with the goals of the holistic ethnographer, which includes the exploration and description of a culture in order to understand its uniqueness (Jacob, 1987). Obenchain, Kathryn

M., "An Ethnographic Study of the Qualities and Characteristics of Democratic Elementary

Classrooms Which Motivate Students to Civically Participate" (1997). The overriding concern in the 1980s was the quality of American education. Many studies have documented the poor performance of students in every subject area—in comparison both with those of the past and with those of other countries—or warned about the folly of failing to educate poor and minority children. A student’s achievement can be affected by the degree to which a safe and orderly environment is maintained in a school.

Available Support for Secondary School Students

Although it is necessary for secondary schools and higher education institutions to cooperate in facilitating the process of transition, it seems that higher education institutions do not contact schools early enough for a positive transition to higher education (Chaffee, 1992;

Frick, 2007).” Black students are more likely than their White peers to face a disorderly learning environment, but Black and White students have similar attitudes about teaching quality in their schools. Students who repeat grades are at a greater risk of dropping out of school. Fewer Black

students are dropping out of school now than a decade ago. While Black students are still more likely to drop out than Whites, the gap has been closing over time” (Chaffee, 1992, Frick, 2007, p. 85) “The dropout rate is still considered too high by many educators, but the percentage of

Blacks ages 16-24 who are high school dropouts has declined substantially since the early 1970s.

Gaps in the academic performance of Black and White students appear as early as age 9 and persist through age 17” (p. 1).

Available Support for the Postsecondary School Student

Weis (1985) goes beyond many of the previous arguments about the relationship between education and mobility in general and the role of the community college in particular. Her exceptionally sensitive ethnography partly confirms others' claims that such institutions are not the great engines of democracy and mobility we might think. Yet because this is an ethnography, we are led to see why this is the case (Weis, 1985).

According to the U.S. Department of Commerce, “Black students are less likely than

White students to make the immediate transition from high school to college. Gains made by

Blacks in higher education are not as dramatic as those in elementary and secondary education.

The educational aspirations of Black and White students are similar” (p.1).

In 1992, “Black high school graduates needed remedial mathematics and were less likely to have taken higher level mathematics courses. They were also less likely to have taken chemistry, physics, or the combination of biology, chemistry, and physics. Black high school students are less likely to take advanced science and mathematics courses or study a foreign language.”

Schools need to recognize the vital role families, particularly mothers, play in student academic success. High schools are typically less open to parent participation on a day-to-day

basis and provide them with less information about the academic program. Some support that could be offered to students and parents is an early alert system that is offered in higher education. An early alert system would prompt the parents, guardian, and student of challenges before the grade becomes failing for the marking period or semester. In addition to more attention and assistance from parents and teachers, the students themselves must learn to balance their social lives with the increased academic responsibilities required to achieve an acceptable grade point average.

If HEIs want to improve their retention rates, intensive interventions are necessary at the earliest possible phase, not only to identify potential students at risk, but also to prepare prospective students. Good academic preparation at secondary schools directly correlates with academic success at the university level. HEIs need to be very clear about expectations and entry level competencies expected of entering students. The research suggests that higher education institutions develop partnerships with high schools and community leaders. Various studies suggest that pre-university and partnership projects aim at facilitating access and transition.

Pardon (1992) affirms the emphasis of using study methods, computer skills, mathematics, and language skills before the end of their first year. High school holds a responsibility to prepare first-generation students for higher education.

Ways to Support African American in Poverty

There are several ways to support African Americans students living in poverty earn an education. Some of those ways include creating a safe place in the school environment for expression of feelings and venting. Peer to peer mentors. Teachers as mentors. Create a positive space for learning. Reduce gender race bullying; and harassment prevention. Help students see the value in education. Focus on the positive and give positive feedback. Reduce excessive

discipline (Gross-Graves, 2014). “Develop programs to promote leadership, including mentoring programs, field trips, and guest speakers; provide training in conflict resolution, healthy communication, and problem-solving skills; create meaningful leadership opportunities for

African-American girls” (Gross-Graves, 2014, p. 21). “This will require collaborative and coordinated efforts among a wide range of stakeholders—from policymakers and educators to community members and philanthropists. This is a worldwide problem that needs to be addressed” (Gross-Graves, 2014, p. 22).

Ways to Provide Support for African Americans and Female

Some recommendations to better support African American female students in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary education include:

• Prepare students for the transitions (elementary, secondary, and postsecondary)

• More comprehensive evaluations of teachers in the classroom

• Student/Teacher evaluations (elementary, secondary and postsecondary)

• Saturday school (elementary and secondary)

• Extended school year

• Counseling (elementary, secondary and postsecondary)

• Inventory Assessments/Testing prior to registration for classes

One of the many ways to help students become more successful is the use of an early alert system such as Star Fish. Star Fish, like many other alert systems, is an early alert system that notifies students that they may be in danger of failing if what they are doing or not doing continues. The early alert system collects information and manages a student’s concerns before a student has a chance to really get off track. Star Fish flags excessive absences, tardiness, tutoring needs, and failing grades. This system helps the student know exactly where they stand in a

course or courses. This system is best used in the first 4 weeks of the semester. This product identifies students who need more attention and assistance. Star Fish not only identifies at-risk students; Star Fish also gets everyone involved in the process—advisors, coaches, and other professionals—in the process to help other students become or remain successful. The list below are some effective ways to help students matriculate through each level of education.

Elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels of education.

• Summer Bridge Program

• First-year experience (entire freshman year)

• Counseling Offered

• Mandatory Tutoring

• Clear Expectations

• Parental Support; hold parents accountable for learning

• Explore the school prior to enrolling (a guest student)

• Understanding the Way Students Learn

• Balance in Course Selection. For example, don’t allow students to take Chemistry and

Biology in the same semester.

• No Online Classes During the First Year.

• Plan for arrival of students and possible challenges

• Hold educators responsible for their student success

• Focus groups; discuss challenges with peers

• Peer Mentors (Second-Year Students Mentor First-Year Students)

Leaders within higher education must take an active role in supporting first-generation students.

Higher education should be required to teach students with a growth mindset. Leaders and

educators should provide students with multiple resources to achieve academic excellence. Be a mentor. Direct students to college preparatory or study skills courses. Encourage students to get involved. African American students need to feel more supported. Some ways to implement that environment is to recognize individual potential, teach with passion, motivate and relate to the person, validate different points of view, encourage interaction, and build relationships. In my experience, students have expressed the benefit of community, having small class sizes.

Hostetter and Busch (2006) affirm that performance-driven strategies, which emphasize high student performance and low participation, will dominate.

Ways to Help African American Students Attend College

• Apply for scholarships early and compile a list of offers

• Read directions and follow them

• Beware of deadlines

• Apply for early decision on your application

• Apply for grant money

• Connect with counselor early in the school year

• Dual Enrollment

• Earn college credits in high school

Limitations of the Study

Despite the advantages of autoethnography as a research method, there are some limitations. For example, “the feeling evoked in readers may be unpleasant since the connections readers make to narratives cannot be predicted” (Bochner & Ellis, 2002). Another limitation is the exposure it implies of the researcher’s inner feelings and thoughts, which require honesty and willingness to self-disclose. This limitation also entails many ethical questions which sometimes

may be very difficult for the researcher to answer, making autoethnography a complicated method to follow. Marchant (2001) states it is important to keep in mind that the overall data and findings do not represent all African American youth.

The negative relationship between a student’s socioeconomic status and educational expectations infers that the higher the student’s socioeconomic status, the lower the student’s educational expectations. When demographic variables were combined with the independent variables of perception of parent’s beliefs and perception of the neighborhood quality, several demographics variables became statistically significant.

“A father’s level of education was correlated with a student’s value of education” (NCES,

2007, p. 1. According to the NCES (2007),

enrolling in college immediately after graduation from high school is critical in the completion of a college degree. Research shows that when students do not enroll in college immediately after high school graduation, they are more likely to not attend college or to not complete their degree. (p. 2)

Poverty is not a sufficient explanation for reading failure among African American children because children from low-income homes can demonstrate reading skills at better than average levels (Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990). Guild (1994) states that “cultures do not have distinctive learning style patterns, but the great variation among individual within groups means that educators must use diverse teaching strategies with all students” (Chall et al., 1990, p. 16).

Summary

Our ability to give every child a chance to succeed in school depends upon a full understanding of culture and learning styles. Research about African American culture shows that students often value oral experiences, physical activity, and loyalty in interpersonal relationships. African American students also benefit from class discussion, active projects, and

collaborative work. Despite the proliferation of diverse programs, African American students continue to report guarded, tense, and threatening interactions with other students at a higher rate than White students and other minority populations. Teaching the way students learn is very important to the success of all students because we all learn differently. There are several things that can be implemented to support and graduate African American female students, which have been outlined in this paper.

If I had received more support in elementary school and if I had more resources available to me such as an afterschool program, summer enrichment, and tutoring for Math and English, I would have probably passed more of my classes. I personally would have benefited from a school counselor or psychologist who could have helped me with the issues with my mother.

Based upon my own personal experiences and the literature, I find that middle school does a poor job in the transition to high school. Ninth grade seems to be the most difficult year for most high school students and the adjustment period is longer. High schools in recent years have been more aware of what students need in high school and have implemented more assistance with the transition to college. While working in a higher education environment I witnessed students not being prepared for college and unsure of the process, which also applies to their parents.

High schools in the United States are offering dual enrollment, summer bridge programs, college tours, assistance with the financial aid and college application process, providing application waivers, and PSAT and SAT testing, some of which can be provided free of charge.

Students and parents need to do a better job of taking advantage of what is available to them by asking questions. While most African American female students are first-generation students, there is still a responsibility to get the information they need by reaching out to a school

counselor. While educators have a responsibility to educate, parents and students have the responsibility of providing what Maslow (1943) describes as seven basic needs in his seminal paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” to give students the confidence they need to achieve and earn a college degree. Chapter IV aimed to explore support systems at all levels of education for African American female students; this includes elementary, secondary and postsecondary levels of education. While educations have a responsibility to educate all children, parents are needed to be equally involved in their children’s education. Critical race theorists recognize that the perspectives of oppressed people have been “distorted, ignored, silenced, destroyed, appropriated, commodified, and marginalized” (Bell, 1995, p. 901). Throughout the literature

“Black parents are considered hostile, little to no education and do not participate with their children’s education advances” (Cooper, 2007, 2009; Durand, 2010, 2011, p. 104) .

Chapter IV discussed the support systems that are in place to support African American female students in elementary, secondary, and postsecondary education. “Research on Black undergraduate women conclude that various obstacles challenge their ability to succeed academically and to successfully integrate into the campus community (e.g., Charleston George,

Jackson, Berhanu, and Amechi, 2014; Domingue, 2015; Howard-Hamilton, 2003a; Winkle-

Wagner, 2015)” (Shaw, 2017, p. 200). While young Black women as students are not as able to change structural deficiencies and inequalities within and between schools or the biases of school personnel, they tend to be hard workers who are diligent, academically engaged students

(Chambers, 2009). Suggestions and recommendations will be presented based on the literature review, my life experiences, and research findings. Coming to conclusions about Chapters I-IV and coming up with conclusions based on the literature review, my life experiences and research findings. The experiences of my past made me into the person that I am today—a self-starter, a

finisher, a leader, and a pioneer for education. I believe that education is the key to securing a successful future. Success is subjective; success can be defined in many ways. However, for me, success is being able to pay my bills without struggling to do so. Success is being able to buy a cheesesteak or something for my home whenever I want. Higher education provided me with a vast knowledge that can never be taken away from me. I have earned three degrees and have had financial increase in the work force and have earned the respect of others in the higher education arena.

I think we can agree that all students, regardless of color, need to be supported at every level of education. In higher education leadership there should be held to the standards of higher education. In my experience students do not realize what resources or options are available to them. A higher education leader applies knowledge that promotes the success of every student by

(a) sustaining a institutional culture conductive to collaboration, trust, and a personalized learning environment with high expectations for students; (b) creating and evaluating a comprehensive, rigorous, and coherent curricular and instructional higher education programs;

(c) developing and supervising the instructional and leadership capacity across the institution; and (d) promoting the most effective and appropriate technologies to support teaching and learning within the institution. I believe that if these things are implemented and be held accountable for student success regardless of color or gender, we would see a significant increase in educational attainment in African Americans.

The struggle is “real”!

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