Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47504-4 — Foreign Policy As Nation Making Reem Abou-El-Fadl Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47504-4 — Foreign Policy as Nation Making Reem Abou-El-Fadl Index More Information

Index

1950s anticolonial nationalism significance of, 35–6 internal constitutional processes, 17 spiritual and material domains, 28–9 Abdu, Muhammad, 31, 53–5, 59 anticommunism students of, 60–2 Democrat Party (Turkey), 140, Abdulhamit, Sultan, 50–2, 56 142–5, see also Cold War Abdulmecit, Sultan, 42–3 doctrine: Democrat Party Afghani, Jamal al-Din al-, 53, 55 (Turkey) Africa state media Egypt and, 173, 225–6 Turkey, 201–2 Gamal Abdel Nasser, 119–20 anti-Zionism Ag˘ aog˘ lu, Ahmet, 79–80 Egypt after Nasser, 318 Ag˘ aog˘ lu, Samet, 79 Arab Affairs Bureau, 169–70, see also Agayev, Ahmet. See Ag˘ aog˘ lu, Ahmet specific activities agrarian reform. See land reform Arab countries Agreement on Expropriation and Egyptian foreign policy. See Confiscation (1957), 253 pan-Arabism: Egypt Ahiska, Meltem, 58 Turkish foreign policy, 189, 191–4, aid, foreign 196–9, 290, 304–6, 309 Turkey’s pursuit of, 92–4, 179, Arab culture 187–90, 233–41, 257 denigration of, 58–9, 72 United States to Egypt, 164, 302 Arab League United States to Turkey, 251–2 foundation of, 70–1, 177 Akçura, Yusuf, 56–7 meeting (May 1953), 172 Al-Ahram, 262 Arab League Collective Security Pact Algerian revolution (ACSP), 157, 209–12 Egypt and, 171–2 Egyptian withdrawal, 212 Ali, Muhammad (governor of Egypt), Arab League countries 42, 45–7, 61 Fathi al-Deeb’s visits (1954), 171, al-jahiliyya,47 175 Allen, George, 231 Arab League Economic Council, 283 Allenby, Edmund, Lord, 107–8 Arab Socialist Union, 317–18 Al-Masaa’, 279–80, 282 Arab students Anatolia Egypt. See students, Arab:Egypt resistance (1922), 64 Arab unity. See pan-Arabism Anderson, Benedict, 23 Arabic language Anderson, Robert, 230, 236, 261, restoration of prestige, 141 267–8 Wafdist view, 69–70 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936), 67 Arabs Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1954), 302 Turkey’s Others, 296–7

361

362 Index

Arafat, Yasser, 208 Baghdadi, Abd al-Latif al-, 107, 150 Aras, TevfikRü¸stü, 98 Bandung Conference. See Asian and Armenian massacre (1915), 59 African Nations Conference army (Bandung) Egypt Banna, Hassan al-, 105 Free Officers’ pamphlets, 110–11 Bayar, Celâl, 74–5, 126–7, see also Turkey Democrat Party (Turkey) development of since 1960, 316 on Atatürk University, 182 influence of United States, 183–4 Baghdad Pact nation making, 183–4 Jordan, 198–9 Asian and African Nations Conference Lebanon, 197–8 (Bandung), 148, 195–6, on Britain and the Baghdad Pact, 239 204–5, 225–7, 306 CUP Special Organisation, 82–3 Aswan High Dam, 163, 220, 230, 232, on Eisenhower Doctrine, 244 261–3, 285–6, 306 on entrepreneurship, 90 Soviet aid, 279 on freedom, 87, 129 Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 72 on industrialisation, 178–9 Anatolian resistance, 64 I¸s Bankasi, 80 appropriated by Recep Tayyip Ismet Inönü and, 80 Erdog˘ an, 315 Jordan visit (1955), 215–16 cultural reforms, 30 liberalism, 81 Democrat Party and, 82 Ottoman Orientalism, 297 Free Republican Party (FRP), 79 People’s Party, 83 as Gazi, 64 Soviet Union modernising discourse, 64–5, 74 change in attitude to, 89–90 Ottoman Orientalism, 296–7 on Syria and the Eisenhower views on civilisation, 64–5, 74 Doctrine, 243–4 Yusuf Akçura and, 57 on United States and Turkey, 130 Atatürk Law (1951), 200 United States visit (January 1954), Atay, Falih Rifki, 81 184–5 Atlantic Pact. See NATO on western alliances, 94 Aydemir, ¸SevketSüreyya, 91–2 Western outlook, 289 Azm, Khalid al-, 215 on universities and armed forces, 181 Baydur, Huseyin Ragib, 188 Baghdad Pact (1955), 2–3 Beirut Declaration (1956), 239 Britain’s motive for, 209 Ben Bella, Ahmed, 171–2 Egypt’s containment efforts, Ben Gurion, David, 159–60, 222–3, 213–18, 222–3, 229, 232, 230 305–6 invasion of Egypt (1955), 268 France and, 222 Bier, Laura, 280–1 frozen, 271–2 Bizri, Afif al-, 244 Israel and, 222 bourgeoisie Nasser’s rejection, 176, 207 Turkey, 77–8, 92–3, 180 pan-Arabism and, 177 Bradley, Omar, 137 signing, 212 Braveboy-Wagner, Jacqueline, 8 Turkey and, 178–9, 194–9, 202–3, Britain 236, 238–41, 243, 304–5, hostility to Egypt, 157 307, 310 Palestine War (1948), 117 United States and, 236–7, 240–1, See also Baghdad Pact (1955); Egypt: 243, 251–2, 272 British occupation

Index 363

Bulganin, Nikolai, 246, 248–9 pan-Arabism, 166–77, 204–5, 262 Byroade, Henry, 223 political parties and, 150, 153 sovereignty–development dilemma, Caffrey, Jefferson, 159 218–19 capitalism treatment of leftists, 151 étatisme and, 79 West, the, 303 CCR. See Command Council of the Committee of Union and Progress Revolution (CCR) (CUP), 50, 56 Chamoun, Camille, 197, 214–15 Democrat Party founders and, 82–3 Chatterjee, Partha, 28–9, 57 influence of Young Ottomans, 50 China Ziya Gökalp, 57–8 Egypt appeals to for assistance, 226 communism. See anticommunism: Egypt officially recognises, 262 Democrat Party (Turkey); support for nationalisation of Suez Cold War doctrine:Democrat Canal Company, 265 Party (Turkey) Christian minorities Free Officers and, 106, 116–17 Ottoman Empire, 45, 49 Turkey, 317 Turkey, 66–7 Turkish Peace Association, Christianity 143–4 Islam and communists Jamal al-Din Al-Afghani, 54 treatment of civilisation, contemporary Democrat Party (Turkey), 97–9, definition 256 Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, 74 Justice Party (Turkey), 313 Cold War Constitution agency of Middle East states, 300 Egypt (1956), 281–2 imperial-colonial experience and the, Turkey 36, 288–9 reforms (1952), 141 Cold War doctrine corporatism Democrat Party (Turkey), 75, 89–90, Turkey 94–5, see also anticommu- Democrat Party, 91 nism: Democrat Party Republican People’s Party (RPP), (Turkey) 84 colonialism Council of Europe Turkey’s position on Turkey and Greece invited to join, Asian and African Nations 126 Conference (Bandung), 195 Cultural Unity Agreement (1957), 283 Command Council of the Revolution CUP. See Committee of Union and (CCR), 148–54, see also Free Progress (CUP) Officers Cyprus Baghdad Pact, 305 anti-Greek violence in Turkey development policies, 162–5, see also (1955), 128–9 sovereignty–development dilemma: Egypt Dawud, Dia’ al-Din, 220–1 National Planning Council, 220, Deeb, Fathi al-, 169–71 278 Dekmejian, Richard, 176 National Production Council, 163 Demirel, Süleyman, 313 Permanent Council for Public Demirkirat, 97, 313 Welfare Services, 162 democracy imperialism, 156–7 Wafd Party, 63

364 Index

Democrat Party (Turkey), 2, 32, see also public meetings, 86–7 Bayar, Celâl treatment of leftists, 97–9, 142–5 abiding influence of ideology, West, the 313–17, 320 identification with, 146, 289–92, anti-communism, 140, 142–5, 255–7 304 anticorporatism, 91 the Turkish Difference, 292–3 austerity measures (1958), 251 westernisation, 87–90, 96, 99, beneficiary of international 183–5, 199–200, 252–3, 257, circumstances, 82 309–10 Cold War doctrine, 75, 89–90, 94–5 Democratic Movement for National devletçilik,90–5, 179 Liberation (DMNL), 68, 70 economic liberalism, 90 Free Officers and, 106 education policy. See education development (Turkey) sovereignty and. See sovereignty– focus on peasantry, 91, 96–7 development dilemma foreign policy, 187–99, see also development policies. See Command Baghdad Pact (1955), Turkey Council of the Revolution and (CCR): development policies; Arab countries, 189, 191–4, Turkey: development policies 196–9, 290, 304–6, 309 devletçilik Iraq, 192–3 Democrat Party (Turkey), 90–5, 179 Israel, 131–2, 193–4, 239–40 Dörtlü Takrir, 85, 91 Korean War, 130–1 Dulles, John Foster, 159, 189, 227 NATO, 129–40, 179, 190, 301–2, Aswan High Dam, 263 309–10, see also NATO Baghdad Pact Council meeting Soviet Union, 190–1 (January 1958), 251 United States, 93–5, 142–3, 191–2, Iraq and Turkey, 193 253, 257–8, 290, 293, 309 on Middle East defence, 191 Adnan Menderes, 75 Celâl Bayar, 130 Economic Agency NATO accession, 132–6 Egypt, 278 pursuit of additional aid, 187, Eden, Anthony, 157, 266 233–41 education (Egypt), 221 foundation of, 74, 76–82 Ahmad Lufti al-Sayyid’s party, freedom, 84, 123, 129, 253–4 60–1 general election (1954), 180 CCR, 163–4 Grand Congress (October 1951), Ismail Khedive, 47 137–8 pan-Arabism, 69, 174–5, 206–7, 282 halkçilik,84–90 education (Turkey) laiklik,95–9 Imam Hatip schools, 142, 201, 255, land reform, 91–2, 161, 179 314 liberalism middle schools, 200–1 influence of United States, 83, religious education, 142, 199–201 179–85 US experts, 180 military, modernisation of the, 127–8 US models, 181–3 nationalism, 82–4, 146 Village Institutes, replacement of, policies 182 summary, 99–100 Egypt political ascendancy, 126–9 British occupation, 52–4, 121 political rivals, 128 1919 Uprising, 59–63

Index 365

pan-Arabism, 69 Faruq, King, 71, 110, 112–13, 149 radicalisation, 56 fascism withdrawal, 159, 205, 229, 302–3 Egypt, 68 Constitution (1956), 279–80 Fayiq, Muhammad, 120, 152, 226 defence pact with Saudi Arabia and feminism Syria, 336–37 gender equality in Egypt, 280–1 Free Officers, 215 Fenik, Mümtaz Faik, 133, 143–4, 146 other empires and, 27 Ferit, Ahmed (Tek), 57 pan-Arabism. See pan-Arabism: fidayeen operations Egypt Gaza, 228–9, 305 relations with Israel. See Israel: Suez, 165 relations with Egypt First World War revolutionary uprising (2011), 312, Britain and Egypt, 62–3 319–20 Turkish deaths, 59 sanctions against foreign policy Plan Omega, 261–2, 272, 307–8 as national self-realisation, 17 Syrian Crisis, 243–4, 249–50, 259 nationalism, 18 Turkey and Fortna, Benjamin, 50, 52 objectives of comparison between, France 34–5 Baghdad Pact, 222 See also Command Council of the hostility to Egypt, 172, 268–9 Revolution (CCR); Free Free Officers, 2, 32–3, 71 Officers; specific countries and anticolonialism, 102–3 army, British control of internationalism, 294–5 Egyptian Feminist Union, 280 land reform, 160–2 Egyptian Socialist Party, 68 leadership, 109–10, 148–52 Egyptian-Syrian Mutual Defence Pact, military origins, 102, 104–5, 107–8 267 myth of lack of ideology or Egyptian Uprising (1919), 59–63, 114 experience, 101 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 257, 269 nationalism, 294–5 Eisenhower Doctrine, 241–4, 251–2, origins and development, 103–8 262, 272–3, 307 pamphlets, 110–11 elections, general political background, 104 Turkey (1946), 86–7 Six Principles, the, 106, 114, 281 Turkey (1957), 255 social justice, 281, 284–5 Erdog˘ an, Recep Tayyip, 314–15 social origins, 104 appropriates Mustafa Kemal social revolution, 113–15 Atatürk, 315 view of the West, 291–2 invokes Adnan Menderes, 311–12 See also Command Council of the Erkin, Feridun Cemal, 81–2, 130, Revolution (CCR); Nasser, 132–3, 135 Gamal Abdel Erog˘ ul, Cem, 82, 143, 257 Free Republican Party (FRP), 79–80 étatisme, 79–80, see also devletçilik: freedom Democrat Party (Turkey) Democrat Party (Turkey), 84, 123, ezan 129, 253–4, see also halkçılık: lifting of ban on, 140–1 Democrat Party (Turkey); devletçilik Democrat Party Faisal, Prince (Turkey); laiklik Democrat Baghdad Pact, 211 Party (Turkey) Farid, Muhammad, 62 Fuad, Ahmad, 106

366 Index

Gaza See also postcolonialism Battalion 141 (Gaza), 229 India fidayeen operations, 228–9, 305 Egypt and, 224–5 Israeli raid (February 1955), 212–13, industrialisation 222–4, 227–8, 298–9 poverty and March Intifada, 224 Turkey, 77 Germany Inönü, Ismet, 74–5, 78–9 Sultan Abdulhamit and, 52 Celâl Bayar and, 80 Ghalib, Murad, 164 limited democracy, 143 global South, concept of, 11 move towards democracy, 81–2 Gökalp, Ziya, 56–8, 72 international, the Gordon, Joel, 109, 151–2 nation making, 19–20, 25–33, 71 Gramsci, Antonio, 22 Turkey and Egypt, 25–33 Grovogui, Siba, 17, 290 international order Gurion, David Ben, 229 hegemony, 22 international relations theory Hafez, Mustafa, 229 constructivism, 9 halkçilik identity conflict, 24–5 Democrat Party (Turkey), 84–90 liberal institutionalism, 7–8 See also populism poststructuralism, 10 Hall, Stuart, 23, 26 realism, 3, 7–8 Hamid Sarraj, Abd al-, 270 Iran Hamrush, Ahmad, 167, 267 Syrian Crisis, 247 Haqqi, Yahya, 39–41, 73 Iraq Heikal, Mohamed Hassanein, 110–11, bilateral talks with Egypt (1954), 275, 277 209–10 Henderson, Loy, 237, 245–6, 274 cuts ties with France and Britain, Hikmet, Nazim, 123–4, 144–5 270–1 Hourani, Akram al-, 267 internal opposition to Baghdad Pact, Hussein, Ahmad, 68, 231–2, 263 213, 216–17 Hussein, King, 246 Saudi Arabia and, 272 Baghdad Pact, 215–16 Syrian Crisis, 245–6, 248 coup, 272–3 Turkey and, 192–3 Syrian Crisis, 274 See also Baghdad Pact (1955) Hussein, Taha, 69–70, 163 Ismail, Khedive, 47, 54 Huwaydi, Amin, 111–12, 227, 311 modernity, 48 Ismail, Muhammad Hafez, 222, 227, identity, national, 12–13 263 becoming, as, 45 Israel developmental state, 23 Bat Galim, 160 ijtihad,53 foundation of Ilah, Abd al-, 245–6, 272, 275 Gamal Abdel Nasser’s view, 168 Imam Hatip schools, 142, 201, 255 Lavon Affair, 159–60, 221–2 Recep Tayyip Erdog˘ an, 314 Operation Kinneret, 268 imperialism., 113 raid on Gaza (February 1955), Free Officers’ critique 212–13, 222–4, 227–8 Gamal Abdel Nasser’s view on, relations with Egypt, 198–9, 205, 115–16 209, 226–7, 232, 260, role in shaping national projects, 295 297–300, see also Plan Alpha structural effects, 15–16 Anwar al-Sadat, 470

Index 367

clandestine talks, 229 Küneralp, Zeki, 195–6, 248–9, 257, Free Ofﬁcers’ view, 116–17 289–90, 309 Gaza Raid, 222–4, 227–30, 298–9 Kurds, 44 invasion (1955), 267–70 Kurds and Kurdishness Suez Canal, 159–60 Democrat Party (Turkey), 97 relations with Turkey, 131–2, 193–4, 239–40, 249–50 labour laws Syrian Crisis, 250, 275 Egypt (1953), 162 threat to Arab countries, 212 Turkey (1936), 77 laiklik Jawdat, Ali, 245–6, 248, 275 Democrat Party (Turkey), 95–9, 140 Jordan Justice and Development Party Egypt and, 215–16 (Turkey), 314–15 opposition to Baghdad Pact, 216–17 land reclamation projects Suez crisis Egypt, 219–20 support for Egypt, 267 land reform Turkey and Egypt (1952), 160–2 Baghdad Pact, 198–9 Syria, 286 JUSMATT (Joint United States Military Turkey, 91–2, 161, 179 Mission for Aid to Turkey), landowners 253 Democrat Party (Turkey), 78, 92–3, Justice and Development Party (JDP, 180 Turkey), 314–16 rise of Justice Party (Turkey), 313 Turkey, 77 leadership, political Kadro,79–80 role of, 13–16 Kamil, Mustafa, 61–2 Lebanon Karpat, Kemal, 93, 254 Egypt and, 320 Kemal, Mustafa. See Atatürk, Mustafa internal opposition to Baghdad Pact, Kemal 217 Kemal, Namik, 51, 53–4 Turkey and Kemal, Yahya, 39–41 Baghdad Pact, 197–8 Kemalism liberalisation Democrat Party (Turkey) and, 141 Democrat Party (Turkey). See modernity and Western Europe, 30 freedom: Democrat Party Republican People’s Party (RPP) and, (Turkey) 76 liberalism Khruschev, Nikita, 224, 265 emergence of Khuri, Faris, 211 Turkey, 79, 179 Köprülü, Fuat, 91, 97, 127, 304 liberation constitutional reforms (1952), 141 centrality of on Korea, 287 CCR, 171–2 on NATO and the MEC, 138–9 liberation movements Turkish accession to NATO, 132, CCR ties with, 171–2 137 Egyptian intelligence and, 208 Turkish–American relations, 181 Liberation Rally, 150, 153, 167 Koraltan, Reﬁk, 83, 127 little America Korean War Turkey as, 75, 234–5, 257–8, 293, Turkish involvement, 130–1, 307 143–4 Lufti al-Sayyid, Ahmad, 60–2

368 Index

McGhee, George, 135 Western outlook, 289 Mahir, Ahmad, 150 Menzies, Robert, 265 Malek, Anouar Abdel, 291, 294 Middle East Command (MEC), 134, Marshall Aid 136–9, 188, 301–2, 309–10 Turkey, 75, 93, 125–6, 130, 138, 179 Middle East Defence Organisation Mutual Security Agreement, 181 (MEDO), 158, 188–9, 309–10 Mazrui, Ali, 291 military coup (Turkey, 1960), 126–7 media Misr al-Fatah. See Young Egypt Party Egypt modernisation theory Bandung period, 279–80 international relations theory involvement in Lebanon, 214–15 and, 18 pan-Arabism, 169, 173 nation building, 18 use in Iraq, 213 modernity Turkey, 201–2 Atatürk’s views on, 64 leftist, 144–5 Egyptian intellectual elites, 31 reaffirmation of Western Egyptian political parties and, 60 alignment, 184–5 global affair, 25–6 support for NATO accession, Islamic modernists and, 51, 53–4 132–3, 136 Kemalist views on, 30 United States Khedive Ismail and, 48 support for Turkish accession to in nationalism, 23–4 NATO, 135 Rifa‘ah Rifa‘i al-Tahtawi and, 48 Menderes, Adnan, 75, 126–7 Mollet, Guy, on aid and security, 189–90 Mubarak, Ali, 48 on aid and the Baghdad Pact, 242 Mubarak, Hosni, 317 arguments for military aid, 138 Muhyi al-Din, Khalid, 149–50, 282 on the army, 184 on Muslim Brotherhood, 105 background in CUP, 83 Muhyi al-Din, Zakariyya, 150, 169 Baghdad Pact, 195, 211 multiparty system on communism, 202 Democrat Party (Turkey), 85 on corporatism, 91 Muslim Brotherhood (Egypt), 68 disdain for Nasser, 249 ban on (1954), 151 on economic development, 185–7 Free Officers and, 105–6 on Egypt, 237–8 Mutual Security Agreement (1951), 181 on Eisenhower Doctrine, 241 invoked by Recep Tayyip Erdog˘ an, Nabulsi, Sulayman al-, 267, 272–3 311–12 Nadim, Abdullah, 55–6 on Left and Soviet Union, 94, 143–4 Nagib, Muhammad, 149–51 as liberal critic, 80–1 religious freedom, 155–6 on MEDO and Arab countries, 189 on unity, order and work, 153 negotiations with Iraq, 192–3 Nahhas, Mustafa al-, 70 Ottoman Orientalism, 297 Nasr, Salah, 167, 223–4 personalisation of power, 128–9 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 2–3, see also Free on religion, 140–1 Officers on religious education, 142, 201 on African and Asian unity, 225–6 religious freedoms, 140–1 on anticolonialism, 147–8 Syrian Crisis, 274 on Baghdad Pact, 211, 271–2 on Turkey and the Middle East, becomes Deputy, 150 139–40 becomes Prime Minister, 151 United States visit (June 1954), 191–2 decision-making, 152

Index 369

on democracy and unity, 160–1 roots of, 320 on Egypt’s foreign policy, 264 international field, 19–20, 24, 35 on Egypt’s mission, 287 Nation Party (Turkey), 200 ensures loyalty in armed forces, National Party (Egypt) 149–50 founding of, 61 Free Officers leaders’ loyalty National Progressive Unionist Party to, 109 (Egypt), 318 on the ‘Free World’, 101 national sovereignty. See sovereignty, on imperialism, 115–16 national on invasion by Israel, 269 nationalisation Muslim Brotherhood and, 105–6 Egypt, 278 nation making, 320 nationalism nationalisation of Suez Canal anticolonial, 17, 28–9 Company, 263–6 Egyptian patriotism and, 62 neorealist accounts, 7 Free Officers, 108–21 on Palestine, 104, 207, 228, 230 in the international field, 292–5 on Syrian Crisis, 275 postcolonial theories, 26 pan-Arabism and Egyptian progress and, 23–4 nationalism overlap, 117–19, subaltern studies, 28 169, 177 values and symbols, 4, 20 pan-Arabist discourse, 308 See also Pan-Arabism; Pan-Turkism Philosophy of the Revolution,The, nationalisms 107, 111–12, 114–16, 120, Egypt and Turkey 167, 308 differences, 3 radio and revolution, 170 nationalitarianism, 294 on religion and politics, 114–15 NATO seeks Western military aid, 223–4 Status of Forces agreements, 253 social and political revolutions, 111–12 Turkish disengagement, 315–16 Suez Canal Users Association and, 22 Turkish membership, 2, 146, 181, Syrian Crisis, 246 190, 302, 309–10 on theory, 281 admittance, 137 treatment of leftists, 151 application (1950), 133 on United States, 118, 165 aspiration, 129–33, 301 on unity, 114, 172–4 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 157–8, 224–5, 265 on unity with Syria, 283–4 Asian and African Nations Nasserism, 312–13, 317–20 Conference (Bandung), 196 nation building neutralism definitions of, 19 Egypt, 148, 157–8, 165, 223, 271, modernisation theory, 18 276, 303, 306, 310 nation making and, 17–20 neutralism, positive, 225, 262, 265 otherness, 21, 292 Egypt, 148, 165, 204–5, 232, 284–5, nation making, 15–25, see also 291, 306, 308, 310 Command Council of the appeal for military aid from Soviet Revolution (CCR): Union, 226 development policies; nation shift to left, 279 building; sovereignty, United Arab Republic, 277 national; Turkey: Non-Aligned Movement development policies Gamal Abdel Nasser’s notion, 121 Egypt and Turkey Northern Tier, 188–9, 209

370 Index

Öktem, Kerem, 313 Syrian Crisis, 410 Öncu, Ay¸se,183 consequences for Nasser, 308–9 Operation Kinneret, 268 Free Ofﬁcers, 105–7, 113–19, Orientalism, Ottoman, 30, 44–5, 72, 121–2, 148 145–6, 296–7 Marxism and, 70 Adnan Menderes, 139–40 nation-making and, 285–6 Huseyin Ragib Baydur, 188 Palestine and, 207–8, 230, 297–9 Otherness response to US threats, 231 nation building, 21, 292 rise of, 69, 148 Others Sawt al-‘Arab, 205–6, 208, 216, 283 Egypt as tool of legitimation, 3 stance on colonialism, 62, 294 Western opposition to, 260 Turkey pan-Turkism Arabs, 438–39 Yusuf Akçura, 57 Others, internal Peker, Recep, 79–80 exclusion by CUP, 56, 59 Periphery Pact, 250 Ottoman Empire Plan Alpha, 198–9, 229, 261 abolition of titles in Egypt, 162 Plan Gamma, 236 alliances with West, 43 Plan Omega, 261–2, 272, 307–8 defeat of, 40–1 planning, state Egyptian attitudes to Egypt, 220, 278 Rifa‘ah Rifa‘i al-Tahtawi, 46 Turkey, 179–80, 185, 251–2 other empires and, 26–7 pluralism as part of Europe rejected by Kemalists, 66 and Ottomanism, 43 political parties Özal, Turgut, 313–14 Egypt, 60, 150, 153 populism Palestine. See also Gaza nationalism and Baghdad Pact, 212 Democrat Party (Turkey), 129, 140 CCR policies on, 174 postcolonialism Egyptian pan-Arabism, 207–8, concept of, 16 297–9 context of Cold War, 288–9 Egyptian political discourse, 230 limits of, 33–6 Iraqi-Turkish negotiations, 193–4 partition Qadir Yassin, Abd al-, 224, 230 Egyptian response, 71 Quwwatli, Shukri al-, 262, 270 Palestine Revolt (1936–9) Egyptian reaction, 69, 72 radio Palestine Students Union, 270 Africa Palestine War (1948) advice from Egypt, 226 Free Ofﬁcers, 103–5, 107, 119 Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser and, 115–16 Cairo, 269–70, 275 pan-Arabism Voice of the Arabs, The. See Sawt Egypt, 231, 281–4, 291, 306, 308, al-‘Arab 310, see also United Arab Turkey, 144, 185, 201–2 Republic (UAR) Ankara Radio, 197 CCR, 166–77, 204–5, 262 religion response to Baghdad Pact, Egyptian state and, 114–15, 208–18 154–7 Suez Crisis, 271 secular language and, 51

Index 371

Turkish state and, 200–2 supports Egypt on Baghdad religious freedom Pact, 211 Democrat Party (Turkey), 95–9, supports Egypt on Suez Crisis, 267 140–2, 254–5 Sawt al-‘Arab, 166, 169–74, 205–6, Free Ofﬁcers, 114–15 208 Renan, Ernest, 53–4 African radio stations and, 226 Republican People’s Party (RPP) on Baghdad Pact, 213 corporatism, 84 on general strike decline Suez Crisis, 266–7 international context, 81 Iraq, 213 Kemalism and, 76 Israeli invasion (1955), 269–70 liberalism, 79 pan-Arabism, 205–6, 216, 283 in opposition, 128 on Soviet Union, 209–10 planning Sawt al-‘Iraq al-Hur, 213 Menderes’ criticisms, 185–7 Second World War Western alliances, 89 Turkey Riyad, Mahmud, 173, 213, 215 discontent, 77–8 Roosevelt, Kermit, 229–31 multipartism, 76 radio secularism Turkey Democrat Party (Turkey), 140, 254 Russia See also laiklik defeat of Ottoman Empire, 49 Sertel, Zekeriya, 98 support for nationalist movements, 42 Sèvres Syndrome, 30 See also Soviet Union recognition of European advances and, 41 Sabah, 315 Sharaf, Sami, 117, 152, 263–4 Sadak, Necmettin, 126, 136–7 Sharawy, Helmi, 120 Sadat, Anwar al-, 112, 317 socialism Said, Ahmad, 170, 177 Egypt, 277–81 Said, Nuri al-, 192–4, 211, 216–17, sovereignty, national, 22 239, 252 Democrat Party (Turkey), 76, 84–5, cuts ties with France and Britain, 89, 100 270–1 Free Ofﬁcers, 102, 110–13, 115–16, involvement in Syrian coup attempt, 121–2, 157–8 269–70 Wafd Party, 63 on Israel and Soviet Union, 210 Sovereignty–development dilemma, Salim, Gamal, 150 300 Salim, Salah, 150, 158, 173, 176, Egypt, 158–60, 175, 205, 210, 213–14 218–19, 259–60, 302–3, on Israel and the West, 223 305–6 Sanjian, Ara, 249–50 Suez Canal nationalisation, 263, Saud, King, 262, 270 271, 308 American pressure on, 272 Syrian Crisis, 274, 308 Baghdad Pact, 214 Turkey, 133–40, 145–6, 202, 233, Egyptian–Syrian–Saudi pact, 290, 301–7 213–14 Soviet Union Syrian Crisis, 248, 276 Egypt and, 209–10, 224–5, 265, 272, Saudi Arabia 279 defence pact with Egypt and Syria, military aid, 226–7, 232 213–15 socialism, 280

372 Index

Soviet Union (cont.) Anglo-American plan, 247 Suez Canal Company Turkey and nationalisation, 265 Baghdad Pact, 196–7 view of Egyptian revolution, 164–5 Syrian Crisis (1957), 2, 233, 241–51, 259, support for pan-Arab neutralism, 274–7, 285–6, 307–8, 310 238 Syria and. See Syrian Crisis (1957) Tahtawi, Rifa‘ah Rifa‘i al-, 46–8 Turkey and, 289–90 official duties, 47 as threat, 6–7, see also Cold War Tan,98 doctrine; Syrian Crisis (1957) Tanzimat, 42–4, 49–52 peace offensive (1953), 190–1 Templer Mission, 216 post-Second World War period, Tewfik, Khedive, 54–5 124–5 Third World, concept of, 11, 288 statism. See étatisme Thornburg, Max Weston, 93–4 students, Arab Truman Doctrine, 82, 125, 130 Egypt Turkey Palestinians, 208 American presence in daily life, 252–3 pan-Arabism, 174–5, 207 Constitution ties with Arab Affairs Bureau, 171 reforms (1952), 141 Sudan development policies, 79 Egypt and, 27–8, 60, 120 Egypt and Suez Canal objectives of comparison between, British–Egyptian relations, 157–60, 34–5 165–6 European culture and opening of Ziya Gökalp, 57–8 Sultan Abdulhamit, 52 military interventions, 311 Turkish hostility to Egypt, 238 Turkish difference, 30, 74, 292–3 Turkish support for US position, Turkish–American Cooperation 238–9 Agreement (1959), 252–3, Suez Canal Company, 264–5 255–7 nationalisation, 7, 176, 263–6, Turkishness 281–2, 285, 308 Islam and, 44–5, 49, 200 popular mobilisation, 266–7 conflated by European Suez Canal Users Association, 22, 265 Orientalists, 44 Sulh, Sami al-, 211 Sultan Abdulhamit, 52 Syria Kemalist definition, 65 Cultural Unity Agreement with Egypt, 283 Ulus, 81, 133, 136 defence pact with Egypt and Saudi umma Arabia, 213–15,242,272 decay of Egypt and Turkish rulers criticised, 53 resistance to Israeli invasion of restoration of unity, 53 Egypt (1955), 270 use of term by Gamal Abdel Nasser, response to Suez crisis, 266 117–18 Turkish complaints, 196–7 United Arab Republic (UAR), 276–7, internal opposition to Baghdad Pact, 283–4, 286, 308 217 United Nations Mutual Defence Pact with Egypt, Suez Crisis, 266 196–7, 215, 267 Syrian Crisis, 248–9 regime change United States

Index 373

coup attempt in Syria, 244 decline, 67 Egypt and, 158–60, 164–6, 231, 260, neglect of economic redistribution, 70 see also Eisenhower Doctrine neglect of social reform, 114 response to Egyptian–Syrian–Saudi Welfare Party (Turkey), 314 pact, 214 westernisation foreign policy Democrat Party (Turkey), 87–90, 96, international relations theory, 10 99, 183–5, 199–200, 252–3, Middle East status quo, 118 257, 309–10 Syrian Crisis, 243–7, 250–1, 274–6 Kemalists, 30 Turkey and Williams, Raymond, 21 Democrat Party (Turkey), 93–5, women 142–3, 253, 257–8, 290, 293, progress 309 Egypt, 280–1 Adnan Menderes, 75 Celâl Bayar, 130 Yalçın, Hüseyin Cahit, 133 liberalism, 83, 179–85 Yalman, Ahmet Emin, 81, 87, 90, 94, NATO accession, 132–6 134, 144–5 Turkey’s pursuit of additional attempt on life, 200 aid, 187, 233–41, 253 on United States, 94 Justice and Development Party, 315 Young Egypt Party, 68 presence in Turkish daily life, Young Ottomans, 50–2 252–3 inﬂuence of European Orientalists, 58 ties established, 82 Young Turks Turkey, Arab countries and, 191–2 compared to Ahmad Urabi, 59 universities elevation of Turkish culture, 58–9 Democrat Party (Turkey), 181–2, inﬂuence of European Orientalists, 58 200 Egyptian, Palestinians and, 174–5 Zafer, 133, 136, 144, 180, 234, 239, Urabi, Ahmad, 54–5, 59 254 Zaghlul, Saad, 62, 69 Vatan, 81, 87, 94, 134, 144–5 Zionism Village Institutes Egyptian pan-Arabism, 230 replacement of, 182 Gamal Abdel Nasser’s view, 168 Zorlu, Fatin Rü¸stü,127, 132, 198–9, Wafd Party, 62–3 256–7 attitude to Arab countries, 69, 72 Asian and African Nations confrontation with CCR, 150 Conference (Bandung), 195