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Kashmir, 1945-66: from Empire to the Cold War University of Southampton Research Repository ePrints Soton Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", University of Southampton, name of the University School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination http://eprints.soton.ac.uk UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Department of History Kashmir, 1945-66: From Empire to the Cold War By Rakesh Ankit Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2014 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES Department of History Doctor of Philosophy KASHMIR, 1945-66: FROM EMPIRE TO THE COLD WAR By Rakesh Ankit This thesis is a study of the international dimensions of the Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan from before its outbreak in October 1947 till the Tashkent Summit in January 1966. By focusing on Kashmir’s under-researched transnational dimensions, it represents a different approach to this intractable territorial conflict. Concentrating on the global context(s) in which the dispute unfolded, it argues that the dispute’s evolution was determined by international concerns that existed from before and went beyond the Indian subcontinent. Based on new and diverse official and personal papers across four countries, it foregrounds the Kashmir dispute in a twin setting of Decolonisation and the Cold War and investigates the international understanding around it within the imperatives of these two processes. In doing so, it traces Kashmir’s journey from being a residual irritant of the British Indian Empire, to becoming a Commonwealth embarrassment and its eventual metamorphosis into a security concern in the Cold War climate(s). A princely state of exceptional geo-strategic location, complex religious composition and unique significance in the context of Indian and Pakistani notions of nation and statehood, Kashmir also complicated their relations with Britain, the United States, Soviet Union, China, the Commonwealth countries and the Afro-Arab-Asian world. The thesis begins with British anxieties regarding independent India’s international identity that arose in 1945-47 and covers the international involvement in the first Kashmir conflict (1947-49). Next, it undertakes a survey of the initial American attitude to India (1945-47) and situates the early American approach to Kashmir (1947-49) in that light. The thesis then shows the transformation of Kashmir from being a Commonwealth concern to becoming an American affair (1949-53). Further, it traces the dispute’s transition from the prism of Western pact-politics to that of Subcontinental package- proposal (1953-61). The thesis ends with comparing the last Anglo-American intervention in Kashmir (1962-63) with its Soviet counterpart (1965-66). List of Contents Introduction – A ‘ghost’ of Empire, a ‘game’ of the Cold War……………….........................1 Chapter 1 – The International Setting, 1945-47: ‘Fighting the Same Struggle as our Fathers and Grandfathers’…………………………………………………………………………….15 Chapter 2 – Britain and Kashmir, 1947-49: ‘Whose was Kashmir to be? The Raja, his Pandits, Sheikh Abdullah, Azad Kashmir, the tribes or Russia?’……………………………………..43 Chapter 3 – America, India and Kashmir, 1945-49: ‘If ignorance about India in this country is deep, ignorance about the States is abysmal’………………………………………………...83 Chapter 4 – Kashmir, 1949-53: ‘When the US blew hot, the British blew cold and when the British blew hot, the US blew cold’………………………………………………………...111 Chapter 5 – Kashmir, 1953-61: From ‘Pact Politics’ to ‘Package Proposal’……………….140 Chapter 6 – Kashmir, 1962-63: The Last Interventions…………………………………….179 Chapter 7 – Kashmir, 1964-66: ‘Soviets, CHICOMS, neutralists and West are kibitzers and, to some extent, actors in…Kashmir’………………………………………………………..223 Conclusion – ‘A Footnote to History’………………………………………………………241 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………...251 Key Personalities: India, Pakistan, Kashmir and the Soviet Union British India Pakistan Archibald Wavell, Viceroy (1943-47) Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister (1947-51) Louis Mountbatten, Viceroy (1947) and Governor-General (1947-48) Zafrullah Khan, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1947-54) Hastings Ismay, Chief of Staff to Mountbatten (1946-48) Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan (1958-69) Claude Auchinleck, C-in-C of British Indian Army (1943-47) Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1963-66) Rob Lockhart, C-in-C of Indian Army (1947-48) Aziz Ahmed, Ambassador to US (1959-63) and Foreign Secretary (1963-66) Roy Bucher, C-in-C of Indian Army (1948-49) Frank Messervy, C-in-C of Pakistan Army (1947-48) Douglas Gracey, C-in-C of Pakistan Army (1948-51) George Cunningham, Governor of the North-West Frontier Province (1937-46, 1947-48) Olaf Caroe, Governor of the North-West Frontier Province (1946-47) Francis Mudie, Governor of Sindh (1946-47) and West Punjab (1947-49) Kashmir Frederick Puckle, Advisor on Indian Affairs, UK Embassy (Washington), (1943-47) Hari Singh, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir (1945-47) Ramachandra Kak, Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (1945-47) MC Mahajan, Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (1947) Henry Scott, Chief of Staff, Jammu and Kashmir State Forces (1936-47) Sheikh Abdullah, Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir (1947-53) India Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister (1946-64) Vallabh Bhai Patel, Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister (1946-50) C Rajagopalachari, Governor-General (1948-50) and Home Minister (1950-51) Soviet Union Lal Bahadur Shastri, Prime Minister (1964-66) JV Stalin, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (1922-53) V Pandit, Ambassador to USSR (1947-49), USA (1949-51), High-Commissioner to UK (1954-61) Vyacheslav Molotov, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939-49) BN Rau, India’s Representative to the UN (1950-52) Anastas Mikoyan, Deputy Chairman (1955-64) and Chairman (1964-65) of Ministers NG Ayyangar, Prime Minister of Kashmir (1937-43) and Leader of UN Delegation (1948) Andrei Vishinski, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1949-53) S Radhakrishnan, Ambassador to USSR (1949-52) and President (1962-67) KV Novikov, Ambassador to India (1947-53) TT Krishnamachari, Finance Minister (1956-58, 1964-66) Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of the Communist Party (1953-64) Swaran Singh, Minister for Railways (1964-66) VK Krishna Menon, High Commissioner to UK (1947-52) and Defence Minister (1957-62) Girja Shankar Bajpai, Secretary General in Ministry of External Affairs (1947-52) NR Pillai, Secretary General in Ministry of External Affairs (1952-55) KPS Menon, Foreign Secretary (1948-52) and Ambassador to USSR (1952-61) Asaf Ali, Ambassador to US (1947–48) GL Mehta, Ambassador to US (1952–58) MC Chagla, Ambassador to US (1958–61) BK Nehru, Ambassador to US (1961–68) YD Gundevia, Commonwealth Secretary (1961-64), Foreign Secretary (1964-66) MJ Desai, Foreign Secretary (1961-63) Key Personalities: United States of America and the United Kingdom United States of America United Kingdom Harry Truman, President (1945-53) Clement Attlee, Prime Minister (1945-51) George Marshall, Secretary of State (1947-49) and Defence (1950-51) Ernest Bevin, Foreign Minister (1945-51) Dean Acheson, Secretary of State (1949-53) Stafford Cripps, Chancellor of the Exchequer (1947-1950) George McGhee, Asst. Secretary for Near Eastern, South Asian, and African Affairs (1949-51) Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, Secretary of State for India (1945-47) Henry Grady, Ambassador to India (1947-48) Listowel (William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel), Secretary of State for India (1947) Loy Henderson, Ambassador to India (1949-51) AV Alexander, Minister of Defence (1946-50) Chester Bowles, Ambassador to India (1951-53, 1963-69) Philip Noel-Baker, Commonwealth Relations Minister (1945-50) Paul Alling, Ambassador to Pakistan (1947-48) Patrick Gordon-Walker, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations (1950-51) Avra Warren, Ambassador to Pakistan (1950-52) Alexander Cadogan, Permanent Representative to the United Nations (1946-50) Archibald Nye, High-Commissioner in India (1948-52) Dwight Eisenhower, President (1953-61) Laurence Graffety-Smith, High-Commissioner in Pakistan (1947-51) John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State (1953-59) Terence Shone, High-Commissioner in India (1946-48) George Allen, Ambassador to India (1953-55) John Sherman Cooper, Ambassador to India (1955-56) Winston Churchill, Prime Minister (1951-55) Ellsworth Bunker, Ambassador to India (1956-60) Anthony Eden, Prime Minister (1955-57) Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., Ambassador to UN (1953-60) Selwyn Lloyd, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (1955-60) Horace Hildreth, Ambassador to Pakistan (1953-57) Malcolm MacDonald, High-Commissioner in India (1955-60) William Rountree, Ambassador to Pakistan (1959-62) Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister (1957-63) John Kennedy, President (1961-63) Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minster (1963-64) Lyndon Johnson, President (1963-69) Duncan Sandys, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations (1960-62) Dean Rusk, Secretary
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