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Introduction Notes Introduction 1. AJP Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (Oxford: OUP, 1965), p. 522. 2. For sentiments similar to Taylor’s, expressed in the memoirs of several pro- tagonists and makers of British foreign policy during the Second World War, see Major General Sir Francis de Guingand, Operation Victory (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1947), p. 49; Bernard Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, 1930–1958 (London: Collins, 1970), pp. 81–5; Lord Ismay, The Mem- oirs of General the Lord Ismay (London: Heinemann, 1960), pp. 322, 330–1; Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat in Peace & War (London: John Murray, 1949), pp. 203–4; Arthur S Gould Lee, Special Duties – Reminis- cences of a Royal Air Force Staff Officer in the Balkans, Turkey and the Middle East (London: S Low, Marston & Co, 1946), p. 28; Sir John Lomax, Diplo- matic Smuggler (London: A Barker, 1965), pp. 245–6; Geoffrey Thompson, Front-Line Diplomat (London: Hutchinson, 1959), p. 167. 3. For a concise account of the nature of this material, and the means by which it was gathered, see Robin Denniston, ‘Diplomatic Eavesdropping, 1922–44: A New Source Discovered,’ Intelligence & National Security 10:3 (1995), 423–48. 4. Robin Denniston, Churchill’s Secret War: Diplomatic Decrypts, the Foreign Office and Turkey, 1942–44 (Stroud: Sutton, 1997). 5. There is a complete run of diplomatic intercepts dating back to the early 1920s, although the period June–December 1938 is missing. 6. John Robertson, Turkey & Allied Strategy, 1941–45 (New York: Garland, 1986). 7. Gabriel Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion – Stalin & the German Invasion of Russia (London: Yale University Press, 1999). See also Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 (London: Yale University Press, 2006). 8. Vladimir O Pechatnov, ‘The Big Three After World War II: New Docu- ments on Soviet Thinking about Post-War Relations with the United States and Great Britain,’ Cold War International History Project Working Paper 13 (1994/5). Artiom A Ulunian, ‘Soviet Cold War Perceptions of Turkey & Greece, 1945–48,’ Cold War History 3:2 (2003), 35–52. Sergei Mazov, ‘The USSR and the Former Italian Colonies, 1945–50,’ Cold War History 3:3 (2003), 49–78. See also El’vis Beytullayev, ‘Soviet Policy Towards Turkey, 1944–46’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2005). 9. Sergo Beria, Beria, My Father – Inside Stalin’s Kremlin, Françoise Thom, ed. (London: Duckworth, 2001). 10. Selim Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An ‘active’ Neutrality (Cambridge: CUP, 1989). 11. Ibid., pp. 3–4. Deringil acknowledges the influence of Metin Tamkoç, The Warrior Diplomats – Guardian of the National Security & Modernisation of Turkey (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1976). Tamkoç comprehensively 198 Notes 199 articulates the values and convictions which drove the Turkish oligarchy during the early republican period and the Second World War. 12. Tamkoç, The Warrior Diplomats, pp. 300–1. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p. 58. 13. Erik J Zürcher, Turkey – A Modern History, revised edition (London: IB Tauris, 1997). Dilek Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey – Economic & Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–39 (Leiden: Brill, 1998). William Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000 (London: Frank Cass, 2000). Cemil Koçak, ‘Some Views on the Turkish Single-Party Regime During the Inönü˙ Period’ in Touraj Atabaki and Erik J Zürcher, eds. Men of Order – Authoritarian Mod- ernisation under Atatürk & Reza Shah (London: IB Tauris, 2004), pp. 113–29. Dilek Barlas, ‘Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean – Opportunities and Limits for Middle-Power Activism in the 1930s,’ Journal of Contemporary History 40:3 (2005), 441–64. 14. Brock Millman, The Ill-Made Alliance: Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1934–40 (London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1998). 15. Mustafa Bilgin, Britain and Turkey in the Middle East: Politics and Influence in the Early Cold War Era (London: IB Tauris, 2007). 16. See, for example, RT Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation 1876, 2nd edition (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1975). 17. Keith Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995). 18. Joseph Heller, British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire 1908–1914 (London: Frank Cass, 1983). 19. Edward Weisband defines Pan-Turanism as ‘seeking unity among Turkish, Mongol, and Finnish-Ugrian peoples,’ and Pan-Turkism as ‘seeking unity of Turkish peoples.’ Edward Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1943–45: Small State Diplomacy & Great Power Politics (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1973), p. 237. During the Second World War, the British used these terms interchangeably. 20. Hew Strachan, The First World War, vol. 1 (Oxford: OUP, 2001). 21. David Lloyd George, quoted in Akaby Nassibian, Britain & the Armenian Question, 1915–23 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 53. 22. Mark Mazower gives a figure of between 800,000 and 1.3 million dead. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent – Europe’s Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998), p. 61. 23. On the performance of the Ottoman army during the First World War, see Edward J Erickson, Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I (Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2007). 24. George Rendel, The Sword & the Olive (London: John Murray, 1957), pp. 16–17. 25. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 2/39/93-100, Churchill to Sir Edward Grey, 22 September 1909. Winston S Churchill, The World Crisis – The Aftermath (London: T Butterworth, 1929), pp. 355–6. Martin Gilbert, Winston S Churchill, vol. III, 1914–16 (London: Heinemann, 1971), pp. 188–9. 26. Cabinet notes, 16 September 1914; Martin Gilbert, ed. Winston S Churchill, vol. III – Companion, Part 1 (London: Heinemann, 1972), pp. 119–20 [emphasis in original]. 200 Notes 27. Churchill memorandum, 23 November 1920, cited in Martin Gilbert, Winston S Churchill, vol. IV, 1916–22 (London: Heinemann, 1975), pp. 497–8. 28. Bülent Gökay, A Clash of Empires – Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–23 (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997), pp. 57, 86. 29. Ivar Spector, The Soviet Union & the Muslim World, 1917–58 (Seattle: Univer- sity of Washington Press, 1967 reprint), p. 73. 30. Harish Kapur, Soviet Russia & Asia, 1917–27 (London: Joseph, 1966), pp. 101–3, 106. Gökay, Clash of Empires, p. 150. 31. Stephen F Evans, The Slow Rapprochement – Britain & Turkey in the Age of Kemal Atatürk, 1919–1938 (Beverley, North Humberside: Eothen Press, 1982), pp. 45–6. 32. David Walder, The Chanak Affair (London: Hutchinson, 1969). 33. Gökay, Clash of Empires, p. 154. 34. Arnold Toynbee, Acquaintances (London: OUP, 1967), pp. 248–9. 35. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 22/146, Sir Ronald Lindsay to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 21 July 1926. 36. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy, pp. 96–7, 111. 37. Evans, Slow Rapprochement, pp. 95, 97. 38. Maxim Litvinov, Notes for a Journal (London: A Deutsch, 1955), pp. 106–7. Even during the armistice and early republican periods, the Bolshevik gov- ernment had permitted the Comintern to continue its attacks on Kemal’s anti-communism, and publish articles reiterating Soviet interest in the Straits. ‘(T)here was an alternative policy which the Soviet Government could pursue if Turkey went too far in compromising with the West.’ Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia, pp. 120–3. 39. Churchill, Aftermath, pp. 360–1, 368, 455. 40. Harold Temperley, cited in Nassibian, Britain & the Armenian Question, p. 257. 41. Philip Graves, Briton & Turk (London: Hutchinson, 1941), p. 187. Philip Paneth, Turkey – Decadence & Rebirth (London: Alliance Press, 1943), pp. 86–8. 42. Sir Percy Loraine to Sir John Simon, no. 335, 7 July 1934; British Documents on Foreign Affairs [hereafter BDFA], Part II, Series B, vol. 33; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), p. 134. 43. Rendel, The Sword & the Olive, pp. 67–8. 44. James Morgan to Simon, no. 400, 28 October 1933; BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 33, p. 42. 45. Loraine to Simon, no. 60, 31 January 1935 (annual report for 1934); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 33, p. 168. On the Balkan Pact, see Mustafa Türke¸s, ‘The Balkan Pact and Its Immediate Implications for the Balkan States, 1930–34,’ Middle Eastern Studies 30:1 (1994), 123–44. 46. On Balkanism, see Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford: OUP, 1997) and ‘Afterthoughts on Imagining the Balkans,’ Harvard Middle Eastern & Islamic Review 5 (1999–2000), 125–48. Also Vesna Goldsworthy, Inventing Ruritania – The Imperialism of the Imagination (London: Yale UP, 1998). On the British Foreign Office and Balkanism during the 1920s, see Patrick Finney, ‘Raising Frankenstein: Great Britain, “Balkanism” and the Search for a Balkan Locarno in the 1920s,’ European History Quarterly 33:3 (2003), 317–42. Notes 201 47. Loraine to Anthony Eden, no. 60, 28 January 1937 (annual report for 1936); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 34; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: Uni- versity Publications of America, 1997), p. 131. Barlas, ‘Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean,’ 446. 48. Tamkoç, Warrior Diplomats, pp. 182–4. 49. Ferenc A Vali, Bridge Across the Bosporus – The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1971), pp. 274–6. 50. Ibid., pp. 276–7. 51. Sir George Clerk to Simon, no. 250, 21 July 1932; BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 32; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), p. 299. 52. Zürcher, Turkey, p. 194. 53. Andrew Mango, Atatürk (London: John Murray, 1999), pp. 479–80. Andrew Mango, The Turks Today (London: John Murray, 2004), p. 25. 54. Erik J Zürcher, ‘Institution Building in the Kemalist Republic: The Role of the People’s Party’ in Atabaki and Zürcher, eds. Men of Order, p. 106. 55. Loraine to Eden, no. 60, 28 January 1937 (annual report for 1936); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol.
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