Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. AJP Taylor, English History, 1914–1945 (Oxford: OUP, 1965), p. 522. 2. For sentiments similar to Taylor’s, expressed in the memoirs of several pro- tagonists and makers of British foreign policy during the Second World War, see Major General Sir Francis de Guingand, Operation Victory (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1947), p. 49; Bernard Fergusson, The Trumpet in the Hall, 1930–1958 (London: Collins, 1970), pp. 81–5; Lord Ismay, The Mem- oirs of General the Lord Ismay (London: Heinemann, 1960), pp. 322, 330–1; Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen, Diplomat in Peace & War (London: John Murray, 1949), pp. 203–4; Arthur S Gould Lee, Special Duties – Reminis- cences of a Royal Air Force Staff Officer in the Balkans, Turkey and the Middle East (London: S Low, Marston & Co, 1946), p. 28; Sir John Lomax, Diplo- matic Smuggler (London: A Barker, 1965), pp. 245–6; Geoffrey Thompson, Front-Line Diplomat (London: Hutchinson, 1959), p. 167. 3. For a concise account of the nature of this material, and the means by which it was gathered, see Robin Denniston, ‘Diplomatic Eavesdropping, 1922–44: A New Source Discovered,’ Intelligence & National Security 10:3 (1995), 423–48. 4. Robin Denniston, Churchill’s Secret War: Diplomatic Decrypts, the Foreign Office and Turkey, 1942–44 (Stroud: Sutton, 1997). 5. There is a complete run of diplomatic intercepts dating back to the early 1920s, although the period June–December 1938 is missing. 6. John Robertson, Turkey & Allied Strategy, 1941–45 (New York: Garland, 1986). 7. Gabriel Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion – Stalin & the German Invasion of Russia (London: Yale University Press, 1999). See also Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin’s Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 (London: Yale University Press, 2006). 8. Vladimir O Pechatnov, ‘The Big Three After World War II: New Docu- ments on Soviet Thinking about Post-War Relations with the United States and Great Britain,’ Cold War International History Project Working Paper 13 (1994/5). Artiom A Ulunian, ‘Soviet Cold War Perceptions of Turkey & Greece, 1945–48,’ Cold War History 3:2 (2003), 35–52. Sergei Mazov, ‘The USSR and the Former Italian Colonies, 1945–50,’ Cold War History 3:3 (2003), 49–78. See also El’vis Beytullayev, ‘Soviet Policy Towards Turkey, 1944–46’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2005). 9. Sergo Beria, Beria, My Father – Inside Stalin’s Kremlin, Françoise Thom, ed. (London: Duckworth, 2001). 10. Selim Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An ‘active’ Neutrality (Cambridge: CUP, 1989). 11. Ibid., pp. 3–4. Deringil acknowledges the influence of Metin Tamkoç, The Warrior Diplomats – Guardian of the National Security & Modernisation of Turkey (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1976). Tamkoç comprehensively

198 Notes 199

articulates the values and convictions which drove the Turkish oligarchy during the early republican period and the Second World War. 12. Tamkoç, The Warrior Diplomats, pp. 300–1. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, p. 58. 13. Erik J Zürcher, Turkey – A Modern History, revised edition (London: IB Tauris, 1997). Dilek Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey – Economic & Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–39 (Leiden: Brill, 1998). William Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774–2000 (London: Frank Cass, 2000). Cemil Koçak, ‘Some Views on the Turkish Single-Party Regime During the Inönü˙ Period’ in Touraj Atabaki and Erik J Zürcher, eds. Men of Order – Authoritarian Mod- ernisation under Atatürk & Reza Shah (London: IB Tauris, 2004), pp. 113–29. Dilek Barlas, ‘Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean – Opportunities and Limits for Middle-Power Activism in the 1930s,’ Journal of Contemporary History 40:3 (2005), 441–64. 14. Brock Millman, The Ill-Made Alliance: Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1934–40 (London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1998). 15. Mustafa Bilgin, Britain and Turkey in the Middle East: Politics and Influence in the Early Cold War Era (London: IB Tauris, 2007). 16. See, for example, RT Shannon, Gladstone and the Bulgarian Agitation 1876, 2nd edition (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1975). 17. Keith Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995). 18. Joseph Heller, British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire 1908–1914 (London: Frank Cass, 1983). 19. Edward Weisband defines Pan-Turanism as ‘seeking unity among Turkish, Mongol, and Finnish-Ugrian peoples,’ and Pan-Turkism as ‘seeking unity of Turkish peoples.’ Edward Weisband, Turkish Foreign Policy, 1943–45: Small State Diplomacy & Great Power Politics (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1973), p. 237. During the Second World War, the British used these terms interchangeably. 20. Hew Strachan, The First World War, vol. 1 (Oxford: OUP, 2001). 21. David Lloyd George, quoted in Akaby Nassibian, Britain & the Armenian Question, 1915–23 (London: Croom Helm, 1984), p. 53. 22. Mark Mazower gives a figure of between 800,000 and 1.3 million dead. Mark Mazower, Dark Continent – Europe’s Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998), p. 61. 23. On the performance of the Ottoman army during the First World War, see Edward J Erickson, Ottoman Army Effectiveness in World War I (Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2007). 24. George Rendel, The Sword & the Olive (London: John Murray, 1957), pp. 16–17. 25. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 2/39/93-100, Churchill to Sir Edward Grey, 22 September 1909. Winston S Churchill, The World Crisis – The Aftermath (London: T Butterworth, 1929), pp. 355–6. Martin Gilbert, Winston S Churchill, vol. III, 1914–16 (London: Heinemann, 1971), pp. 188–9. 26. Cabinet notes, 16 September 1914; Martin Gilbert, ed. Winston S Churchill, vol. III – Companion, Part 1 (London: Heinemann, 1972), pp. 119–20 [emphasis in original]. 200 Notes

27. Churchill memorandum, 23 November 1920, cited in Martin Gilbert, Winston S Churchill, vol. IV, 1916–22 (London: Heinemann, 1975), pp. 497–8. 28. Bülent Gökay, A Clash of Empires – Turkey between Russian Bolshevism and British Imperialism, 1918–23 (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1997), pp. 57, 86. 29. Ivar Spector, The Soviet Union & the Muslim World, 1917–58 (Seattle: Univer- sity of Washington Press, 1967 reprint), p. 73. 30. Harish Kapur, Soviet Russia & Asia, 1917–27 (London: Joseph, 1966), pp. 101–3, 106. Gökay, Clash of Empires, p. 150. 31. Stephen F Evans, The Slow Rapprochement – Britain & Turkey in the Age of Kemal Atatürk, 1919–1938 (Beverley, North Humberside: Eothen Press, 1982), pp. 45–6. 32. David Walder, The Chanak Affair (London: Hutchinson, 1969). 33. Gökay, Clash of Empires, p. 154. 34. Arnold Toynbee, Acquaintances (London: OUP, 1967), pp. 248–9. 35. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 22/146, Sir Ronald Lindsay to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 21 July 1926. 36. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy, pp. 96–7, 111. 37. Evans, Slow Rapprochement, pp. 95, 97. 38. Maxim Litvinov, Notes for a Journal (London: A Deutsch, 1955), pp. 106–7. Even during the armistice and early republican periods, the Bolshevik government had permitted the Comintern to continue its attacks on Kemal’s anti-communism, and publish articles reiterating Soviet interest in the Straits. ‘(T)here was an alternative policy which the Soviet Government could pursue if Turkey went too far in compromising with the West.’ Kapur, Soviet Russia and Asia, pp. 120–3. 39. Churchill, Aftermath, pp. 360–1, 368, 455. 40. Harold Temperley, cited in Nassibian, Britain & the Armenian Question, p. 257. 41. Philip Graves, Briton & Turk (London: Hutchinson, 1941), p. 187. Philip Paneth, Turkey – Decadence & Rebirth (London: Alliance Press, 1943), pp. 86–8. 42. Sir Percy Loraine to Sir John Simon, no. 335, 7 July 1934; British Documents on Foreign Affairs [hereafter BDFA], Part II, Series B, vol. 33; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), p. 134. 43. Rendel, The Sword & the Olive, pp. 67–8. 44. James Morgan to Simon, no. 400, 28 October 1933; BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 33, p. 42. 45. Loraine to Simon, no. 60, 31 January 1935 (annual report for 1934); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 33, p. 168. On the Balkan Pact, see Mustafa Türke¸s, ‘The Balkan Pact and Its Immediate Implications for the Balkan States, 1930–34,’ Middle Eastern Studies 30:1 (1994), 123–44. 46. On Balkanism, see Maria Todorova, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford: OUP, 1997) and ‘Afterthoughts on Imagining the Balkans,’ Harvard Middle Eastern & Islamic Review 5 (1999–2000), 125–48. Also Vesna Goldsworthy, Inventing Ruritania – The Imperialism of the Imagination (London: Yale UP, 1998). On the British Foreign Ofﬁce and Balkanism during the 1920s, see Patrick Finney, ‘Raising Frankenstein: Great Britain, “Balkanism” and the Search for a Balkan Locarno in the 1920s,’ European History Quarterly 33:3 (2003), 317–42. Notes 201

47. Loraine to Anthony Eden, no. 60, 28 January 1937 (annual report for 1936); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 34; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: Uni- versity Publications of America, 1997), p. 131. Barlas, ‘Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean,’ 446. 48. Tamkoç, Warrior Diplomats, pp. 182–4. 49. Ferenc A Vali, Bridge Across the Bosporus – The Foreign Policy of Turkey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1971), pp. 274–6. 50. Ibid., pp. 276–7. 51. Sir George Clerk to Simon, no. 250, 21 July 1932; BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 32; Bülent Gökay, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), p. 299. 52. Zürcher, Turkey, p. 194. 53. Andrew Mango, Atatürk (London: John Murray, 1999), pp. 479–80. Andrew Mango, The Turks Today (London: John Murray, 2004), p. 25. 54. Erik J Zürcher, ‘Institution Building in the Kemalist Republic: The Role of the People’s Party’ in Atabaki and Zürcher, eds. Men of Order, p. 106. 55. Loraine to Eden, no. 60, 28 January 1937 (annual report for 1936); BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 34, p. 131. 56. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey, p. 129. 57. Anthony R Deluca, Great Power Rivalry at the Turkish Straits – The Montreux Conference & the Convention of 1936 (Boulder, Colorado: East European Quarterly, 1981), p. 125. Lawrence R Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez – Britain’s Mediterranean Crisis, 1936–1939 (Cambridge: CUP, 1975), pp. 143–4. The Soviet delegation also emphasised the extent to which the Straits not only linked the Soviet Union to the outside world, but also linked the disparate parts of the USSR itself. Deluca, Great Power Rivalry, p. 53. 58. Ibid., pp. 124, 132. Morgan to Simon, no. 400, 28 October 1933; BDFA, Part II, Series B, vol. 33, p. 42. 59. James T Shotwell and Francis Deak, Turkey at the Straits – A Short History (New York: Macmillan, 1940), pp. 126–7. 60. Philip Paneth, Turkey at the Crossroads – A Pictorial Record (London: Alliance Press, 1943), pp. 38–9. 61. John Parker MP and Charles Smith, Modern Turkey (London: G Routledge & Sons, 1940), p. 60. 62. Millman, Ill-Made Alliance, p. 248. 63. David Dutton, Anthony Eden – A Life & Reputation (London: Arnold, 1997), pp. 46–7. 64. Anglo-French staff talks did not address the Mediterranean, and an April 1938 plan for war in Europe assumed Britain, France and Belgium engaged against Germany, with the rest of the world neutral. NH Gibbs, History of the Second World War – Grand Strategy, vol. I (London: HMSO, 1976), pp. 632–5. 65. For a comprehensive account of the British guarantee policy, and its subsequent failure, see DC Watt, How War Came (London: Heinemann, 1989). 66. Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 64–5. 67. Brock Millman, ‘Turkish Foreign & Strategic Policy, 1934–42,’ Middle Eastern Studies 31:2 (1995), 488–92. 202 Notes

68. The full text of the treaty of alliance is reproduced in Millman, The Ill-Made Alliance. 69. Brock Millman, ‘Credit & Supply in Turkish Foreign Policy and the Tri- partite Alliance of October 1939: A Note,’ International History Review 16:1 (1994), 71. 70. HW 12/246, 077474 Numan Menemencioglu˘ (London) to Ministry of For- eign Affairs [hereafter MFA] Ankara, sent 2 December 1939 (decrypted 9 December); 077611 Menemencioglu˘ to MFA Ankara, 9 December 1939 (15 December). 71. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 27–8, 83. Watt, How War Came, p. 306. 72. See the comments of Winston Churchill, Lloyd George and Sir Archibald Sinclair on 19 May 1939. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series [Commons], vol. 347, columns 1814, 1873. 73. Millman, ‘Turkish Foreign & Strategic Policy,’ 488–92. 74. Roberts, Stalin’s Wars, pp. 45–6. 75. See the comments of Sir Archibald Sinclair on 26 October 1939; Parliamen- tary Debates, 5th series [Commons], vol. 352, column 162. 76. Manchester Guardian, ‘Turkey & Russia,’ 19 October 1939, p. 6; Spectator, ‘Turkey’s Courageous Diplomacy,’ 20 October 1939, p. 530; New Statesman & Nation, ‘Our Turkish Ally,’ 21 October 1939, p. 538. 77. Churchill BBC broadcasts, 1 October and 12 November 1939, and 20 January 1940; Churchill War Papers, vol. 1, At the Admiralty, September 1939–May 1940 Martin Gilbert, ed. (London: Heinemann, 1993), pp. 194, 361, 670. 78. FO 195/2462, Sir Orme Sargent to Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen, 15 February 1940; Hugessen to Sargent, 24 February 1940; Robert George (air attaché Ankara) to Hugessen, 1 March 1940. Beria, Beria – My Father, p. 77. 79. For a detailed study of these plans, and their implications for Anglo-Soviet relations throughout the Second World War, and the early Cold War, see Patrick R Osborn, Operation Pike – Britain versus the Soviet Union, 1939–41 (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000). Also the earlier article by Brock Millman, ‘Toward War with Russia: British Naval & Air Planning for Conﬂict in the Near East, 1939–40,’ Journal of Contemporary History 29:2 (1994), 261–83. 80. Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 81–2. See also the comments of the Turkish ambassador in London, Rü¸stü Aras, in HW 12/252, 080516 Yugoslav minister London to Yugoslav Foreign Ministry Belgrade, 12 May 1940 (15 May). 81. Millman, Ill-Made Alliance, pp. 267–8. 82. Millman, ‘Credit & Supply in Turkish Foreign Policy,’ 70. 83. FO 371/25018, R6459/542/44, James Bowker, Philip Nichols and Sargent minutes, 11 June 1940. 84. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Alexander Cadogan papers, ACAD 1/9, Sir Alexander Cadogan diary, 14 June 1940. 85. FO 371/25018, R6459/542/44, Sargent minute, 17 June 1940. 86. CAB 80/13, COS (40) 469 (JP), ‘Military Implications of the Withdrawal of the Eastern Mediterranean Fleet,’ 17 June 1940. 87. FO 195/2462, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 541, 13 June 1940. Notes 203

1 Turkey During the Period of Anglo-Russian Antagonism, June 1940 to June 1941

1. FO 195/2462, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 541, 13 June 1940. FO 371/25018, R6459/542/44, George Clutton minute, 16 June 1940. 2. Hugessen memorandum on forthcoming conversations in London regarding the Balkans, 1 April 1940; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 20; Macgregor Knox, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1998), p. 436. 3. FO 371/25015, R7474/242/44, Hugessen to Nichols, 23 July 1940. 4. FO 418/86, Lord Halifax to Hugessen, no. 487, 22 June 1940; Hugessen to Halifax, no. 629, 24 June 1940. 5. FO 424/285, Sir Stafford Cripps to Halifax, no. 399 and 400, 1 July 1940. 6. Schulenburg to Foreign Ministry, 13 July 1940; Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945 [hereafter DGFP], Series D, vol. IX (London: HMSO, 1956), pp. 207–8. 7. WM (40), 192nd meeting, 3 July 1940, War Cabinet Minutes, 1939–45 (London: HMSO, 1989). 8. CAB 80/14, COS (40) 530, ‘Turkey – Future Policy,’ 1 July 1940. 9. Ibid. 10. FO 371/25012, R6670/203/44, Bowker minute, 2 July 1940; Nichols minute, 3 July 1940. CAB 66/9, WP (40) 254, ‘Comments on the Recent Conversations Between HM Ambassador at Moscow & M. Stalin,’ 9 July 1940. 11. FO 371/25016, R6763/316/44, Sargent minute, 10 July 1940. WM (40), 200th meeting, 11 July 1940, War Cabinet Minutes. 12. FO 424/285, Cripps to Halifax, no. 460, 13 July 1940. Hugessen agreed with Cripps that a ‘blank cheque’ to the Soviets must be avoided. FO 424/285, Hugessen to Halifax, no. 790, 15 July 1940. 13. FO 424/285, Halifax to Cripps, no. 273, 16 July 1940. 14. FO 424/285, Cripps to Halifax, no. 480, 18 July 1940. 15. Deluca, Great Power Rivalry, p. 125. 16. For the continuing pessimism of Southern Department officials, other than Sargent, see FO 371/25013, R7735/203/44, Bowker minute, 28 September 1940; R7967/203/44, Clutton and Bowker minutes, 19 October 1940. 17. FO 371/25015, R7474/242/44, Hugessen to Nichols, 23 July 1940. 18. HS 3/227, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1196, 16 September 1940. 19. New Statesman & Nation, ‘The War in the East,’ 6 July 1940, p. 1. 20. HW 12/254, 082006 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 9 July 1940 (15 July). 21. HW 12/254, 082009 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 11 July 1940 (15 July). 22. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 14. 23. Ibid., pp. 15, 17. 24. Ibid., p. 15. Churchill continued to contemplate an attack on the Russian oil industry, if the Soviet Union attacked Turkey from the Caucasus. PREM 3/445/6, Churchill to Ismet˙ Inönü,˙ 31 January 1941. 204 Notes

25. For details, see Gerhard Schreiber, Bernd Stegemann, and Detlef Vogel, Germany & the Second World War – Volume III: The Mediterranean, South- East Europe, and North Africa, 1939–41 (Oxford: OUP, 1995), pp. 160–1. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 62. 26. Memorandum by Director of Political Division VII, German Foreign Min- istry, 23 July 1940; DGFP; Series D, vol. X (London: HMSO, 1957), pp. 280–1. 27. CAB 81/97, JIC (40) 179, ‘Soviet Foreign Policy – Report,’ 27 July 1940. On Stalin’s opposition to the cession of Kars and Ardahan, see Spector, The Soviet Union & the Muslim World, p. 77. 28. HW 12/259, 084757 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 29 October 1940 (31 October). 29. FO 371/25013, R7196/203/44, Hugessen to Nichols, 13 July 1940. 30. FO 424/285, Hugessen to Halifax, no. 818, 19 July 1940. 31. CAB 80/16, COS (40) 602 (JP), ‘Turco-Soviet Relations – Draft Report,’ 3 August 1940. 32. FO 424/285, Cripps to Halifax, no. 602, 11 August 1940. 33. FO 371/24856, N5343/5343/38, Cripps to Foreign Office, no. 561, 2 August 1940. 34. FO 371/24856, N5343/5343/38, Fitzroy Maclean minute, 5 August 1940; Laurence Collier minute, 8 August 1940. HW 12/258, 085108 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 5 November 1940 (10 November). 35. FO 371/25012, R6830/203/44, Clutton minute, 1 August 1940; Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 697, 4 August 1940. FO 371/25013, R6897/203/44, Clutton and Bowker minutes, 13 August 1940. 36. FO 371/25012, R6830/203/44, Sargent minute, 11 August 1940. Cadogan concurred in this conclusion. Cadogan minute, 11 August 1940. 37. CAB 80/16, COS (40) 649 FINAL, ‘Turco-Soviet Relations,’ 25 August. 38. Rendel, The Sword & the Olive, p. 92. 39. CAB 66/9, WP (40) 254, ‘Comments on the Recent Conversations Between HM Ambassador at Moscow & M. Stalin,’ 9 July 1940. 40. FO 195/2464, Sargent memorandum, ‘Possibilities of Further Soviet-German Collaboration,’ 17 July 1940. 41. FO 371/25016, R7450/316/44, Pierson Dixon minute, 5 September 1940. 42. CAB 81/98, JIC (40) 282, ‘Turkish Attitude in the Event of an Axis Move to the South-East,’ 12 September 1940. This had been Russian policy in the years before the First World War. Shotwell and Deak, Turkey at the Straits, pp. 93–4. 43. CAB 81/98, JIC (40) 318, ‘Possibilities and Implications of an Advance by the Enemy Through the Balkans & Syria to the Middle East,’ 17 October 1940. 44. FO 424/285, Cripps to Halifax, no. 938, 30 October 1940. 45. FO 424/285, Halifax to Cripps, no. 735, 2 November 1940. 46. FO 195/2464, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1228, 13 November 1940. 47. See Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, pp. 67–75; Silvio Pons, Stalin & the Inevitable War, 1936–41 (London: Frank Cass, 2002), pp. 204–11. For the German transcripts, see conversations between Molotov, Ribbentrop, and Hitler, 12 and 13 November 1940; DGFP, Series D, vol. XI (London: HMSO, 1961), pp. 533–70. 48. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 82. Notes 205

49. CAB 81/97, JIC (40) 179, ‘Soviet Foreign Policy – Report,’ 27 July 1940. CAB 81/98, JIC (40) 225, ‘Soviet-German Relations in Regard to Turkey and the Middle East,’ 5 August 1940. 50. HW 12/258, 085108 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 5 November 1940 (10 November). On the limited British knowledge of the substance of the Berlin conversations, see FH Hinsley, British Intelligence in the Second World War – Its Influence on Strategy and Operations, vol. 1 (London: HMSO, 1979), p. 442. 51. CAB 80/16, COS (40) 602 (JP), ‘Turco-Soviet Relations – Draft Report,’ 3 August 1940; COS (40) 649 FINAL, ‘Turco-Soviet Relations,’ 25 August 1940. FO 424/285, Hugessen to Halifax, no. 1179, 13 September 1940. 52. Record of conversation between Hitler and Turkish ambassador Husrev Gerede, in presence of Ribbentrop, 17 March 1941; DGFP, Series D, vol. XII (London: HMSO, 1962), pp. 308–12. 53. HW 12/262, 089137 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Washington, 22 March 1940 (27 March). 54. HW 12/260, 087019 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 17 January 1941 (21 January). HW 12/244, 076749 MFA Ankara to All Posts, 26 October 1939 (31 October). 55. FO 371/24870, R8745/4/7, George Rendel (Sofia) to Foreign Office, no. 896, 2 December 1940. FO 371/24871, R8909/4/7, Rendel to Foreign Office, no. 930, 11 December 1940. 56. Georgi Dimitrov diary, 25 November 1940; Georgi Dimitrov, Tagebücher 1933–1943, vol. 1, Bernhard H Bayerlein, ed. (Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 2000), pp. 320–1. 57. See Chapter 6. 58. CAB 84/27, JP (41) 63 (S), ‘Strategy in the Balkans & Eastern Mediterranean,’ 24 January 1941. See also WM (41), 12th conclusions, 3 February 1941 (confidential annex); War Cabinet Minutes. 59. PREM 3/445/6, Churchill to Ismet˙ Inönü,˙ 31 January 1941. 60. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, pp. 105, 114. 61. HW 12/261, 087928 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 14 February 1941 (20 February). 62. HW 12/262, 088246 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 22 February 1941 (2 March). 63. FO 371/30067, R1456/112/44, Clutton minute, 22 February 1941. 64. FO 371/30067, R1897/112/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 436, 3 March 1941. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, pp. 109–12. 65. WM (41), 28th conclusions, 13 March 1941, Confidential Annex – Minute 2; Cripps to Foreign Office, no. 204, 10 March 1941; War Cabinet Minutes.FO 371/30067, R2248/112/44, Sargent and Cadogan minutes, 11 March 1941. PREM 3/445/8, Cripps to Churchill, 12 March 1941; Churchill to Cadogan and Sargent, 14 March 1941. 66. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 94. 67. Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 85–6. 68. HW 12/263, 089441 Turkish ambassador London to Turkish minister Berne (for Ankara), 20 March 1941 (4 April). 69. HW 12/263, 089439 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Washington, 27 March 1941 (4 April). For similar comments by the chief of the Turkish 206 Notes

General Staff, Marshal Fevzi Çakmak, see PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mis- sion of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 5, ‘Anglo-Turkish Conversa- tions,’ meeting held at Presidency of the Council, Ankara, 27 February 1941. 70. HW 12/263, 090053 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 18 April 1941 (21 April); 090394 Moscow to Ankara, 26 April 1941 (30 April). 71. HW 12/264, 091137 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 13 May 1941 (18 April). 72. FO 371/30125, R4478/1934/44, Sargent memorandum, ‘Germany & the Straits,’ April 1941 Cadogan continued to entertain similar thoughts at the end of May. Cadogan diary, 30 May 1941; The Diaries of Sir Alexander Cadogan, 1938–1945, David Dilks, ed. (London: Cassell, 1971), pp. 381–2. 73. FO 371/30125, R5368/1934/44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1140, 20 May 1941. 74. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 284. 75. FO 371/30125, R5368/1934/44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1140, 20 May 1941. 76. For the progress of these negotiations, see the correspondence between Ribbentrop and Papen in DGFP, Series D, vol. XII passim. Ribbentrop’s contributions make clear Germany’s ultimately malign intentions towards Turkey. Ribbentrop to Papen, 4 June 1941, p. 954. 77. FO 371/30125, R5456/1934/44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1157, 22 May 1941. 78. FO 371/30068, R5380/112/44, Sir Horace Seymour minute, 12 May 1941; Sargent minute, 13 May 1941. 79. FO 371/30068, R6061/112/44, Clutton and Bowker minutes, 12 June 1941; Nichols minute 13 June 1941; Sargent minute 15 June 1941. 80. FO 371/30127, R6472/1934/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1548, 23 June 1941; Clutton minute, 26 June 1941. See also R6882/1934/44, Foreign Office to Consul-General New York, 7 July 1941. 81. Richard Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001), p. 45. 82. FO 371/30126, R6399/1934/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1545, 23 June 1941. Horst Boog, et al. Germany & the Second World War – vol. IV: The Attack on the Soviet Union (Oxford: OUP, 1998), p. 1043. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 123–4. 83. FO 371/30127, R6472/1934/44, Clutton minute, 26 June 1941. 84. FO 371/30093, R7573/236/44, Sargent minute, 11 August 1941. FO 371/ 30069, R7980/112/44, Clutton minute, 27 August 1941. 85. Times, ‘Divided Hopes in Turkey—Distrust of Soviet—Soil for German Intrigues,’ 9 July 1941, p. 3.

2 The Balkan Front, October 1940 to April 1941

1. Millman, Ill-Made Alliance, p. 186. 2. Irina Nikolic,´ ‘Anglo-Yugoslav Relations, 1938–41’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2001), pp. 92–3. Notes 207

3. Loraine to Halifax, no. 32, 11 February 1939; BDFA, Part II, Series F, vol. 15; Christopher Seton-Watson, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publica- tions of America, 1993), p. 98. Watt, How War Came, pp. 283 (on Yugoslavia) and 292 (on Romania). 4. Ronald Ian Campbell (Belgrade) to Halifax, no. 43 Confidential, 5 February 1940; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 20, p. 246. 5. HW 12/252, 080253 Greek minister London to Foreign Ministry Athens, 30 April 1940 (2 May). 6. CAB 80/14, COS (40) 525, ‘Balkan Policy After the French Collapse,’ 3 July 1940. 7. Times, ‘Turkey and the Balkans—the Failure of Co-operation—An Indepen- dent Policy,’ 5 August 1940, p. 4. See also Manchester Guardian, ‘Plan to Isolate Turkey—Rumanian Help,’ 3 August 1940, p. 7. 8. CAB 66/9, WP (40) 254, ‘Comments on the Recent Conversations Between HM Ambassador at Moscow and M. Stalin,’ 9 July 1940. FO 371/25018, R6821/542/44, ‘The Political Importance of Turkey,’ 24 July 1940. 9. Halifax to Hugessen, no. 753, 12 August 1940; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 21; Macgregor Knox, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1998), p. 173. 10. Times, ‘Turkey Stands Firm—II Axis Manoeuvres in Greece & The Balkans— The Watch of the Straits,’ 4 October 1940, p. 5. ‘Axis Schemes in the Balkans—Pressure on Bulgaria & Greece—Indirect German Control in Sofia—Counter-Weight of Turkish Influence,’ 17 October 1940, p. 4. 11. CAB 80/16, COS (40) 656 (JP), ‘Italian Action Against Greece,’ 23 August 1940. CAB 80/18, COS (40) 739 (JP), ‘Assistance to Greece,’ 12 September 1940. 12. FO 371/24918, R7314/764/19, Nichols minute, 28 August 1940. 13. FO 371/24918, R7396/764/19, Nichols minute, 1 September 1940. 14. CAB 80/21, COS (40) 871, ‘An Advance by the Enemy through the Balkans and Syria to the Middle East,’ 1 November 1940. 15. WM (40), 268th meeting, 9 October 1940; War Cabinet Minutes. 16. Neil Balfour and Sally Mackay, Paul of Yugoslavia – Britain’s Maligned Friend (London: Hamilton, 1980), p. 220. 17. CAB 80/21, COS (40) 897, ‘Implications of Assistance to Greece,’ 3 November 1940. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 901 (JP), ‘Assistance to Greece,’ 4 November 1940. PREM 3/308, Churchill to Eden, 3 November 1940. 18. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 912, ‘The Attitude of Turkey,’ 8 November 1940. 19. HW 12/257, 084455 Greek minister Moscow to Foreign Ministry Athens, 18 October 1940 (22 October). There is evidence that the Yugoslav government indicated to Germany their willingness to join an attack on Greece in exchange for Salonika. See Gerhard Weinberg, A World at Arms – A Global History of World War Two (Cambridge: CUP, 1994), p. 216. 20. Campbell to Halifax, nos 750 and 761, 11 and 15 October 1940; Hugessen to Halifax, no. 1316, 12 October 1940; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 21, pp. 316–19, 334. 21. FO 371/25017, R8441/316/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1508, 16 November 1940; Clutton minute, 18 November 1940; Brigadier Leslie Hollis to Nichols, 23 November 1940. 22. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 912, ‘The Attitude of Turkey,’ 8 November 1940. 208 Notes

23. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 930 (JP), ‘The Attitude of Turkey,’ 11 November 1940. 24. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 933 (JP), ‘The Attitude of Turkey,’ 13 November 1940. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Hinsley, British Intelligence, p. 349. 28. CAB 80/21, COS (40) 871, ‘An Advance by the Enemy through the Balkans and Syria to the Middle East,’ 1 November 1940. 29. Ibid. 30. CAB 80/22, COS (40) 947, ‘Turkish Neutrality,’ 17 November 1940. 31. FO 371/25017, R8586/316/44, Nichols minute, 17 November 1940; Sargent minute, 19 November 1940. 32. Christopher Andrew, Secret Service (London: Heinemann, 1985), p. 628. 33. FO 371/25017, R8586/316/44, Cadogan minute, 21 November 1940. 34. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Alexander Cadogan papers, ACAD 1/9, Cadogan diary, 22 November 1940. 35. WM (40), 294th meeting, 22 November 1940; War Cabinet Minutes. Clement Attlee chaired this meeting of the War Cabinet. 36. On German and Soviet pressure on Bulgaria, see Gorodetsky, Grand Delu- sion, pp. 62–66, 77–83. 37. Hugh Dalton diary, 17 December 1940; The Second World War Diary of Hugh Dalton, Ben Pimlott, ed. (London: Cape, 1986), pp. 123–4. At one stage, Churchill anticipated a German strike in the western Mediterranean. See Denis Smyth, Diplomacy & Strategy of Survival: British Policy and Franco’s Spain, 1940–41 (Cambridge: CUP, 1986), pp. 147–8. 38. Sheila Lawlor, Churchill and the Politics of War, 1940–41 (Cambridge: CUP, 1994), p. 118. 39. Hinsley, British Intelligence, p. 350. 40. PREM 3/288/1, Churchill to Eden and Sir John Dill, 22 November 1941. 41. PREM 3/309/1, Churchill to General Wavell, 22 November 1940. Wavell’s offensive in Libya began on 9 December. 42. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/13, Churchill to Halifax, 24 November 1940. On Churchill’s agitation, see also John Colville diary, 25 November 1940; John Colville, The Fringes of Power – Downing Street Diaries, 1939–55, revised edition (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2004), p. 255. 43. WM (40), 295th meeting, 25 November 1940; War Cabinet Minutes. 44. FO 371/25017, R8586/316/44, Churchill to Halifax, 26 November 1940. 45. FO 371/24918, R7487/764/19, Clutton minute, no date [early September 1940]. 46. New Statesman & Nation, ‘The Riddle of Russia,’ 19 October 1940, pp. 367–8. ‘(W)hatever physical advantages Nature may have given (Turkey) at the Straits and in the Taurus mountains, can we, on a sober view, expect them to stand up to the attack of a German mechanised army, with its dive- bombers and tanks? If the Italians, with German storm-troops to aid them, were simultaneously attacking in Egypt, we could do little, save from the sea, to help the Turks.’ 47. FO 371/25018, R8610/542/44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 1582, 23 November 1940. 48. FO 371/25018, R8610/542/44, Clutton minute, 26 November 1940. Notes 209

49. CAB 79/8, COS (40), 438th meeting, 21 November 1940. 50. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Thomas Elmhirst papers, ELMT 2/4, copy of instructions to British Liaison Staff, Turkey, 30 November 1940. 51. FO 195/2462, Rendel to Nichols, 25 November 1940. 52. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, pp. 82–3, 97. 53. Ibid.,p.79. 54. Cadogan diary, 2 December 1940; Dilks, ed., p. 338. 55. Hinsley, British Intelligence, p. 351. 56. See Cadogan diary, 10, 12 and 18 January 1941; Dilks, ed., pp. 348–50. 57. When the War Cabinet met on 20 January 1941, Churchill reported that the Yugoslav regent, Prince Paul, had told the Greek government ‘that if they allowed any British land forces to enter Greece, the Yugoslav Govern- ment would allow the Germans to attack Greece through Yugoslavia.’ WM (41), 8th conclusions, 20 January 1941 (conﬁdential annex); War Cabinet Minutes. See also Eden to Campbell, no. 8, 22 January 1941; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 21, pp. 470–1. 58. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Thomas Elmhirst papers, ELMT 2/2, transcript of meeting between British Liaison Mission and Turkish General Staff, 17 January 1941 (afternoon meeting). 59. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 98. Eden to Hugessen, no. 9, 22 January 1941; BDFA, Part III, Series F, vol. 21, p. 152. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/49, Churchill to Inönü,˙ 31 January 1941. 60. Hinsley, British Intelligence, p. 354. 61. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 7th conclusions, 10 February 1941 [my emphasis]. 62. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 94. 63. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 7th conclusions, 10 February 1941 [my emphasis]. 64. Churchill used the precise phrase ‘stalemate front’ in a subsequent telegram to Eden (PREM 3/445/8, Churchill to Eden, 28 March 1941), but the principle was enshrined in his brieﬁng for the War Cabinet on 9 October 1940. 65. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/36, Churchill note for Eden, 12 February 1941 [my emphasis]. 66. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 8th meeting, 11 February 1941; annex I, draft telegram from Churchill to Wavell. 67. Churchill broadcast, 9 February 1941; Churchill War Papers, vol. 3, The Ever-Widening War, 1941, Martin Gilbert, ed. (London: Heinemann, 2000), p. 196. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 8th meeting, 11 February 1941; annex I, draft telegram from Churchill to Wavell. The Chamberlain government had previously expressed scepticism when French plans for a Salonika front had posited an Allied Expeditionary Force lining up with ‘a projected 111 Balkan divisions.’ The British ‘doubted whether such an imposing supra- national army was more than a pipe dream.’ Louise Atherton, ‘Lord Lloyd at the British Council and the Balkan Front, 1937–40,’ International History Review 16:1 (1994), p. 43. 68. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for For- eign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 5, ‘Anglo-Turkish Conversations,’ meeting held at Presi- dency of the Council, Ankara, 27 February 1941, pp. 32–3. A subsequent 210 Notes

intercepted telegram from the Turkish ambassador in Moscow, Haydar Aktay, reported a conversation with Sir Stafford Cripps. Aktay declared that the hedging of the Yugoslav government revealed to the British ‘the Prince [Paul] in his true colours which we have known for some time past.’ HW 12/262, 088587 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 8 March 1941 (11 March). 69. FO 195/2468, General Allan Arnold to Hugessen, 19 September 1940. See also Nikolic,´ ‘Anglo-Yugoslav relations,’ pp. 259–60. 70. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Thomas Elmhirst papers, ELMT 2/4, General Marshall-Cornwall to Wavell, 19 February 1941. 71. Ibid. 72. HW 12/262, 088257 Italian minister Sofia to Foreign Ministry Rome, 28 February 1941 (2 March); 088298 Japanese ambassador Ankara to For- eign Ministry Tokyo, 26 February 1941 (3 March). See also record of conversation between Hitler, Ribbentrop, Mussolini and Ciano, 19 January 1941; Ciano’s Diplomatic Papers, Malcolm Muggeridge, ed. (London: Odhams Press, 1948), p. 420. 73. FO 954/11, War Office paper, ‘Decision to send British forces to Greece,’ 21 April 1941 (folio 53). 74. The Business of War – The War Narrative of Major-General Sir John Kennedy, Bernard Fergusson, ed. (London: Hutchinson, 1957), p. 73. 75. Earl of Avon, Reckoning (London: Cassell, 1965), pp. 189–90 [my emphasis]. 76. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 1, ‘Assistance for Greece,’ meeting held at HM Embassy Cairo, 20 February 1941, p. 16. 77. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 5, ‘Anglo-Turkish Conversations,’ meeting held at Presidency of the Council, Ankara, 27 February 1941, pp. 32–3. 78. Ibid.,p.36. 79. Ibid.,p.37. 80. Ibid.,p.38. 81. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 7, meeting between Inönü,˙ Eden and Dill (Saracoglu˘ also present), 27 February 1941, pp. 44, 46. 82. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/49, Churchill to Eden, 1 March 1941. 83. Lawlor, Churchill and the Politics of War, pp. 250–1. 84. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 9th conclusions, 5 March 1941; annex I, Churchill to Eden, 5 March 1941. 85. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 12, ‘Assistance to Greece,’ meeting held at GHQ Middle East, 6 March 1941, pp. 74–6. For a comprehensive analysis of the decision to aid Greece, see Lawlor, Churchill and the Politics of War, Part 3. 86. Eden to Hugessen, no. 453, 6 March 1941; annexed to WM (41), 26th conclusions, 7 March 1941 (confidential annex); War Cabinet Minutes. Notes 211

87. Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 520, 12 March 1941; annexed to WM (41), 28th conclusions, 13 March 1941 (confidential annex); War Cabinet Minutes. 88. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for For- eign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 14, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ discussion at Cairo, 15 March 1941, p. 82. 89. Ibid. 90. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 15, records of meetings held at Nicosia, Cyprus, 18 March 1941, pp. 84–90. 91. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/49, Churchill to Eden, 20 March 1941. 92. Nikolic,´ ‘Anglo-Yugoslav Relations,’ pp. 310–11, 329–31. 93. Cadogan diary, 24 March 1941; Dilks, ed., p. 365 [emphasis in original]. 94. Nikolic,´ ‘Anglo-Yugoslav Relations,’ pp. 333, 352–3. 95. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/49, Churchill to Inönü,˙ 27 March 1941. PREM 3/445/8, Churchill to Eden, 28 March 1941. 96. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/49, Churchill to Eden, 30 March 1941. Hinsley, British Intelligence, p. 452. 97. FO 371/30124, R3660/1934/44, Nichols minute, 8 April 1941. 98. Balfour and Mackay, Paul of Yugoslavia, p. 220. 99. Ibid., pp. 227–8. 100. PREM 3/294/1, ‘Report on the Mission of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs to the Eastern Mediterranean, February–April 1941,’ 21 April 1941 – annex 9, record of meeting held at the British Legation, Athens, 3 March 1941, pp. 59–60. 101. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy,p.40. 102. FO 371/25017, R8697/316/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1655, 3 December 1940. 103. FO 371/25017, R8697/316/44, Clutton minute, 9 December 1940. 104. Watt, How War Came, p. 623. 105. See, for example, Colville diary, 24 November 1940; Colville, The Fringes of Power, pp. 254–5. 106. Balfour and Mackay, Paul of Yugoslavia, p. 239. 107. FO 371/30124, R3678/1934/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 791, 8 April 1941. 108. FO 371/30124, R3983/1934/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 854, 15 April 1941; Bowker minute, 16 April 1941. 109. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion, p. 79. Record of conversation between Hitler, Ribbentrop, Mussolini and Ciano, 19 January 1941; Ciano’s Diplomatic Papers, p. 418. Ribbentrop to Papen, 4 June 1941; DGFP, Series D, vol. XII, p. 954. 110. The German military had prepared plans for the attack on the Middle East through Turkey, anticipated by the British in 1940, in the event that Hitler postponed the invasion of the Soviet Union. Halder diary, 26 October 212 Notes

1940, 2 November 1940, 10 February 1941. The Halder War Diary, 1939–42, Charles Burdick and Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, eds (London: Greenhill, 1988), pp. 270, 276, 317. 111. Manchester Guardian, ‘The Turkish Sentinel,’ 22 October 1940, p. 4. See also Times, ‘Turkey Stands Firm—I A Friendship Which Has Survived Dis- aster,’ 3 October 1940, p. 5. ‘The Anatolian Bastion—Turkish Resolution,’ 11 October 1940, p. 4. ‘Turkey Stands By Her Friends—Greek Cause Pop- ular,’ 4 November 1940, p. 4. ‘Turkish Service To Greece—Bulgarian Flank Covered—A Strong Front,’ 27 November 1940, p. 4. 112. Graves, Briton & Turk, p. 253. 113. CAB 69/2, DO (41), 8th meeting, 11 February 1941; annex I, draft telegram from Churchill to Wavell. FO 371/30029, R8421/10/44, ‘Appreciation of present Turkish position,’ 20 September 1941; enclosure in Hugessen to Oliver Lyttelton (Cairo), 24 September 1941. 114. FO 371/30124, R3678/1934/44, Sargent minute, 9 April 1941. 115. HW 12/262, 088719 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Washington, 8 March 1941 (15 March). 116. Barlas, ‘Turkish Diplomacy in the Balkans and the Mediterranean,’ 446. 117. Points made acidly by Molotov in December 1940. FO 371/24871, R8930/4/7, Cripps to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 1112, 16 December 1940. 118. HW 12/263, 089819 Greek Foreign Ministry Athens to Greek legation London, 10 April 1941 (15 April). 119. John Macmurray to Cordell Hull, 11 April 1941; Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS] 1941, vol. III (Washington DC: Department of State, 1959), pp. 844–5. 120. Macmurray to Hull, 19 May 1941; FRUS 1941, vol. III, pp. 851–2. 121. FO 371/30124, R3678/1934/44, Eden minute, 12 April 1941.

3 Turkey and Britain’s War in the Middle East, May 1941 to November 1942

1. PREM 3/445/8, War Ofﬁce report, ‘German attack through Caucasus on Persia or on Syria through an acquiescent Turkey,’ 25 September 1941. 2. CAB 66/15, WP (41) 77, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 26 April 1941. 3. WM (41) 44th conclusions, 28 April 1941; War Cabinet Minutes. 4. Parliamentary Debates, 5th Series [Commons], vol. 371, 6 May 1941, column 736. 5. AB Gaunson, The Anglo-French Clash in Lebanon & Syria, 1940–45 (London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 32. 6. Ibid., pp. 32–3. 7. Daniel Silverfarb, Britain’s Informal Empire in the Middle East – A Case Study of Iraq, 1929–41 (Oxford: OUP, 1986), p. 125. HW 12/263, 089643 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 4 April 1941 (10 April). The Turks also had an interest in the fate of the Turkic population in northern Iraq, notably around Kirkuk. Eden to Hugessen, no. 66, 16 May 1941; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1; Malcolm Yapp, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), p. 228. Notes 213

8. HW 12/264, 090782 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador, Tehran, 6 May 1941 (10 May). 9. PREM 3/238/7, Hugessen to Foreign Office, 2 May 1941; Chiefs of Staff to Wavell, 4 May 1941. HW 12/264, 090744 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 6 May 1941 (9 May). 10. PREM 3/238/7, Foreign Office to Hugessen (draft), May 1941; Chiefs of Staff to Wavell, 4 May 1941. 11. PREM 3/238/7, military attaché Ankara to Wavell, cc War Office, 5 May 1941. 12. HW 12/264, 091179 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 16 May 1941 (19 May); 091360 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 21 May 1941 (23 May). The Germans in fact regretted the timing of the Iraqi rebellion, since they had prepared no effective support for the anti- British regime. The Turks were nonetheless aware that Germany might be obliged to intervene to preserve their own prestige. PREM 3/238/7, military attaché Ankara to Wavell, cc War Office, 5 May 1941. 13. PREM 3/422/6, Churchill to Wavell, 22 May 1941; Chiefs of Staff to Commanders-in-Chief, Middle East, May 1941. 14. PREM 3/445/8, Eden to Churchill, 19 May 1941. 15. CAB 80/13, COS (40) 512 (JP), ‘Military Policy in Egypt & the Middle East,’ 2 July 1940; COS (40) 549 (JP), ‘Syria & the Lebanon – Draft Report by the Joint Planning Sub-committee,’ 14 July 1940; COS (40) 561 (Revise), ‘Syria & the Lebanon,’ 22 July 1940. FO 371/25014, R8112/232/44, Mr Baxter memorandum, ‘The Problem of Syria,’ 22 October 1940. 16. On the erosion of Vichy’s neutrality, and the evolution of the British position from opposition to support of an occupation of Syria, see Gaunson, The Anglo-French Clash in Lebanon & Syria, pp. 28–31. 17. FO 371/24556, E2063/220/93, Sir Basil Newton (Baghdad) to Foreign Office, no. 224, 5 June 1940. 18. CAB 66/9, WP (40) 231, ‘Situation in Syria,’ 28 June 1940. Rü¸stü Aras had written to Ankara the previous week to express concern about the possibility of a ‘Syrian incident’ if Vichy ceded the administration of Syria to the Axis, and suggested that ‘the Syrian question should be studied in all its aspects.’ HW 12/253, 081539 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 18 June 1940 (22 June). 19. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Thomas Elmhirst papers, ELMT 2/2, ‘Conversations at Ankara, January-March 1941,’ transcript of staff conference, 15 January 1941 (A.M.); aide memoire by General Sir James Marshall-Cornwall, ‘Summary of Conversations held at Ankara, 15–22 January 1941.’ 20. PREM 3/422/2, Churchill memorandum, ‘Syrian Policy,’ 19 May 1941. Churchill had earlier suggested ‘(raising) a Turkish issue in Syria’ to exert pressure on Vichy, in November 1940. PREM 3/422/14, Churchill to Halifax, 12 November 1940. 21. CAB 66/16, WP (41) 116, ‘Our Arab Policy’, 27 May 1941. On the Eastern Department’s concerns, see Y Olmert, ‘Britain, Turkey & the Levant Ques- tion during the Second World War,’ Middle Eastern Studies 23:4 (1987), pp. 444–6. The Colonial Office also noted the likelihood of a negative Arab 214 Notes

reaction, but conceded that the Turks must be asked to take action if it was the only way to keep the Germans out of Syria. 22. HW 12/265, 092213 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 12 June 1941 (16 June). 23. Gaunson, The Anglo-French Clash in Lebanon & Syria, pp. 44–5. 24. FO 371/30092, R6584/236/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1580, 27 June 1941. 25. FO 371/30127, R6881/1934/44, Sargent minute, 2 July 1941. 26. FO 371/30127, R7030/1934/44, Sir Miles Lampson (Cairo) to Hugessen, 12 July 1941. 27. FO 371/30125, R5692/1934/44, Bowker minute, 30 May 1941. 28. FO 371/30126, R6156/1934/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1451, 14 June 1941 [emphasis in original]. For similar press reactions, see Times, ‘Turkish Treaty with Berlin—German Pressure—Present Commit- ments Unaffected,’ 19 June 1941, p. 4. Daily Telegraph, ‘Turkey Signs a Pact with Germany—Limited Scope: Treaty with Britain Not Affected,’ 19 June 1941, p. 1. Manchester Guardian, ‘The Turkish Pact,’ 20 June 1941, p. 4. 29. FO 371/30126, R6170/1934/44, Sargent minutes, 16 and 17 June 1941. 30. WM (41), 60th conclusions, 16 June 1941, War Cabinet Minutes. 31. WM (41), 63rd conclusions, 26 June 1941, War Cabinet Minutes. CAB 66/17, WP (41) 138, ‘Supplies to Turkey – Report by the Committee for the Co-ordination of Allied Supplies,’ 20 June 1941, and WP (41) 141, Eden paper, ‘Supplies to Turkey,’ 25 June 1941. 32. FO 371/30126, R6363/1934/44, Bowker minute, 24 June 1941. 33. FO 371/30126, R6399/1934/44, Bowker minute, 25 June 1941. 34. FO 371/30127, R6881/1934/44, Nichols minute, 27 June 1941; Cavendish- Bentinck minute, 30 June 1941; Sargent minute, 2 July 1941. WO 201/1062, ‘Defensive Position in Turkey,’ no date [July 1941]. This paper assumed a Soviet defeat by 1 August 1941. 35. Gabriel Gorodetsky, Stafford Cripps’ Mission to Moscow, 1940–42 (Cambridge: CUP, 1984), pp. 209–15, 231–2 (‘Russia figured only insofar as she fitted into the Middle East strategy’). 36. HW 12/263, 089887 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Tehran, 12 April 1941 (16 April). HW 12/264, 090434 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 28 April 1941 (1 May). 37. HW 12/267, 094544 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 15 August 1941 (18 August). Richard A Stewart, Sunrise at Abadan – the British and Soviet Invasion of Iran, 1941 (New York: Praeger, 1988), p. 65. 38. CAB 84/33, JP (41) 559, ‘Operations in Iran (Persia),’ 17 July 1941. 39. HW 12/261, 094861, Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 23 August 1941 (26 August). 40. HW 12/268, 095065 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 26 August 1941 (1 September). 41. HW 12/267, 094544 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 15 August 1941 (18 August). 42. HW 12/267, 094311 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Tehran, 7 August 1941 (11 August); 094858 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 23 August 1941 (26 August). 43. FO 371/30137, R8063/4125/44, Bowker minute, 26 August 1941. Notes 215

44. FO 371/30137, R6723/4125/44, Lampson to Foreign Office, no. 2006, 27 June 1941; R7210/4125/44, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis (Baghdad) to Foreign Office, no. 808, 21 July 1941. 45. FO 930/42, Mrs Talbot Rice paper, ‘Propaganda in Turkey,’ August 1941. FO 195/2471, Ankara embassy minute, unknown author, 30 August 1941. 46. FO 371/30069, R9737/112/44, Clutton minute, 11 November 1941. See also R10256/112/44, Warner minute, 15 December 1941. 47. FO 371/30031, R10373/15/44, Clutton minute, 8 December 1941. FO 371/30069, R10317/112/44, Clutton minute, 6 December 1941. 48. FO 371/30031, R10032/15/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2745, 21 November 1941; Clutton minute, 24 November 1941. 49. FO 371/30031, R10373/15/44, Dixon minute, 8 December 1941. 50. The material on the following pages originally appeared as Nicholas Tamkin, ‘Britain, the Middle East and the “Northern Front,” 1941–42,’ War in History 15:3 (London: Sage, 2008), pp. 314–36. 51. Ernest Phillips, Hitler’s Last Hope (London: Hurricane, 1942), p. 42. 52. FO 371/29590, N3295/3295/38, Northern Department minute, 19 June 1941. Osborn, Operation Pike, pp. 230–2. 53. FO 195/2462, Sargent to Hugessen, 15 February 1940; Hugessen to Sargent, 24 February 1940; air attaché Ankara to Hugessen, 1 March 1940. 54. CAB 79/12, COS (41) 233rd meeting, 3 July 1941; discussion of JP (41) 508, 1 July 1941 (annex). 55. Ibid. 56. FO 371/29594, handwritten marginal comment on N3454/3343/38, Commander-in-Chief Middle East to War Office, 26 June 1941; N3850/3343/38, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1756, 16 July 1941. FO 371/29596, N4706/3343/38, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2027, 20 August 1941. 57. FO 371/29596, N4773/3343/38, Cripps to Foreign Office, no. 1021, 21 August 1941. 58. John Connell, Wavell – Supreme Commander, 1941-43 (London: Collins, 1969), pp. 33–6. 59. PREM 3/395/3, Churchill to Ismay, for Chiefs of Staff, 5 November 1941. 60. David Reynolds, In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War (London: Allen Lane, 2004), pp. 254–5. 61. WO 106/3129, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1800, 23 July 1941. PREM 3/445/2, GHQ Middle East to Chiefs of Staff, copied to Commander-in- Chief India and military attaché Ankara, 2 August 1941. Previous Anglo- Turkish staff talks, in January 1941, had been vague on the level of British support to Turkey; Britain’s Middle Eastern reserves at that time were small, and were earmarked to support the fighting Greeks. In the event of a German attack from the Balkans, the British notionally undertook to send one armoured and two infantry divisions, a handful of artillery regiments and anti-aircraft batteries, and a ‘composite air striking force.’ In the event of a Soviet attack from the Caucasus, the British had pledged the assistance of an Indian army corps from Iraq, and unspecified naval and air assistance. Churchill College Archives Centre; Sir Thomas Elmhirst papers, ELMT 2/2, Final Agreed Summary of Staff Conversations held at Ankara, January 1941’ and ‘Summary of Conversations held at Ankara, 15–22 January 1941’. 216 Notes

62. PREM 3/445/2, Chiefs of Staff to GHQ Middle East, 2 October 1941. 63. ISO Playfair, History of the Second World War: The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. II (London: HMSO, 1956), p. 290; vol. III (London: HMSO, 1960), p. 412. 64. PREM 3/445/2, Chiefs of Staff to GHQ Middle East, 6 August 1941. 65. PREM 3/445/2, GHQ Middle East to Chiefs of Staff, 29 September 1941. 66. Winston S Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 3 (London: Cassell, 1950), p. 358. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 256. 67. WM (41), 96th conclusions, 24 September 1941, confidential annex; War Cabinet Minutes. 68. WM (41), 106th conclusions, 27 October 1941, confidential annex; War Cabinet Minutes. PREM 3/395/6, Foreign Office (from Churchill) to Cripps, 28 October 1941. PREM 3/395/3, Churchill to General Ismay, for Chiefs of Staff, 5 November 1941. 69. CAB 79/86, Confidential Annex to COS (41), 43rd meeting (O), 4 December 1941. 70. WO 106/3134, War Office to Commander-in-Chief Middle East, cc Commander-in-Chief India, 6 December 1941. 71. HW 12/271, 098409 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 27 November 1941 (1 December). 72. FO 371/30029, R10655/10/44, Hugessen to Oliver Lyttelton (Minister of State, Cairo), 3 December 1941. 73. Churchill College Archives Centre; Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/69B/91-2, Middle East Defence Committee to Churchill and Chiefs of Staff, 30 January 1942. De Guingand, Operation Victory, pp. 100–1. 74. FO 371/30029, R10655/10/44, Clutton minute, 20 December 1941. 75. Ibid. 76. FO 371/30094, R10509/236/44, Admiral Sir Howard Kelly (British naval representative, Ankara) to Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, copied to Admiralty, Hugessen, 16 December 1941. 77. FO 371/33368, R1355/486/44, Anthony Eden minute, 22 February 1942. 78. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, King’s College London; Kennedy papers, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Kennedy diary, 20 February 1942. See also Kennedy, Business of War, p. 194. 79. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, King’s College London; Kennedy papers, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Field-Marshal Dill to Chiefs of Staff, 5 March 1942. 80. Times, ‘Turkey & the War—Shadow of Japanese Imperialism—The German Menace,’ 26 February 1942, p. 3. 81. Phillips, Hitler’s Last Hope,p.48. 82. Daily Telegraph, ‘Battle for Oilfields in 1942—Gen. Wavell,’ 21 November 1941, p. 5. 83. Weinberg, A World at Arms, pp. 327–8. 84. HW 12/279, 107583 Turkish ambassador Rome to MFA Ankara, 1 August 1942 (5 August). 85. Times, ‘Sevastopol,’ 3 July 1942, p. 5; ‘Mediterranean Issues,’ 8 July 1942, p. 5. 86. Horst Boog, et al., Germany & the Second World War, vol. VI: The Global War (Oxford: OUP, 2001), pp. 123–6, 132, 181, 983–4. Notes 217

87. HW 1/858, 108588 Foreign Ministry Tokyo to Japanese ambassador Berlin, 26 August 1942 (2 September). 88. Weinberg, A World at Arms, pp. 324–5. 89. Robert O’Neill, ‘Churchill, Japan and British Security in the Pacific, 1904-42,’ in Robert Blake and William Roger Louis, eds. Churchill (Oxford: OUP, 1993), p. 289. 90. Playfair, The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. III (London: HMSO, 1960), pp. 122–8. 91. CAB 84/42, General Claude Auchinleck to War Office, 20 February 1942, annexed to JP (42) 218 (S) and (E), ‘Assistance to Turkey,’ 2 March 1942. 92. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, King’s College London; Kennedy papers, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Kennedy diary, 23 February 1942. 93. PREM 3/499/2, DO (42) 6, note by the Prime Minister and Minister of Defence on the future conduct of the war, 22 January 1942 – annex II. 94. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers; CHAR 20/69B/91-2, Middle East Defence Committee to Churchill and Chiefs of Staff, 30 January 1942. 95. WO 201/1094, ‘Draft Directive for defence of Persia, Iraq and Syria and conduct of operations in Turkey,’ January 1942. 96. Playfair, The Mediterranean and Middle East, vol. III, pp. 412–13. There were two complete armoured divisions in the Middle East Command in October 1941, rising to three by May 1942. 97. WO 201/1094, ‘Draft Directive for defence of Persia, Iraq and Syria and conduct of operations in Turkey,’ January 1942. 98. WO 201/1099, ‘Defence of Turkey,’ March 1942. 99. WO 201/1236, ‘Plans for assistance if Turkey resists the Axis,’ c. March 1942 [emphasis in original]. 100. CAB 80/35, COS (42) 188, ‘Arada-Diarbekir [sic] Railway,’ memorandum by the CIGS, 25 March 1942 [emphasis in original]. 101. Ibid. 102. FO 371/33314, R2111/28/44, Douglas Howard minute, 5 April 1942 [emphasis in original]. Negotiations on a road construction project in southern Turkey continued with a similar lack of urgency, ‘for the same reasons as apply to the railway, i.e. in our present state of weakness it might be of more use to the enemy than ourselves.’ FO 371/33314, R2537/28/44, Commander-in-Chief Middle East to War Office, cc military attaché Ankara, 14 April 1942; Clutton minute, 20 April 1942. 103. WO 201/1037, ‘Plan if Turkey submits to the Axis,’ c. March 1942. 104. CAB 79/19, COS (42), 71st meeting, 4 March 1942. 105. WO 106/2154, War Office to Commanders-in-Chief Middle East, 8 May 1941. 106. WO 106/2154, military attaché Ankara to General Wavell, cc War Office, 13 May 1941. 107. PREM 3/445/8, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1101, 15 May 1941. 108. FO 371/30097, R8584/240/44, Clutton minute, 23 September 1941. Further information on collaboration between the Turkish General Staff and British demolition teams under GHQ Middle East is limited, perhaps as a result of the destruction of many of GHQ Middle East’s files when a German occupation of Egypt appeared likely in the summer of 1942. The archives of 218 Notes

SOE Cairo are similarly affected. See Duncan Stuart, ‘“Of Historical Interest Only”: the origins & vicissitudes of the SOE archive,’ Intelligence & National Security 20:1 (2005), pp. 14–26. 109. HS 3/222, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1639, 22 July 1941. 110. FO 371/30096, R7688/240/44, Bowker minute, 5 August 1941; Sargent minute, 5 August 1941; Eden minute, 6 August 1941. 111. CAB 84/34, JP (41) 694 (S), ‘Activities in Turkey,’ 25 August 1941; Chiefs of Staff to Commander-in-Chief Middle East, copied to Commander-in-Chief India, 15 August 1941, and Commander-in-Chief Middle East to Chiefs of Staff, copied to Commander-in-Chief India, 17 August 1941 (annexes). 112. CAB 84/34, JP (41) 704, ‘Activities in Turkey,’ 30 August 1941. HS 3/238, Gladwyn Jebb to Sargent, 4 September 1941. 113. FO 371/30096, R7743/240/44; Bowker, Clutton and Dixon minutes, all 18 August 1941; Bowker minute, 27 August 1941. 114. WO 201/2636, Commanders-in-Chief Middle East to Chiefs of Staff, 7 September 1941; Cs-in-C Middle East to Chiefs of Staff, 20 October 1941. 115. HS 3/219, Jebb to Sargent, 20 March 1942. HS 3/222, SOE sub-committee of the Middle East Defence Committee paper, SO (42) 13, ‘SOE Activities in Turkey,’ March 1942. 116. HS 3/222, unknown author to CD (Sir Frank Nelson), 21 January 1942. 117. CAB 79/19, COS (42), 100th meeting, 30 March 1942; JP (42) 321, ‘SOE Activities in Turkey,’ 26 March 1942 (annex). 118. HS 3/238, Auchinleck to War Office, for Chiefs of Staff Committee, 4 April 1942. CAB 79/20, COS (42), 111th meeting, 8 April 1942. 119. CAB 80/62, COS (42) 139 (O), ‘SOE Activity in Turkey,’ 17 May 1942; annex I, Commanders-in-Chief Middle East to Air Ministry, for Chiefs of Staff, 16 April 1942. The Chiefs of Staff acquiesced in the theatre Commanders’ conclusions. CAB 80/62, COS (42) 139 (O), ‘SOE Activity in Turkey,’ 17 May 1942; annex II, Air Ministry to Commanders-in-Chief Middle East, from Chiefs of Staff, 18 April 1942. 120. HS 3/225, Sargent (for Sir Alexander Cadogan) to Ismay, 13 May 1942. 121. See Note 75 above. 122. CAB 79/18, COS (42), 45th meeting, 10 February 1942. 123. CAB 80/36, COS (42), 209, ‘Assistance to Turkey,’ 8 April 1942. 124. CAB 79/19, COS (42), 90th meeting, 20 March 1942. Hitler would in fact make significant diversions from the Caucasian front, to both Leningrad and North Africa, in the autumn of 1942. The Joint Planners perhaps over- estimated the coherence of Hitler’s strategy as the war in the East turned against him during 1942. 125. HS 3/219, ‘SOE Activities in Turkey,’ 13 January 1942. 126. CAB 79/20, COS (42), 135th meeting, 30 April 1942; JIC (42) 151 (O) (Final), ‘Enemy Intentions – Turkey, 26 April 1942. 127. FO 371/33368, R1355/486/44, Sargent memorandum, 19 February 1942, commenting on JIC (42) 40, 13 February 1942. For similar Turkish concerns, see PREM 3/445/8, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 403, 27 February 1942. 128. FO 371/33368, R1355/486/44, Cadogan minute, 21 February 1942. 129. PREM 3/445/8, Eden to Churchill, 2 March 1942. 130. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, King’s College London; Kennedy papers, KENNEDY, JN: 4/3, General Smith to Kennedy, 6 February 1942. Notes 219

131. Alanbrooke diary, 15 April 1942; Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries, 1939-45, Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman, eds (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001), p. 249. 132. See also Brooke’s survey of 1942 in Alanbrooke diary, 1 January 1943; Op. cit., p. 355. De Guingand’s memoirs for this period – during which he was Director of Military Intelligence in Cairo – indicate that he also took the threat from the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean seriously. De Guingand, Operation Victory, pp. 109–11. 133. FH Hinsley, British Intelligence in the Second World War, vol. II (London: HMSO, 1981), p. 92. Their US counterparts believed that the British JIC exaggerated the Germans’ need for Caucasian oil (p. 96). 134. WO 208/1980, MI3b report, ‘Possibility of an enemy attack on the Black Sea Coast,’ 15 May 1942. 135. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 304. 136. CAB 79/20, COS (42) 150th conclusions, 14 May 1942. CAB 79/21, COS (42) 164th conclusions, 29 May 1942; COS (42) 168th conclusions, 3 June 1942; COS (42) 178th conclusions, 13 June 1942. CAB 80/37, COS (42) 302, ‘The Levant-Caspian Front – Co-operation with the Russians,’ memorandum by the CIGS, 11 June 1942; Auchinleck to Brooke, 6 June 1942, annexed to COS (42) 305, 13 June 1942. Alanbrooke diary, ‘notes for my memoirs’ and 15 August 1942; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, pp. 304–5. 137. See especially Brooke’s lengthy entries on the state of the Soviets’ Caucasian defences as viewed during his flight to and from Moscow. Alanbrooke diary, ‘notes for my memoirs’ and 17 August 1942; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, pp. 300, 308. 138. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill Papers; CHAR 20/67/6, Churchill to Ismay, for Chiefs of Staff, 23 July 1942. 139. FO 195/2743, Arnold to Hugessen, 16 July 1942. Several members of the Vichy French mission in Turkey were understood to be pro-Allied. A number of them resigned from the Ankara embassy and joined the Free French during 1942. FO 371/33394, R2799/2536/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 858, 27 April 1942. 140. FO 195/2743, Hugessen minute, 18 July 1942. 141. FO 195/2743, John Sterndale-Bennett minute, 25 July 1942. Haydar Aktay had been recalled to Ankara in the summer of 1942, and died shortly after. FO 371/33366, R4280/480/44, Clutton minute, 29 June 1942; R5359/480/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1496, 12 August 1942. 142. Eden to Hugessen, no. 174, 25 August 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, 344. 143. FO 371/33375, R1541/810/44, report on Turkish public opinion by Michael Grant (British Council, Ankara), January 1942. 144. HS 3/227, ‘Pan-Turanianism (sic) in Turkey,’ 12 May 1942; ‘Turkey – A Political Survey,’ 4 June 1942. 145. FO 371/33312, R3159/24/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 967, 13 May 1942. ‘The desire of the Turkish government was to keep the Pan-Turanian movement, which had sympathisers in the government itself, under close observation and control. The main idea was to provide a contingency plan 220 Notes

in the event of clear German victory. This is not out of keeping with Turkish foreign policy, which typically sought to cover all options.’ Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 129–33. 146. FO 195/2743, Hugessen minute, 27 July 1942. 147. HW 12/280, 108599 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 2 September 1942 (29 August). 148. Dimitrov diary, 29 July 1942; Dimitrov, Tagebücher, p. 562. 149. Dimitrov diary, 6 July 1942; Ibid, pp. 548–9. 150. Churchill to Franklin Roosevelt, 15 August 1942; Churchill & Roosevelt – The Complete Correspondence, vol. 1 Alliance Emerging Oct 1933–Nov 1942, Warren F Kimball, ed. (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1984), pp. 565– 6. 151. Ulunian, ‘Soviet Cold War Perceptions of Turkey & Greece,’ 37. The Russians also apprehended a Turkish interest in the future of the Turkic minority in Iran, and assumed concomitant Turkish territorial ambitions there. FAG Cook (Tabriz) to Sir Reader Bullard (Tehran), no. 47, 9 November 1941, BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 3; Malcolm Yapp, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), pp. 447–8. 152. Times, ‘Sevastopol,’ 3 July 1942, p. 5; ‘Mediterranean Issues,’ 8 July 1942, p. 5. 153. New Statesman & Nation, ‘Facing the Spectre,’ 4 July 1942, p. 1. 154. Alanbrooke diary, ‘notes for my memoirs’; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, p. 296. 155. Alanbrooke diary, 18 and 21 August 1942; Op. cit., pp. 308, 310–11. See also Times, ‘Persia-Iraq Command—Tenth Army’s New Importance—The Caucasus Threat,’ 25 August 1942, p. 4. 156. Winston S Churchill, The Second World War vol. 4 (London: Cassell, 1951), p. 421. Reynolds, In Command of History, p. 307. 157. CAB 79/22, COS (42), 223rd meeting, 31 July 1942. Brooke made a similar request regarding the JIC assessment of the threat to Iran and Iraq, in light of rapid German advances in the Caucasus during August. COS (42), 249th meeting, 28 August 1942. 158. FO 800/279, Hugessen to Sargent, 10 September 1942. 159. WO 201/1120, ‘Plans for delaying the advance of the enemy through Turkey,’ June 1942. FO 371/33369, R432/486/44, Sargent minute, 25 June 1942; Cadogan and Eden minutes, 26 and 27 June 1942. 160. FO 371/33369, R6094/486/44, Dixon minute, 8 October 1942. 161. CAB 81/111, JIC (42) 450, ‘Capacity of Soviet Forces to Defend Southern Caucasia,’ 18 November 1942. CAB 79/22, COS (42) 327th meeting, 25 November 1942, and passim. Osborn, Operation Pike, pp. 253–4. 162. WO 106/3139, ‘The Northern Front,’ 2 January 1943. 163. Ibid. 164. Ernst Jäckh, The Rising Crescent – Turkey Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1944), pp. 7–8. 165. Chester Tobin, Turkey – Key to the East (New York: GP Putnam’s Sons, 1944), pp. 153–5. 166. See Note 104 above. 167. Schreiber et al., Germany & the Second World War, vol. III, pp. 706–7. Notes 221

4 The Churchill Factor: November 1942 to April 1943

1. HW 1/886, 108887 Japanese ambassador Istanbul to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 4 September 1942 (10 September). 2. HW 1/877, 108810 Turkish ambassador Vichy to MFA Ankara, 4 September 1942 (8 September). HW 1/948, 109705 Turkish ambassador Vichy to MFA Ankara, 1 October 1942 (3 October). 3. HW 1/950, 109703 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 30 September 1942 (3 October). 4. HW 12/282, 110738 Turkish military attaché London to General Staff Ankara, 3 November 1942 (6 November). 5. FO 371/33369, R7608/486/44, Clutton minute, 8 November 1942. 6. FO 371/33313, R7702/24/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2084, 14 November 1942. 7. FO 371/33313, R7702/24/44, Clutton minute, 17 November 1942. 8. FO 371/33313, R7702/24/44, Dixon minute, 17 November 1942. 9. FO 371/33313, R8021/24/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2149, 24 November 1942. 10. FO 371/33313, R8021/24/44, Cavendish-Bentinck minute, 28 November 1942. The JIC continued to advise the Foreign Office that Germany could not mount a credible threat to Turkey while the Red Army remained undefeated in the Caucasus. FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Sargent minute, 7 December 1942. 11. HW 12/281, 110049 Greek ambassador Ankara to Greek government London, 12 October 1942 (15 October). 12. HW 1/972. 13. PREM 3/446/9, Eden to Churchill, 15 November 1942. 14. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Noble Kennedy diary, 18 November and 20 December 1942. 15. National Maritime Museum, Admiral Howard Kelly papers, KEL/42, Kelly to Cunningham, 29 December 1942. 16. When this paper was sent to Field Marshal Dill in Washington, he reminded the Prime Minister that spare forces may become available in Egypt, but there was no spare equipment – above all tanks – for diversion to Turkey. PREM 3/499/5, Dill to Chiefs of Staff, 19 November 1942. 17. PREM 3/499/5, COS (42) 181st and 182nd meetings (O), both 15 November 1942. Churchill had his paper reprinted for the War Cabinet, and tele- graphed to President Roosevelt. PREM 3/446/9, ‘Plans & Operations in the Mediterranean, Middle East & Near East,’ note by the Minister of Defence to Chiefs of Staff, reprinted for War Cabinet, 25 November 1942. 18. PREM 3/499/6, COS (42) 345 (O) (Final), ‘American-British Strategy,’ 30 October 1942; ‘Notes by the Prime Minister on COS (42) 345 (O) (Final).’ Eden, too, was ‘horrified’ by the Chiefs’ recommendations. Oliver Harvey diary, 10 November 1942; Oliver Harvey, The War Diaries of Oliver Harvey, John Harvey ed. (London: Collins, 1978), pp. 180–1. 19. PREM 3/446/9, Roosevelt to Churchill, 12 November 1942; Churchill to Roosevelt, 13 November 1942. 222 Notes

20. ‘I endorse the above conception by the President ...A supreme and pro- longed effort must be made to bring Turkey into the war in the Spring.’ PREM 3/446/9, ‘Plans & Operations in the Mediterranean, Middle East & Near East,’ note by the Minister of Defence to Chiefs of Staff, reprinted for War Cabinet, 25 November 1942. 21. Weinberg, World at Arms, pp. 434–6. 22. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/83/109, Churchill to Stalin, 24 November 1942. 23. Churchill College, Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/84/10-11, Stalin to Churchill, 27 November 1942. 24. Boog et al., Germany and the Second World War, vol. VI, p. 103. 25. Osborn, Operation Pike, p. 254. 26. HW 12/282, 111713 Japanese ambassador Ankara to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 25 November 1942 (30 November). Seen by Churchill as part of HW 1/1178. 27. WO 106/3139, Churchill to Brooke, 1 December 1942. 28. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Kennedy diary, 18 November 1942. 29. PREM 3/446/9, ‘Plans & Operations in the Mediterranean, Middle East & Near East,’ note by the Minister of Defence to Chiefs of Staff, reprinted for War Cabinet, 25 November 1942. Kennedy was perhaps more aware than the Prime Minister of the difﬁculties of supplying Turkey by land and rail from Syria. 30. PREM 3/499/5, COS (42) 181st meeting (O), 15 November 1942. Brooke agreed that ‘(t)he importance of Turkey could not be over-emphasised and the possibility of building up a force in Syria to back up the Turks was now being studied.’ 31. Basil Liddell Hart Centre, KENNEDY, JN: 4/2/4, Kennedy diary, 8 December 1942. 32. Alanbrooke diary, 11 December 1942; War Diaries, pp. 347–8. TORCH had already succeeded in drawing substantial German forces away from the Russian front, albeit with negative implications for the Allied campaign in Tunisia. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 435. 33. FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Knox Helm to Hugessen, 5 November 1942. 34. FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Sargent minute, 7 December 1942. Hugessen had reported that junior army ofﬁcers were keen to join the war in order to attack Bulgaria, and achieve frontier revision in Thrace, but insisted that ‘more responsible elements ...still talked of neutrality.’ CAB 81/90, JIC (42) 59th meeting, 8 December 1942. For Southern Department minutes adopt- ing a similar tone to Sargent, see FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Clutton minute, 1 December 1942; Dixon minute, 3 December 1942. 35. CAB 79/24, COS (42) 335th meeting, 4 December 1942. CAB 81/90, JIC (42) 59th meeting, 8 December 1942. 36. CAB 79/24, COS (42) 335th meeting, 4 December 1942. 37. FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Cadogan minute, 8 December 1942 [emphasis in original]. 38. HW 3/162, ‘D & R (Distribution & Reference Section), Berkeley St,’ c. December 1945. Notes 223

39. The exceptions were one or two extremely restricted items, passed directly by Menzies to Churchill, and perhaps seen additionally by Eden or Sir Edward Bridges, the War Cabinet secretary. 40. Churchill had little confidence in Hugessen, and frequently upbraided Eden about the standard of Hugessen’s correspondence from Ankara. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/36, Churchill to Eden, 2 July 1941. PREM 3/445/8, Churchill to Hugessen, 9 December 1941; Churchill to Eden, 5 November 1942. 41. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 20/67/8, Churchill to Eden, 21 October 1942. 42. Winston Churchill, ‘The War at Land & Sea,’ Part II, London Magazine, November 1916; Michael Wolff, ed. The Collected Essays of Sir Winston Churchill, vol. I – Churchill & War (London: Library of Imperial History, 1976), pp. 127–8. 43. Winston Churchill, ‘Prize of Constantinople—Speedy Surrender if Allied Fleet Had Forced Dardanelles—Turkey’s “Greatest Bluff in History,”’ Daily Telegraph, 1 July 1930; Wolff, ed. vol. I, pp. 282–7. Winston Churchill, ‘Ships Could Have Forced the Dardanelles,’ Daily Mail, 2 October 1934; Wolff, ed. vol. I, pp. 334–6. 44. Reynolds, In Command of History, pp. 174, 375. 45. For Brooke’s assessment of Churchill’s flawed strategic vision, see Alanbrooke diary, 30 August 1943; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, p. 451. 46. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 356. 47. PREM 3/420/3, Churchill to Eden & Clement Attlee, STRATEGEM no. 102, 20 January 1943. 48. PREM 3/420/3, Eden & Attlee to Churchill, TELESCOPE no. 182, 20 January 1943. 49. WM (43), 13th and 14th conclusions (Confidential Annex), 24 January 1943; War Cabinet Minutes. 50. PREM 3/446/18. These telegrams from Hugessen were forwarded to Churchill by Eden on 26 January. Churchill’s belief in their importance is expressed in Churchill to Roosevelt, 29 January 1943. 51. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/21, Brigadier Ian Jacob diary, 23 January 1943. 52. FO 371/37466, R1443/55/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 21 January 1943. 53. PREM 3/446/18, Eden & Attlee to Churchill, TELESCOPE no. 274, 24 January 1943, and no. 278, 25 January 1943. 54. WM (43), 18th conclusions (Confidential Annex), 27 January 1943; War Cabinet Minutes. 55. AP 20/1/23, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 24 January 1943. Cadogan diary, 20 January 1943; Dilks, ed. p. 505. 56. Harvey diary, 25 January 1943; Harvey, War Diaries, p. 213. 57. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/21, Jacob diary, 23 January 1943. 58. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/19, Jacob diary, 27 January 1943. 224 Notes

59. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, p. 3. 60. CAB 84/52, JP (43) 8 (O) Revised Draft, ‘Allied Plans Relating to Turkey,’ 8 January 1943. 61. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/21, Jacob diary, 23 January 1943. 62. PREM 3/446/18, Eden to Churchill (Washington), no. 253, 16 May 1943. 63. PREM 3/446/12, ‘Morning Thoughts – Note on Post-war Security,’ enclosed in Churchill to Attlee, 1 February 1943. 64. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, ibid.,p.4. 65. HW 12/245, 076772 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 1 November 1939 (26 October). Colville diary, 13 December 1940; Colville, The Fringes of Power, pp. 288–9. 66. On Roosevelt’s ambitions for post-war China (and Churchill’s own quite different views), see Keith Sainsbury, Churchill and Roosevelt at War (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1996 reprint), pp. 163–5. 67. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, pp. 2–3. 68. FO 800/403, Cadogan to Eden, 2 February 1943. 69. PREM 3/446/18, Adana press communiqué, 2 February 1943. 70. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; Annex 3. 71. PREM 3/446/2, Churchill to General Ismay, 28 February 1943; Churchill to Eden, 14 April 1943; Jacob to Churchill, 19 April 1943. 72. Churchill College, Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/19, Jacob diary, 30 January 1943. 73. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, pp. 2–4. 74. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen manuscript diary, 2 February 1943. 75. Alanbrooke diary, 1 February 1943; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, p. 376. 76. PREM 3/446/14, Foreign Ofﬁce to Clark Kerr, no. 54, 2 February 1943, encloses text of message to Stalin. See also PREM 3/446/11, Churchill to private secretary, 1 February 1943, enclosing text of message to President Roosevelt. 77. Pathé newsreel, ‘Winston Churchill Tour,’ 11 February 1943, Film ID 1075.25. Newsreel available to view at http://www.britishpathe.com/ 78. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/19, Jacob diary, 30 January. 79. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Alexander Cadogan papers, ACAD 7/2, ‘Ramshackle Conference.’ 80. Ibid. 81. Alanbrooke diary, 1 March 1943; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, p. 386. 82. FO 371/37516, R1102/1016/44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 256, 7 February 1943. Notes 225

83. PREM 3/446/18, Hugessen to Foreign Office, nos 123 and 134, c. 20 January 1943 [two of four telegrams forwarded to Churchill at Casablanca, 26 January 1943]. 84. FO 371/37516, R1102/1016/44, Clutton minute, 9 February 1943. 85. FO 371/37471, R7114/55/G44, Eden minute, 6 August 1943; Howard minute, 11 August 1943. 86. HW 12/285, 113894 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 2 February 1943 (5 February). 87. Cover sheet to HW 1/1348. 88. HW 1/1359, 114128 Japanese ambassador Ankara to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 5 February 1943 (12 February). This decrypt had the same restricted circulation as the circular from Menemencioglu˘ – Menzies, Lox- ley, Bridges, MI5, but the documentary record suggests that it was seen by Churchill. 89. FO 371/37516, R2503/1016/44, MEIC paper, ‘Adana Conference,’ 24 February 1943 (forwarded to Foreign Office by Minister of State’s office, 26 February 1943). 90. PREM 3/446/18, Sterndale-Bennett to Foreign Office, no. 550, 17 March 1943. Times, ‘Anglo-Turkish Friendship—“Outstretched Hand Grasped,”’ 18 March 1943, p. 3. 91. PREM 3/446/18, Sterndale-Bennett to Foreign Office, no. 551, 17 March 1943. 92. FO 371/37473, R9297/55/G44, Sterndale-Bennett minute of meeting with Cevat Açıkalın, 6 September 1943. 93. FO 371/33134, R3793/43/67, Sargent paper, ‘Suggested confederation of the States lying between Germany & Italy, on the one side, and Russia and Turkey on the other,’ 1 June 1942. 94. Ibid. 95. FO 371/33134, R8380/43/67, Clutton minute, 5 December 1942. See also FO 371/37465, R139/139/G44, Clutton minute, 7 January 1943, and FO 371/37516, R1069/1016/44, Howard minute, 5 February 1943. 96. FO 371/37465, R139/139/G44, Howard minute, 8 January 1943. FO 371/37179, R2303/55/G67, ‘Turkey and the Balkans,’ 8 March 1943. 97. FO 371/33134, R8417/43/67, Hugessen to Sargent, 10 November 1942. 98. FO 371/33134, R8380/43/67, Clutton minute, 5 December 1942. 99. FO 371/37173, R344/214/G67, Howard minute, 19 January 1943; Sargent minute, 20 January 1943. 100. PREM 3/446/18, Churchill to Roosevelt, 29 January 1943. 101. PREM 3/446/12, ‘Morning Thoughts – Note on Post-war Security,’ enclosed in Churchill to Attlee, 1 February 1943. 102. Colville diary, 13 December 1940; Colville, Fringes of Power, pp. 288–9. 103. PREM 3/446/18, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 144, January 1943. The series of telegrams from Ankara on this subject was collected and sent to Churchill in Casablanca on 26 January 1943; the individual dates of these telegrams are not given. 104. PREM 3/446/18, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 118, 18 January 1943. Although they discouraged Turkish intervention in the Balkans, some within the Foreign Office admitted that such an intervention, ‘forestalling the Russians’ there, ‘may in fact be a happy consequence.’ FO 371/37466, R1444/55/G44, Clutton minute, 23 February 1943. 226 Notes

105. HW 1/1551, 115927 Italian minister Budapest to Foreign Ministry Rome, 16 March 1943 (2 April). 106. HW 12/286, 115788 Japanese minister Sofia to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 22 March 1943 (29 March). 107. HW 1/1462, 115249 Portuguese minister Bucharest to Foreign Ministry Lisbon, 10 March 1943 (14 March). 108. PREM 3/446/18, Foreign Office to Ankara, no. 409, 20 March 1943; Foreign Office to Ankara, no. 481, 2 April 1943; Sterndale-Bennett to Foreign Office, no. 646, 2 April 1943; Foreign Office to Ankara, no. 497, 6 April 1943. For continued apprehension of Turkish contacts with the minor members of the Axis, see PREM 3/446/18, Foreign Office to Ankara, 3 August 1943, annex to COS (Q) 5, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 7 August 1943; Clark Kerr to Eden, no. 725, 5 August 1943. 109. For Soviet concerns about these contacts, see FO 371/37179, R5640/55/G67, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 67 SAVING, 20 June 1943. 110. HW 12/288, 117830 Greek government in exile London to Greek legation Cairo, 19 May 1943 (22 May). 111. HW 12/285, 113987 Spanish ambassador London to Foreign Ministry Madrid, 5 February (8 February). Orbay remained an enthusiast for Greek– Turkish collaboration, however. HW 12/287, Greek government in exile London to Greek legation Cairo, 24 April 1943 (27 April). 112. FO 371/37383, R5482/537/37, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 239, 14 June 1943. 113. FO 371/37179, R1551/55/G67, Sir Michael Palairet (ambassador to Greek government) to Sargent, 19 February 1943; Clutton minute, 23 February 1943. 114. FO 371/37179, R1551/55/G67, Howard minute, 25 February 1943. 115. Erik-Jan Zürcher gives the figure as 55 per cent; Dilek Barlas suggests 65 per cent. Zürcher, Turkey, p. 208. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey, p. 199. 116. The most recent survey of Turkish policy during the Second World War refers unequivocally to ‘concentration camps.’ Bülent Gökay, Soviet Eastern Policy & Turkey, 1920–1991: Soviet Foreign Policy, Turkey and Communism (Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2006), p. 57. 117. HW 12/284, 113275 Greek government London to Greek ambassador Ankara, 16 January 1943 (20 January); 113435 Greek ambassador Ankara, to Greek government London, 20 January 1943 (24 January). 118. FO 371/37512, R796/735/G44 and R1124/735/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 175 and 259, 27 January and 7 February 1943; R1124/735/G44, Sargent & Cadogan minutes, 10 February 1943; Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 232, 12 February 1943. 119. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey, p. 198. Zürcher, Turkey, pp. 207–8. Gökay, Soviet Eastern Policy, p. 57. 120. FO 371/33376, R8084/810/44, Denis Wright (HM consul Trebizond) to HM embassy Ankara, 3 November 1942. EC Hole (HM consul-general Izmir)˙ to Hugessen, no. 111, 17 November 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, pp. 370–1. 121. FO 371/33368, R3887/486/44, Dixon minute, 13 June 1942; Eden minute, 14 June 1942. Notes 227

122. FO 371/37466, R1443/55/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 21 January 1943; R1446/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 58, 5 February 1943. 123. PREM 3/445/8, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2374, 7 October 1941. 124. FO 371/37489, R3421/95/44, Clutton, 16 April 1943. On Britain’s limited ability to provide Turkey with further economic assistance during 1943, see FO 371/37465, R55/55/G44, Lord Drogheda minute, 26 December 1942. 125. Hugessen to Eden, no. 250, 20 June 1943; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 2; Malcolm Yapp, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 1997), pp. 25–6. 126. Gökay, Soviet Eastern Policy,p.54. 127. PREM 3/446/8, Churchill to Eden, 8 October 1942. 128. PREM 3/446/8, Foreign Office to Hugessen, nos 1491 and 1493, 28 September 1943; Hugessen to Foreign Office, nos 1783 and 1784, 30 September 1943; Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1797, 1 October 1943. 129. Zürcher, Turkey, pp. 215–16. 130. Ibid, pp. 216–17. Barlas, Etatism & Diplomacy in Turkey, pp. 198–9. 131. Saydam was understood by the British to be a cipher for Inönü˙ rather than a major figure in his own right, with little say over a foreign policy enacted by Saracoglu˘ and Menemencioglu˘ and overseen ultimately by the President. FO 371/33375, Sargent minute, R4480/810/44, 8 July 1942. 132. Hugessen to Eden, no. 207, 15 July 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, pp. 334–5. FO 1011/199, Hugessen to Loraine, 21 September 1942. 133. FO 371/33375, R4626/810/44, Dixon minute, 14 July 1942. 134. Pathé newsreel, ‘With Churchill in Egypt,’ 20 December 1943, Film ID 1097.24. This and other British newsreels featured Inönü˙ in conference with Churchill and Roosevelt, an authoritative yet benevolent figure, smil- ing broadly, or on his public duties in Turkey, kindly and avuncular, mixing freely with the civilian population. See also ‘Winston Churchill Tour,’ 11 February 1943, Film ID 1075.25; untitled, Film ID 1657.21, c. 1941. Newsreels available to view at http://www.britishpathe.com/ 135. Frank Clune, Tobruk to Turkey – With the Army of the Nile (London: Angus & Robertson, 1943), pp. 188–9. Tobin, Turkey – Key to the East, p. 135. 136. Paneth, Turkey – Decadence & Rebirth, pp. 145–9. Inönü’s˙ regime in fact remained as autocratic as Atatürk’s. Cemil Koçak, ‘Some Views on the Turkish single-party regime during the Inönü˙ period’ in Atabaki Zürcher, eds. Men of Order, pp. 119, 126–7. 137. FO 371/33375, R4626/810/44, Dixon minute, 14 July 1942. 138. HS 3/241, Foreign Research & Press Service paper on Saracoglu,˘ 12 June 1942. 139. Gökay, Soviet Eastern Policy, pp. 56–7. 140. HS 3/227, Dixon to Glenconner, 27 May 1942. 141. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Alexander Cadogan papers, ACAD 1/10, Cadogan manuscript diary, 19 June 1941. FO 371/33375, R4626/810/44, Cadogan & Eden minutes, 15 July 1942. Cadogan’s unpublished memoir was more gracious towards Menemencioglu,˘ whom he had first met at Lausanne. ‘I found him very agreeable personally but a very tough negotiator.’ ACAD 7/2, ‘Ramshackle Conference.’ 142. FO 1011/199, Hugessen to Loraine, 21 September 1942. Hugessen’s immediate subordinates in Ankara, Knox Helm and John Sterndale-Bennett, 228 Notes

concurred with their ambassador. FO 195/2743, Helm and Sterndale- Bennett minutes, 31 July 1942. 143. Hugessen to Eden, no. 207, 15 July 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, p. 335. 144. Knox Helm, ‘Turkey – Twelve Years After,’ 11 August 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, pp. 341–2. 145. Times, ‘Political Changes in Turkey—Progress Towards a Popular Vote,’ 10 March 1943, p. 3. For a concise description of the diplomatic façade in Kemalist Turkey, see Zürcher, Turkey, p. 185. 146. Barbara Ward, Turkey (Oxford: OUP, 1942), pp. 56–7. Ernst Jäckh, The Rising Crescent – Turkey Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1944), p. 184. 147. Eric Tomlin, Turkey: The Modern Miracle (London: Watts & Co., 1940), p. 42. Lord Lloyd, The British Case (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1939), p. 37. 148. Lloyd, The British Case, pp. 37, 41. 149. FO 371/33375, R2467/810/44, Arnold to War Ofﬁce, 12 March 1942. 150. For a characteristic example, see Paneth, Turkey at the Crossroads. 151. St Anthony’s College Oxford, GB 165-0316 Sir Denis Wright papers, Wright diary, 9 March 1941 and 13 February 1942. 152. See, for example, Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 22/245/5-12, WJ Childs to Winston Churchill, 21 March 1929. ‘The pre-war reformers asked for ﬁfty years to do what, with the rough aid of war, has already been done in ten. Taking a broad view of the changes made since the Treaty of Lausanne the progress appears headlong, even compared with the classic example of Japan.’ 153. Zürcher, Turkey – A Modern History, p. 215. 154. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Ian Jacob papers, JACB 1/19, Jacob diary, 30 January 1943. 155. FO 371/33375, R3067/810/44, Sargent to Hugessen, 9 May 1942. 156. FO 371/33376, R7762/810/44, Sargent minute, 21 November 1942. See also Dixon minute, 20 November 1942. 157. FO 371/33375, R3067/810/44, Sargent to Hugessen, 9 May 1942. 158. FO 371/31358, E6539/6539/65 and E7021/6539/65, Mr Crosthwaite (Eastern Department) minutes, 11 and 29 November 1942. 159. HW 12/281, 110101 Turkish minister Cairo to MFA Ankara, 10 October 1942 (16 October). The minister reported a conversation on the Caliphate with James Morgan, previously British minister in Ankara. 160. FO 371/33375, R3929/810/44, Hugessen to Sargent, 29 May 1942. Hugessen’s conclusions were shared by Knox Helm. Knox Helm, ‘Turkey – Twelve Years After,’ 11 August 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, pp. 340–1. 161. Hugessen to Eden, no. 2094, 16 November 1942; BDFA, Part III, series B, vol. 1, p. 366. See also FO 371/33376, R8000/810/44, Clutton minute, 28 November 1942. ‘(A)lthough Turkey has seams of western civilisation in her makeup, she is fundamentally oriental, and the situation is not likely to develop as if Turkey were a proper occidental country.’ The For- eign Secretary questioned Clutton’s conclusions, however. ‘(I)n my expe- riences, “proper” occidental countries are rare!’ Eden minute, 3 December 1942. Notes 229

162. FO 371/33376, R8573/810/44, Sterndale-Bennett to Foreign Office, no. 2254, 12 December 1942. See also FO 371/37401, R1212/7/44, Hugessen to Eden, no. 50, 29 January 1943. 163. Review of the Foreign Press Series B – Allied Governments, European Neutrals, Smaller European Enemies, South-East Europe and the Near East, #176, 5 March 1943, and #179, 26 March 1943. 164. FO 371/37403, R4768/7/44, Postal and Telegraph Censorship to Foreign Office, May 1943. See also FO 371/37399, R270/7/44, British Women of Istanbul to Sterndale-Bennett, 23 December 1942. 165. PREM 4/20/2, British Community Council in Istanbul to Churchill (via Consul-General, Istanbul), 3 February 1943. 166. PREM 4/20/2, Archbishop of Canterbury to Eden, 18 January 1943. FO 371/37400, R935/7/44, Archbishop of Canterbury to Eden, 28 January 1943. 167. National Maritime Museum, Sir Howard Kelly papers, KEL/42, Kelly to Cunningham, 29 December 1942. FO 371/37401, R1110/7/44, Dixon minute, 22 February 1943. 168. St Anthony’s College Oxford, GB 165-0316, Sir Denis Wright papers, diary entry, 4 February 1943. 169. FO 371/37404, R5055/7/44, Clutton minute, 17 June 1943. FO 371/37406, R8039/7/44, Clutton minute, 10 August 1943. 170. Times, ‘Turkish Tax on Wealth—“A Revolutionary Step,”’ 1 January 1943, p. 3; ‘Building the New Turkey—Wish to Be Left in Peace—Talk with Prime Minister,’ 16 January 1943, p. 4. None of the books published in English during the Second World War, consulted during the research for this book, discuss the Varlık. 171. Cyrus Sulzberger, A Long Row of Candles: Memoirs and Diaries, 1934–54 (London: Macdonald & Co., 1969), pp. 215–16. 172. Cordell Hull to Laurence Steinhardt (Ankara), 13 January 1943; FRUS 1943, vol. IV (Washington DC: Department of State, 1964), pp. 1078–9. Roger R Trask, The United States Response to Turkish Nationalism & Reform, 1914– 1939 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1971), pp. 37–8, 82–4. 173. HW 12/293, 123506 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 29 September 1943 (8 October). The Varlık was finally withdrawn in March 1944. 174. FO 371/37466, R2958/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 634, 1 April 1943. 175. FO 371/37466, R2958/55/G44, Clutton minute, 2 April 1943. 176. FO 371/37467, R3389/55/G44, Cadogan minute, 15 April 1943. 177. HW 12/285, 114359 Turkish consul Moscow to MFA Ankara, 15 February 1943 (18 February). 178. HW 1/1384, 19 February 1943. 179. PREM 3/446/5, Eden to Churchill, 6 May 1943. Churchill subsequently expressed his distress ‘that Turkish policy and utterances seemed to be increasingly less favourable to the Allies and had dealt with ever-growing emphasis on the desire of Turkey to maintain the strictest neutrality and keep out of the war.’ PREM 3/446/18, Churchill to Eden, 12 June 1943. 230 Notes

180. FO 371/37501, R1263/207/44, Cavendish-Bentinck minute, 13 February 1943; Foreign Ofﬁce to Hugessen, no. 242, 14 February 1943. 181. FO 371/37505, R338/337/G44, Colonel Blunt (assistant military attaché Ankara) paper, 23 November 1942. 182. FO 371/37510, R7707/650/G44, Cavendish-Bentinck minute, 20 August 1943. 183. Ibid. 184. FO 371/37489, R3421/95/44, undated Eden minute [April 1943]. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Alexander Cadogan papers, ACAD 1/12, Cadogan diary, 5 May 1943.

5 Turkey and the Anglo-Soviet Alliance, June 1941 to September 1943

1. FO 371/30091, R6388/236/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1540, 22 June 1941. 2. FO 371/30091, R6532/236/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1558, 25 June 1941. 3. Churchill to Eden, 2 July 1941, Churchill War Papers, vol. 3, pp. 889–90. FO 371/30091, R6532/236/44, Nichols minute, 28 June 1941. Christopher Warner, representing the Northern Department of the Foreign Office, could not foresee the circumstances in which Britain should want to make an arrangement with Russia at the expense of Turkish sovereignty, but admitted that it might be possible to keep resistance to Germany alive in Georgia and ‘Soviet Armenia’ by such means. Christopher Warner minute, 28 June 1941. 4. Eden to Cripps, no. 132, 19 July 1941; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 1, p. 232. 5. Cripps to Eden, no. 78, 6 August 1941; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 1, p. 245. 6. Hugessen to Eden, no. 1942, 10 August 1941; Ibid., pp. 247–8. For the text of the British and Russian declarations, see Eden to Halifax, no. 607, 11 August 1941; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 1, pp. 233–4. 7. FO 371/30093, R7782/236/44, Clutton minute, 12 August 1941. 8. HW 12/268, 095367 Turkish military attaché Moscow to Turkish General Staff, 5 September 1941 (9 September). 9. FO 371/30076, R7558/139/44, Cripps to Foreign Office, no. 947, 9 August 1941. 10. FO 371/29541, N1222/1222/38, Foreign Office to Cripps, no. 236, 22 March 1941. 11. FO 371/30076, R7558/139/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1907, 6 August 1941; Cripps to Foreign Office, no. 947, 9 August 1941. FO 371/30092, R7782/236/44, Clutton minute, 12 August 1941; Foreign Office to Cripps, no. 1052, 16 August 1941. 12. HW 12/271, 099067 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 12 December 1941 (18 December). 13. HW 12/271, 099241 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Tehran, 20 December 1941 (23 December); 099537 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 25 and 26 December 1941 (30 December). 14. CAB 66/20, WP (42) 8, ‘Mr Eden’s Visit to Moscow,’ 5 January 1942; record of interview, 16 December 1941. Notes 231

15. Vojtech Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War (New York: Columbia UP, 1979), p. 42. HW 12/272, 099679 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 1 January 1942 (3 January); 099722 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 1 January 1941 (4 January); 099746 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 2 January 1941 (5 January); 100631 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassadors Washington and Kuibyshev, 22 January 1941 (28 January). 16. FO 371/31388, E261/21/34, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 69, 10 January 1942 and E377/21/34, no. 105, 15 January 1942. HW 12/272 100028 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Tehran, 10 January 1942 (13 January); 100355 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 18 January 1942 (21 January). HW 12/273 101158 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 8 February 1942 (11 February). 17. FO 371/33375, R2375/810/44, Hugessen to Sargent, 18 March 1942. 18. HW 12/273, 102799 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 24 March 1942 (30 March) and MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev, 26 March 1942 (30 March). 19. FO 371/33382, R2318/1266/44, Sir Archibald Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 448, 7 April 1942. 20. FO 371/33382, R2279/1266/4, Dixon minute, 8 April 1942. 21. HW 12/275, 103156 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 8 April 1942 (11 April). 22. FO 371/33383, R2517/1266/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 793, 17 April 1942. A subsequent Turkish intercept – given restricted distribution within Whitehall – reported that Hugessen had told Saracoglu˘ that the Turkish government was ‘completely in the right,’ and that ‘(i)n disputes of this kind, if we take either side it will certainly be the Turkish.’ HW 12/276, 104240 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 6 May 1942 (10 May). 23. FO 371/33383, R2517/1266/44, Foreign Office to Clark Kerr, no. 538, 18 April 1942. 24. FO 371/33383, R2517/1266/44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 677, 18 April 1942. 25. FO 371/33383, R2547/1266/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 806, 18 April 1942. 26. FO 371/33383, R2551/1266/44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 514, 19 April 1942; Howard minute, 20 April 1942. 27. FO 371/33383, R2551/1266/44, Sargent minute, 20 April 1942. 28. FO 371/33383, R4005/1266/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1201, 17 June 1942. 29. FO 371/33384, R4531/1266/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1302, 7 July 1942; Dixon minute, 16 July 1942. 30. FO 371/33384, R7055/1266/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1918, 21 October 1942; Dixon minute, 27 October 1942. 31. FO 371/33384, R4187/1266/44, Clutton and Dixon minutes, 1 and 2 December 1942. 32. FO 371/33382, R2394/1266/44, Warner minute, 11 April 1942. 33. HW 12/274, 102104 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 28 February 1942 (8 March). 232 Notes

34. Minutes by Armine Dew, Sir William Strang and Sargent, 9–14 May 1942; Graham Ross, ed. The Foreign Office & the Kremlin – British Documents on Anglo- Soviet Relations, 1941–45 (Cambridge: CUP, 1984), pp. 106–7. Cadogan diary, 31 March 1942; Dilks, ed., p. 444. 35. HW 12/274, 102225 Turkish chargé d’affaires London to MFA Ankara, 8 March 1942 (14 March); 102350 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev 14 March 1942 (17 March). 36. HW 12/274, 102800 Turkish ambassador Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 24 March 1942 (30 March). 37. HW 12/276, 104369 Turkish chargé d’affaires Kuibyshev to MFA Ankara, 11 May 1942 (13 May). The day after this telegram was decrypted, Eden wrote to Hugessen making it clear that he was willing to approach the Russians directly to secure such a clause, if it would indeed lead to a relaxation of Turkish suspicions. FO 371/33312, R3079/24/44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 810, 14 May 1942. 38. Phillips, Hitler’s Last Hope, p. 61. 39. Ward, Turkey,p.8. 40. HW 12/276, 104840 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 23 May 1942 (25 May). WM (42), 67th conclusions, 26 May 1942 (Secretary’s Standard File – Confidential Annex); War Cabinet Minutes. 41. HW 12/276, 104945 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 25 May 1942 (28 May). 42. HW 12/276, 105007 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 27 May 1942 (30 May). For a British account of another interview at which Orbay expressed similar concerns, see Eden to Hugessen, no. 110, 4 June 1942; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 1, pp. 318–19. 43. HW 12/280, 108659 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 31 August 1942 (4 September). 44. HW 12/276, 105042 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 26 May 1942 (31 May). 45. FO 371/33312, R4040/24/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1199, 17 June 1942. 46. HW 1/622, 105159 Turkish ambassador Berlin to MFA Ankara, 31 May 1942 (3 June), with comments by Churchill, Sir Stewart Menzies, Eden and Cadogan. FO 371/33368, R3729/486/44, Dixon minute, ‘German Influence in Turkey,’ 2 June 1942. 47. FO 371/33369, R4322/486/44, Clutton minute, 29 June 1942. 48. FO 371/33313, R7978/24/44, Knox Helm to Hugessen, 5 November 1942. 49. FO 371/33369, R8723/486/44, Sterndale-Bennett to Sargent, undated (December 1942). 50. FO 371/33369, R8723/486/44, Helm memorandum, 29 November 1942. 51. FO 371/33369, R8723/486/44, Clutton minute, 23 December 1942. 52. FO 371/33369, R8723/486/44, Sargent minute, 28 December 1942. 53. FO 195/2476, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 83, 14 January 1943. 54. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, p. 6. 55. Coincidentally, a recent Turkish intercept reported a conversation between Hitler and the Romanian prime minister, during which Hitler declared Notes 233

that ‘(a)fter 1939 the Russians often discussed the question of Istanbul and the Straits with us. In their minds Istanbul is something to which they have an absolute historical and geographical right.’ HW 1/1341, MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Washington, 25 January 1943 (28 January). 56. PREM 3/446/3, WP (43) 64, ‘The Adana Conference,’ 13 February 1943; transcripts of proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the Adana conference, 30 January 1943, p. 6. 57. PREM 3/446/2, Stalin to Churchill, 6 February 1943. 58. PREM 3/446/14, Churchill to Inönü,˙ 9 February 1943. 59. FO 371/37509, R1393/650/G44, Clutton minute, 18 February 1943. 60. Ibid. 61. PREM 3/446/2, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 292, 25 February 1943; Foreign Office summary on Soviet-Turkish relations, February 1943. 62. FO 371/37509, R2564/650/G44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 177, 21 March 1943; Dixon minute, 22 March 1943. 63. PREM 3/446/14, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 522, 15 March 1943. HW 12/287, 115982 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 26 March 1943 (3 April). 64. HW 12/286, 115324 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 6 March 1943 (16 March) and passim. HW 12/287, 116511 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 8 April 1943 (16 April). 65. FO 195/2479, Knox Helm minute, 10 March 1943. HW 12/287, 116389 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 10 April 1943 (13 April). 66. HW 12/286, 115324 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 6 March 1943 (16 March). 67. HW 12/286, 115000 Turkish military attaché Kuibyshev to General Staff, 3 March 1943 (7 March). 68. See Chapter 6. 69. HW 12/286, 115324 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 6 March 1943 (16 March). 70. HW 12/291, 121351 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 6 August 1943 (15 August). HW 1/2017, 122343 Greek ambassador to Greek embassy Moscow, 7 September 1943 (9 September). 71. HW 1/2017, 122343 Greek ambassador to Greek embassy Moscow, 7 September 1943 (9 September). 72. PREM 3/446/15, WP (43) 420, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 27 September 1943. 73. PREM 3/446/18, COS (Q) 5, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 7 August 1943 – note by the Prime Minister. 74. PREM 3/446/18, Foreign Office to Clark Kerr, no. 1026, 4 August 1943. 75. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 25 August, 16 September and 7 November 1943. 76. This thesis has been articulated by Martin Folly, in an important book on British perceptions of the Soviet Union which complements earlier work by Eduard Mark on similar attitudes in the United States. Martin Folly, Churchill, Whitehall and the Soviet Union, 1940–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000). Eduard Mark, ‘October or Thermidor? Interpretations of Stalinism and the Perception of Soviet Foreign Policy in the United States, 1927–1947,’ American Historical Review 94:4 (1989), pp. 937–62. 234 Notes

77. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 16 September 1943. 78. WO 201/1231, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 134, 19 July 1943.

6 The Eastern Mediterranean, in Peace and War: May to October 1943

1. CAB 80/71, COS (43) 364 (O), ‘Policy Towards Turkey – Memorandum by the Foreign Office,’ 5 July 1943. 2. PREM 3/446/5, Hugessen to Foreign Office, nos 856, 857, 858, 4 May 1943. 3. FO 371/37468, R4637/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 998, 24 May 1943. ‘Laudatory’ articles of the kind described by Hugessen included Times, ‘Turkish Policy for the Peace—Regional Co-Operation,’ 20 April 1943, p. 3; ‘Turkey Planning for Peace—President Inönü’s˙ Survey—A Democratic Trend,’ 10 June 1943, p. 3. 4. Manchester Guardian, ‘The Neutrality of Turkey – A Paradox,’ 24 July 1943, p. 7. 5. FO 371/37469, R5034/55/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 28 May 1943. See also FO 371/37470, R6011/55/44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1279, 9 July 1943; Southern Department minute [unknown author], 27 July 1943. 6. Overy, Why the Allies Won, 2nd edition (London: Pimlico, 2006), pp. 297–8. 7. Hale, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 104–5. 8. FO 371/37470, R5840/55G44, Hugessen to Cadogan, 26 June 1943. ‘Chests full of gold and bins full of corn’ was a reference to a speech made by Saracoglu˘ to the Congress of the Republican People’s Party earlier in June. Hugessen to Eden, no. 250, 20 June 1943; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 2, 25–6. Hugessen made the same point, that the alliance ‘alone’ had saved Turkey, in PREM 3/446/18, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1141, 13 June 1943. 9. FO 371/37469, R5366/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1180, for Cadogan, 19 June 1943. 10. FO 371/37469, R5366/55/G44, Clutton minute, 22 June 1943. 11. CAB 80/71, COS (43) 364 (O), ‘Policy Towards Turkey – Memorandum by the Foreign Office,’ 5 July 1943. 12. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 440. 13. CAB 80/69, COS (43) 268 (O), ‘Turkey – Meeting with Marshal Çakmak,’ 24 May 1943. 14. CAB 84/54, JP (43) 218 (FINAL), ‘Mediterranean Strategy,’ 21 June 1943. 15. CAB 84/54, JP (43) 240 (Final), ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 20 July 1943. 16. FO 371/37471, R6430/55/G44, Eden minute, 17 July 1943. 17. CAB 69/5, DO (43), 7th meeting, 2 August 1943. 18. PREM 3/446/18, COS (Q) 5, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 7 August 1943 – note by the Prime Minister. 19. FO 371/37471, R7114/55/G44, Howard minute, 5 August 1943. 20. Winston S Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 5 (London: Cassell, 1952), pp. 181–5. 21. Ibid., p. 190. 22. Deringil, Turkish Foreign Policy, pp. 149–50. Notes 235

23. FO 371/37471, R7114/55/G44, Cadogan minute, 5 August 1943. 24. FO 371/37471, R7114/55/G44, Eden minute, 6 August 1943. Eden endorsed Churchill’s proposal to divert supplies for Turkey at the meeting of the Defence Committee on 2 August. CAB 69/5, DO (43), 7th meeting, 2 August 1943. 25. FO 371/37471, R7114/55/G44, Howard minute, 11 August 1943. 26. PREM 3/446/18, COS (Q) 35, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 19 August 1943 – note by Jacob, annexing COS reply to Churchill, 14 August 1943. 27. FO 371/37471, R7834/55/G44, Eden to Sargent, WELFARE no. 250, 20 August 1943. 28. PREM 3/3/2, Churchill to Eden, 4 April 1943; Eden to Churchill, 9 April 1943. 29. CAB 69/5, DO (43), 7th meeting, 2 August 1943. 30. Churchill, Second World War, vol. 5, pp. 182, 184. 31. Alanbrooke diary, 7 and 8 October 1943; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, pp. 458–9. 32. Churchill, Second World War, vol. 5, p. 185. 33. FO 371/37472, R9007/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 1704, 21 September 1943. 34. FO 371/37474, R10338/55/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 152 SAV- ING, 9 October 1943; R10361/55/44, no. 154 SAVING, 10 October 1943; R11099/55/G44, no. 168 SAVING, 25 October 1943. On the role of the British service attaches in Turkey and the MI9 organisation in Izmir,˙ in rescuing British garrisons from the Aegean islands, see MRD Foot and JM Langley, MI9 – The British Secret Service that Fostered Escape & Eva- sion 1939–1945 and Its American Counterpart (London: Bodley Head, 1979), pp. 198–9. 35. FO 371/37473, R10301/55/G44, Clutton minute, 20 October 1943. 36. FO 371/37474, R10832/55/G44, Sterndale-Bennett paper, 27 October 1943. 37. PREM 3/3/9, Churchill to Eden, November 1943. 38. FO 371/37473, R10301/55/G44, Clutton minute, 20 October 1943. 39. FO 371/37473, R9672/55/G44, Clutton minutes, 5 October 1943. 40. PREM 3/446/18, Churchill to Cadogan, 4 April 1943; Churchill to Eden, 12 June 1943. 41. Memorandum of a conversation between Churchill and Harry Hopkins, 19 January 1943; FRUS Washington 1941–42 and Casablanca 1943 (Washington DC: Department of State, 1968), p. 643. PREM 3/446/18, Churchill to Eden, 6 August 1943. 42. FO 371/37470, R5624/55/G44, Cadogan minute, 1 July 1943. 43. CAB 84/52, JP (43) 8 (O) Revised Draft, ‘Allied Plans Relating to Turkey,’ 8 January 1943 [bold type in original]. 44. CAB 80/71, COS (43) 364 (O), Foreign Office paper on ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 5 July 1943. 45. CAB 84/55, JP (43) 283 (Final), ‘Turkey & the Dardanelles,’ 24 August 1943. 46. Ibid. 47. CAB 79/63, COS (43), 197th meeting (O), 26 August 1943. 48. CAB 79/64, JP (43) 294 (Final), ‘Turkey & the Dardanelles,’ 20 September 1943. 49. Ibid. 50. CAB 79/64, COS (43), 223rd meeting (O), 22 September 1943; CAB 80/75, COS (43) 569 (O), ‘Turkey & the Dardanelles,’ 22 September 1943. 236 Notes

51. CAB 80/71, COS (43) 364 (O), Foreign Ofﬁce paper on ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 5 July 1943. 52. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, Clutton minute, 29 September 1943. 53. Ibid. 54. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, Warner minute, 3 October 1943. 55. Ibid. 56. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, Sargent minute, 11 October 1943. 57. HW 12/293, 123921 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 9 October 1943 (18 October). 58. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, Jebb minute, 15 October 1943; draft telegram from Brigadier Hollis (War Cabinet Ofﬁces) to Capel-Dunn (British military mission, Moscow), no date (October 1943). 59. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, draft telegram from Hollis to Capel-Dunn, no date (October 1943). 60. FO 371/37471, R8032/55/G44, Howard minute, 31 August 1943 [emphasis in original]. 61. FO 371/37468, R4557/55/G44, Dixon minute, 24 May 1943. FO 371/37510, R7288/650/G44, Clutton and Howard minutes, 10 August 1943. 62. FO 371/37468, R4131/55/G44, Cadogan minute, 11 May 1943. 63. FO 371/37471, R8032/55/G44, Clutton minute, 28 August 1943.

7 Alliance Diplomacy and the Rise of Anglo-Turkish Antagonism, October 1943–September 1944

1. Keith Sainsbury, The Turning Point – Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill and Chiang Kai-Shek, 1943: The Moscow, Cairo and Teheran Conferences (London: OUP, 1985), p. 31. 2. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 623. 3. PREM 3/446/15, Eden (Moscow) to Churchill, no. 54 SPACE, 22 October 1943. 4. PREM 3/446/6, Foreign Office (from Churchill) to Eden (Moscow), no. 194 Extra, 30 October 1943; Eden (Moscow) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 145, 31 October 1943. 5. WM (43), 148th conclusions, 1 November 1943; War Cabinet Minutes. GHQ Middle East could only provide a reduced Hardihood force of four and a half RAF squadrons for Istanbul and Izmir,˙ as opposed to the agreed 25. PREM 3/446/6, Eden (Cairo) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 2071, 6 November 1943. 6. PREM 3/446/6, Moscow (Eden) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 153, 2 November 1943. 7. PREM 3/446/6, Eden (Moscow) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 153, 2 November 1943. PREM 3/172/5, Winant to Churchill, 4 November 1943. 8. PREM 3/446/15, Eden (Moscow) to Foreign Office, no. 132, 31 October 1943. 9. PREM 3/446/6, Eden to Churchill, 2 November 1943. 10. Sainsbury, Turning Point, pp. 111–12. 11. PREM 3/446/6, Roosevelt to Churchill, 5 November 1943. Notes 237

12. HW 12/293, 123921 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 9 October 1943 (18 October). 13. HW 12/293, 123833 Japanese ambassador Ankara to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 13 October 1943 (17 October); 123923 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 14 October 1943 (18 October). 14. HW 12/293, 124258 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 21 October 1943 (26 October). 15. FO 371/37474, R11167/55/G44, Foreign Office (Churchill) to Cairo (Eden), no. 1752, 3 November 1943. 16. Ibid. 17. FO 371/37474, R11337/55/G44, Clutton minute, 8 November 1943. 18. FO 371/37474, R11337/55/G44, Cadogan minute, 8 November 1943. 19. PREM 3/446/6, Eden (Cairo) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 2082, 7 November 1943. 20. PREM 3/446/6, Eden (Cairo) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 2082, 7 November 1943; Eden (Cairo) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 2110, 8 November 1943. 21. FO 371/37473, R9168/55/G44, Jebb minute, 15 October 1943. 22. FO 371/37474, R11413/55/G44, Clutton minute, 9 November 1943. 23. FO 371/37474, R10733/55/G44, Clutton minute, 26 October 1943. 24. PREM 3/446/15, Foreign Office (Cadogan) to Moscow (Eden), no. 1728, 28 October 1943. 25. PREM 3/446/15, Eden to Churchill, 21 October 1943. 26. FO 371/37474, R10733/55/G44, Sargent minute, 26 October 1943. 27. PREM 3/446/15, Foreign Office (Cadogan) to Moscow (Eden), no. 1728, 28 October 1943. PREM 3/446/17, JPS aide memoire, ‘Entry of Turkey into the War,’ 25 November 1943. The Joint Planners warned against Turkey actually taking the offensive against Bulgaria, since this ‘would vitiate the chances of our getting the surrender we want.’ 28. PREM 3/136/5, Cairo (‘Sextant’) conference, 3rd plenary meeting, 4 December 1943. 29. PREM 3/446/6, Foreign Office (from Churchill) to Eden (Moscow), no. 171, 29 October 1943; Eden (Moscow) to Foreign Office (for Churchill), no. 153, 2 November 1943. 30. PREM 3/447/1, Anglo-Turkish conversations, Cairo, 5 November 1943 (1st meeting). 31. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 461. 32. Minutes of a meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, 12 May 1943; FRUS Washington and Quebec 1943 (Washington DC: Department of State, 1970), p. 29. 33. JCS memorandum, ‘Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe,’ 9 August 1943; ‘Report by the Combined Chiefs of Staff to the President & Prime Minister,’ 10 September 1943; FRUS Washington and Quebec 1943, pp. 480, 1292. 34. Sainsbury, Turning Point, p. 159. 35. PREM 3/446/6, Roosevelt to Churchill, 5 November 1943. Meeting of the President with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 28 November 1943; FRUS Cairo and Tehran 1943 (Washington DC: Department of State, 1961), p. 480. 238 Notes

36. A development recognised by Brooke, who was present at Tehran. Alanbrooke diary, 28 November 1943 and ‘notes for my memoirs’; Alanbrooke, War Diaries, pp. 482–3. 37. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 629n. 38. Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War, p. 125; PREM 3/136/8, WP (44) 8, ‘Records of the Anglo-American-Russian Conversations in Tehran and of the Anglo-American-Turkish Conversations in Cairo,’ 7 January 1944 – record of conversation between Mr Eden, M. Molotov and Mr Harry Hopkins at HM Legation, Tehran, 30 November 1943. 39. PREM 3/447/1, COS (Sextant) 30, ‘Operation Saturn,’ 7 December 1943 – note by the Prime Minister, 6 December 1943. 40. FO 371/37474, R11337/55/G44, Sargent minute, 9 November 1943. 41. PREM 3/136/5, Tehran conference, 2nd plenary meeting, 29 November 1943. 42. Pechatnov, ‘The Big Three After World War II,’ p. 3. 43. PREM 3/447/5A, ‘Turkish Timetable,’ memorandum by Commanders-in- Chief Middle East, 6 December 1943. 44. PREM 3/447/5A, Eden to Foreign Office, 5 December 1943. Hugessen had warned that overt British pressure would expose them to this charge. PREM 3/446/16, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2062, 22 November 1943. 45. PREM 3/136/8, WP (44) 8, ‘Records of the Anglo-American-Russian Con- versations in Tehran and of the Anglo-American-Turkish Conversations in Cairo,’ 7 January 1944 – record of Anglo-Turkish meeting held at Casey Villa, 7 December 1943. 46. CAB 79/67, COS (43) O, 286th meeting, 23 November 1943; discussion of JP (43) 406 (FINAL), ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 22 November 1943. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 7 December 1943. 47. CAB 79/67, COS (43) O, 286th meeting, 23 November 1943; discussion of JP (43) 406 (FINAL), ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 22 November 1943. FO 371/37476, R12241/55/G44, Vice Chiefs of Staff to Chiefs of Staff (Cairo), 24 November 1943. 48. PREM 3/136/8, WP (44) 8, ‘Records of the Anglo-American-Russian Con- versations in Tehran and of the Anglo-American-Turkish Conversations in Cairo,’ 7 January 1944 – record of Anglo-Turkish meeting held at Casey Villa, 7 December 1943. 49. PREM 3/447/5A, Eden to Churchill, GRAND 568, 12 December 1943; encloses Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2183. FO 371/37476, R12241/ 55/G44, Vice Chiefs of Staff to Chiefs of Staff (Cairo), 24 November 1943. Harry N Howard, Turkey, the Straits & US Policy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1974), p. 184. 50. PREM 3/447/5A, Eden to Churchill, GRAND 569, 12 December 1943; encloses Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2184; Eden to Churchill, GRAND 584, 13 December; encloses Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 2190. 51. PREM 3/447/5A, Churchill to Eden, 13 December 1943. 52. PREM 3/447/5A, Churchill to Ismay for Chiefs of Staff, Eden to see, FROZEN 795, 22 December 1943. 53. PREM 3/447/5A, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 1738, 18 December 1943. Notes 239

54. HW 12/294, 125315 Greek ambassador Ankara to Greek embassy London, 20 November 1943 (23 November). 55. PREM 3/447/5A, Eden to Churchill, 6 January 1944; encloses Hugessen reports on conversations with Numan Menemencioglu,˘ 18 December 1943. Hugessen described this ‘painful’ conversation as one in which Menemencioglu˘ spoke ‘a good deal of absolute nonsense and a mod- icum of unpleasant sense.’ Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 19 December 1943. 56. PREM 3/447/5A, Churchill to Eden, 7 January 1944. 57. PREM 3/446/16, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 2063, 22 November 1943. 58. PREM 3/447/5A, Eden to Churchill, 6 January 1944; encloses Hugessen reports on conversations with Numan Menemencioglu,˘ 18 December 1943. 59. PREM 3/447/5A, Cadogan to Eden, 5 December 1943. 60. HW 12/294, 125315 Greek ambassador Ankara to Greek embassy London, 20 November 1943 (23 November). 61. FO 371/44143, R2081/1293/44, Clutton minute, 1 February 1944. 62. FO 371/44066, R1505/7/G44, Eden minute, 18 February 1944. 63. FO 371/44064, R403/7/G44, Eden minute, 9 January 1944. 64. FO 371/44138, R2084/919/44, Lord Selborne to Eden, 9 February 1944. 65. FO 371/44066, R1505/7/G44, Clutton minute, 30 January 1944. 66. CAB 84/63, JP (44) 132 (Final), ‘Value of Turkish Help to Allies,’ 15 May 1944. 67. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series, vol. 397, 23 February 1944, columns 881–2; vol. 399, 19 April 1944, column 181. This trend continued into 1945. See the comments of Lord Vansittart in Parliamentary Debates, 5th series, vol. 134 (Lords), 7 February 1945, columns 927–30. 68. Times, ‘Turkey & the Powers,’ 9 February 1944, p. 5; ‘Hesitation in Ankara,’ 26 February 1944, p. 5. 69. Times, ‘Hesitation in Ankara,’ 26 February 1944, p. 5. See also Manch- ester Guardian, ‘Turkey & the War,’ 6 March 1944, p. 4; ‘The Neutrals & Germany,’ 14 April 1944, p. 4. 70. Sir Edward Grigg, British Foreign Policy (London: Hutchinson, 1944), p. 116. The British embassy in Ankara subsequently vetoed an attempt by the Min- istry of Information to have this book translated and circulated in Turkish. FO 371/48773, R11226/4476/G44, Sir Maurice Peterson to Sargent, 25 June 1945. 71. FO 371/44067, R2499/7/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 7 February 1944. The Portuguese cession of bases in the Atlantic to the Allies in the autumn of 1943 embarrassed the Turks, at a time when they were resisting British demands for bases in western Turkey. HW 12/293 123963 Turkish chargé d’affaires Lisbon to MFA Ankara, 13 October 1943 (19 October). HW 12/294 125118 Portuguese minister Washington to Foreign Ministry Lisbon, 11 November 1943 (17 November). 72. FO 371/43646, R4817/349/G67, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 445, 26 March 1944. 73. HW 12/297, 128440 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassadors Washington, London, Moscow, 13 February 1944 (19 February). 240 Notes

74. HW 1/2483, 128492 Foreign Ministry Berlin to All Stations, 16 February 1943 (21 February). 75. FO 371/44067, R3774/7/G44, Arnold to Director of Military Intelligence, 18 February 1944. 76. HW 12/298, 129551 Foreign Ministry Berlin to All Stations, 15 March 1944 (20 March). See also Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 13 and 23 February 1944. 77. Cadogan diary, 29 March 1944; Dilks, ed., p. 615 [emphasis in original]. 78. FO 371/44068, R4945/7/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 458, 28 March 1944; Clutton minute, 28 March 1944 [emphasis in original]. 79. FO 371/44068, R5420/7/44, Sterndale-Bennett to Howard, 23 March 1944. 80. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 6 April 1944. 81. St Anthony’s College Oxford, GB 165-0316 Sir Denis Wright papers, Wright diary, 25 April 1944. See also Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, KNAT 1/14, Hugessen diary, 23 March 1944. 82. The Americans understood this agreement to be limited to the military and supply spheres, and did not believe, as some Britons appeared to, that they had abdicated the right to intervene in political issues affecting Turkey. FO 371/37467, R3209/55/G44, Strang minute, 7 April 1943. Memoranda by the Adviser on Political Relations (Wallace Murray) to Secretary of State, 2 and 12 July 1943; FRUS 1943, vol. IV, pp. 1065–6, 1068–9. FO 371/37478, R13353/55/G44, Cordell Hull to Halifax, 10 July 1943. 83. Molotov may inadvertently have encouraged this tendency at the Moscow conference in October 1943, permitting Eden to speak ‘for the Soviet Union’ in his talks with Menemencioglu.˘ PREM 3/446/6, Eden to Churchill, 2 November 1943. At Cairo, Stalin emphasised that Britain was welcome to continue its pursuit of Turkish belligerency, since ‘Turkey was an ally of England and on terms of friendship with the United States. It was for them to persuade her to take the proper course.’ PREM 3/136/5, ﬁrst plenary meeting of the Tehran conference, 28 November 1943. 84. FO 371/44069, R9997/7/G44, Clutton minute, 26 June 1944. Clutton was summarising views expressed by Eden. CAB 69/6, DO (44), 10th meeting, 20 July 1944. 85. FO 371/44070, R10407/7/G44, Clark Kerr to Ankara, no. 1767, 3 July 1944. 86. FO 371/44070, R10407/7/G44, Clutton minute, 4 July 1944. See also FO 371/44071, Clark Kerr to Sargent, R11506/7/G44, 10 July 1944, and McDermott and Clutton minutes, 27 July and 9 August 1944. 87. FO 371/44143, R10648/1293/44, Ivonne Kirkpatrick minute, 11 July 1944. 88. CAB 66/48, WP (44) 186, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 4 April 1944. 89. Ibid. 90. Memorandum by George V Allen (Division of Near Eastern Affairs), 16 March 1943; FRUS 1943, vol. IV, pp. 1099–100. 91. HW 12/304, 135912 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 5 September 1944 (11 September). 92. HW 12/298, 129533 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 9 March 1944 (19 March). Menemencioglu˘ replied, on 14 March, ‘My own Notes 241

views of the situation, as seen from here, are in entire agreement with yours.’ 93. FO 371/44068, R4995/7/G44, Sterndale-Bennett to Sargent, 18 March 1944; R4639/7/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 411, 22 March 1944. FO 371/44185, R8282/8282/44, Helm to Howard, 15 May 1944. 94. CAB 79/69, COS (44), 6th meeting (O), 8 January 1944. 95. FO 371/44065, R111/7/G44, Sargent minute, 23 January 1944. On Menemencioglu’s˘ role in undermining British ‘cover,’ see FO 371/44067, R2353/7/G44, Douglas Howard and Cadogan minutes, 17 and 18 February 1944. For the most recent archival releases on the security leak in Ankara – Hugessen’s infamous valet ‘Cicero’ – see FO 370/2930. This material demon- strates the precise extent of Hugessen’s negligence in security matters, and affords some interesting insights into the preparation of decoy documents to pass to ‘Cicero’ in the spring of 1944. 96. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series [Commons], vol. 399, 18 April 1944, columns 7–8. 97. FO 371/44138, R2084/919/44, Howard minute, 14 February 1944. Par- liamentary Debates, 5th series [Lords], vol. 131, 9 May 1944, columns 657–8, 666. 98. Times, ‘Turkish Chrome—Exports to Axis Stopped—Long-Term Effect on Germany,’ 21 April 1944, p. 4; ‘Turkish Chrome Decision—Standing by the Allies—Surprise for Germans,’ 24 April 1944, p. 4. 99. HW 12/299, 130985 German embassy Ankara to German consulates, Istanbul and Adana, 22 April 1944 (30 April). 100. FO 371/44079, R6548/18/G44, Cadogan to Churchill, 21 April 1944. 101. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series (Commons), vol. 400, 24 May 1944, columns 746–6. 102. Spectator, ‘Mr Churchill Sums Up,’ 26 May 1944, p. 467. See also Spectator, ‘Turkey the Equivocal,’ 14 April 1944, p. 326. (‘Turkey is playing a very Oriental game.’). 103. CAB 66/49, WP (44) 244, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 6 May 1944. 104. FO 371/44133, R10541/789/44, Dew minute, 17 July 1944. In 1940 Hugessen had speculated on the ‘pro-German’ attitude of several leading Turks, mostly members of the General Staff. Menemencioglu˘ was not included in this number. Hugessen to Halifax, no. 390, ‘notes on leading personalities,’ 12 July 1940; BDFA Part III, Series B, vol. 1, p. 126. 105. HS 3/227, Dixon to Glenconner, 27 May 1942. FO 195/2743, Helm and Sterndale-Bennett minutes, 31 July 1942. FO 1011/199, Hugessen to Loraine, 21 September 1942. 106. FO 371/44065, R874/7/G44, Sargent minute, 20 January 1944. For Axis recognition that Inönü˙ was ultimately responsible for the policy of neutrality, see HW 12/297, 127854 Japanese ambassador Berlin to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 23 January 1944 (4 February). 107. HW 12/297, 128354 Foreign Ministry Berlin to All Stations, 12 February 1944 (17 February). HW 12/298, 129551, Berlin to All Stations, 15 March 1944 (20 March). 108. HW 12/300, 131511 Portuguese minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Lisbon, 15 May 1944 (17 May). 242 Notes

109. FO 371/43646, R9411/349/G67, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 915, 14 June 1944. FO 195/2483, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 916, 14 June 1944. FO 371/43646, R9411/349/G67, undated Eden minute (June 1944); R9412/349/G67, Clutton minute, 16 June 1944. 110. FO 371/44068, R4548/7/G44, Sterndale-Bennett to Sargent, 11 March 1944; Clutton minute, 30 March 1944; Howard minute, 2 April 1944. R6158/7/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 4 April 1944; Clutton minute, 20 April 1944. 111. FO 371/44120, R1296/396/44, C-in-C Middle East to Arnold, cc War Office, 19 January 1944. 112. FO 371/44120, R1566/396/G44, Clutton minute, 2 February 1944. 113. FO 371/44120, R1566/396/G44 and R8741/396/G44, Clutton minutes, 2 and 4 June 1944. 114. FO 371/44120, R8797/396/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 858, 2 June 1944. See also HS 3/223 passim for SOE correspondence on this subject. 115. FO 371/44120, R8997/396/G44, COS (44) 181st conclusions (O), 3 June 1944; annex IV, General Ismay personal minute to Chiefs of Staff, 3 June 1944. Cadogan summarised the affair in his diary: ‘Those damned Turks have gone and let German (disguised) warships through the Straits. We shall have to have a row with them, but that will upset “cover” as we were on the point of concluding an economic agreement with them!’ Cadogan diary, 3 June 1944; Dilks, ed., p. 634. 116. FO 371/44069, R8777/7/G44, Foreign Office to Hugessen, no. 695, 6 June 1944. 117. FO 371/44069, R9129/7/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 885, 9 June 1944. 118. FO 371/44133, R9321/789/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Office, no. 910, 13 June 1944. 119. FO 371/44133, R9321/789/G44, Foreign Office to Hugessen (unsent draft), 13 June 1944. The passage in the draft dealing with a ‘fundamental change’ in Turkish policy went on ‘nor do I believe that Numan is actively pro-German as distinct from pro-British,’ – but this was scored out by Eden. 120. FO 371/43646, R9412/349/G67, Clutton minute, 16 June 1944. 121. HW 12/301, 133085 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador London, 24 June 1944 (29 June). 122. Yücel Güçlü, Eminence Grise of the Turkish Foreign Service: Numan Menemencio˘glu (Ankara: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2002), pp. 102–4. On Hasan Ali Yücel’s British Council connections, see Frances Donaldson, The British Council – The First Fifty Years (London: Cape, 1984), pp. 97–8. 123. FO 195/2483, Knox Helm minute, June 1944, included in Hugessen to Sargent, 19 June 1944. The British were displeased to see Menemencioglu˘ return as ambassador to Paris in November 1944. FO 371/44074, R18476/7/44, Geoffrey McDermott, Dew and Cadogan minutes, 11, 15 and 16 November 1944. Eden wrote: ‘I regret Numan’s appointment to Paris; he will do no good there.’ Eden minute, 16 November 1945. The French welcomed the former Foreign Minister’s appointment, and Menemencioglu˘ proved to be a popular presence in Paris, where he served until his retirement in 1956. Güçlü, Eminence Grise, pp. 107–8, 119. Notes 243

124. FO 371/44069, R9497/7/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 933, 16 June 1944. 125. FO 371/44069, R9497/7/G44, Eden to Churchill, 20 June 1944. 126. HW 12/302, 133514 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassadors London, Washington, Moscow, 4 July 1944 (10 July). See also 133815 Japanese ambassador Ankara to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 12 July 1944 (19 July). 127. HW 1/2978, SIS Southern Dept no. 199, 15 June 1944 (passed to Churchill 20 June, seen 21 June). 128. HW 1/3191, 135273 Japanese ambassador Berlin to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 19 August 1945 (26 August). 129. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series [Commons], vol. 402, 2 August 1944, columns 1484–5. 130. Churchill College Archives Centre, Sir Winston Churchill papers, CHAR 9/200A/74-5, Eden to Churchill, 1 August 1944. 131. FO 371/44072, R12062/7/G44, Clutton to AS Henderson (Ministry of Information), 1 August 1944. 132. Times, ‘Light Ahead,’ 3 August 1944, p. 5. Manchester Guardian, ‘Turkey & Finland,’ 3 August 1944, p. 4. The Turkish military attaché in London nonetheless concluded that the break with Germany ‘has not had great repercussions in the British press ...Britain would be pleased only by Turkey’s entry into the war.’ HW 12/303, 135001 Turkish military attaché London to General Staff, 11 August 1944 (17 August). 133. New Statesman & Nation, Sagittarius, ‘Whataturk!’ 22 July 1944, p. 53. 134. PREM 3/447/12A, Hugessen to Eden, no. 352 Secret, 8 September 1944.

8 The Balkans, 1944–45

1. FO 371/44066, R1505/7/G44, Clutton minute, 30 January 1944. 2. FO 371/44065, R874/7/G44, Clutton minute, 20 January 1944. 3. CAB 66/48, WP (44) 186, ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 4 April 1944. 4. Weinberg, World at Arms, pp. 670–1. Numan Menemencioglu,˘ in a rare interview with Hugessen during the period of British aloofness, revisited his previous interest in a Balkan barrier against the Soviet Union. ‘He’ll have to be quick!’ Hugessen drolly told Sargent. FO 371/44068, R5481/7/G44, Hugessen to Sargent, 27 March 1944. 5. Martin Kitchen, British Policy Towards the Soviet Union During the Second World War (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 211–12. 6. Elisabeth Barker, British Policy in South-Eastern Europe in the Second World War (London: Macmillan, 1976), pp. 139–40, 234. 7. Elisabeth Barker, ‘Problems of the Alliance: Misconceptions & Misunder- standings’ in William Deakin, Elisabeth Barker, and Jonathan Chadwick, eds. British Political & Military Strategy in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe in 1944 (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1988), p. 50. 8. PREM 3/66/8, Eden to Churchill, 12 May 1944. For Turkish apprehension of a British policy which was increasingly concerned to prevent the Soviet Union from securing a Mediterranean outlet, see HW 12/302, 133477 Turkish ambassador Cairo to MFA Ankara, 1 July 1944 (9 July). 9. FO 371/44068, R6659/7/G44, Eden minute, 5 May 1944. 244 Notes

10. HW 12/300, 131269 Turkish ambassador to Greek government Cairo to MFA Ankara, 30 April 1944 (10 May). 11. FO 371/43646, R9092/349/G67, Cadogan minute, 22 May 1944 [emphasis in original]. 12. FO 371/43646, R9092/349/G67, Warner minute, 31 May 1944. 13. CAB 66/51, WP (44) 304, ‘Soviet Policy in the Balkans,’ 7 June 1944. 14. Ibid. 15. PREM 3/447/9, Churchill to Ismay, 11 July 1944. 16. CAB 81/124, JIC (44) 326 (O), ‘Attitude of the Balkan Satellite Countries Should Turkey Break Off Diplomatic & Economic Relations with Germany – JIC Cairo paper no. 4,’ 25 July 1944. 17. PREM 3/447/9, Churchill to Ismay, 11 July 1944. 18. PREM 3/447/12A, Eden to Churchill, 10 August 1944. 19. PREM 3/447/12A, Sargent to Dixon, 14 August 1944; Churchill minute, 16 August 1944. 20. HW 12/302, 134186 Turkish ambassador to Yugoslav government, Cairo to MFA Ankara, 11 July 1944 (28 July). 21. Barker, ‘Bulgaria in August 1944 – A British View’ in Deakin, Barker, and Chadwick, eds. British Political & Military Strategy, p. 210. 22. Weinberg, World at Arms, pp. 713–15. Although the defection from the Axis of both Romania and Bulgaria occurred within weeks of the Turkish break, only the most egotistical elements of the Turkish press claimed that this had much to do with the moral blow dealt by Turkish action, as opposed to the unstoppable Red Army. Review of the Foreign Press, Series N: The Near & Middle East; #32, 6 September 1944. 23. FO 371/44073, R14197/7/G44, undated Eden minute to Sargent, c. 9 September 1944. 24. PREM 3/447/12A, General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson to Chiefs of Staff, 12 September 1944. 25. CAB 80/87, COS (44) 831 (O), ‘Policy Towards Turkey,’ 6 September 1944. 26. PREM 3/3/2, Churchill to Eden, 4 April 1943; Eden to Churchill, 9 April 1943. 27. CAB 79/80, COS (44), 300th meeting (O), 7 September 1944 and COS (44), 302nd meeting (O), 8 September 1944. 28. FO 371/44073, R14229/7/G44, McDermott minute, 12 September 1944. 29. PREM 3/447/12A, Hugessen to Eden, no. 352 Secret, 8 September 1944. 30. HW 12/304, 136161 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 9 and 10 September 1944 (17 September). See also 136657 Turkish ambassador Cairo to MFA Ankara, 22 September 1944 (30 September), which asserted that the Russians ‘are neglecting Germany and are trying to establish their own predominance in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean.’ 31. FO 371/44073, R14229/7/G44, Howard minute, 14 September 1944. 32. CAB 79/80, COS (44), 309th meeting (O), 16 September 1944. FO 371/44073, R14229/7/G44, extracts from minutes of OCTAGON meetings, 14–15 September 1944. PREM 3/447/12A, Chiefs of Staff to Wilson, 16 September 1944. 33. FO 371/44073, R14781/7/G44, Peterson minute, 11 September 1944. 34. Ibid. 35. FO 371/44074, R15838/7/G44, ‘Memorandum for Sir Maurice Peterson on his Mission to Turkey,’ 5 October 1944. Notes 245

36. FO 371/44073, R14197/7/G44, McDermott minute, 11 September 1944. 37. FO 371/44073, R14197/7/G44, undated Eden minute to Sargent, c. 9–10 September 1944; McDermott minute, 11 September 1944. 38. FO 371/44074, R15838/7/G44, ‘Memorandum for Sir Maurice Peterson on his Mission to Turkey,’ 5 October 1944. 39. FO 371/44074, R15838/7/G44, ‘Memorandum for Sir Maurice Peterson on his Mission to Turkey,’ 5 October 1944. An earlier version of these instructions ‘thought of telling the Turks that ...it was ...our ﬁrm intention at the appropriate moment to conclude a fresh treaty with them since the alliance carried with it the corollary of a new treaty.’ This was vetoed by Eden, who felt this went too far, and could not be promised without a decision of the War Cabinet. PREM 3/447/12A, Sargent to Eden (Moscow), 12 October 1944. 40. FO 371/44073, R14611/7/44, Howard minute, 20 September 1944. 41. PREM 3/66/6, Eden to Churchill, 23 August 1944. 42. PREM 3/79/2, Eden to Churchill, 19 September 1944. 43. Ibid. See also Eden to Churchill, 6 October 1944. 44. John Kent, British Imperial Strategy & the Origins of the Cold War, 1944–49 (Leicester: Leicester UP, 1993), p. 30. 45. PREM 3/434/2, ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October 17 1944’ – 9 October (10 P.M.) meeting, p. 8. 46. PREM 3/79/3, Eden (Moscow) to Sargent, 15 October 1944. 47. PREM 3/447/12A, Churchill to Eden, 10 June 1944. 48. PREM 3/447/9, Churchill to Ismay, 11 July 1944. 49. AP 20/11/644, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden to Churchill, 6 October 1944. 50. PREM 3/434/2, ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October 17 1944’ – 9 October (10 P.M.) meeting, p. 7. 51. FO 371/44207, R18327/17223/44, Howard minute, 9 November 1944. 52. FO 371/44165, R16013/3830/44, Sargent paper on the Straits, 6 October 1944. 53. AP 20/11/653, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden to Churchill, 10 October 1944. 54. FO 371/44207, R18327/17223/44, Eden minute, 16 November 1944. 55. German propaganda in the wake of the Tehran conference had spread the rumour that Britain was compelled to ‘relinquish her interests in the Balkans and the Straits and to concede them to Bolshevism.’ HW 12/296, 126747 German Foreign Ministry to All Stations, 28 December 1943 (1 January 1944). In Cairo, the Yugoslav government denounced Britain’s role in ‘Bol- shevising the country on behalf of the Russians.’ HW 1/2858, 131989 Turkish ambassador to Yugoslav government, Cairo to MFA Ankara, 23 May 1944 (30 May). In China, General Carton de Wiart told the Turkish minister, ‘Please realise that we have recognised the Balkans as entirely the Russian sphere of inﬂuence.’ HW 12/302, 133394 Turkish minister Chungking to MFA Ankara, 23 June 1944 (7 July). 56. Peterson to Eden, no. 407, 16 October 1944, no. 413, 19 October 1944, no. 195, 26 October 1944; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 2, pp. 235–6. HW 12/306, 138484 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 15 November 1944 (19 November). 246 Notes

57. HW 12/304, 135762 Turkish minister Madrid to MFA Ankara, 2 September 1944 (7 September). HW 12/305, 137100 Turkish minister Berne to MFA Ankara and Turkish ambassador London, 6 October 1944 (12 October). 58. Eden to Peterson, no. 273, 23 November 1944; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 2, pp. 237–8. 59. HW 12/307, 139094 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 24 November 1944 (6 December). 60. PREM 3/434/2, ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October 17 1944’ – 9 October (10 P.M.) meeting, p. 5. Stalin had replied that ‘It was a serious matter for Britain when the Mediterranean route was not in her hands. In that respect Greece was very important.’ 61. HW 12/302, 133474 Turkish ambassador to Greek government, Cairo to MFA Ankara, 28 June 1944 (9 July). 62. HW 1/3284, 137522 Japanese ambassador Ankara to Foreign Ministry Tokyo, 19 October 1944 (24 October). HW 12/307, 139421 Turkish ambassador Cairo to MFA Ankara, 7 December 1944 (15 December). 63. HW 12/307, 139839 Turkish ambassador London to MFA Ankara, 26 December 1944 (30 December). 64. Review of the Foreign Press, Series N: The Near & Middle East, #43, 7 February 1945. 65. Ibid.; #44, 21 February 1945; #45, 7 March 1945. 66. HW 12/308, 139903 Turkish ambassador Cairo to MFA Ankara, 22 December 1944 (1 January 1945). 67. FO 371/44070, R10300/7/G44, Cadogan minute, 2 July 1944. 68. Fifth plenary meeting of the Yalta conference, 8 February 1945; FRUS Malta and Yalta (Washington DC: Department of State, 1955), pp. 773–4. 69. FO 371/48764, R3854/1723/44, Howard minute, 27 February 1945. 70. Times, ‘Turkey Decides,’ 24 February 1945, p. 5. See also Manchester Guardian, ‘Bandwagon,’ 24 February 1945, p. 4. 71. Parliamentary Debates, 5th series, vol. 408 (Commons), 27 February 1945, columns 1288–9. 72. HW 12/310, 142043 Spanish minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Madrid, 24 February 1945 (7 March 1945). 73. HW 12/309, 141754 Turkish ambassador Athens to MFA Ankara, 13 February 1945 (27 February). 74. FO 371/48342, R3857/188/G19, Cadogan minute, 24 February 1945. HW 12/310, 141850 Greek ambassador Washington to Foreign Ministry Athens, 27 February 1945 (2 March). In mid-May, Peterson reported Turkish concerns that they be ‘consulted’ on the disposal of the Aegean islands. FO 371/48342, R8317/188/G19, Peterson to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 599, 13 May 1945. 75. HW 12/313, 143494 Turkish ambassador Athens to MFA Ankara, 6 April 1945 (11 April). HW 12/314, 143936 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Athens, 17 April 1945 (22 April); 143956 Greek ambassador Ankara to Foreign Min- istry Athens and Greek ambassador Washington, 19 April 1945 (23 April). FO 371/48343, R7542/210/19, Peterson to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 539, 26 April 1945. The British ambassador to Greece, Reginald Leeper, asserted that the Greeks ‘would not dream of putting forward any serious claim to Turkish Thrace. This claim had been adopted by the Communists, no doubt in order to embarrass ourselves and the Greek Government and possibly on orders Notes 247

from Moscow.’ FO 371/48344, R10247/210/19, record of a meeting on Greek territorial claims, 14 June 1945. 76. FO 371/48764, R3167/1723/G44, Howard minute, 17 February 1945. 77. FO 371/48217, R3459/3168/67, Sargent minute, 6 March 1945. 78. HW 12/310, 141828 Turkish minister Lisbon to MFA Ankara, 26 February 1945 (1 March). Spectator, ‘Turkey & Egypt,’ 2 March 1945, p. 185. 79. FO 371/48764, R4066/1723/44, Fitzroy Maclean (Belgrade) to Foreign Office, no. 225, 27 February 1945. See also FO 371/43647, R16300/349/67, BBC Monitoring, 9 October 1944, Radio Free Yugoslavia (in Serbo-Croat), ‘Hands Off the Balkans: Free Yugoslavia Warns the Turks’. 80. FO 371/48774, R12061/4476/44, Frank Roberts (Moscow) to Foreign Office, no. 3169, 17 July 1945. 81. FO 371/44207, R17223/17223/44, Clutton minute, 1 November 1944. 82. HW 12/308, 140258 Greek minister Paris to Foreign Ministry Athens and embassies, 10 January 1945 (14 January). HW 12/309, 141048 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassadors London and Moscow, 31 January 1945 (2 February). Misha Glenny, The Balkans (London: Granta, 2000), p. 535. 83. PREM 3/79/5, WP (45) 174, ‘Bulgaria,’ 17 March 1945. The non-communist Left was in turn undermined by communist intrigues which provoked a series of splits in the Social Democratic and Peasant parties in the spring and summer of 1945. 84. PREM 3/79/4, British military mission Sofia to War Office, 5 April 1945. 85. PREM 3/79/4, Foreign Office to Peterson, no. 379, 9 April 1945; Peterson to Foreign Office, no. 463, 11 April 1945. 86. Sargent minute, 2 April 1945; Ross, ed. The Foreign Office & the Kremlin, p. 202. 87. ‘Stocktaking after VE Day,’ 11 July 1945; Documents on British Policy Overseas [hereafter DBPO], Series I, vol. 1; Rohan Butler, ME Pelly, HJ Yasamee, eds (London: HMSO, 1984), pp. 181–7. 88. John Kent, ‘The British Empire & the Origins of the Cold War, 1944–49’ in Anne Deighton, ed. Britain & The First Cold War (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 168–9. 89. Barker, British Policy in South-East Europe,p.6. 90. Ibid., p. 108. 91. FO 371/50885, U6311/2600/70, Jebb memorandum, 29 July 1945.

9 Russia, the Caucasus and the Straits, October 1944 to July 1945

1. FO 371/44069, R9129/7/G44, Hugessen to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 885, 9 June 1944. HW 12/302, 133549 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 5 July 1944 (11 July). 2. Ulunian, ‘Soviet Cold War Perceptions of Turkey & Greece,’ p. 40. Molotov had hinted at this concept in October 1944, wondering whether the sig- nature of the Bulgarian armistice by General Wilson, a ‘Mediterranean General,’ might lead Bulgaria to ‘claim that she was not only a Black Sea Power but also a Mediterranean Power.’ Eden ‘replied that there was no question of Bulgaria being a Mediterranean Power ...He could promise that the Royal Navy would keep the Bulgarians out of the Mediterranean.’ PREM 248 Notes

3/434/2, ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October, 17, 1944’ – 10 October Eden-Molotov meeting, p. 12. 3. Mazov, ‘The USSR and the Former Italian Colonies,’ p. 51. 4. Ibid., pp. 52–3. 5. Foreign Office Research Department, ‘The Regime of the Straits,’ 23 November 1943; BDFA, Part III, Series B, vol. 2, pp. 238, 243–4. 6. FO 371/44165, R16013/3830/44, Sargent paper on the Straits, 6 October 1944. 7. Winston Churchill to Lady Randolph Churchill, 6 April 1897, cited in Randolph S Churchill, Winston S Churchill, vol. I, Youth (London: Heinemann, 1966), pp. 316–18. 8. AP 20/12/484, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Churchill to Eden, 12 October 1944. 9. PREM 3/434/2 ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October 17, 1944’ – 9 October (10 P.M.) meeting, p. 7. 10. Ibid. 11. AP 20/11/653, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden to Churchill, 10 October 1944. 12. AP 20/12/484, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Churchill to Eden, 12 October 1944. 13. PREM 3/434/2 ‘Records of Meetings at the Kremlin, October 9–October 17, 1944’ – 9 October (10 P.M.) meeting, p. 6. 14. CAB 81/45, PHP (44) 13 (O), ‘Effect of Soviet Policy on British Strategic Interests,’ 6 June 1944. 15. CAB 81/125, JIC (44) 442 (O) (Draft), ‘Russia’s Strategic Interests from the Point of View of Her Security,’ 18 October 1944 [my emphasis]. 16. See Chapter 1, p. 42. 17. FO 371/44188, R19586/9943/44, GM Wilson (Northern Department) minute, 18 December 1944. 18. FO 371/44188, R19586/9943/44, Roger Allen (Services Liaison Department) minute, 6 January 1945. 19. FO 371/48697, R1885/44/G44, Cadogan minute, 24 January 1945. Eden wrote to Churchill in similar terms. Eden to Churchill, 27 January 1945. 20. FO 954/28, Churchill to Eden, 28 January 1945. 21. Minutes of Anthony Eden-Edward Stettinius meeting, Malta, 1 February 1945; FRUS 1945 Malta and Yalta, p. 501. 22. State Department Briefing Book Paper, ‘Memorandum regarding the question of the Turkish Straits,’ no date (c. October 1944); FRUS 1945 Malta and Yalta, pp. 328–9. 23. David J Alvarez, Bureaucracy & Cold War Diplomacy: The United States & Turkey, 1943–46 (Thessaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies, 1980), pp. 41–4. 24. CAB 66/63, WP (45) 157, minutes of the seventh plenary meeting of the Yalta conference, 10 February 1945. 25. FO 371/48764, R3167/1723/G44, Peterson to Foreign Office, no. 35, 3 February 1945. 26. FO 371/48764, R3167/1723/G44, Eden minute, 24 February 1945. 27. CAB 79/29, COS (45), 41st meeting, 12 February 1945. 28. FO 371/48764, R3167/1723/G44, McDermott minute, 16 February 1945. FO 371/48697, R4707/44/G44, JG Ward (Reconstruction Department) minute, 18 March 1945. Notes 249

29. CAB 79/31, COS (45), 89th meeting, 5 April 1945; CAB 80/93, COS (45) 220 (O) (PHP), ‘The Montreux Convention – Staff Study,’ 6 April 1945. 30. CAB 80/93, COS (45) 220 (O) (PHP), ‘The Montreux Convention – Staff Study,’ 6 April 1945. FO 371/48697, R4707/44/G44, McDermott minute, 12 March 1945 and Roger Allen minute, 17, March 1945. 31. FO 371/48697, R4707/44/G44, Roger Allen minute, 17 March 1945. 32. CAB 80/93, COS (45) 220 (O) (PHP), ‘The Montreux Convention – Staff Study,’ 6 April 1945. 33. HW 12/297, 128492 German Foreign Ministry Berlin to All Stations, 16 February 1944 (21 February). 34. HW 12/298, 129926 Portuguese minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Lisbon, 28 March 1944 (31 March). 35. HW 12/298, 129164 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 3 March 1944 (9 March); 129637 Ankara to Moscow, 18 March 1944 (22 March); 129668 Ankara to Moscow, 18 March 1944 (23 March). 36. HW 12/302, 133549 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 5 July 1944 (11 July). 37. Ibid. 38. HW 12/307, 139529 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 14 Decem- ber 1944 (18 December). 39. HW 12/297, 128096 Turkish military attaché Tehran to General Staff, 4 February 1944 (10 February). HW 12/298, 128878 military attaché Tehran to General Staff, 24 February 1944 (1 March); 129726 military attaché Tehran to General Staff, 17 March 1944 (25 March). HW 12/300, 131479 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 9 April 1944 (16 May). 40. HW 12/301, 132372 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 23 May 1944 (10 June). See also HW 12/301, 132084 Turkish ambassador Tehran to MFA Ankara, 12 May 1944 (2 June). 41. HW 12/317, 145435 Turkish consul Rezaieh to MFA Ankara, 27 May 1945 (31 May). HW 12/321, 146415 Turkish minister Baghdad to MFA Ankara, 31 May 1945 (27 June). 42. HW 12/304, 136016 Turkish ambassador Washington to MFA Ankara, 8 September 1944 (13 September); 136478 Turkish minister Ottawa to MFA Ankara, 21 September 1944 (29 September). 43. HW 12/309, 141280 Turkish minister Madrid to MFA Ankara, 6 February 1945 (12 February). 44. HW 12/302, 133477 Turkish ambassador Cairo to Ankara, 1 July 1944 (9 July). HW 12/303, 135304 Turkish ambassador to Greek government, Cairo to MFA Ankara, 13 August 1944 (26 August). 45. HW 12/309, 141735 Greek ambassador Ankara to Greek government Athens, 24 February 1945 (27 February). HW 12/310, 141825 Spanish minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Madrid, 22 February 1945 (1 March). 46. HW 12/308, 140590 Turkish ambassador Paris to MFA Ankara, 19 January 1945 (23 January). 47. HW 12/309, 141109 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 27 January 1945 (7 February). 48. HW 12/309, Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 27 January 1945 (7 February). FO 371/48773, Peterson to Foreign Ofﬁce, no. 37, 1 March 1945. 250 Notes

49. PREM 3/447/12A, Churchill to Eden, 14 March 1945. AP 20/1/25, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 23 March 1945. 50. HW 12/310, 142252 Turkish naval attaché Stockholm to General Staff, 6 March 1945 (12 March). 51. HW 12/318, 145506 Turkish delegation San Francisco to MFA Ankara, 8 May 1945 (2 June). 52. HW 12/313, 143677 Turkish military attache Washington to General Staff, 11 April 1945 (15 April). HW 12/317, 145435 Turkish consul Rezaieh to MFA Ankara, 27 May 1945 (31 May). 53. HW 12/317, 145362 Cevat Açıkalın (London) to MFA Ankara, 18 May 1945 (29 May). See also HW 12/319, 145998 Turkish minister Berne to MFA Ankara, 8 June 1945 (15 June). 54. Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War – From Stalin to Khrushchev (London: Harvard UP, 1996), p. 91. 55. Süleyman Seydi, ‘Making a Cold War in the Near East: Turkey & the origins of the Cold War, 1945–47,’ Diplomacy & Statecraft 17:1 (2006), p. 117. 56. HW 1/3779, 145227 Spanish minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Madrid, 21 May 1945 (26 May). 57. HW 12/320, 146341 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 19 June 1945 (24 June). FO 371/48774, R11696/4476/G44, Foreign Office brief on Soviet-Turkish relations, c. 10 July 1945. 58. HW 12/321, 146365 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 22 June 1945 (25 June). 59. CAB 81/46, PHP (45) 10 (O) (Final), ‘Security in the Eastern Mediterranean & Middle East,’ 27 March 1945. 60. CAB 81/126, JIC (44) 467 (O), ‘Russia’s Strategic Interests & Intentions from the Point of View of Her Security,’ 18 December 1944. FO 371/48697, R10123/44/44, McDermott minute, 14 June 1945. 61. Albert Resis, ed. Molotov Remembers (Chicago: IR Dee, 1993), p. 73. 62. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, vol. 2, Strobe Talbott, ed. (London: André Deutsch, 1974), pp. 295–6. 63. Beria, Beria, My Father, p. 78. Beytullayev, ‘Soviet Policy Towards Turkey, 1944–46,’ p. 120. 64. HW 12/319, 146067 Turkish ambassador Moscow to MFA Ankara, 8 June 1945 (17 June). The British ambassador in Moscow, Sir Archibald Clark Kerr, concurred in Sarper’s initial assessment. FO 371/48773, R 11160/4476/G44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 2825, 30 June 1945. See also Mastny, Russia’s Road to the Cold War, p. 289. 65. HW 12/319, 146067 MFA Ankara to Turkish ambassador Moscow, 12 June 1945 (17 June). 66. Seydi, ‘Making a Cold War in the Near East,’ p. 117 67. FO 371/48697, R10224/4476/G44, Peterson (Istanbul) to Foreign Office, nos 52 and 54, 14 June 1945. 68. FO 371/48697, R10224/4476/G44, McDermott and William Hayter minutes, 14 June 1945. 69. FO 954/28, Richard Law to Churchill, 16 June 1945. Notes 251

70. Briefing Book Paper, ‘US Policy toward Turkey,’ 29 June 1945; FRUS Potsdam vol. 1 (Washington DC: Department of State, 1960), pp. 1015–16. Loy Henderson to Grew, 22 June 1945; FRUS 1945 Potsdam vol. 1, p. 1026. 71. Memorandum of conversation between John Balfour and Joseph Grew, 18 June 1945; Edwin Wilson to Grew, 20 June 1945; FRUS 1945 Potsdam vol. 1, pp. 1017–18, 1023. 72. AP 20/1/25, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 3 July 1945. 73. Alvarez, Bureaucracy & Cold War Diplomacy, pp. 50–1. 74. Ibid., pp. 56–7. 75. George Allen to Assistant Secretary of State, 15 July 1945; FRUS 1945 Potsdam vol. 1, pp. 1053–4. 76. FO 371/48773, R10691/4476/G44, Peterson to Foreign Office, no. 78, 21 June 1945. 77. FO 371/48773, R10692/4476/G44, McDermott minute, 23 June 1945. 78. FO 371/48773, R10692/4476/G44, Howard minute, 23 June 1945. 79. HW 12/320, 146341 Turkish ambassador Moscow to Ankara, 19 June 1945 (24 June). 80. PREM 3/447/4B, Foreign Office no. 7184 to Washington, 3790 to Moscow, 1175 to Cairo, 5 July 1945. 81. FO 371/48773, R11160/4476/G44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 2825, 30 June 1945; R11617/4476/G44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 3008, 9 July 1945. 82. PREM 3/447/4B, Foreign Office no. 7184 to Washington, 3790 to Moscow, 1175 to Cairo, 5 July 1945. 83. FO 371/48773, R10958/4476/G44, Peterson to Foreign Office, no. 89, 27 June 1945; R11021/4476/G44, McDermott minute, 29 June 1945. 84. PREM 3/66/8, Eden to Churchill, 12 May 1944. PREM 3/66/6, Eden to Churchill, 23 August 1944. AP 20/11/644, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden to Churchill, 6 October 1944. 85. AP 20/1/25, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 4 July 1945. 86. FO 371/48774, R11430/4476/G44, Foreign Office to Moscow, no. 3766, 5 July 1945, and to Washington, no. 7137, 5 July 1945. The ‘special’ telegram revealing the influence of the Turkish decrypts can be found in PREM 3/447/4B, Foreign Office no. 7184 to Washington, 3790 to Moscow, 1175 to Cairo, 5 July 1945. 87. FO 371/48774, R11430/4476/G44, Foreign Office to Moscow, no. 3788, 5 July 1945. 88. FO 371/48773, R11021/4476/G44, McDermott minute, 29 June 1945. AP 20/1/25, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 3 July 1945. 89. On this episode, see also Nicholas Tamkin, ‘Diplomatic Sigint and the British Official Mind During the Second World War: Soviet Claims on Turkey, 1940– 1945,’ Intelligence & National Security 23:6 (2008), pp. 749–66. 90. FO 371/48774, R12060/4476/G44, Foreign Office brief for Eden-Hasan Saka meeting, c. 10 July 1945. R11820/4476/G44, Foreign Office to Peterson, no. 209, 11 July 1945; Howard minute, 13 July 1945. 252 Notes

91. FO 371/48774, R11507/4476/G44, McDermott minute, 7 July 1945. Sarper admitted his own culpability to Clark Kerr, but asserted – contrary to his original conclusions – that the Soviets demands for Kars and Ardahan were in earnest. FO 371/48773, R11617/4476/G44, Clark Kerr to Foreign Office, no. 3008, 9 July 1945. 92. FO 371/48774, R13646/4476/G44, McDermott minute, 16 August 1945. 93. CAB 84/73, JP (45) 170 (Final), ‘Montreux Convention & Security of the Baltic,’ 11 July 1945. 94. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, pp. 25–7, 37–9. 95. FO 371/48774, R11476/4476/G44, Roger Allen minute, 16 July 1945. 96. Eden to Churchill, 17 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, p. 352. For the expression of similar sentiments by the US ambassador in Ankara, Edwin Wilson, see Wilson to Secretary of State ad interim, 2 July 1945; FRUS 1945 Potsdam vol. 1, pp. 1033–4. 97. Pratt, East of Malta, West of Suez, p. 87. 98. FO 371/48774, R 13427/4476/G44, Peterson to Sargent, 1 August 1945. 99. Minutes of a meeting between Churchill and Stalin, 18 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 387–8. 100. AP 20/1/25, Avon Papers, Special Collections, Library Services, University of Birmingham, Eden diary, 17 July 1945. 101. Roberts, Stalin’s Wars, pp. 297–301. 102. Sixth plenary meeting of the Potsdam conference, 22 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 542–5. 103. The antiquity of Churchill’s vocabulary is striking, referring to Turkish concern ‘for the integrity of her Empire.’ DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, p. 543. 104. ‘The Black Sea Straits,’ draft submitted by the Soviet delegation (Berlin), 22 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, p. 547. 105. Sixth plenary meeting of the Potsdam conference, 22 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, p. 544. 106. CAB 121/672, Sargent to Major-General Leslie Hollis, 29 August 1945. 107. Nazi-Soviet Relations 1939–41 – Documents from the Archives of the German Foreign Office, RJ Sontag and JS Beddie, eds (Washington DC: Department of State, 1948), preface. Eduard Mark, ‘The War Scare of 1946 & Its Conse- quences,’ Diplomatic History 21 (1997), p. 389 & n. Julian Lewis, Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-War Strategic Defence, 1942–47, 2nd edition (London: Frank Cass, 2003), pp. lvi–lvii. 108. Seventh plenary meeting of the Potsdam conference, 23 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 584–7. 109. The State Department doubted that the Turks could be persuaded to accept demilitarisation without Allied coercion. George Allen to Assistant Secre- tary of State Dunn, 19 July 1945; FRUS Potsdam vol. 2 (Washington DC: Department of State, 1960), pp. 1425–6. 110. FO 934/5, ‘Turkey and the Straits,’ no date (c. 24 July 1945). 111. Alvarez, Bureaucracy & Cold War Diplomacy,p.67. 112. FO 371/48775, R14068/4476/G44, Sargent minute, 28 August 1945 and Foreign Office to Washington, no. 8948, 28 August 1945; R15130/4476/G44, John Balfour to Foreign Office, no. 6048, 5 September 1945; R15250/4476/G44, Balfour to Foreign Office, no. 6116, 8 September 1945; R15715/4476/G44, Halifax to Foreign Office, no. 6213, 14 September 1945. Notes 253

113. Bilgin, Britain and Turkey in the Middle East, pp. 73, 231. 114. Mustafa Bilgin, ‘Anglo-Turkish Relations in the Middle East: British Per- ceptions, 1945–53’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2001), p. 22. 115. Sir David Kelly (Ankara) to Hector McNeil, no. 487, 26 November 1948; BDFA Part IV, Series B, vol. 5; Malcolm Yapp, ed. (Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America, 2001), p. 228. 116. HW 12/322, 146773 Turkish minister Ottawa to MFA Ankara, 29 June 1945 (6 July). HW 1/3788, 148000 Italian minister Ankara to Foreign Ministry Rome, 27 July 1945 (6 August). HW 12/330, 148888 Turkish ambassador Paris to MFA Ankara, 21 August 1945 (27 August). 117. Attlee to Eden, 18 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 363–4. 118. Eden to Attlee, 23 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 575–6. 119. Weinberg, World at Arms, p. 351. 120. John Keegan, ed. Times Atlas of the Second World War (London: Times Books, 1989), p. 78. 121. Dutton, Anthony Eden, pp. 173–4. 122. Michael Blackwell, Clinging to Grandeur – British Attitudes and Foreign Pol- icy in the Aftermath of the Second World War (London: Greenwood, 1993), pp. 68–9. 123. On Attlee’s subsequent attempt to achieve a radical revision of British policy in the Middle East, thwarted by the combined opposition of Ernest Bevin, the Foreign Ofﬁce and the Chiefs of Staff, see Raymond Smith and John Zametica, ‘Clement Attlee – The Cold Warrior Reconsidered,’ International Affairs 61 (1985), pp. 237–52. 124. Attlee to Churchill, 23 July 1945; DBPO, Series I, vol. 1, pp. 573–4. 125. FO 371/50885, U6311/2600/70, Jebb memorandum, 29 July 1945. 126. CAB 80/93, COS (45) 220 (O) (PHP), ‘The Montreux Convention – Staff Study,’ 6 April 1945. 127. FO 371/48775, R14773/4476/G44, Roger Allen minute, 1 September 1945. 128. FO 371/50885, U6311/2600/70, Jebb memorandum, 29 July 1945. 129. CAB 84/73, JP (45) 170 (Final), ‘Montreux Convention & Security of the Baltic,’ 11 July 1945. 130. Peterson to Bevin, no. 268, 28 July 1945; BDFA Part III, Series B, vol. 2, p. 325. 131. CAB 81/46, PHP (45) 10 (O) (Final), ‘Security in the Eastern Mediterranean & Middle East,’ 27 March 1945. 132. Ekavi Athanassopoulou, Turkey – Anglo-American Security Interests, 1945–52 (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 171. 133. PREM 3/447/5A, Churchill to Eden, 7 January 1944.

Conclusion

1. Tamkin, ‘Diplomatic Sigint and the British Ofﬁcial Mind during the Second World War.’ 2. Millman, Ill-Made Alliance, p. 200. 3. Cf. John C Cairns, ‘A Nation of Shopkeepers in Search of a Suitable France, 1919–1940,’ American Historical Research 79 (1974), pp. 710–43. 254 Notes

4. David R Devereux, The Formulation of British Defence Policy Toward the Middle East, 1948–56 (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1990). 5. Bilgin, Britain and Turkey in the Middle East. 6. Athanassopoulou, Turkey – Anglo-American Security Interests. Bibliography

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Unpublished theses

Beytullayev, El’vis, ‘Soviet Policy Towards Turkey, 1944–46’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2005). Bilgin, Mustafa Sitki, ‘Anglo-Turkish Relations in the Middle East – British Perceptions, 1945–53’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 2001). Nikolic,´ Irina, ‘Anglo-Yugoslav Relations, 1938–41’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 2001). Zametica, John, ‘British Strategic Planning for the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East, 1944–47’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, 1986). Index

Açıkalın, Cevat, 71, 172–4, 176 Dill, Sir John, 37, 40–3, 46, 61, 75 Adana conference (1943), 77, 84–98, Dixon, Pierson, 24, 57, 60, 77, 99 101, 104–5, 114–17, 118–20, 122, 125–6, 130, 135–8, 140, 159, 173, Eden, Anthony, 2, 14, 28, 32, 37, 190, 194–5 40–5, 47, 49, 51–7, 59–61, 68–9, Aktay, Haydar, 22–3, 26, 28, 56, 108, 74, 78–81, 83–8, 90–4, 99, 103–5, 110–11 107–9, 112, 120, 122–3, 125, Aras, Tevﬁk Rü¸stü, 9–11, 33, 109 132–42, 145, 147–50, 151–3, Arnold, Allan, 41, 78, 83, 101–2, 142 155–61, 163–4, 167–71, 177, Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal, 3, 8–14, 48, 179–82, 184–5, 188, 190, 192–5 99–102, 141, 196 Elmhirst, Sir Thomas, 39 Attlee, Clement, 21, 85, 183–7, 193 Erkin, Feridun Cemal, 148, 176 Auchinleck, Sir Claude, 58–9, 63, 67, Ertegün, Mehmet Münür, 111, 69–70, 72 115, 133

‘Bagration’ Operation, 148–9, 192 Glenconner, 2nd Baron, 67–8 Beria, Lavrenti, 5, 22, 176 Grigg, Sir Edward, 142 ‘Blue’ Operation, 58, 69, 70 Brooke, Sir Alan, 2, 57, 66, 70, 72, Halifax, 1st Earl of, 20–1, 28, 33, 37–8, 74–5, 77, 79, 81–2, 84–6, 88–91, 177, 179 93, 105, 119, 124, 136, 190, 194–5 Harvey, Oliver, 86, 90 Helm, Alexander Knox, 81, 100, Cadogan, Sir Alexander, 17, 36–7, 39, 113–14, 148, 156 44–5, 58, 69, 82–3, 86–7, 89–93, 99, 104, 125–7, 130, 133, 142, Inönü, Ismet, 3, 10, 14, 27, 42–5, 48, 145, 153, 155, 162, 164, 85–7, 89, 91, 99–100, 114, 136–7, 170–1, 177 145–9, 166, 175, 177 Casablanca conference (1943), 84–7, 93, 115, 119, 125, 131, 143, 170 Jebb, Gladwyn, 67–8, 126, 128, 164, Cavendish-Bentinck, Sir Victor, 78, 185–6 81–3, 91, 105 Churchill, Winston S., 1–4, 8–9, 10, Kennedy, Sir John, 42, 57, 61, 63, 67, 16, 27, 32, 34, 37–47, 51–5, 73, 78, 81, 124 57–60, 62–3, 69–74, 76–81, 83–93, Knatchbull-Hugessen, Sir Hughe, 18, 95–8, 102–5, 108, 113–14, 116, 19–21, 23, 26, 28–9, 35, 38–9, 43, 118–19, 121–5, 131, 133, 135–40, 46–7, 55, 57–8, 60, 65, 71, 77, 143–5, 149–50, 153–62, 164, 166, 82–3, 85–91, 93, 95–100, 102–5, 168–71, 177, 179, 181–3, 188, 107–10, 114, 116–17, 119–20, 190, 192–5 134, 138–9, 141–3, 146–9, Clark Kerr, Sir Archibald, 110, 143, 156, 167 178–9 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 20–5, 28, 58, 108, Litvinov, Maxim, 10, 167, 173 111, 147, 170, 185 Lloyd George, David, 8–9

266 Index 267

Maisky, Ivan, 22, 27, 108, 137, 163 110, 114, 117, 126, 148, 156, 162, Marshall-Cornwall, Sir James, 38, 41 175, 177 Menemencioglu,ˇ Numan, 15, 42–3, Sargent, Sir Orme, 17, 20–4, 26, 29, 77–8, 80–1, 90, 95–6, 99–100, 31, 48, 55, 69, 81–2, 85–6, 90–1, 105, 112–14, 132, 134, 136–48, 93, 102, 113, 128, 133, 145, 155, 154, 166, 172–3 160, 163–4, 167–8, 177, 179, 181 Menzies, Sir Stewart, 4, 62, 78, 82, 91 Sarper, Selim, 173–80, 182 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 5, 25–6, 30, 72, ‘Saturn’ Operation, 137, 141 110, 112, 114–15, 127, 132–3, Special Operations Executive (SOE), 135, 137, 152, 159, 161, 167, 21, 66–9, 71, 146 169–70, 172–80, 182 Stalin, Josef, 5, 8, 16, 20–30, 39, 45, Montreux convention, 13, 16, 21, 49, 53, 55, 59–60, 72, 74, 76, 80, 23–4, 123, 127, 146–8, 159, 84, 109, 111, 114, 126, 132, 134, 167–8, 170, 176, 182–3 136–8, 144, 151, 159–61, 163, Moscow conference (1943), 128, 168–71, 173–8, 181–3, 190, 192 132–3, 135, 192 Sterndale-Bennett, John, 96, Moscow conference (1944), 157–61, 113–14, 124 163–4, 167–8, 171, 179, 181–2 Sulzberger, Cyrus, 103

Orbay, Rauf, 71, 77, 96, 112, 115 ‘Overlord’ Operation, 5, 136–8, 144, Taray, Cemal Hüsnü, 108 147–8, 154, 192 Tehran conference (1943), 125, 128, 132, 137–8, 140, 151, 166, 168, Peterson, Sir Maurice, 156–7, 160, 163, 171–2, 181–2 171, 176, 178–9, 182, 187 ‘Torch’ Operation, 76, 78–9, 81, 90 Potsdam conference (1945), Toynbee, Arnold, 9 178–82, 193 Truman, Harry S., 174, 183

Quebec conference (1943), 121, Washington conference (1943), 120, 123–4, 129, 135–6, 138 123–4 Wavell, Sir Archibald, 37, 40, 42–3, 53, Roosevelt, Franklin D., 76, 79–80, 57–8, 62 83–4, 86–7, 111, 125, 136–8, 144, Wilson, Sir Henry Maitland, 72, 174, 190, 195 121–2, 155–6, 159 Saka, Hasan, 174, 176, 180 Saracoglu,˘ Sükrü, ¸ 16, 19, 23, 28, 42, Yalta conference (1945), 162, 170–1, 44, 47–9, 81, 87, 92, 95, 98–100, 176–7, 182