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The American Intellectual in Foreign Affairs by Charles Maechling, Jr.

The Next Problem in Arms Control by Roger A. Beaumont

What Is Public Diplomacy? by Kenneth Wimmel

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^Omoho.xL' Name People you can count on... Address MUTUAL OF OMAHA INSURANCE COMPANY HOME OFFICE: OMAHA, NEBRASKA City. State ZIP Code FILL OUT AND MAIL TODAY! FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL American Foreign Service Association OCTOBER 1978: Volume 55, No. 10 Officers and Members of the Governing Board ISSN 0015-7279 LARS HYDLE, President KENNETH N. ROGERS, Vice President THOMAS O'CONNOR, Second Vice President FRANK CUMMINS, Secretary M. , Treasurer Memories Are Made of This— RONALD L. NICHOLSON, AID Representative PETER WOLCOTT, ICA Representative Not Memoirs JOSEPH N. McBRIDE, State Representative EUGENE M. BRADERMAN & ROBERT G. CLEVELAND, S. I. NADLER 6 Retired Representatives Two Popes of Rome J. GRAHAM PARSONS 11 Journal Editorial Board JOEL M. WOLDMAN, Chairman The American Intellectual in JAMES F. O'CONNOR DAVID LEVINTOW Foreign Policy HARRIET P. CULLEY MICHAEL A. G. MICHAUD WESLEY N. PEDERSEN ARNOLD P. SCHIFFERDECKER CHARLES MAECHLING, JR. 14 NEIL A. BOYER Human Rights and American Staff Policy in Africa ALLEN B. MORELAND, Executive Director WILBUR P. CHASE, Counselor ARMISTEAD LEE 20 CATHERINE WAELDER, Counselor CECIL B. SANNER, Membership and Circulation The Next Problem in CHRISTINA MARY LANTZ, Executive Secretary Arms Control: The Diffusion of Expertise Foreign Service Educational and Counseling Center ROGER A. BEAUMONT 23 BERNICE MUNSEY, DirectorICounselor What Is Public Diplomacy? KENNETH WIMMEL 31 AFSA Scholarship Programs LEE MIDTHUN

Editorial 4 Journal Book Essay: SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor Getting to Know the Arms Trade MARCI NADLER, Editorial Assistant MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction Sean Kelly 35 The Bookshelf 37 Advertising Representatives Letters to the Editor 49 JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 521 Fifth Ave., Suite 1700, New AFSA News 52 York, N Y. 10017 (212) 683-3421 ALBERT D. SHONK CO.. 681 Market St., San Francisco, Calif. 94105 (415) 392-7144 Cover: Autumn Rhythm by Alice Palmer JOSHUA B. POWERS, LTD., 46 Keyes House, Dolphin Sq., London SW1 01-834-8023/9. International Representatives.

The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in with incomes over $15,000; $20 annually for less than $15,000. Associate foreign affairs, published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Members—Dues are $20 annually. Service Association, a non-profit organization. For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (12 issues); $7.50; two years, Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is $12.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annu¬ not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the ally for overseas postage. Information Agency, the Agency for International Develop¬ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Historical ment or the United States Government as a whole. Abstracts and/or America: History and Life. While the Editorial Board of the JOURNAL is responsible for its general Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN content, statements concerning the policy and administration of AFSA as SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Library employee representative under Executive Order 11636 on the editorial Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a contract signed October 30, page and in the AFSA News, and all communications relating to these, are 1967. the responsibility of the AFSA Governing Board. Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to the -American Foreign Service Association, 1978. The Foreign Service Jour¬ professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to nal is published twelve times a year by the American Foreign Service persons having an active interest in, or close association with foreign Association, 2101 E Street, N.W., Washington D.C. 20037. Telephone (202) affairs. 338-4045 Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $39 to $65 Second-class postage paid at Washington, D.C. and at additional post annually. Retired Active Members—Dues are $35 annually for members office. counterparts you are falling. In fact, this year, no one's A FRA EDflDRIAL salary is being increased beyond $47,500, where it has been frozen since February 1977. In the Department the only exception to the UNCOLA. . . executive-level freeze has happened through the deci¬ sion, in the FY 1979 Foreign Relations Act, to reclassify We accept that the Department may have been re¬ the Deputy Under Secretary for Management position, quired to eliminate shelter and utilities from the COLA presently Executive Level II with a salary of $50,000, to calculations, since federal employees overseas already Under Secretary for Management, an Executive Level receive housing, or housing allowances. And we wel¬ 111 position with a salary of $52,500. This will enable the come the rise from $20,000 to $50,000 in the base salary incumbent (who need not be reconfirmed as a result of for COLA comparison which enables higher-paid em¬ this change) to compensate at least partially for the rav¬ ployees to receive take-home pay comparable to coun¬ ages of inflation. terparts in the United States. Congratulations, Ben. Enjoy. But taken together, these changes have a regressive impact on federal employees at COLA posts overseas, benefiting those making more than $32,000 and disadvan¬ MEMBERSHIP taging those making less. And the Department of State, acting for all federal agencies with overseas employees, On pp. 52 and 53 of this edition, we report the action has insisted on implementing the changes in one fell being taken by the AFSA Governing Board in response swoop on August 27, with no effort to “grandfather” or to last spring's survey of our internal operations by two phase-in the changes along with pay increases, as the Retired Members who are former Foreign Service In¬ federal government normally does with adverse changes spectors. The survey, much like an inspection report, which are not the fault of the affected employees. was gloomy about AFSA's ability to satisfy all its con¬ Nor has management yet implemented, with the stituencies, perform its employee and professional role, money it saves from the COLA recomputation, any and still balance its budget. employee benefit proposals recommended by the same Taking the report seriously, the Governing Board has Interagency Committee on Allowances which recom¬ adopted a balanced General Fund budget for the fiscal mended the COLA changes. year which began in July. The budget assumes continua¬ AFSA is particularly disappointed with the way man¬ tion of Membership and AFSA services at current levels. agement has dealt with us on this problem. Rather than But we've taken additional measures to increase income exploring seriously the possibilities suggested by AFSA efficiency: in our July 12 letter of easing the adverse impact of the • a drive aimed at increasing Membership to 7,000; COLA changes, management stalled for nearly a month, • measures to enable the Foreign Service Club and the then stonewalled in its August 10 response. Finally, as Journal not only to pay their direct costs, but also the August 27 implementation date approached, man¬ contribute to overhead operation and building occu¬ agement claimed it could not delay the effective date be¬ pancy costs; cause the Defense Department's computers had already • appraisal of the current value of the AFSA headquar¬ been programed more than a month previously for the ters building, and consideration of partial rental or sale new changes. Machines triumph over man. of the building; . . . and the Pay Raise • negotiations with management to improve AFSA's ability to use official facilities to communicate with There is an implicit contract between us federal em¬ and represent Foreign Service employees; ployees and our employer, the government. We don’t get • more effective use of volunteers on matters such as bargain over wages or to strike, but they are supposed Congressional liaison to forestall the need to hire an to pay us comparably to the private-sector. This 5.5% additional employee for that purpose. across the board annual pay raise breaks that implicit contract. It is less than the 8 percent which the Adminis¬ The more we look at our operations, the more exasper¬ tration concedes is justified to maintain pay comparabil¬ ated we become about Foreign Service people who bene¬ ity and less than the current 9 percent annual rate of fit from AFSA's efforts as exclusive employee represen¬ inflation. All of us who work for the government can tative but who are unwilling to share the costs—from properly feel a glow of patriotism at work; we are making $1.50 to 22.50, which is tax deductible, per pay period per our country a free gift of some of our labor. person—-of continuing these efforts. If federal employee pay restraint really helped limit Executive Order 11636 requires that we represent private-sector pay increases, stop inflation, and protect equally in our collective dealings with management all the dollar, we could probably live with it. We are accus¬ members of the bargaining unit, whether or not they are tomed to asking not what our country can do for us, but AFSA Members: and prohibits us from coercing anyone what we can do for our country. But the 5.5 percent pay to join AFSA. But when we can distinguish between pay¬ cap has not encouraged moderation on pay claims or ing Members and non-paying non-Members, we are de¬ slowed inflation. And we know perhaps as well as any termined to do so: our decision not to represent non- group of that it has not stopped the plunge of Members before the Grievance Board is an initial step. the dollar. We have sent Membership solicitation materials to vir¬ Ironically, the impact of the pay raise is progressive, in tually all non-Member Foreign Service employees. We contrast to the regressive impact of the COLA changes. urge all AFSA Members, in conjunction with AFSA The 5.5 percent across-the-board increase means that the Chapters and Keypersons, to follow up with personal higher your grade, the farther behind your private sector visits to individual non-Members.

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Two: Rates of (Cultural) Exchange accurate and you can read it, you won’t get lost. If you know a culture you will know your way around in the life During the era of colonialism, the countries of the of a society.” This was taken as gospel, but the qualify¬ western world concerned themselves little with the ing ifs tended to be overlooked. There is no equivalent of cultures of those over whom they established dominion. the AAA to provide members with handy-dandy cultural Taboos were duly noted, as were any unique values held Triptiks through assorted societies. by a society, to render more efficient the process of gov¬ Jawaharlal Nehru re-stated the Kluckhohn thesis, in erning. The military demands of World War II changed Visit to America, observing, “If we seek to understand a this relationship, and the political realities of the post-war people, we have to try to put ourselves, as far as we can, years rendered that change irreversible. Colonies became in that particular historical and cultural background.” He sovereign nations, diplomatic equals of the great powers cautioned, however, that it “is not easy for a person of and each with a vote in the United Nations. Understand¬ one country to enter into the background of another ing the cultures of these “new” countries became a mat¬ country.” He understated the case. In the 1950s and ter of overriding importance. Efforts to achieve this un¬ 1960s, we learned that just about the only way to enter derstanding, on more or less a crash basis, ranged from into the background of another country is to be born and laudable to ludicrous, results from spectacularly success¬ grow up there. ful to downright counter-productive. It was heady stuff Other approaches to the problem are considerably while it lasted. more feasible, but less reliable. Even the best of students, In his classic Mirror for Man, anthropologist Clyde after completing the best of language and area studies, Kluckhohn wrote: “Culture is like a map ... If a map is finds that there remain gaps in his understanding of

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J. GRAHAM PARSONS

Prompted and saddened by the death of Paul VI, tive to Pius XII before World War II to help in preserv¬ memories come flooding back of the Vatican in 1947 ing peace. An assistant to the personal representative still amd 1948. The United States had, and has, no diplomatic resided there after the war, thus providing a contact. This relations with the Vatican government, but President happened to be me. Franklin Roosevelt had appointed a personal representa- At that time Monsignor Montini—the future Paul VI—was an undersecretary of the Papal Secretariat of J. Graham Parsons is a Stockbridge resident and retired Foreign Ser¬ State under Pius XII, who had no secretary of state. The vice who served as ambassador at several posts and as an assis¬ tant secretary of state. occasion of my first meeting with the monsignor was at a Reprinted with permission from the Berkshire Eagle. Pittsfield, Mass. time which he set aside each week to receive foreign Picasso Stayed Here.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 11 ambassadors and ministers. I was neither, merely a spark which would ignite the forces of rehabilitation and young Foreign Service officer in an ambiguous situation recovery. calling to pay my respects. As a non-Catholic, 1 knew Accordingly, when the Marshall Plan was proposed, it little then of the Church of Rome nor of its extraordinary was recognized—tacitly but unmistakably—as that government. spark. When senators and congressmen began to come in Speaking in the same thick Italian accent now so famil¬ droves to Europe to see for themselves, to prepare for the iar to all who have heard Paul VI, Montini put me at my decision which would commit the United States to a ease, politely saying that he hoped 1 would come to see momentous role, Pius XII sent word that any who him often. Then, further comfirming the Vatican’s inter¬ wished to see him could do so even on short notice. No est in the United States, he added that as we had no less than 17 groups of our legislators were received in diplomatic relations, I should feel free to come whenever audience, either in the pope’s private office or at Castel I wished, either on the day set aside for ambassadors or Gandolfo, where Paul VI died Sunday. Each of these the one for ministers. This was a privilege I came to use groups listened to a brief “allocution” typed by the pope freely. on his small white portable and alluding to the impor¬ tance, the necessity, of hope, faith and recovery from the It was not long before 1 became aware of the extraordi¬ War. nary role of Monsignor Montini, the most influential of There can be no doubt that the future Paul VI was as the pope’s subordinates in foreign affairs. Akin to Pius deeply concerned and involved as Pius XII. Both sought XII in temperament, outlook and background, he was to aid in bringing to fruition what was on the one hand a already being spoken of as “papabile,” a possible future great humanitarian endeavor, wholly compatible with the pope. interests of the church of Rome, and on the other hand, a The most devastating, the most godless, war in history farsighted foreign affairs initiative, wholly compatible had ended less than two years before. The Iron Curtain with the interests of the United States. While never per¬ had already descended, isolating Eastern Europe under mitting anyone to forget the primacy of their spiritual the materialistic—and atheistic—grip of the role, both men were thus engaged in practical diplomacy while most of Western Europe lay prostrate, divided and to further the end they considered vital. torn between hope and fear. Clearly, a catalyst was needed: leadership to redeem the victory over the Nazis Ifelt then as I do now, that in temporal matters, the and to set the world again on a path more worthy of the Vatican brought to bear a perspective not often possi¬ human spirit. It became apparent that the Vatican con¬ ble for national governments. Conscious of the 2,000- sidered only the United States capable of providing the year history of the church and detached from most mate-

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 rial concerns, Pius XII and Paul VI could and did take the long view, could set aside short-term maneuvers and considerations as relatively unimportant, could adhere to principle over expediency and work always for the pri¬ macy of reason over force. In so doing both had a unique role in world affairs at a crucial moment in history. A Shepherd of Afghanistan Foreign Service people by reason of their calling have occasion to observe directly many of the world’s leaders; When the village fires are warm, gray ash, these two rest indelibly and pre-eminently in my mem¬ and the evening prayers are through— ory. down from the hills in his tattered robes— comes the shepherd boy playing his flute. To others more qualified remains the appraisal of these two popes in their pastoral leadership. I would make When the charpoys are laid for the long night’s rest but one comment. Already one reads opinions as to and the children are tucked away, whether Paul VI, like Pius XII before him, was too and the proud minarets are tall dark silhouettes; “conservative,” not enough open to “liberal” change, then the shepherd boy comes to play. not sufficiently “reformist” following John XXIII. All this is, of course, legitimate; but, remembering that at the The tune that he plays brings joy to the heart Vatican the accumulated lessons of two millennia were in and hope for the coming days; the consciousness of its leaders and that they were taught for the villagers know that in spite of their woe to believe (and did believe) in terms of eternal rather than they will welcome his song with praise! limited verities, I do not think that the application of such political terms as “conservative” or “liberal” matters There could never be sounds as sweet in the night; much. all others are stilled and mute— Imbued with the long history of the Church of Rome, for the stars themselves draw closer to hear through good periods and bad, these two men would re¬ the shepherd boy playing his flute. main rooted in faith and principle, aware that what is by BETTE J. CRUIT thought outrageously conservative or liberal today will in the fullness of time appear differently, given the essen¬ tially unchanging nature of man. Meanwhile, they perse¬ vered in their great mission as they were given to see it. \ FLORIDA Over 9*%> BEAUTIFUL BOCA RATON, ON FLORIDA'S BANK QUALITY BONDS GOLD COAST, OFFERS YOU THE GRACIOUS They out-earn all C.D.s (no interest penalties) and LIVING TO WHICH YOU ARE ACCUSTOMED. yet they have safety records to satisfy even the Contact: Betty Ann (Craig) Hagander, FSO-Ret. most conservative investor—but they are subject REALTOR—Associate to market fluctuations. Carlen Appraisal & Realty, Inc., REALTORS Phone, write or visit 125 Crawford Blvd. Boca Raton, Florida 33432 Bus: 305/391-2000 THE INCOME SPECIALISTS Eves: 305/392-7643 Members Stock Exchange 138 Branches throughout the U.S. ‘1 SEND FOR DETAILS — TODAY r Please send me facts and figures on high quality, high-yielding Bonds. FSJ

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. October, 1978 13 cf

The American Intellectual in Foreign Policy

CHARLES MAECHLING, JR.

Only in recent times has the field of foreign affairs by a class soldier. While there was general American intellectual, in the immune from career pressures and agreement that, if possible, the academic or scholarly sense, been too often devoid of practical ex¬ shapers and practitioners of foreign regarded as having a legitimate role perience. policy should be well-educated, in statecraft or diplomacy. As re¬ Before discussing the role of in¬ and even cultivated in the Euro¬ cently as thirty years ago the career tellectuals in foreign policy, a few pean sense, the nature of the sub¬ of a Henry Kissinger would have words should be said about their ject matter seemed to require a been unthinkable, not only because place in American life. Although fund of practical experience that by of his refugee background. there have been periods in Ameri¬ definition excluded individuals Specialist or technical adviser, can history when they have been whose knowledge and experience yes—perhaps even, as in the case depreciated in favor of those with was derived from the world of of historians or men of letters, a riches and practical achieve¬ books. Except for distinguished few years of dignified retirement as ments— notably the post-Civil War historians, the conventional wis¬ ambassador in some tranquil period of continental expansion dom decreed that the qualifications foreign capital. But not principal and industrial growth—education of the intellectual, however distin¬ national security adviser to the and scholarship have always been guished in his own field, were ir¬ president or secretary of state. cherished ingredients of American relevant to war or diplomacy. Today, the pendulum has swung civilization. The Puritan heritage Nevertheless, by broadening the to the opposite extreme. At every exalted the life of the mind and re¬ definition of intellectual only level of the United States foreign spect for learning and education slightly, the current fashion for affairs establishment—State De¬ was deeply ingrained in the popula¬ employing intellectuals in foreign partment, Defense Department, tion of the thirteen colonies, espe¬ policy-making can be detected in Central Intelligence Agency—the cially in New England. Harvard American history from an early intellectual exercises an influential University was founded in 1636, date. The founding fathers and role, sometimes acting in the capac¬ only a few years after the first political leaders of the new Ameri¬ ity of consultant, sometimes set¬ emigration of settlers to Mas¬ can republic were also the in¬ tling in for a prolonged period of sachusetts, and Yale, William & tellectual elite—not perhaps in the government service after an initial Mary, Columbia, and Princeton sense of scholars or university pro¬ career in a university or think tank. were established shortly thereafter. fessors, for except in theology and In no other country except the Many of the early leaders of the the classical languages that breed United States has the career gov¬ thirteen colonies were intellectuals, scarcely existed, but as men of af¬ ernment servant, and military offi¬ chiefly theologians and scholars of fairs, widely read and provided cer, been ousted from primacy as Greek and Latin. with the best education then avail¬ planner and policymaker in the Nevertheless, in the United able. Except in part of the old States as in Europe, the proper South, America has never had the place for the scholar and scientist equivalent of a European aristoc¬ was traditionally supposed to be racy and members of the patrician This article in slightly different form previ¬ the library, the laboratory, or the class had to work or fall into ously appeared in the JCA Japanese- obscurity. In a sense, degrees in language publication Trends. Charles classroom. Statecraft and foreign Maechling, Jr., formerly in the State De¬ policy in particular were consid¬ law and medicine were a substitute partment and now practicing law in Wash¬ ered to be the province of the for titles of nobility and provided a ington, is himself an ex-professor. politician or professional diplomat, working avenue to community or occasionally of the professional leadership. The Constitutional

14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 Convention of 1787 was dominated noted—and sometimes deplored— ity, Lord Bryce, was for a long by graduates of Harvard, Columbia by many outside observers. period ambassador to the United and Princeton—, Yet, though belonging to a States, and the distinguished lit¬ , Alexander Hamil¬ scholarly profession, even the most terateur Paul Claudel was his ton, and Gouverneur Morris, to distinguished lawyers are not in the French counterpart. At one time or name only a few. Indeed, the strict academic sense intellectuals. another American literary figures example of the American in¬ For one thing they are very much like Nathaniel Hawthorne, Her¬ tellectual as statesman, in all his part of the real world, and in the man Melville, and Washington Irv¬ strength and weakness, is United States play the role of ing were provided with consular epitomized in the life of the greatest mediator between the public and posts abroad, sometimes to tide genius of them all, Thomas Jeffer¬ the complex network of statutes them over periods of impecunios- son. and regulations through which so¬ ity. Claude E. Bowers, a writer of In some respects, law and ciety is ordered. For another, they American political biography, lawyers have always provided an are generalists rather than spe¬ served as ambassador to Chile dur¬ indispensable link in American so¬ cialists, trained to evaluate each ing the 1930s. The Columbia Uni¬ ciety between the world of the in¬ particular problem in the broader versity historian Carlton Hayes tellect and the realm of practical af¬ context of public policy. Further¬ was ambassador to during fairs. Except for the occasional mil¬ more, they cannot help but be World War II, where his sedulous itary hero like , pragmatic in their approach to flattery of the Franco regime was , Zachary problems and quest for solutions. considered by many to exceed the Taylor, and the later generation of Their training obliges them to ac¬ most generous bounds of diploma¬ Civil War generals, lawyers domi¬ cept factual situations and then try tic courtesy. A successful recent nated Congress and public office in to engineer solutions within that example was President Kennedy’s the 19th and early 20th centuries; to framework, rather than to impose appointment of America’s most some extent they continue to do so their own model or grand design on eminent Japanese scholar. Profes¬ today. It is therefore not surprising the outside world. Hence, however sor Edwin O. Reischauer, as am¬ that from the beginning prominent cultivated and scholarly he may be bassador to Japan. lawyers have most often been as a person, the well-trained lawyer Nevertheless, while falling selected for the office of secretary tends to give ideas as such short within the formal definition of in¬ of state. Secretary of State Cyrus shrift unless adaptable for purposes tellectual, most of these figures Vance is only the latest in a long of advocacy or translatable into exerted little influence over US line starting with operational terms. foreign policy, which in general and including , As foreign policy-makers law¬ was farthest from their interest. William E. Seward, John Hay, yers have not found favor either Historians in particular have Dean Acheson, Henry L. Stimson, with professional diplomatists like tended to bury themselves in the and John Foster Dulles. Sir Harold Nicolson and George area of culture of their interest with As a corollary, American foreign Kennan or academic intellectuals. the result that as diplomats they policy has from the beginning laid As negotiators their search for cer¬ usually end up as dedicated great stress on law and the letter of tainty and predictability leads to ef¬ apologists for the regime to which international agreements. Like forts to cover every contingency they are accredited. Their greatest other Western nations, the United and tie the other party down in¬ asset is the detailed knowledge of States incorporates international stead of leaving obligations flexible an area’s history and culture which law into its own corpus of domestic or undefined to allow for changed they bring to policy-making and law: unlike others it takes it much circumstances and shifting rela¬ their insight into foreign percep¬ more seriously. It has always been tionships. Their professional lives tions and probable reactions. As a strong supporter of the World leave little room for sympathetic negotiators, however, they are vir¬ Court, arbitration and judicial set¬ exposure to foreign cultures or sen¬ tually useless: their long-range tlement of disputes. It frequently sitivity to the aspirations of the perspectives and empathy with the takes a legal view of problems that poor and exploited. Their identifi¬ other side make it difficult for other countries regard as political. cation with the “establishment” them to arrive at fixed positions or It expends enormous intellectual and their professional bias for order to bargain with conviction. effort both within government and and the rule of law nearly always Fitting into no single category, without on the laws of war, the law place them on the side of the status yet certainly the purest intellectual of the sea, the law of international quo. of all US foreign policy makers organizations and questions of Another species of quasi¬ until modern times, was President treaty interpretation. The War of intellectual participant in the Woodrow Wilson. Lawyer, educa¬ 1812 with Britain and the entry of foreign policy field is the historian tor, and constitutional historian, the United States into the first and man of letters. Throughout the Wilson combined traits typical of World War could not have oc¬ 19th century it was the custom in American academia with a Puritan curred without provocations which the United States and Western rigidity of character that later led to the United States regarded as fla¬ Europe to bestow diplomatic sine¬ doctrinaire positions and the col¬ grant violations of international cures ranging from minor consular lapse of his policies. In many ways law. The legalistic approach of the posts to important embassies on Wilson exemplified the predica¬ United States to many important distinguished literary figures. The ment of both the intellectual and aspects of foreign policy has been great British constitutional author¬ I lawyer in the field of foreign affairs,

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 1 5 as will be more closely examined in the military chain of command gardless of qualifications. In so do¬ shortly. He, and his even more instead of directly under the civil¬ ing, the government capitulated to illustrious predecessor Thomas Jef¬ ian secretaries lest they erupt into a the charlatanry that had begun to ferson, were exceptions to the gen¬ policy-making role. House in¬ permeate the academic community eral rule that until recently in¬ tellectuals in general were expected in the new age of affluence. tellectuals have had little influence to speak only when spoken to, and Lavishly funded by government in the American foreign policy pro¬ to confine themselves to executing grants, academics with no prior re¬ cess. missions requirements laid down cord in war or diplomacy, nor con¬ by the operating arm. ceivable claim to expertise outside the classroom or laboratory, began lthough law professors and Eventually, science and technol¬ A ogy became too explosive to be to churn out books and monog¬ economists had been recruited raphs on every aspect of foreign into government since President kept in the bottle. The transforma¬ tion of warfare by the atom bomb, policy and strategy. On the basis of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New these flimsy credentials many Deal, intellectuals did not really guided missiles, nuclear propul¬ sion, and electronics guidance sys¬ gravitated to Washington, either as surface in American foreign consultants or permanent staff. policy-making until the Kennedy tems raised defense technology to Administration. A few were in¬ such a plane of complexity that its The Kennedy administration was fluential in shaping post-war role became pre-eminent. During the first to install intellectuals as a foreign economic policy, and in the 1950s, the Defense Depart¬ class in the seats of power. John F. framing and executing the Mar¬ ment, Space Agency, Atomic Kennedy came to office with only shall Plan. In the aftermath of Energy Commission, and CIA the skimpiest entourage of experi¬ Sputnik (1957) scientists and began to pour immense sums of enced advisers as he himself admit¬ engineers—Conant, Teller, Kis- money into mission-oriented re¬ ted, with a circle of acquaintances tiakowsky, Vannevar Bush, von search at universities and think largely made up of politicians and Karman, and Braun—exercised tanks. In the beginning such large- society figures. For various rea¬ significant influence over defense scale contract research was con¬ sons, including his own youth, he policy and programs relating to fined to the application of the hard was fearful of falling into de¬ weapons development, arms con¬ sciences and high technology to pendence on the traditional figures trol and space exploration. But in weaponry, electronic guidance sys¬ of the East Coast foreign affairs general intellectuals held no posi¬ tems and counter-measures. But establishment—Acheson. Lovett, tion of real influence in the foreign the projects soon spilled over into McCloy and their counterparts, affairs field until 1961. In the contingency planning and areas of The one source of expertise totally post-war administrations, Secre¬ military strategy that had hitherto amenable to his influence was the tary of State Dean Acheson and his been the exclusive province of war submerged class of academic in¬ successor John Foster Dulles kept colleges and military planning tellectuals, eager to move into the foreign policy-making firmly inside staffs, and eventually into the limelight after years of second- the State Department; to the extent socio-political realm of counter¬ class status. Several, like that they imported outside advisers insurgency operations and “nation Schlesinger, Galbraith, and from civilian life they were nearly building.” Goodwin, had already proved their all young lawyers and busi¬ The new emphasis on science worth as idea men and speechwrit- nessmen. Except in the CIA, and technology, together with the ers. All of them were also im¬ which under the imaginative direc¬ deluge of government funds into mediately available for employ¬ tion of Allen Dulles made a deter¬ the academic community, spawned ment, since they had no lucrative mined effort to recruit scientists, a generation of engineers and sys¬ law partnerships or business inter¬ economists and the like from uni¬ tems analysts specializing in de¬ ests to be extricated from. versities, there were few academic fense technology and brought the Within a few months of taking of¬ appointments of significance in the scientist out of the laboratory and fice, President Kennedy had Pentagon and other parts of the na¬ into the councils of government—a stocked the first and second levels tional security organization. healthy development, considering of his administration with in¬ Moreover, it was the fixed policy the radical transformation of the tellectuals. A few, such as Profes¬ of the executive leadership in the nature of warfare. Once the flood¬ sor Reischauer, owed their selec¬ Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisen¬ gates were opened, however, it was tion to qualifications alone; most hower administrations to treat no longer easy to confine the inva¬ personnel appointments, however, academic experts as specialists, sion to the experienced and techni¬ were made with an eye to coloniz¬ and therefore subordinate to cally qualified. ing the bureaucracy. In the Penta¬ generalists. In the Defense De¬ On the defensive because of their gon, Secretary of Defense Robert partment, the bankers, lawyers, prior neglect of science, and under S. McNamara brought in a team of and businessmen who served as pressure to upgrade their in¬ civilian technocrats dedicated to post-war secretaries of defense and tellectual capabilities, the Defense eradicating the influence of out¬ of the military service departments Department, Atomic Energy dated military traditions and inter¬ had no qualms about consulting Commission, and CIA began to service rivalries on decision¬ “long hairs” but at the same time broaden their definition of defense making, and to instituting cost- believed in keeping them in their technology and to compete with effective weapons systems and place. As late as 1960, scientific each other in recruiting the new homogenizing the military estab¬ advisers in the Pentagon were kept breed of defense intellectuals re¬ lishment. The State Department 16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 and its ancillary information and Kennedy appreciated the value of Brown, as secretary of defense. foreign assistance agencies were intellectuals as idea-merchants and Today the place of the intel¬ more difficult institutions to domi¬ phrase-makers but was wary of lectual in the American foreign af¬ nate since their operations were their fickleness and notorious sus¬ fairs establishment is supreme. decentralized and multifaceted, ceptibility to changing academic Within the United States govern¬ and their personnel were almost fashions. He therefore exploited ment his influence on policy far exclusively career employees, but their talents and flattered them with outweighs that of the harassed dip¬ the president solved this dilemma White House invitations and the lomat and career-deadened civil by transferring the true seat of panoply of office, while keeping servant. The military services, im¬ foreign policy-making to the White decisions to himself and his inner mersed in technology and totally House. circle. submerged by a civilian hierarchy, Kennedy had privately decided Lyndon B. Johnson retained seem to have abdicated their policy functions to the point where they supinely allow themselves to be lectured on every aspect of strategy and tactics by amateurs with no credentials except advanced de¬ “By the 1960s the average member of the New grees. Outside the government, the York Council on Foreign Relations—an universities have become virtual incubators for producing opinion- obsolescent institution itself—was no longer as makers on every aspect of public well-equipped to give an intelligent opinion on affairs. The task of keeping up with foreign affairs is now so time con¬ events in Africa or Latin America as countless suming and requires such Peace Corps volunteers or social scientists.” specialized information that the citizen-statesman and interested professional man have been squeezed out. By sheer dint of numbers and free time for literary production, academics now domi¬ nate the pages of Foreign Affairs, to be his own secretary of state. To most of Kennedy’s staff when he Foreign Policy, and newspaper this end he proposed to consign the succeeded to the presidency in guest columns; they also trappings of that office to a capable 1963 after his predecessor’s assas¬ monopolize the public affairs talk foundation executive of conserva¬ sination. But lacking Kennedy’s shows. The typical business tycoon tive. almost para-military views, sense of proportion he fell into is flattered to be invited to a sym¬ while surreptitiously building up much greater reliance on his house posium of intellectuals and ranks at the National Security Council staff intellectuals, swallowing whole the bottom in influence on foreign under the direction of Me George their grandiose rhetoric about policy. Bundy, formerly Dean of faculty of America’s duty to lead the revolu¬ Harvard. Bundy accepted Walt tion of rising expectations and How the ascendancy of the in¬ Rostow, an economist from MIT, withstand the communist challenge tellectual came about in a field as his deputy and other in¬ in Vietnam. Needless to say, as from which he had traditionally tellectuals were recruited for posi¬ soon as the full horror and devasta¬ been excluded is a question not tions on the National Security tion of the Vietnam war became easy to answer. The answer seems Council staff and the departments known the intellectuals were the to lie in the nature of the modern of State and Defense. This inner first to abandon ship, leaving state and the special situation of the cadre had the dual function of Johnson with 500,000 men on the United States. flagellating the bureaucracy into mainland of Asia and the home Until the 20th century, the isola¬ compliance with administration front in turmoil. Nevertheless, to tion of the United States between policies and extracting information the end of his presidency Johnson two broad oceans, an ignorant im¬ from it on which to base presiden¬ continued to recruit intellectuals migrant population mainly con¬ tial decisions. Since the Kennedys for his administration in the vain cerned with survival, and a wari¬ were basically ward politicians ele¬ hope that they would rally the in¬ ness of foreign entanglements, had vated to a national level, this left tellectual community behind him. confined an informed interest in the actual formulation of policy to President Nixon completed the foreign affairs to the same minority the intellectuals, and Kennedy process by appointing the arch¬ of the affluent and well-educated himself, during his brief presi¬ intellectual of them all, Henry Kis¬ that in other respects ran the coun¬ dency, relied on them to singer, first as national security ad¬ try. By and large, the members of rationalize, conceptualize, and re¬ viser and then as secretary of state. this elite were generalists— package policies not too different President Carter continues the tra¬ lawyers, journalists, businessmen, from those of his predecessor, dition by having another foreign- bankers —and so were the Ameri¬ General Eisenhower. But Kennedy born professor, Zbigniew Brze- can diplomats and military men was too sophisticated to fall into zinski, as his national security ad¬ that served abroad and rounded out dependency on them. Coming from viser, and an intellectual of singu¬ the old foreign affairs establish¬ the Harvard environment himself, larly unmilitary cast, Harold ment. In both America and Europe

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 17 the conventional wisdom was that vastly complicate the task of con¬ office, neither Rostow, Kissinger, foreign policy was best left to men ducting foreign policy by drawing nor Brzezinski had any more com¬ of this class, not to ideologues and the administration into an endless prehension of the politics of South¬ academic specialists. It was an ar¬ cycle of explanations and clarifica¬ ern Africa or the Middle East than ticle of faith that on military mat¬ tions of every governmental action lawyers or bankers with petroleum ters the opinion of the civilian and change of position, attended by and mining clients. amateur was worthless. the usual risks of misinterpretation What is unique to the modem in¬ Three factors radically changed and distortion. Complicating the tellectual, and sets him apart from this orientation; the advent of picture is the government’s own other professional types in his ap¬ technology as the dominant factor propensity to use the media to send proach to foreign policy is the in¬ in warfare; the rise of the Third “signals” to foreign governments trinsic value that he assigns to World; and the emergence of the and otherwise manipulate the news ideas. He has an urge to synthesize media as a prime instrumentality of for purposes of its own. and his own perceptions of patterns policy. The first surrounded war¬ In theory, press secretaries and in the conduct of nations and mod¬ fare with an aura so technically public affairs officers exist to for¬ els of world order against which complex, not to say futuristic, that mulate the government’s position this conduct should be measured the generalist felt increasingly un¬ in handouts and press releases. often take precedence over more certain and dependent on the These officials, however, are usu¬ pragmatic conclusions reached by specialist for the information on ally incapable of articulating policy others after first-hand observation. which to form a judgment. From or otherwise dealing with sub¬ American academics also bring this it was only a small step to de¬ stance and most are mere conduits along in their personal baggage a pendence on the specialist for the between the policy-makers and the whole complement of ancillary judgments themselves. public. This puts a premium on the characteristics that affect the style At the same time, the fragmenta¬ ability to lend credibility to moves and content of foreign policy in tion of the old colonial empires, that are usually purely reactive and ways not readily detected by the which shifted the center of gravity policies that generally rest on noth¬ general public or even by their in world politics away from ing more than political or military political masters. Europe, destroyed the elite’s expediency. A talented stable of in¬ To appreciate how radical is the monopoly on personal familiarity tellectuals, capable of dressing up difference in approach to the con¬ with foreign countries and their rul¬ policy in ideological finery and re¬ duct of foreign relations between ing circles. Its members continued sounding rhetoric, is of far greater the intellectual and the more tradi¬ to be as well-traveled and well- use in enlisting the sympathies of tional kind of foreign policy-maker, educated as ever—more so, with opinion-makers and the media, one must again recall who made transoceanic air travel—but their than the equivalent number of civil foreign policy in the past and what orientation and interest remained servants and diplomats trained in qualities were most esteemed. Up fixed in the civilized, portions of the sober arts of analysis and to the present age, statecraft and Europe and Asia. By the 1960s the negotiation. diplomacy were the province of the average member of the New York ruling class. With their feet set Council on Foreign Relations—an firmly in the practical realities of obsolescent institution itself—was domestic politics, the governing no longer as well-equipped to give There is no denying that under modem conditions the in¬ class knew only too well how much an intelligent opinion on events in a viable foreign policy depends on Africa or Latin America as count¬ tellectual fills an important niche for his political masters. But the attri¬ strict apportionment of ends to less Peace Corps volunteers or so¬ means, a strong domestic power cial scientists. Nor did the advent butes he brings to the formation of policy are not always the obvious base, and tangible factors like mili¬ of the jet age make an understand¬ tary strength, accessibility of natu¬ ing of Third World social move¬ ones. No one would dispute the value of the specialized knowledge ral resources, and financial sol¬ ments and economic problems a vency. Scholarship was respected, necessary corollary of five-day of academics in their chosen disci¬ plines. Walt Rostow brought the but in its proper place in the labora¬ business trips to tropical capitals. tory or library—admiration for in¬ Finally, the new public dimen¬ Kennedy and Johnson administra¬ tions a knowledge of development telligence was combined with a sion of global politics destroyed the healthy distrust of ideas because of character values of the old diplo¬ economics at precisely the time their unpredictable and inflamma¬ macy. The invasion of the mass when, metaphorically speaking, the tory effect on the untutored. In the media into the private domain of United States discovered the Third World. Zbigniew Brzezinski is an past, neglect of these truths had statecraft has put immense pres¬ ruined one dynasty after another. sure on political leaders and foreign expert on Soviet and Eastern Euro¬ ministries to justify every move in pean politics. Henry Kissinger has The qualities esteemed in diplo¬ the field of foreign relations in an unquestionable grasp of 19th- macy were of a piece with the tradi¬ terms of national policy and ideol¬ century power politics. Neverthe¬ tional approach to policy, and are ogy. The voracious appetite of the less, this quality should not be over¬ gracefully summarized in Sir media for “copy” creates an inces¬ stated. Academic specialties are Harold Nicolson's famous treatise sant demand for official comment usually much narrower than they Diplomacy—discretion, decorum, on events as they unfold and for appearto the outsiderand often have understatement, reliability, re¬ definitions of policy before the little relevance to the pressing prob¬ sponsibility, and if possible, mutual facts are available. These pressures lems of the moment. On assuming trust in each other's word, though

18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 not necessarily in his intentions. Moreover, the indiscriminate summating the Pur¬ Nothing could be more different proliferation of ideas and endless chase, but his “tendency to endow than the values of the academic in¬ definition and re-definition of abstract ideas with the attributes of tellectual, stated and unstated. On policy—so desirable in a university personality” (to quote his biog¬ the university campus, ideas are context—generate confusion and rapher, Dumas Malone) led him valued for their own sake, and with acrimony in the field of foreign re¬ into acquiescence with French pol¬ them the raw material of ideas, lations. They give no room for the icy that in turn provoked the words. Silence is, of course, no normal inconsistencies and com¬ British blockade of Europe and the longer golden, while terseness of promises inevitable in real life situ¬ consequent seizure of neutral expression, and purity of diction ations. They arouse expectations American ships by the British are positive handicaps in compari¬ that cannot be fulfilled and give of¬ navy—to which he responded with son with volubility and fluency in fense without inducing fear of ret¬ the ostrich-like policy of noninter¬ the fashionable jargon of one’s dis¬ ribution. They also promote irre¬ course (the Embargo) in a vain ef¬ cipline. High visibility and prolific sponsibility by inviting rhetorical fort to avoid entanglement. As a publication, parading under the experimentation on the part of offi¬ defense expert, Jefferson was euphemism of intellectual produc¬ cials who have no formal role to somewhat impractical. Instead of a tivity, have now replaced a life of play and who can be counted on to navy building program, he favored scholarly seclusion, regardless of evade all responsibility for the con¬ the construction of small, open- the quality or literacy of the person sequences of their advice. Public deck gunboats to defend American and product. From the standpoint competition of ideas is most rivers and harbors—in defiance of of personal qualities, such admira¬ dangerous of all in the national se¬ the ability of European ships-of- ble traits as modesty, dignity, dis¬ curity area since it leads to a fatal the-line to chop these little vessels cretion, and reserve are passports separation between planning and to matchwood with their long-range to oblivion. Informality, aggres¬ operations, and gives theoreticians cannon. For all his intellectual ver¬ siveness, self-promotion, and up¬ devoid of institutional loyalty or satility, the judgment of this great ward mobility are the characteris¬ long-term career commitment a American on matters of foreign af¬ tics that induce respect from one’s free license to promote their own fairs or defense left room for im¬ peers. academic career without regard to provement. The intellectual also brings van¬ feasibility or the safety of the coun¬ Later in American history the ity and intellectual arrogance into try. theoretical and dogmatic approach personal relations with colleagues Perhaps the most arrogant falla¬ of another intellectual President led in a way best described by Hoffer: cy of all, propagated by in¬ to consequences both anomalous “The businessman just wants your tellectuals to prove their own in¬ and self-defeating. In 1914, Wood- money; the military man just wants dispensability, is that high intel¬ row Wilson’s aggressive stands on you to obey. But the intellectual lectual content is an indispensable principle led him inexorably into wants your soul. He wants people ingredient of a successful foreign small-scale aggression against to get down on their knees and love policy, especially if formulated by Mexico. Shortly thereafter, his what they hate and hate what they, the “best and the brightest.” In dogmatic position on neutral rights love.” These unpleasant character¬ fact, the best and most durable at sea led the country into war istics, combined with the well- foreign policy is always the against Germany in specific con¬ known academic propensity for simplest, the most down-to-earth, tradiction of his promise to keep it gossip and intrigue, are totally at and the most comprehensible to the out. The 14-point peace platform odds with the code of military men broad mass of the educated popula¬ was then proclaimed without ascer¬ and civil servants, which stresses tion. In this generation intellectuals taining the secret war commitments job performance and personal rela¬ have been responsible for more of his allies, Britain, France, and tions and considers a person’s foreign policy failures than plod¬ Italy. At the 1919 Peace Confer¬ ideas his own business unless they ding lawyers, unimaginative gener¬ ence Wilson’s devotion to the prin¬ interfere with operational effi¬ als, or pragmatic politicians. ciple of self-determination was al¬ ciency. The hazards of the intellectual lowed to override all practical con¬ The danger of employing in¬ approach to foreign policy run siderations of geography and eco¬ tellectuals in positions of responsi¬ all the way back to that many- nomics resulting in unviable coun¬ bility in foreign affairs is that they faceted genius Thomas Jefferson. tries and boundaries that invited confuse the values of the university As Minister to France, he became protest and revision. The culminat¬ with those of government and enamored of the French revolu- ing impracticality was Wilson’s in¬ statecraft. As verbalists, they in¬ tionn or rather the idea of it, choos¬ sistence on inclusion of the League stinctively confuse talk with ac¬ ing to overlook its propensity for of Nations in the peace treaty with tion. In fact, the “tough” speeches violence in favor of the glorious vi¬ Germany. Thereafter he refused to which they put into the mouths of sion of mankind throwing off its modify provisions that he could their political masters, when not chains. As secretary of state, he in¬ well have compromised on, alienat¬ backed up by military or diplomatic flamed the politics of the post¬ ing key members of the Senate and strength, are perceived as windy revolutionary Federalist period by resulting in the Senate's rejection rhetoric or bluster by nonintellec¬ urging that the United States align of both the Versailles Treaty and tual audiences—which of course itself with the French revolutionary US membership in the League. include both the governmental regime against England on grounds More recently, the academics cadres and public of most other of ideology. Jefferson demon¬ brought into the Kennedy adminis- countries. strated great statesmanship in con¬ Continued on page 45 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 19 of ethnic animosities. Before inde¬ pendence, the trains running through the Kasai province of the Congo, coming up from Katanga, were manned entirely by Africans. Within two years of independence, they had to have all Belgian crews. Human Rights Otherwise, the Baluba trainmen would be massacred by the Luluas as they went through Lulua territory—and vice versa. The mutual slaughter here, and in and Burundi a few years later between Tutsi overlords and the Hutu majority, was nothing less than genocide. And that is a word which American Policy Milton Obote, the former President of Uganda, has just applied to the rule of his successor, Idi Amin. Frequently the protagonists in what are essentially ethnic or tribal in Africa contests will attract foreign spon¬ sors and adopt the jargon of foreign ARMISTEAD LEE ideologies, so that their struggles It may be presumptuous for an instead to rank them at the bottom, appear to Europeans, and some¬ Old Africa Hand, who took early while at the very top—in their array times to other Africans, as local retirement and hasn’t read the ca¬ of tribal preferences, were the pure skirmishes in a worldwide struggle. bles for a decade, to imagine that Negro Mossi tribe of Upper Volta, Depending on the viewpoint they he has anything useful to suggest praised for their valor as soldiers were battles between tyrannical on Africa policy and human rights. and their industriousness as farm¬ Communism and the Free World or Although 1 certainly have less ers. (if you prefer) between the peoples’ knowledge of the immediate prob¬ liberation forces and international In these days when America is imperialism. Depending on the lems, perhaps I can offer some his¬ the favorite “imperialist” whipping torical perspective. viewpoint, this is exactly how the boy for some of the more dogmatic civil war of the early 1960s in the My first exposure to Africa was Third Worlders, it is pleasant for as a 27-year old Foreign Service of¬ Congo (now Zaire) appeared to me to reflect on another memory of most of the elites in English- ficer in Dakar during the War, and my two years in colonial, wartime it was there that I became first speaking Africa. And since our Dakar. This was the problem of the academic African specialists in this aware of the many ways in which stolen American flags, which be¬ African reality contrasts with our country got their opinions on Con¬ came a major challenge to our se¬ golese affairs from the articulate European and American precon¬ curity system. Once stolen, they ceptions. I learned that ethno- spokesmen of Accra and Dar es would soon appear carried aloft at Salaam (which seemed “front¬ centrism—or racism, for short— the head of some procession of na¬ exists among African nationalities line” to a New Yorker), this was tive nationalists, demonstrating the version generally accepted without any instruction from against French colonialism, and the Europe or America. The pastoral here, of a struggle between pro¬ French naturally suspected us. The gressive liberation forces and tribes like the Tuareg and the Fulas America of Franklin Roosevelt feel superior to the darker-skinned stooges of European capitalism. was a symbol of freedom and self- And yet, nothing could be more agricultural tribes. Yet the French determination. I remember reading colonial officers, whom I would simplistic. There was not a single a letter from a tribal chief, urging us Congolese political leader, at the have expected to have preferred to send troops into the interior and the herdsmen of desert and savan¬ time of independence from Belgium promising us his followers would in 1960, who did not have the sup¬ nah, who more closely resembled rally to our banner. the Europeans in features, seemed port of some faction of Belgian The end of empire was to bring business. The conventional wis¬ fragmentation to the great federa¬ dom had it that Tshombe was the Armistead Lee served 25 years in the tions of French West and French stooge of Belgian capitalism while Foreign Service, including two years in Equatorial Africa and a retrogres¬ Dakar, two years in the Department in Lumumba was the socialist idealist charge of South African affairs and four sion to the economies of the poorer and revolutionary. I recall a delega¬ years with the Office of Central African Af¬ provinces, now independent but tion of Belgian business executives fairs. For the past ten years he has been unviable entities. In some cases, coming to see us at the Brussels with the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers As- even though territorial unity was socation, as assistant vice president for re¬ Embassy shortly before inde¬ search and planning. This article is an ab¬ preserved, at some cost in pendence and assuring us that breviated version of a talk he gave at the bloodshed, as in Nigeria and ex- Lumumba was the man we should Aiken lectures in Vermont in April. Belgian Congo, there was a revival all back. He was a scoundrel, to be

20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 sure, they conceded, but at least he dental. The assumption, held resolution singling out South Africa was one man who would keep the passionately by the True Believer, for condemnation for the treatment country from breaking apart. is that American capitalists, of its own African population. I mention these recollections not American corporate investments, India rallied a dozen co-sponsors of to praise colonialism, an archaic are sustaining the apartheid gov¬ the Arab-Asian bloc for a resolu¬ anachronism, or to disparage the ernment in South Africa. tion stating that the policy of apart¬ newly independent regimes of It is hard to make a flat denial. heid was "creating a dangerous and black Africa. I am seeking merely The American company pays explosive situation, which consti¬ to sweep away some of the mytho¬ taxes, doesn’t it? And doesn’t the tutes both a threat to international logy that obscures our appreciation Vorster Government depend on peace and a flagrant violation of the and understanding of Africa. taxes? But—by that token, I can be basic principles of human rights Thus, it is mythology to assume said to have supported Nixon and and fundamental freedoms which that the comparative poverty of Watergate. And the blacks—at are enshrined in the Charter of the most black Africans is due primar¬ least those in South Africa with United Nations.” ily to the legacy of empire, the ves¬ This may seem tame enough lan¬ tiges of colonialism and the exploi¬ guage in 1978, but in 1952 it was tation by foreign based multi¬ precedent-shattering, because it nationals. It is a mythology widely defied the clear restriction of Arti¬ held abroad, and by African stu¬ ‘‘The resolution clearly cle 2(7) which prohibited the UN dents abroad, but by very few lead¬ from interfering in what were “es¬ ers of independent African gov¬ repudiated apartheid sentially domestic” affairs. ernments. They may have shared without mentioning any The British, the French and such beliefs at one time, and they others voted against the resolution may even use such jargon at the single country. We as being clearly illegal under the UN, but they don’t seem really to hoped to get the Charter. Our own department and hold these beliefs now. I under¬ delegation were split, and I can re¬ stand that even Samora Machel of Indians to withdraw member, as desk officer for South Mozambique, that citadel of Mar¬ theirs, but they accused Africa, having heated arguments xist sloganeering, is welcoming us of wanting to dilute with another country desk officer, American private investment. For who felt we must “stand up and be that matter, it has attracted surpris¬ the opprobrium which counted.” The issue escalated to ingly little attention that Mozam¬ racist South Africa had Secretary Acheson, who finally bique is now largely dependent on a decided in favor of my faction. We thinly disguised South African sub¬ justly earned.” would abstain on the Indian (the sidy for its foreign exchange and 13-member) resolution denouncing that Neto in Angola is also largely South Africa but would encourage dependent on revenue from the friendly delegations (the Scandian- Gulf Oil Company, whose installa¬ vians, in this case) to introduce a tions are now being protected by resolution which would apply to all enough income to pay taxes—also the Cubans. Have we heard re¬ member countries with multi-racial supported the Nationalist Gov¬ cently from those campus activists populations. To be in compliance ernment. The implicit assumption who demanded their college en¬ with the charter, it declared, a of those who advocate these eco¬ dowment managers dump their country had to encourage the full nomic sanctions, and the with¬ holdings of Gulf? They are still participation of all racial groups in drawal of all American investment, busy. Now they are demanding its political, economic and social is that if these actions were taken, that all churches and all univer¬ life. The resolution clearly re¬ the Nationalists would fall—be sities divest themselves of the pudiated apartheid without men¬ overthrown. Possibly even the shares of any company with in¬ tioning any single country. We threat of sanctions would work. vestments in South Africa or any hoped to get the Indians to with¬ And surely the South Africans bank having normal commercial draw theirs, but they accused us of must take note if the General As¬ dealings in South Africa. wanting to dilute the opprobrium sembly of the United Nations, which racist South Africa had At the State Department's speaking for the conscience of the justly earned. In the lobbies, we Human Rights Conference, a fea¬ world, overwhelmingly condemns warned the Indians that if their res¬ tured panelist was Sister Janice them! olution were adopted it would be McLaughlin, of the Catholic Jus¬ That is the assumption which the used to advantage by the National tice and Peace Mission, proudly in¬ true believers have adhered to, for Party in the elections to be held in troduced as having once been in a the last 25 years, in the face of re¬ less than a year. Rhodesian jail. She displayed a peated disappointments and over¬ And that is just what happened. sign demanding: “Stop Exim Bank whelming evidence to the contrary. Both resolutions passed, but the Loans to South Africa.” I could It was the assumption underlying Scandinavian resolution was over¬ not resist whispering to another at¬ the first resolution condemning shadowed by the more widely pub¬ tendee that this demand was easy apartheid introduced in the Gen¬ licized 13-member resolution, and to to comply with, since there are eral Assembly just over 25 years it was that fiery document which no Exim Bank loans for South Af¬ ago. In 1952 the Indians attempted, Malan and his fellow candidates rica. But this detail is really inci¬ for the first time, to introduce a FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 21 quoted gleefully in the 1953 elec¬ through the brutality of the South even measures short of this, like tion campaign. It helped bring the African police, and if I had been disinvestment, would primarily vic¬ Nationalists, until then a minority subjected personally to the cruel timize blacks. While industrializa¬ in the popular vote, a resounding sanction of “banning,” I might tion has been eroding apartheid— victory. well react like Donald Woods. I with painful slowness, to be Last November, history re¬ might conclude that there was no sure—a reversal of industrializa¬ peated itself. Understandably in¬ hope for a policy of communi¬ tion would widen the divisions and dignant at the Vorster Govern¬ cation—that we might just as well increase the paranoid “laager” ment’s crackdown on dissidents precipitate the confrontation—get complex of the dominant Afrikan¬ and over the tragic death of Steve it over with. I have a real sympathy ers. Andrew Young himself has Biko, the Carter Administration and, I hope, understanding, for acknowledged that total economic threatened sanctions. Under the those who have suffered as he has. sanctions won’t work. He has heading “How to Make more But having said that, I still can¬ pointed out that South Africa is ex¬ Diehards,” the London Economist not remain convinced that I should ceptionally self-sufficient econom¬ jump on the bandwagon. I'm still ically. “First we must abandon not persuaded that to prove our re¬ Does this mean that there is spect for human rights we should nothing we can do to help? Not what Denis Brogan join the OAU establishment in re¬ necessarily. But first we must called ‘the myth of jecting the internal settlement in abandon what Denis Brogan called American Rhodesia even as a starting point. I “the myth of American omnipo¬ don’t believe we should join in de¬ tence.” There are some events in omnipotence.’ There nouncing the Bishop and the Rev. the world, like the so-called “loss are some events in the Sithole for allegedly “selling out.” of China,” which we cannot either Is it a sellout to agree to a phased cause or prevent. But one thing we world, like the so-called transition to a condition of democ¬ can always do: we can avoid mak¬ ‘loss of China,’ which racy which doesn’t begin to exist in ing things worse. We can follow the the other Black African countries? Hippocratic Oath: Above All, Do we cannot either cause And would it really help the human No Harm! or prevent. But one rights of the masses of Zimbabwe But that is not all. I'm not reject¬ thing we can always do: to precipitate the sudden and mas¬ ing all types of external pressure. sive exodus of the whites, the eco¬ As individuals, and as members of we can avoid making nomic collapse and the bitter tribal churches and other nongovernmen¬ things worse.’’ fighting this scenario has produced tal bodies, we can—with a proper in Uganda, Angola, Mozambique humility and awareness of our own and some other countries? Will it flaws—express our abhorrence reported: “In private, Nationalists improve the human rights of the expressed unashamed delight at over a policy of separation. various Southwest African tribes But constructive influence need this electoral godsend. They talk of who fear SWAPO if power goes to uniting the traditionally divided not be confined to the private sec¬ that faction whose leader, Sam tor. It is proper that our govern¬ ‘white nation,’ the Afrikaner and Nujoma, has acknowledged, “We English-speaking communities—in ment reassert the traditional are not fighting for majority rule. American devotion to democratic the face of the world pressures and We are fighting for the seizure of internal threats from the black principles and human rights. But power in Namibia for the benefit of our spokesmen should not be majority ...” the Namibian people.” As for And Colin Eglin, leader of the focusing exclusively, or even South Africa, there would be no primarily, on the domestic audi¬ liberal Progressive Federal Party, such exodus of whites, who are not was so exasperated at this outside ence or even on the audience in expatriates and have no other place third countries, whether or not they interference that he denounced the to go. Carter Administration for “postur¬ are “front line states.” If we are I should mention, paren¬ trying to help a peaceful, construc¬ ing.” Predictably, of course, the thetically, that I am not attributing Nationalists won by a landslide. tive and progressive outcome in the views I criticize to the State This, I submit, is not the way to country X, then it is the people of Department or to any particular in¬ that country we should be concen¬ promote human rights in Africa. dividual or office there in. So—what is my response to trating on when we choose our those who keep insisting that we Those who say that a race war in words, when we choose the arena “stand up and be counted? What’s South Africa is inevitable and of our demarche or the form of our my alternative to complete disin¬ might as well be hastened are “linkage” if any. vestment in South Africa, the sketching a ghastly scenario. The In tennis, I find that if my feet boycott of South African exports to Government has an overwhelming are right and my eyes are on the the US and the support of various preponderance of power, and ball, my racket is more likely to do guerrilla freedom fighters in would most certainly be able to call the right thing. Similarly, if we neighboring countries? on the support of elements of the agree to forego ethnic and tribal I cannot pretend to have all the African population. The result politics in the US and the UN, and answers, and 1 approach the ques¬ would be a massacre. concentrate on the peace and wel¬ tion with a proper humility. If I had Is this likely to improve the fare of the people of Africa, we are lost a friend like Steve Biko human rights of the survivors? And Continued on page 46 22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 "Suffused throughout cross-national training and education there is paternalism and also romanticism about the contribution to peace that comes from open channels of communication."

THE NEXT PROBLEM IN ARMS CONTROL: THE DIFFUSION OF EXPERTISE

ROGER A. BEAUMONT

The Strategic Arms Limitation Thus, in the realm of strategic cern to those who fear the de¬ Talks, underway since 1968, weapons—atomic and hydrogen pendency of government on have dealt with control in terms of bombs and their delivery extra-mural expertise. numbers. The discussions have fo¬ systems—large research estab¬ Such mechanisms for applying cused on incremental develop¬ lishments are “the name of the expertise and creativity have not ments in a lineage of weapons game." This is also true in the case always shown as much promise as which can be traced back to the of systems which are emerging as many hoped. Indeed, some stu¬ Manhattan Project. There are, the rivals or replacements of nu¬ dents of innovation, like Jewkes, however, some problems inherent clear weapons, like the laser and Sawers and Stillerman in The in the nature of past arms control ion generator. There is, however, Sources of Invention, have argued discussions and agreements, and evidence to suggest that big money that a very high percentage of pri¬ other examples from history, which and organization and significant in¬ mary inventiveness has continued suggest that caution is vital in build¬ novation are not correlated. Since to come from individual inventors, ing a survival istrategy. The most the late 19th century, at least, civil¬ at much lower costs. There is no dangerous ingredient or contamin¬ ian innovators, academicians, en¬ question, however, that the bu¬ ant in the equation of arms control trepreneurs and inventors of the reaucratization of research and de¬ is creativity. It is, of course, virtu¬ classic type have come to play a velopment, and the growing role of ally a matter of faith that innova¬ growing part in the development of academicians in controlling the tion in high technology is based on strategic weapons systems and the professionalization of expertise has spending large amounts of money. working out of methods for their created a kind of momentum employment. “Think tanks,” ever which, although it may be a more more numerous and expensive, expensive way to go, is also vital in Professor Roger A. Beaumont has taught history at the University of Wisconsin, Mar¬ have been growing for a century dealing with the forms of explora¬ quette, Kansas State ami Texas A&M. He and a half, from the Franklin Insti¬ tion in science and technology that is the author of Military Elites and Sword of tute in the early 19th century, depend on teamwork and expen¬ the Raj: The Old Indian Army and co-editor through Arthur D. Little and sive equipment. It is the dissemina¬ of War in the Next Decade. His work has Battelle to RAND and the Hudson tion of expertise from the industrial appeared in Army, The Army Quarterly, Horizon, the New York Times, Military Af¬ Institute down to the myriad states to the Third World which fairs and Military Review, artfong others. “Beltway Bandits," now of con¬ threatens continued uncertainty

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 23 and destabilization of order in the peaceful ends. military and civilian categories of world, confounding the hopes of Hopes in this area have been aid? Unhappily the answer is seekers after peace in their goal of confounded in a number of ways. “no.” “Civilian” scientists and controlling major weapons types. First, many of the “best and experts have been more and more The awareness of the danger of brightest” from developing coun¬ not merely advisors but also de¬ allowing knowledge to move freely tries have chosen to stay in the velopers of weapons. Edison, in the world is not a modem con¬ West for various reasons, political, Weiszmann, the Haber Brothers, cern, although the bureaucratiza¬ social, or economic. The pervading Einstein. Heisenberg, Tizard, tion of the security function is. The sense of guilt among Westerners Szilard, Fermi, Blackett, Conant “trade secret” is still respected by about the more rapacious episodes and a host of others became prime the law. In the early Industrial in the age of imperialism has, of movers in the development of Revolution, the British passed laws course, been one influential factor major weapons systems in the World Wars. The American re¬ sponse to the Soviet launching of Sputnik in 1957 was to expand the training of scientists in all fields to counter a major Soviet victory in the Cold War. The clear implica¬ “If a Western nation with international interests tion of the National Defense Edu¬ cation Act of 1958 was that scien¬ which does not wish to become identified with tific potential was a strategic re¬ neocolonialism or racism cannot cut off source. Indeed, the American self- flagellation in the late 1960s which weapons, then what of a nation that would close ruptured many of the academic- its doors to the training of citizens of particular defense linkages was not paralleled Third World nations, or all of them? The question by a severing of such relationships in other industrial nations. Some of of nuclear proliferation is already tinged with this the American links have been re¬ problem.’’ forged. Just as the Allies argued in World War I, in setting blockade rules, that there really were no “non-strategic” raw materials in modern war, it is difficult to draw a wide, bold line between the civil and the military in the realm of sci¬ against skilled artificers emigrating, in the maintenance of large scale ence. In spite of formal treaties and one of the major breakthroughs programs for the training of de¬ prohibiting the militarization of in the history of American techno¬ veloping nations. A rather less space, militarization is already well logy was the arrival of one of those idealistic search for allies, bases, under way and the first battles may mechanics, Samuel Slater, who laid resources and “influence” is have already been fought. A com¬ out a textile factory along British another, so that much of the train¬ puter sort of NASA abstracts and lines after many charlatans had ing has been of little use to the im¬ journal articles in the realm of failed. In the 1920s, Oswald Speng- mediate needs of the recipient na¬ space science could produce a field ler argued the dangers of exporting tions. Suffused throughout cross¬ manual for space warfare very technological skills and ideas from national training and education quickly, bearing out the truism that Europe and America in Man and there is paternalism and also it is the context that gives facts Technics. Americans who watched romanticism about the contribution their meaning. It is with this in the Red Chinese atomic and hy¬ to peace that comes from open mind that the phenomenon of drogen bomb programs progress channels of communication—a “qualitative proliferation” must be with scientists trained in American hypothesis not borne out by his¬ analyzed—a particularly thorny universities with Boxer Affair in¬ tory. Thus, the results of the flow problem at a time when conven¬ demnity money may have some of students and scholars and tech¬ tional warfare technology overlaps cause to reflect on the matter. The nicians from the developing nations with the strategic weapons systems major nations of the West have not through the West—and vice that predominated from the late slackened in their training of scien¬ versa—is as yet difficult to 1940s until recently. Indeed, some tists and technicians. Their goals generalize about. It is not clear cynics have suggested that, like are many, the main purpose being whether such practices have been political platform planks, systems the bringing of the benefits of ad¬ beneficial to Western nations that under debate at SALT have little vanced technology to developing have engaged in them—or to the relation to the real agenda of nations without the long and ardu¬ Third World nations that have been power, and that both sides are try¬ ous march that characterized the the “beneficiaries” of such prac¬ ing to tease out each other’s secret evolution of Western science and tices. projects. There is a basic faith im¬ technology from the Renaissance What has the training of techni¬ plicit in disarmament discussions, onward. Implicit in these hopes has cians, physicians and the like to do that in spite of whatever stratagems been a premise: that the skills and with arms control? There are clear may be used, curtailment and con¬ techniques would be applied to boundaries, are there not, between trol will keep future conflict from

24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. / becoming too destructive. The pat¬ itary and civilian to become yet of the heavy burden of historical tern in modern history to date, further blurred. guilt for an epoch of slavery, however, is that development goes A discontinuity developed after exploitation and gunboat diplo¬ on at some level whether sub¬ World War II, between the indus¬ macy, however distorted and selec¬ sidized or not, and that separate trial nations and the new states tive the use of history may be in elements of pure research or emerging out of the demise of the respect to details of that experi¬ technology developed for peaceful colonial empires of France, Bri¬ ence, and no matter how irrational intentions can be warped to mili¬ tain, Holland, Belgium—and it may be for people so far removed tary purposes (like the track-laying America. The problem of arms by time and culture from the events tractor’s rapid evolution into the transfers, which shows little sign of in question to feel guilt. tank). Beyond that, qualitative pro¬ abating in spite of the naive The problem of qualitative pro¬ liferation poses a problem since it rhetoric of the American presiden¬ liferation is further aggravated by cannot be measured in the way that tial campaign of 1976, is but a the change in “conventional” weapons can be numbered. Ad¬ symptom. If all the weapons in the weapons as opposed to strategic vance in technology is often syner¬ arsenals of the Third World pro¬ weapons, i.e., atomic and hydro¬ gistic, that is, the whole becomes duced by Western industrial na¬ gen bombs. Since the final days of greater than the sum of the parts. tions vanished magically, it would American involvement in Vietnam, An example is the blitzkrieg, or not constitute a nullification of a revolution has taken place in “lightning war,” seen in the Sec¬ arms proliferation which has been non-nuclear weapons systems. The ond World War and more recently under way since the end of World “Electronic Battlefield” of which in campaigns in the Middle East, War II. The expertise diffused to General Westmoreland spoke usually described popularly as a those nations would still be there, while Chief of Staff is a reality— spearhead of tanks with air cover. and in time—-probably much less including battlefield sensors, area It was, however, something more time than experts might predict— weapons, laser communication and than that. In 1940, when the Ger¬ the Third World would deploy its guidance systems, drone aircraft mans crushed Holland, Belgium own variants, in the way that for reconnaissance, bombing and and France in a month and drove Brazil, India and China, for exam¬ combat, “smart” bombs and artil¬ the British off the continent and, in ple, have already begun to do. lery shells which vastly increase in 1941, when they inflicted One problem in respect to “qual¬ accuracy. One new weapon, the five million casualties on the itative proliferation" is that if one fuel air explosive or “aerosol” Soviets and drove to the gates of nation does not vend, grant or bomb produces overpressures as Moscow, they faced opponents train, another one will. A decision powerful as small nuclear weapons. who in both cases had larger num¬ to not supply arms, then, at this The extremely high casualties bers of tanks, aircraft, radios and point, may be more generally de¬ caused by the use of many of the infantry. While their opponents al¬ stabilizing than a decision to send new weapons in the Middle East ready had their wills weakened by in the hardware. The connection War of 1973—the “Yom Kippur” the imagery of Nazi power, as well between national interest and arms War—have caused a massive as Stalin’s purges and humiliation transfer becomes a very thin reexamination of American tactical at the hands of the Finns, the sig¬ strand, indeed, in such cases as the doctrine as well as visions of the nificance of the blitzkrieg, how¬ Saudi-Israeli fighter case. In more future which include: a Soviet blitz ever. was the way in which dispa¬ general terms, if a Western nation driving to the Channel in two rate elements were orchestrated with international interests which weeks; a replay of 1914-18, in and how the new configuration had does not wish to become identified which both sides dig in after de¬ a significant difference in effect. with neocolonialism or racism can¬ stroying their hardware; and a fleet Similar examples of synergy ap¬ not cut off weapons, then what of a of airbuses launching “smart” peared in the Allied camp in World nation that would close its doors to weapons in the eastern Atlantic War II. The Royal Air Force's use the training of citizens of particular while tiny bands of elite forward of Operations Research teams-— Third World nations, or all of observers elude Soviet masses on scientists from various disciplines them? The question of nuclear pro¬ the German plain and guide the solving military problems—led to liferation is already tinged with this “smart” rockets onto targets. the development of the RAF problem. The suggestion by big, The problem posed by this series Fighter Command which broke the mostly white Russia, the United of developments is that conven¬ Luftwaffe's nose in 1940. The con¬ States and Britain that little coun¬ tional weaponry’s renaissance tinued use of civilian experts tries, mostly brown and yellow, threatens to blur the nuclear trained in “pure research” led to should not have their own bombs threshold. If a new combination of other changes in military technique seems dangerously close to the weapons and techniques produces and new technologies which aided kind of rationale heard in the de¬ chaos and panic, then the use of the weapon development, in the defeat fense of the big stacks of chips that Bomb may be seen as the only of the German submarine menace those countries garnered in the remedy in a rapidly deteriorating in the Atlantic and in the building heyday of imperialism—and which situation. The introduction of such of the atomic bomb and the first some of those nations still hold. sophisticated hardware, or the ex¬ electronic digital computer. A fu¬ The fact that “Atoms for Peace” pertise to build, use and maintain sion of academe, industry, the mili¬ programs were probably milked for it, into Third World locales might tary and bureaucracy in the nuclear the development of atomic bombs also overlap with nuclear potential. age, in which all became targets, by Third World nations does not A small nation with the Bomb caused the distinction between mil¬ stand up as an argument in the face which might ordinarily keep it in £IGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 25 reserve might, if faced with the tary force in the face of determined the nuclear threshold. The growth sudden appearance of the new gen¬ opposition has been very unreliable of naval power, for example, is not eration of conventional hardware in of late. The vast majority of those usually seen as part of the problem, a neighboring state, cross the nu¬ in power at the beginning of major since the massing of ships in a zone clear threshold. Even if a ban were modern conflicts have been dead or of tension or conflict is usually seen placed on moving such sophisti¬ out of power by the end of those as less provocative than the posi¬ cated equipment, the training of wars. Europeans, fresh from the tioning of troops or aircraft. This people or putting them to work to- devastation of the Age of Dictators has not always been the case, how¬ make such weapons could replace and but a generation away from the ever, nor may it always be. the hardware itself as the provoca¬ Epoch of Kings and Emperors, can In the abstract, qualitative pro¬ tive act. Ironically, at a time when hardly pontificate to the successor liferation is a destabilizing agent, a it seems to many that Europe states under the rule of de¬ contaminant which polarizes areas magogues or sociopaths. Nor can of the world vis a vis imminent gen¬ Americans, with their record of eral or specific conflict. An increas¬ “Indeed, foreign or supporting authoritarian regimes of ing number of friction points are many hues since 1942. It is, being created which could go to the domestic moreover, obvious that conveying flash point or generate escalation controllers—or weapons to unstable areas has yet a scenarios. This pattern suggests both—with their deeper financial rationale as the yet another dimension of the Nth western industrial world reels country problem, in which uncer¬ prestige at stake may under the erosion of access to tainty or the interaction of various be forced to cheap energy. Whatever other fac¬ instabilities—whether by design of tors there may be, such as prestige, the major powers and arms vendors demonstrate the value maintenance of physical presence, or not—produces a heating up. of their wares to the with attendant diplomatic and in¬ which crosses the threshold to telligence implications, and acting major conflict in spite of the origi¬ rulers, like Allan as a safety catch on the triggers nal intent of the opponents. Stu¬ Quatermain with his provided to the buyers, at what dents of conflict since at least point does such dissemination in it¬ Lewis Richardson have argued that rifle in the kraal of a self produce momentum which the massing of military hardware is doubting king in King leads to its use? At what point can a precipitator of conflict. If so, the inventories no longer be monitored current volume being projected Solomon’s Mines. or controlled? Since the problem outward by industrial states consti¬ often relates to volatile aspects of tutes a tangle of burning fuses. seems to be retribalizing into pre- local politics and culture, it defies In respect to proliferation in gen¬ Roman sub-units, the Third World rational analysis by outsiders at eral, catalysis is the main concern, has been made into one vast least. Further, qualitative prolifera¬ the fear that a general war could Europe, nationalistic, anxious tion generates instabilities beyond stem from the use of nuclear about boundaries, alliances, and those stemming from mispercep¬ weapons by small countries. It is the perceived advances of its tion or distortion. The equipment also argued that at some point neighbors. It is hard to see that the itself is a symbol of commitment, of sheer numbers could produce forces of diplomacy, of perceptions a kind of letter of credit or blank instability—again the Nth country of threat, of strategy and the money check issued by the vending or effect, a clash between little nu¬ earned by arms sales and influence donating powers. Prestige and prof¬ clear powers drawing in the great bought by grants, have not mucked itability are thus intertwined. An powers, with the implication being things up to a fare-thee-well. In unsophisticated or unstable pos¬ that geographically smaller states view of the current state of SALT sessor may feel a panacea at hand, would be more desperate, and that and the UN disarmament sessions, and perceive that the new technol¬ their regimes tend to be more erra¬ therefore, it seems none too soon ogy put him within easy reach of a tic and so on. On the other hand, to point out that seeds of further decisive victory. Indeed, foreign or the factor of perceived space is instability have been transplanted. domestic controllers—or both— usually ignored. Yet most nations Indeed, truly effective disarma¬ with their prestige at stake may be are geographically small, so that ment must be total and universal. forced to demonstrate the value of suffering attack by even small nu¬ Otherwise, one faces the “in the their wares to the rulers, like Allan clear weapons would constitute Kingdom of the Blind, the One- Quatermain with his rifle in the annihilation. Space acts as a con¬ Eyed Man is King" quandary. kraal of a doubting king in King trol, which is at least marginally as¬ In respect to the dangers of non- Solomon's Mines. A clash of com¬ suring since most nations are at compliance, it is not necessary to petitive weapons systems also close quarters with other nuclear or note that many nations formerly poses grave problems in terms of near-nuclear hostile states. Since under imperial control are now space and internal balance. desperation may occlude self- ruled by oligarchies or dictators. Weapons sponsors may lunge for¬ interest, other variants of the Diffusing sophisticated weapons ward into intervention, a particu¬ model are grimmer. What if Israel, systems into this unstable milieu is larly dangerous situation not only about to be overrun, targeted cities obviously dangerous. Such gov¬ because “conventional” weapons in South Russia with A-bombs ernments may not be ready to ac¬ effect overlap into the realm, but yielding high fallout—or hydrogen cept the fact that the resort to mili- because sheer volume may lower Continued on page 40 26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 "the highest apostle of ‘open diplomacy’ Nicolson means to examine. found, when it came to practice, that Harold Nicolson did not define the term “public diplomacy.” It had not been coined when he wrote. It has gained increasing cur¬ rency in recent years, and it cries out for the rigorously logical examination that Nicolson devoted to its older parent term. There are thousands employed by the Ameri¬ can federal government today who, if asked, would probably say that they are engaged in some aspect of public diplomacy. Congressional committees have affirmed the de¬ sirability, indeed the pressing need, for vigorous, effective public di¬ What plomacy by the United States. What is public diplomacy? If one begins with the definition of diplomacy agreed upon by Is Nicolson and the OED. “public diplomacy” is logically the man¬ agement of international relations by negotiations carried on in pub¬ Public lic. That idea recalls the first of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points about “open covenants, openly arrived at,” and it sends shivers down the spine of a tradi¬ Diplomacy? tional diplomat like Harold Nicol¬ son. Openly conducted negotia¬ tions, Nicolson argued, almost never work for a variety of reasons. He maintained that Woodrow Wil¬ son did not practice what he preached, because the Treaty of Versailles was by no stretch of the imagination openly arrived at. On the contrary, it was the product of some of the most secret negotiating in history. This only proved, Nicolson concluded, that the highest apostle of "open diplo¬ Sir Harold Nicolson, writing in branches of politics which have macy" found, when it came to practice, 1938, began his book Diplomacy been exposed to such confusion of that open negotiations were totally un¬ by defining his terms. “It is essen¬ thoughts.” As the definition he workable. And it shows how false was tial, at the outset of this study,’’ he proposed to use, he quoted that the position into which President Wil¬ wrote, “to define what the word given by the Oxford English Dic¬ son (a gifted and in many ways a noble ‘diplomacy’ really means and in tionary: man) had placed himself by having what sense, or senses, it will be “Diplomacy” is the management of in¬ failed in January 1918 to foresee that there was all the difference in the world used in the pages that follow." He ternational relations by negotiation; the between “open convenants” and went on to distinguish five different method by which these relations are ad¬ justed and managed by ambassadors “openly arrived at"—between policy meanings commonly associated and envoys; the business or art of the and negotiation. with the word. Those meanings, he diplomatist. Yet, the idea that traditional di¬ charged, are used indiscriminately Some scholars and practicing plomacy can be carried on in the in English-speaking countries diplomats have argued that Nicol- full glare of the public news media “with the result that there are few son's definition does not and hence in public has gained adequately encompass all the var¬ adherents in recent years, and it is FSIO Kenneth Wimrnel joined USIA in ied activities now commonly asso¬ usually described as being public 1962. He Inis served in New Delhi. Dacca. Kuala Lumpur, Vietnam and Taipei. He is ciated with the practice of diplo¬ diplomacy. President Sadat of currently assigned to the Office of North Af¬ macy. But whether or not one fully Egypt, in the weeks before and dur¬ rica, Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs agrees with Nicolson and the ing his trip to Jerusalem, was often in the International Communication OED, one must admire Nicolson’s described as conducting public di¬ Agency. He intends some day, he says, to plomacy in this sense. Strictly try to answer some of the questions posed in method. The reader of his book this article. knows from the outset exactly what speaking, Sadat did not conduct FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 3 1 negotiations in public, but on a few state have spent almost as much by electrical and electronic means. occasions he seemed to come close time traveling abroad and engaging The inventions of radio and televi¬ to doing so. His astute use of tele¬ in direct negotiations with foreign sion and more recently the linking vision to sway public opinion, leaders as they have spent adminis¬ of those inventions with satellites especially in the United States, to¬ tering their department and direct¬ to achieve instantaneous global wards support for the Arab posi¬ ing the work of the diplomats they communications are usually cited tion in the Arab-Israeli dispute has supervise. The summit conferences as comprising a “revolution” in undoubtedly affected significantly among heads of government so communications which demands the Middle East negotiations con¬ feared and disliked by Harold that governments employ these im¬ ducted since his Jerusalem trip. In Nicolson have become routine oc¬ proved instruments to communi¬ many quarters, he was credited currences in international affairs. cate with the peoples as well as with having brought the dream of Whether the Camp David sum¬ with the governments of other permanent peace in the Middle mit conference on the Middle East countries. The means are available, East closer to reality in late 1977 will produce lasting, positive re¬ this line of reasoning seems to run, than it had been at any time during sults and thus disprove the argu¬ so they should be used. What they the previous thirty years. But when ments of Nicolson and Kennan should be used to do, it continues, the widely anticipated break¬ about summit conferences remains, is something closely related to, but through to peace failed to occur, at this writing, a question. If it differing from, traditional diplo¬ the intense publicity surrounding does, and if the Arab-Israeli dis¬ macy. Sadat's Jerusalem trip probably pute is finally ended on terms rea¬ This different variety of diplo¬ made the inevitable disappointment sonably favorable to the Arab macy, as it is practiced by the ICA, that followed more intense than it cause, one result may be that is most often defined—when it is otherwise would have been—as Sadat’s use of the public news defined at all—in terms of the ac¬ Nicolson probably would have media will be regarded as vindi¬ tivities it undertakes. Last year in a predicted. cated, and the movement of diplo¬ speech at Knoxville College in Nicolson, writing before World macy out of the confines of confer¬ Tennessee, John Reinhardt. Direc¬ War II, could not anticipate ence rooms and foreign ministries tor of ICA, defined public diplo¬ Sadat's use of television, but he into television studios will acceler¬ macy as “meaning those efforts was familiar with the personal in¬ ate. But it remains to be seen through which your government volvement by heads of govern¬ whether Sadat's methods ulti¬ enters the international market¬ ments and foreign ministers in the mately will prove successful. The place of ideas.” By this definition, conduct of international negotia¬ traditionally discreet and private public diplomacy is the sum of the tions, and he deplored it. He ar¬ diplomacy advocated by Nicolson government's activities in the ad¬ gued that politicians should not en¬ may yet prove to be the only really ministration of educational and cul¬ gage in diplomacy, a field of en¬ effective means to achieve peace in tural exchange, in the distribution deavor quite different in many the Middle East, if any means other of books and other publications ways from the one they know best. than total defeat of one side in a abroad, in the operation of libraries He did not, of course, have Anwar total war exists. in foreign countries—to name but a Sadat in mind, but his argument Traditional diplomacy carried on few of the many activities carried across the span of forty years in public rather than in private is on by the International Communi¬ seems almost designed to question one currently accepted meaning of cation Agency. The reason the the Egyptian President's methods: public diplomacy, but it is not the government chooses to enter the Repeated personal visits on the part of meaning usually intended by those international marketplace of ideas the Foreign Secretary of one country to in the American government who with these activities is obviously to the Foreign Secretary of the other say that their profession is public affect the thinking of people in should not be encouraged. Such visits diplomacy. The United States In¬ other countries. But in what man¬ arouse public expectations, lead to formation Agency some years ago ner and to what end? Are these ac¬ misunderstandings and create confu¬ began to say what it did was public tivities intended to persuade or to sion . . . such visits, naturally enough, are very dear to the heart of all politi¬ diplomacy, and the term became inform? The difference between cians. They are called “the value of increasingly popular in that agency the two is important. personal contact." Yet in truth, as I and in its successor organization, To persuade someone to agree have said elsewhere, diplomacy is not the International Communication with your views is almost always the art of conversation, it is the art of Agency. As used in the American more difficult than simply to inform negotiating agreements in precise and government, the term is intended to him of those views without the ratifiable form. denote an adjunct to traditional di¬ need to move him to agreement. As recently as 1976, George plomacy, a complementary effort For that reason, efforts at persua¬ Kennan echoed Nicolson’s argu¬ which, its practitioners say, is de¬ sion always run the risk of becom¬ ment in The Cloud of Danger. manded by modern communica¬ ing coercion on the one hand or Nevertheless, it seems obvious tions technology. Discussions of dissembling and falsification on the that Nicolson's cautiously tradi¬ the subject before Congressional other. When a government under¬ tional views have been all but for¬ committees usually begin with takes to persuade, the ugly name of gotten in this age of international what has by now become a familiar propaganda more often than not television communication by satel¬ recitation of the improvements arises. lite and international travel by jet wrought during this century in The word “propaganda” derives aircraft. Increasingly since World transportation and communica¬ from the verb “to propagate,” and, War II, American secretaries of tions, especially communications strictly speaking, it means the dis- 32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 semination and advocacy of a par¬ Other countries have not been ac¬ aganda. ticular doctrine or set of beliefs. It customed to use it, but many other The term "diplomacy” has pro¬ should be a word denoting a per¬ countries engage in activities the ven able to embrace the connota¬ fectly respectable activity, assum¬ American government regards as tions both of an honorable and re¬ ing the doctrine or beliefs to be re¬ part of public diplomacy. The staffs spected profession, and of the spectable. But, thanks in large part of many embassies around the employment of guile and decep¬ to Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goeb- world include cultural attaches, tion. The definition of a diplomat as bels, the word means simply "lies” and even more of them include one sent abroad to lie for his coun¬ to most people today, especially someone with the duties if not the try is a familiar one that usually when it describes activity by a gov¬ title of press attache. A great many prompts a smile. It has become ernment. During its quarter- governments engage in radio familiar through repetition, be¬ century of existence, the United broadcasting directed to audiences cause most people suspect there is States Information Agency could in other countries. When these ac¬ more than a grain of truth in it. Is never bring itself to say outright tivities are conducted in such a “public diplomacy” capable of that it was in the business of prop¬ manner as to be undeniable prop¬ connoting both a policy of truth, aganda, although some USIA offi¬ aganda, should they still be re¬ understatement and calm, while cials argued that such was, or garded as public diplomacy? Those also including the concept of prop¬ should be, the case. In a book pub¬ who profess to engage in public di- aganda with its associations of lished in 1968, The Word War: The guile, deception and outright lies? Story of American Propaganda, If it cannot, it runs the risk of be¬ Thomas Sorensen, a former high- “Nicolson obviously coming suspect as the latest ranking USIA official, tried to give euphemism for propaganda alone. the word respectability and associ¬ had in mind the If those who profess to engage in ate it with USIA: monstrous lies of Nazi public diplomacy insist that the To propagandize means in many word means an activity dealing ex¬ minds to lie, to exaggerate, to manipu¬ propaganda, and he clusively in goodness and truth, late. to subvert. So the US Govern¬ specifically and incapable of being tainted by ment employs a euphemism, but in this association with the odious lies of book we will not . . . there would, distinguished between propaganda, they risk the very de¬ perhaps, be fewer qualms about what the Nazis did and basement of the term they wish to American propaganda if it were better understood that there is not necessarily what an organization avoid. To say that propaganda can a conflict between veracity and advo¬ be an element of public diplomacy cacy. that it is possible to be both truth¬ like the British Council is not necessarily to condone the ful and persuasive. American prop¬ does.” use of propaganda. Not all the ac¬ aganda has not always been persuasive, tivities embraced by “public di¬ but it has always tried to be truthful. plomacy” are propaganda, but the But Sorensen was fighting a losing disinterested observer will find it plomacy would probably want to battle with the English language. hard to accept the proposition that answer "no.” Certainly, the tradi¬ Propaganda to most people is bad none can be. tional diplomat finds propaganda by definition, and hardly anyone American public diplomacy spe¬ wants to be associated with it. Cer¬ odious and is usually repelled by at¬ tempts to associate it with diplo¬ cifically dissociates itself from tainly, the American government propaganda as John Reinhardt does not. In his Knoxville speech, macy. Harold Nicolson was un¬ compromising in his distaste for firmly stated in Knoxville in May, John Reinhard said: 1977. In October, that dissociation It should be eminently clear that prop¬ what he called “this terrible inven¬ tion”: was made official for the organiza¬ aganda has no place in our scheme of tion most closely identified with things, that there is nothing within us A new and serious problem of modern that enables us to be propagandists. diplomacy is the problem of propagan¬ American public diplomacy. On But propaganda* undeniably da ... it is difficult to suggest by what October 11, President Carter sub¬ exists, if only in the eye of the be¬ means diplomacy can mitigate the dan¬ mitted to Congress Reorganization holder. One man’s "information gers of this terrible invention. Interna¬ Plan Number 2 of 1977, the plan tional agreements on the subject are which joined the United States In¬ program" or “cultural exchange evaded or ignored; counter-propaganda activity” is often another man's formation Agency and the State only intensifies the conflict. The most Department's Bureau of Educa¬ propaganda. Should propaganda, that can be hoped is that the very viru¬ tional and Cultural Affairs together with its connotations of guile, de¬ lence of the method, the actual iteration ception, manipulation and dis¬ of demonstrable untruths, may in the in a new agency to be called the sembling, be embraced by a defini¬ end defeat its own purpose. And that International Communication tion of public diplomacy? Hitherto, the best antidote to the hysterical Agency. In his letter transmitting public diplomacy has been an ex¬ school of broadcasters is a policy of the plan to Congress, Carter ex¬ clusively American expression. truth, understatement and calm. plained that several principles Nicolson obviously had in mind guided him in shaping that reor¬ * Acknowledging the force of popular usage the monstrous lies of Nazi prop¬ ganization. One of the most impor¬ to determine word meanings, this paper will aganda, and he specifically distin¬ tant, he said, was: use "propaganda" in the popular, pejora¬ guished between what the Nazis tive sense rather titan try, as Sorensen did, The new Agency’s activities must be to maintain a distinction between a pejora¬ did and what an organization like straightforward, open, candid, bal¬ tive and a more literally correct—and the British Council does. He did anced and representative. They will not respectable—meaning. not consider the latter to be prop¬ be given over to the advancement of FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 33 the views of any one group, any one affairs.” He went on to specify five dignant if he thought that his gov¬ party or any one Administration. The main tasks for the ICA Director ernment was spending his tax dol¬ agency must not operated in a covert, and his colleagues: lars to dispense information about manipulative, or propagandistic way. • To encourage, aid and sponsor the United States in a purely neu¬ It is interesting to note that “public the broadest possible exchange of tral and non-partisan fashion to diplomacy” appears nowhere in people and ideas between our people in other countries. He might either the reorganization plan or in country and other nations. prefer his government to be a vig¬ the letter of transmittal. Whether • To give foreign peoples the orous, open advocate of his coun¬ this represents a deliberate omis¬ best possible understanding of our try, to espouse its values and sion can only be conjectured ex¬ policies and our intentions, and suf¬ policies. Is it proper, then, for a cept by those who wrote those ficient information about American government to undertake to stimu¬ documents, but the omission does late and promote, in a neutral and seem to indicate that the term has non-partisan manner, a two-way not yet been incoiporated into the “When peoples of exchange of ideas and information official lexicon of the government, between its own people and the despite its current widespread use. different cultures, peoples of other countries? Indeed, The reorganization plan is de¬ languages and values is it really possible for a govern¬ voted to specific problems of bu¬ ment to do so? Is any governmental reaucratic reorganization and does come to know each effort in two-way international not address itself to the purposes or other better, their communication inevitably a pro¬ philosophy of the new agency. The cess of informing in one direction President's letter does discuss tendency to engage in but persuading in the other? If it is, briefly the purposes of ICA as he disputes and wars should the government imply that it sees them. He emphasizes that the can be otherwise? agency is charged with two distinct apparently does not If one compares Nicolson’s defi¬ but related goals: “to tell the world necessarily diminish; it nition of traditional diplomacy with about our society and policies, in may even increase.” the concept of public diplomacy set particular our commitment to cul¬ forth in President Carter’s tural diversity and individual lib¬ memorandum of March 13 to the erty; and to tell ourselves about the Director of ICA, a striking differ¬ world so as to give the understand¬ society and culture to comprehend ence in the ultimate objectives of ing to deal effectively with prob¬ why we have chosen certain the two processes becomes appar¬ lems among nations.” This two- policies over others. ent. Diplomacy as defined by way exchange of information is in • To help insure that our gov¬ Nicolson has as its ultimate goal contrast to the responsibility of ernment adequately understands the reaching of agreement; the goal US IA which was charged with foreign public opinion and culture of any process of negotiation is to only a one-way flow of information for policy-making purposes, and to reach agreement by compromising about the United States directed assist individual Americans and in¬ differences. The process demands towards people overseas. A two- stitutions in learning about other that the skilled negotiator not only way exchange of information nations and their cultures. be capable of informing his oppo¬ suggests that ICA will undertake to • To assist in the development site number accurately and com¬ inform rather than to persuade and execution of a comprehensive prehensively as to what his position those it addresses, a goal logically national policy on international is; he must also be skillful in per¬ consistent with the Agency’s av¬ communications, designed to allow suading his opponent to agree with owed dissociation from prop¬ and encourage the maximum flow that position. He will seldom be aganda. This goal is made explicit of information and ideas among the completely successful in his per¬ by the language of the President’s peoples of the world. suasion, but he would be derelict in letter: • To prepare for and conduct fulfilling his responsibilities if he The purpose of this reorganization is to negotiations on cultural exchanges did not undertake to do so. By con¬ broaden our informational, educational with other governments. trast, the principal function of and cultural intercourse with the world These multi-faceted, unimpeacha¬ ICA, according to President Car¬ since this is the major means by which bly high-minded goals make it clear our government can inform others ter, about our country and inform ourselves that public diplomacy, as it is prac¬ should be to reduce the degree to which about the rest of the world. ticed by ICA, specifically excludes misperceptions and misunderstandings The International Communica¬ any intention to persuade. Each complicate relations between the United States and other nations. In in¬ tion Agency formally came into goal clearly aims to establish an ob¬ ternational affairs, as in our personal existence on April 1, 1978. In a jective and unbiased exchange of information and ideas devoid of lives, the starting point for dealing ef¬ memorandum dated March 13 to fectively with others is the clearest any exercise in advocacy. the Director of the new Agency, possible understanding of differing President Carter set forth what is, No one would expect the Ameri¬ points of view. in effect, a statement of mission for can government to become an ad¬ Thus, it seems that ICA’s respon¬ the organization. The President vocate for a foreign country and try sibilities extend to this “starting explained that “I want to outline to persuade the American people of point” but not beyond it. There my views of the purposes and func¬ the correctness of that country’s appears to be an implication that tions of the Agency, and the man¬ policies. But an American taxpayer misperceptions and misunder- ner in which it should conduct its might become uneasy and even in¬ Continued on page 42

34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 Simply stated, no matter what observation that: “The virtually poj BdDK ESSAY happens in the Middle East, there unrestrained spread of conven¬ are bound to be major corporate tional weaponry threatens stability profits for Northrup and McDon- in every region of the world.” As Getting to Know nell-Douglas. Fighter aircraft wear the world’s largest arms seller, the the Arms Trade out even when they are not flown. United States, says the President, SEAN KELLY In actual combat—as evidenced by “must take steps to restrain its the 1973 Mideast War—their attri¬ arms transfers.” THE ARMS BAZAAR, by Anthony tion rate can become astronomical. The President’s proposals in¬ Sampson. Viking, $12.95. If it seems excessively cynical to clude cutting the dollar volume of WAR, BUSINESS, AND AMERICAN SOCI¬ new US commitments (with sev¬ examine our “military supply rela¬ ETY, edited by Benjamin Franklin eral notable exclusions) for the sale Cooling. Kennikat Press, $12.50. tionships” in such a light, Anthony of weapons and weapons-related Sampson reminds us that there is UNITED STATES ARMS TRANSFER AND items. He also intends to stop the good precedent for such an ap¬ SECURITY ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS, a United States from introducing into report prepared for the Committee on proach. George Bernard Shaw a region “newly-developed, ad¬ International Relations, US House of wrote a play called Major Barbara vanced weapons systems which Representatives by the Congressional in which the hero, a European arms Research Service, Library of Con¬ would create a new or significantly merchant, proclaims this objective: higher combat capability.” Such gress, March 21, 1978, Washington, “To give arms to all men who offer DC GPO. weapons could not, in any event, an honest price for them, without be sold or coproduced abroad until ARSENAL OF DEMOCRACY, by Tom respect of persons or principles.” Gervasi. Grove Press, $7.95. “they are operationally deployed That was in 1905; not a bad year for with US forces, thus removing the WORLD ARMAMENTS AND DISARMA¬ the arms trade, but they have got¬ MENT, SIPRI Yearbook 1978, Stock¬ ten better—especially here at incentive to promote foreign sales in an effort to lower unit costs for holm International Peace Research In¬ home. stitute. Crane, Russak <4 Co., $35.00. Defense Department procure¬ Eisenhower was right. There is a STRATEGIC SURVEY , ment.” 1977 the Interna¬ military-industrial complex in the tional Institute for Strategic Studies, President Carter categorically London, $4.75. United States, and War, Business ruled out building, or modifying and American Society may tell you WORLD MILITARY AND SOCIAL. EX¬ advanced US weapons solely for more about it than you really want PENDITURES 1978, by Ruth Leger export, and he said that coproduc¬ Sivard. WMSC Publications, Box 1003, to know. Moving from the 19th tion agreements for “significant century right up through the “Mer¬ Leesburg, Virginia 22075, $2.50. weapons, equipment and major chants of Death” days in the 1930s CONTROLLING FUTURE ARMS TRADE, components” would henceforth be Council on Foreign Relations. to the really big profits of World prohibited. The President also McGraw-Hill, $5.95. War II, this collection of essays made it clear that he was against By most any standard, the inter¬ also shows how we acquired an In¬ State Department and Pentagon of¬ national arms trade is a growth in¬ terstate Highway System along the ficials abroad promoting the sale of dustry. Known sales are currently way. The book’s emphasis is on US arms. historical perspective; don't look running about twenty billion dollars Tom Gervasi points out in Arse¬ for moral judgments. a year in signed contracts, and the nal of Democracy that the Presi¬ figure increases annually. Presi¬ Equally free of judgmental con¬ dent’s May 19th arms policy is well dent Carter’s election campaign cern is the Congressional Research laced with loopholes; enough of Service study on current United pledges notwithstanding, the them to permit the sale of over one United States is still the world’s States Anns Transfer and Security billion dollars worth of AWACS number one arms salesman. Our Assistance Programs. It is a radar aircraft to Iran, plus co¬ position has been made even more straightforward effort to brief the production agreements with Japan Congress on the multiplicity of of¬ on fighters and anti-submarine war¬ secure by the Carter Administra¬ ficial US arms dealings abroad. In tion's recent 4.8 billion dollar arms fare aircraft. These commitments doing so, it successfully negotiates “package” to Egypt, Israel, and would seem to conflict with the Saudi Arabia. Arming both sides of the bureaucratic swamplands of President’s policy of not introduc¬ Military Assistance Programs vs. ing newly-developed, advanced a potential military conflict—as Foreign Military Sales vs. Security Anthony Sampson points out in his weapons systems into regions excellent history of the world arms Support Assistance without bur¬ where they had not existed previ¬ dening itself down with any specific trade—has always made good ously, particularly the AWACS to conclusions or recommendations. business sense. Iran. Allowing Japan to build the It is both a good primer, and an ex¬ F-15—America's most advanced Krupp and Vickers pioneered cellent companion for Tom Ger- this game in the early days of this fighter aircraft—and the P-3C Ori¬ vasi’s Arsenal of Democracy. century, and Sampson’s book is son anti-submarine and reconnais¬ filled with specific and not in¬ Both books deal with the Carter sance aircraft raises questions frequently amusing examples. But Administration’s new policy on about the seriousness of the Presi¬ they pale in comparison with the arms transfers, as enunciated by dent’s intentons regarding foreign prospect of multi-million dollar US the President May 19, 1977. This coproduction agreements. fighter aircraft targeted against policy statement, developed from Actually, Gervasi says that there each other across the Suez canal, the Carter presidential campaign are a total of 19 major developed or the deserts of Arabia. philosophy, begins with the general countries understood to be exempt FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 35 from any restraint on US arms ex¬ and has an international staff and the United States Arms Control ports under the new Carter policy. governing board. The SIPRI Year¬ and Disarmament Agency. She He sees no future reduction of any book has become something of a wrote a study for AC DA that re¬ significant proportions in the flow classic as a guide to the arms trade, lated world military expenditures of US arms abroad. Existing con¬ especially from the point of view of with what was being spent on edu¬ tracts create obligations reaching the arms control activist. At $35 a cation and public health. The far into the future, amounting to copy, the annual SIPRI publication Nixon Administration didn't like it, more than thirty billion dollars. is more than a casual investment and ordered the publication And our system of alliances for the average reader, but it is in¬ stopped. Mrs. Sivard then resigned exempts many of our most impor¬ creasingly available in American from AC DA, and began publishing tant arms purchasers. libraries and there is probably no World Military and Social Expendi¬ The London-based International more authoritative source on the tures, annually, on her own. Institute for Strategic Studies is subject. It is a sobering document. We more charitable towards the Presi¬ SIPRI's 1978 yearbook discus¬ learn from it that the average family dent. In its Strategic Survey 1977, ses, in some detail, the growing pays more in taxes to support the IISS says that the May 19 policy scale of arms transfers to the Third world arms race than to educate its statement “has much to recom¬ World. It notes the changing pat¬ children. That developing nations, mend it, since it imposes not sub¬ tern of these sales in recent years. despite severe food shortages, use stantive but procedural constraints, The overwhelmingly dominant five times as much foreign ex¬ capable of doing justice to specific suppliers remain the United States change for the import of arms as circumstances in each case, and at and the Soviet Union, accounting for agricultural machinery. And the same time establishes that only for more than seventy percent of that in Third World nations there is criteria of national security inter¬ the market. But the quantitative one soldier for 250 inhabitants, and ests (and not economic or political aspects of this trade no longer tell one doctor for 3,700. opportunity) will be applied.” As the full story. SIPRI is concerned “Modern technology,” says always, the IISS annual survey is over the qualitative changes that Mrs. Sivard, “has made it possible an unparalleled source for docu¬ have occurred in arms sales to the to deliver a bomb across the world mentation on the arms trade. Third World. It used to be that the in minutes. Women in rural areas of But before leaving Gervasi, his US and the USSR concentrated Asia and Africa still walk several comments on the uniqueness of mainly on modernizing their own hours a day for the family’s water weapons as a commodity deserve armed forces and those of their supply.” Her book is filled with ta¬ repeating here. “No other com¬ allies—with the resulting surplus bles of statistics showing, for in¬ modity can expand its market by weapons and obsolescent aircraft stance, that Somalia spent 22 mil¬ the simple device of selective sales. then made available to the Third lion dollars in 1975 on military ex¬ All the salesman need do is sell the World. penditures, and only nine million latest weapon to one country and SIPRI sees this pattern as having on education. Or that Pakistan wait for its neighbor to respond shifted to the point where Washing¬ spent nearly twice as much on na¬ with jealousy or fear. That is how ton and Moscow are now providing tional defense as it did on education arms races are born. Generations top-of-the-line weapons directly and public health combined. She of weapons quickly obsolesce their out of the active inventories of their quotes World Bank President predecessors, and that is how arms combat forces. Thus Israel was re¬ Robert McNamara, a former US races are continued. What we have supplied from US stocks in Europe Secretary of Defense: “It always not learned is how they are (aircraft, tanks and munitions) dur¬ comes down to a question of ended.” ing, and immediately following the priorities. A new generation of Arsenal of Democracy will enjoy 1973 Middle East War. And, says fighters for the air force; or a new brisk sales, particularly abroad. In SIPRI, “some types of nuclear de¬ generation of infants who will live doing so, it may achieve precisely livery systems have been trans¬ beyond their fifth birthday.” the opposite effect of that intended ferred to Third World countries What can be done? by Gervasi. With its detailed (for example, the US Lance The Council on Foreign Rela¬ photographs and descriptions of surface-to-surface missile to Israel tions, as part of its 1980s Project, more than five hundred weapons and the Soviet Scud to Egypt, Iraq commissioned a series of papers on currently available in the United and Syria), and if the spread of the general subject of Controlling States, Gervasi’s book makes an production capacity for nuclear Future Arms Trade. The dimen¬ excellent shopping catalogue. It weapons in the wake of the spread sions of the problem were studied, may actually help the arms trade of nuclear energy production is not and projected well into the next de¬ along—not that any real assistance safeguarded in time, the arms traf¬ cade. One author explores the pos¬ is needed. fic may eventually come to include sibility of cooperative restraints The Stockholm International traffic also in nuclear weapons.” among the arms suppliers. Another Peace Research Institute describes Not a pleasant prospect. Neither suggests ways that arms purchasing itself as an independent institute for is the fact that Third World nations countries might organize them¬ research into problems of peace are now mortgaging their develop¬ selves regionally to institute re¬ and conflict, with particular atten¬ ment priorities in order to buy straints on demand. More than tion to the problems of disarma¬ supersonic fighter aircraft. And anything, the Council study dem¬ ment and arms regulation. missiles and bombs to go with onstrates the complexities of the Founded in 1966, SIPRI is fi¬ them. Ruth Leger Sivard used to be problem—and the fact that it is get¬ nanced by the Swedish Parliament chief of the economics division of ting worse. 36 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 Except possibly for the people of a book of spy fiction. His hero, book? Regulations require such who profit from the sale of arms. Blackford Oakes, is a deep-cover clearance, do they not? And what Even then, the new Carter policy CIA agent on an important mission do his old friends in the profession of discouraging US officials abroad in West Germany. The mission is think about the way he focuses at¬ from pushing arms sales has al¬ accomplished, but Oakes is not al¬ tention on some of the more con¬ ready had some impact. An au¬ together happy about the result. He troversial aspects of the Agency’s thoritative trade journal reports does not believe in killing a friend, activities. For some in the Agency that US Embassy officials were re¬ particularly one who is also a friend must feel, as one would have ex¬ cently asked by members of the of America, but orders are pected Buckley to feel, that a House Armed Services Commit¬ orders—in the CIA as elsewhere. moratorium on public discussion of tee, who visited London on a The plot is ingenious, the narrative political murder might now be in NATO fact-finding mission, how holds our attention nicely, and one the national interest. best to get to the Farnborough air ends the book hoping to learn more It is a measure of Mr. Buckley’s show—a major international about Oakes/Buckley in future vol¬ artful handling of his material that, exhibit for the arms trade. umes. as the reader looks back over the They were told that, unless The book, in short, is well worth book as a whole, a final appalling Washington officially recognizes reading, even though many ques¬ possibility forces its way forward. the event and makes funds for VIP tions come to mind when one Is Stained Glass quite the simple transportation available, they finishes it. How much of the detail spy story it pretends to be (note, by should plan on buying a ticket on on Langley tradecraft, one won¬ the way, the layers of meaning one the hourly train from Waterloo Sta¬ ders, is a product of the novelist’s can find in the title alone)? Can it tion. imagination? How much is the re¬ be that Buckley, harboring reserva¬ sult of Mr. Buckley’s brief em¬ tions about the morality of his old ployment many years ago as a associates in the Company but un¬ pg; | BGDKSHELT junior officer trainee in CIA, work¬ willing to surface with the Snepps ing for Howard Hunt (himself a and Stockwells of our time in Covert Activities novelist, by the way, of more talent openly criticizing the Agency, has than reviewers have given him turned novelist to get into the pub¬ STAINED GLASS, by William F. Buck- credit for)? Did Buckley, whom lic domain his inner doubts about ley, Jr. Doubleday, $8.95. one at once assumes takes such the ethics of espionage? Might it William Buckley, after success in matters very seriously, get Agency not even be that Stained Glass, far other fields, appears here as author clearance for publication of the i from being an entertaining jeu

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 37 d’esprit of an impeccable conserva¬ formed and readable contribution tle discussion in depth, for exam¬ tive, is in reality Buckley's cri de to this series. ple, of the conduct of affairs by conscience as a secret enemy of the In rapid and concise fashion, either President Nixon or by Secre¬ political jungle of which he writes Ambassador Beam gives the reader tary Kissinger. Of the former, with such evident familiarity? If a brief account of his earlier tours Beam contents himself with the this be so—and there is ample his¬ of duty in the Department and somewhat sanctimonious explana¬ torical precedent for such covert abroad, leading up to longer de¬ tion that “unlike some other offi¬ literary dissidence—then Stained scriptions of his experiences as cials who served the president in Glass is an important book indeed. ambassador in Warsaw from 1957 similar fashion, I do not feel called —THOMAS A. DONOVAN to 1961, in Prague from 1966 to upon to comment on the events 1969, and in Moscow from 1969 to which led to his downfall and the Diplomatic Memories 1973. Political trends in the coun¬ culmination of a vastly depressing

MULTIPLE EXPOSURE: An American tries in which he served are treated human tragedy.’’ On Kissinger, he Ambassador's Unique Perspective on at considerable length, but with is a bit more forthcoming: “His East-West Issues, by Jacob D. Beam. sufficient accompanying anecdotal towering intellect would have Norton, $10.95. detail for the book to qualify as a brought him to the top without the It is by now a well-established political memoir rather than as pot¬ need to deploy his gifts of intrigue tradition that our ex-ambassadors ted history. Future historians will and defamation, which he enjoyed to the Soviet Union write books find in the volume much that will doing.” But then we look in vain about their adventures in Moscow. aid them in their understanding of for the kind of first-hand cir¬ Of the thirteen holders of this im¬ the personalities and points of view cumstantial detail which Ambas¬ portant post between 1933 and of the men responsible for the con¬ sador Beam could presumably pro¬ 1973, only Laurence Steinhardt and duct and execution of American vide and which we would need if failed to foreign policy in these years. we are to give credence to such a leave books behind them, and these But if future scholars will thus damaging appraisal of Kissinger’s two would surely have done so had necessarily have to include Am¬ performance. they not been cut off by early bassador Beam’s narrative in their On another subject, now much in deaths. Multiple Exposure: An bibliographies, it is unlikely that the news, the ambassador is much American Ambassador’s Unique any will see in the book a source of less reticent. He makes it clear that Perspective on East-West Issues is new insights into the foreign he does not altogether approve of Ambassador Jacob Beam’s in¬ policymaking process. There is lit¬ the attention which has been given

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38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 to the Russian dissenters, and says could.” methods employed by the French that while he was ambassador “the The Medvedev brothers, inci¬ army foreshadowed the American embassy thought it best to avoid di¬ dentally, are mistakenly referred to experience, but with one dif¬ rect contact with dissenters which as sociologists, when in fact one is ference—in the strict military sense might embarrass us and cause them an historian and other (whose first they were almost successful, and at serious trouble. . He is particu¬ name is also misspelled) is a one point had driven virtually the larly out of sympathy for Alexan¬ biologist. entire enemy guerrilla force into der Solzhenitsyn, as the following —THOMAS A. DONOVAN Tunisia. gratuitous passage makes clear: But politically the war was a dis¬ “Solzhenitsyn in particular posed a aster. In the process six French War of Liberation problem for all concerned. One of his prime ministers were successively former Russian editors told me that toppled and France found herself Solzhenitsyn’s first drafts contained A SAVAGE WAR OF PEACE, by Alistair locked in a struggle with her own masses of eloquent but undigested writ- Horne. Viking, $12.95. settlers, led by French generals. In .ing which had to be organized into a Algeria's war of independence the end she was only saved from a coherent whole. The original manu¬ lasted nearly eight years, bringing military coup by the inflexibility of script of his One Day in the Life of Ivan death to several hundred thousand de Gaulle and the ineptitude and Denisovich, which Khrushchev al¬ people. It was a war fought with thin political base of the con¬ lowed to be published, was three times disgusting and unexampled savag¬ spirators. the length of the finished book and was overloaded with vulgarisms and ery by the Algerian nationalists, Alistair Horne has produced a obscure passages which had to be accompanied by atrocities directed vivid, dispassionate and meticu¬ edited out." as much against dissidents within lously researched account of Afri¬ And on relations between the re¬ their own ranks—and their hapless ca’s bloodiest “war of liberation." gime in Moscow and the country’s families—as against the European Buttressed by hundreds of personal non-Russian minorities, one comes settlers and the French army. interviews, and with access to on the observation—an astonishing Before the eight-year struggle French military records and held one for a man who is now president ended the French army against its reports, this book is a contempo¬ of the Free Europe Committee— will was sucked into the morass of rary classic of politico-military his¬ that “the Russians are accustomed enmity between Berber and Colon, tory and will undoubtedly remain to ruling and, as I have remarked and became caught up in the vi¬ the most authoritative work on the before, have on the whole probably cious cycle of repression and re¬ subject for years to come. done it as well as any other group prisal. The counter-insurgency —CHARLES MAECHLING, JR.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, Octoher, 1978 39 ARMS CONTROL: provocations, and probably only increase the likelihood of a nuclear THE DIFFUSION OF EXPERTISE after conventional invasion of the counterspasm. Yet, who can from page 26 initiating power's territory? This is foretell if this would be the case? the heart of the problem. Little consideration has been given bombs? True, the great powers can The boom in arms sales and to the fact that poverty may en¬ read the emissions of bomb explo¬ transfer in which the United States hance innovative capacity, and re¬ sions with sensors and determine has had clear dominance has such duce cost and superfluity. the components, the quality of questions built into it. When nu¬ finish and probable origins. Such a clear weapons and their control In spite of these uncertainties direct assault on a super power systems were relatively crude, and the complexities of keeping a would nevertheless offer grave from 1949 to the early 1960s. the balanced view of developing sys¬ provocation. The question of how use of a nuclear weapon by either tems, the main focus of policymak¬ much great powers control their side would have been a clear signal ers and military leaders is on the client states’ actions is always that the gauntlet was down. In the quantity of weapons. The values of murky, even to the controllers. A conditions of stalemate and an un¬ a world that saw military power in judgment of such linkages and ap¬ certain American will to use power terms of “rifles” on land and “the propriate responses might have to and force, and the new tech¬ main battle line” at sea are with us be made quickly and under great nologies of jamming, would the still; vital parts of the military sup¬ stress. In such cases, the same same kind of insouciance shown by port system are still viewed as problem emerges as it does in a the Carter administration toward being as marginal as “the tail.” In general nuclear exchange scenario: the Finlandization of Angola be spite of attempts at reform, prestige do new techniques of monitoring displayed toward Europe if NATO and promotability still lie in careers and response really mean that the C3 (Communications, Command, close to the combat “teeth” as op¬ great powers might exchange nu¬ Control) was jammed out for three posed to the administration “tail.” clear weapons shot for shot without days while a Soviet conventional although, in some cases, a military escalating to a full broadside, the invasion isolated American forces organization may better survive a so-called “limited strategic option from communication? Would the loss of weaponry than of its support scenario?” Is it valid to expect that fatigue, anxiety, uncertainty and system. Nevertheless, a basic as¬ probably there would be no nuclear blank display screens produce sumption underlying the Strategic sneak attacks by one smaller nation paralysis—or some kind of nuclear Arms Limitation Talks (as was the against another small nation, but response? It may be that the option case with the Naval Conferences of rather that the use of such weapons of a dazzling, super-infiltrating the 1920s and "30s) is that a reduc¬ would come at the end of a series of blitzkrieg in Western Europe would tion of principal units of power

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40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 constitutes effective disarmament. tion of information and on meas¬ Fixating on ICBMs and SLBMs as ured response. As heartening as modern equivalents to battleships evidence may be of common inter¬ tends to depreciate the power of est and good will in the field of innovation in science and technol¬ arms control, nevertheless as ogy, for innovations are often a re¬ military-related science and sponse to the shelving or curtailing technology continue to develop, of other weapons types. Like a and as smaller nations develop flashflood moving over sand, the larger pools of expertise which are flow is unpredictable, especially part of modern military power, since boundaries between pure and gains made on one part of the applied civilian research and mili¬ game-board are lost on others, and tary application blur as develop¬ for there is a particularly strong po¬ the reduction of major weapons is ments in technology and science tential for conflict when advantage but a shrinking of the loaf. The follow an exponential growth is perceived after a long period of toughest part of the crust lies curve. A treaty curbing weapons stalemate. The sense that a ahead, for qualitative proliferation numbers can more easily be pres¬ panacea is at hand, and that the has a momentum which is difficult ented as a politico-diplomatic all-too-fleeting moment of advan¬ to perceive and to arrest. A prob¬ triumph. tage must be seized, is a very heady lem no less critical than conven¬ The implications, then, of the and dangerous feeling. The only tional and strategic weapons prolif¬ expanding wave of military-related immediate control over such in¬ eration, it is of such a nature that technology are many, for prolifera¬ stabilities lies in accepting uncer¬ inattention to its potential may con¬ tion goes beyond weaponry. The tainty as the ultimate control. The found the achievements and hopes focus of arms control and strategy diffusion of technologically com¬ of those who aimed their efforts at alike must extend beyond plex systems, less and less visible controlling weapons per se. That weaponry to related systems, and by surveillance satellites, and the current proliferation of all types must keep in mind that instability incentive to develop circumventing of weapons constitutes a virtual may be masked in the complexities innovations must be kept in mind. polarization of much of the Third that arise from qualitative prolifera¬ Such dispersal, inadvertent or in¬ World cannot be of comfort to tion. This is especially true in re¬ tentional, will place a greater pre¬ those who remember how the Bal¬ gard to advantages perceived as mium on conventional intelligence kans proved to be the tinder-box of components and designs change. gathering, on synthesis and evalua¬ more than Europe.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 41 WHAT IS hood of conflict arising from mis¬ gument based in large part upon PUBLIC DIPLOMACY understanding or ignorance. Thus, wishful thinking that flies in the from page 34 the causes of world peace and in¬ face of the evidence of human ex¬ ternational brotherhood are served. perience. standings having been eliminated Unfortunately, this reasoning ig¬ Whatever its intended pur¬ and mutual understanding of differ¬ nores abundant evidence, past and pose—whether it is to persuade or ing points of view having been present, to the contrary. In every to inform—and whatever its utility achieved, agreement will somehow period of history and in every quar¬ to serve the cause of world peace, flow from those achievements, or, ter of the globe, peoples of different public diplomacy implies a need for alternatively, some other process languages and cultures who, it can governments to communicate, not will take over to resolve the differ¬ be assumed, know each other as only with the governments of other ences. At any rate, understanding well as it is possible for different countries after the fashion of tradi¬ but not necessarily agreement ap¬ peoples to know each other have tional diplomacy, but with the peo¬ pears to be the ultimate aim of been the deadliest of enemies. ple of those countries as well. That ICA's public diplomacy in contrast Peoples living for centuries in adja¬ is the principal difference between to traditional diplomacy’s aim of cent lands or even intermingling traditional and public diplomacy. If seeking agreement, however tenta¬ have engaged in bloody slaughter the purpose of public diplomacy is tive or ephemeral it might prove to and repeated wars: the French and to inform rather than to persuade, it be. the Germans in Europe, the Hin¬ further implies a deficiency of some Those who advocate governmen¬ dus and the Muslims in the Indian kind in the movement of informa¬ tal sponsorship of international ex¬ subcontinent, the Vietnamese and tion across international bound¬ change of information and ideas the Cambodians in southeast aries by non-government means, a usually base their advocacy on a Asia—the list could go on both his¬ deficiency demanding assistance or familiar chain of reasoning. A torically and geographically. When correction through governmental strong, free, unimpeded flow of peoples of different cultures, lan¬ efforts. In his letter transmitting truthful information between peo¬ guages and values come to know Reorganization Plan Number 2 to ples of different countries, they ar¬ each other better, their tendency to Congress, President Carter gue, promotes better mutual under¬ engage in disputes and wars appar¬ prophesied that “the new agency standing. Better mutual under¬ ently does not necessarily di¬ will play a central role in build¬ standing leads to increased toler¬ minish: it may even increase. So ing .. . two-way bridges of under¬ ance. respect and perhaps even af¬ the advocate for public diplomacy standing between our people and fection, and it decreases the likeli¬ seems to be inclined to use an ar¬ the peoples of the world." Lest

42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 anyone become alarmed about the Moreover, governmental activities diplomacy, however it is carried government playing a central role in international communication al¬ on, whether by ambassadors or in international communication and ways run the risk not only of being heads of state in person. perhaps thereby displacing some suspected to be outright prop¬ Is there an equally obvious and existing private channels of com¬ aganda, but of actually degenerat¬ demonstrable need for something munication, John Reinhardt in ing into the self-serving half-truths called public diplomacy? Does tra¬ Knoxville had explained that “it is and lies of propaganda. Is this a ditional diplomacy now require a not the function of public diplo¬ risk worth taking in the interests of complementary effort it did not re¬ macy to compete, rather to en¬ serving some higher, overriding quire in the past? Is the movement hance and supplement existing ef¬ need? In brief, what particular di¬ of information across national forts." Nevertheless, it seems rea¬ mension can government bring to boundaries—so accelerated in re¬ sonable to ask why a government international communication (apart cent years thanks to improvements must play a central role in interna¬ from the communication of tradi¬ in communications technology— tional communication, why a gov¬ tional diplomacy) that is clearly yet deficient in some respect so as ernment must enhance and sup¬ needed and that non-governmental to demand that governments stimu¬ plement existing efforts. Tech¬ means cannot bring? To ask the late and enhance international nological improvements in the question is not intended to imply communication and officially means of communication have that the answer is necessarily communicate not only with the made international communication “none;” it is meant only to call at¬ governments of other countries but more widespread than ever before tention to the need for a convincing with the people of those countries in history. Barriers to the move¬ explanation of what public diplo¬ as well? If so, does a government's ment of information across national macy is and why we need it. responsibility in this undertaking boundaries exist, but they are So long as the world is composed end with establishing mutual un¬ man-made barriers and whether of a congeries of sovereign, inde¬ derstanding of differing points of governments can effectively pene¬ pendent nations, there- will be an view (i.e. informing) or does its re¬ trate them when private means obvious and demonstrated need for sponsibility properly extend be¬ cannot is questionable. More often the management of relations among yond that “starting point" in two- than not, when private means are those nations by negotiation—in way communication to seek frustrated, governmental efforts short, for the foreseeable future, agreement (i.e. persuading)? In¬ suffer to about the same degree. there will be a need for traditional deed, is it really possible for a gov-

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 43 ernment to communicate with the ernments to agree with American public diplomacy really just a people of another country in any policies and purposes, or so the euphemism for that familiar old way except as some form of advo¬ term itself suggests. There is noth¬ bugaboo, propaganda, practiced cacy and persuasion (propaganda, ing wrong in seeking to do so. The either by heads of government per¬ if you will), however truthful and American government considers sonally making astute use of the mild that propaganda might be? those policies and purposes cor¬ devices of international mass The answers to those questions rect, or it would not embrace them. communication for their own ends, remain uncertain. Public diplo¬ To seek agreement on them is both or, more familiarly, by bureaucra¬ macy remains an ambiguous term logical and responsible. The first tic organizations doing the same? If and a doubtful concept, the utility step in that process is to achieve it is not—as the American govern¬ of which is usually defended with mutual understanding, but it seems ment says it is not—is public di¬ an argument that is, at least in some altogether proper and necessary for plomacy nevertheless still an ele¬ respects, demonstrably wrong. a government’s public diplo¬ ment of diplomacy as those who “Public diplomacy,” if the term macy—if a governmental effort of use the term obviously mean to im¬ has meaning, signifies a process that kind is proper and necessary in ply? If it is, are its ultimate aims the closely and directly related to tradi¬ the first instance—to take the next same as those of traditional diplo¬ tional diplomacy which is the prin¬ step which is to seek the ultimate macy? Or is the term currently cipal means by which foreign pol¬ objective of all diplomacy, i.e. being employed as a euphemism for icy is carried out. Hans Morgen- agreement. something which seeks identifica¬ thau, with characteristic insight, In the absence of a convincing tion with a respected and needed has written that “the ultimate aim and logically consistent explana¬ traditional activity but which of foreign policy is always the tion of what public diplomacy is, shrinks from the difficult choices same: to promote one's interests by those who say they practice it risk that inevitably arise as a part of that changing the mind of the oppo¬ being regarded as propagandists— activity? Whatever it is, public di¬ nent ... All foreign policy, then, in the worst sense of the word—on plomacy awaits its Harold Nicol- is a struggle for the minds of men.” the one hand, or on the other hand son to define convincingly and with As a presumed element of a coor¬ as people engaged in an undertak¬ precision what it is, why it is dinated effort to achieve that aim, ing of questionable utility which needed, what it should try to ac¬ public diplomacy logically seeks to fulfills no demonstrated need and complish and how it should be car¬ persuade foreign peoples and gov¬ lacks any legitimate purpose. Is ried on.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL., October, 1978 THE AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL ness to human suffering. He cold¬ should be giving advice on national from page 19 bloodedly placed balance-of-power security matters and actually set¬ tration were among the greatest en¬ considerations above considera¬ ting himself up as a rival to the sec¬ thusiasts for expanding the Ameri¬ tions of common humanity in “tilt¬ retary of state. The damage to can involvement in Vietnam and ing” toward Pakistan at the time of American foreign relations inflicted providing it with intellectual justifi¬ its sadistic extermination of un¬ by the periodic effusions of this er¬ cation—that is, until disaster be¬ armed Bangladesh civilians, and he ratic and excitable intellectual is all came apparent, at which time they connived with Greek and Latin the greater because of the political abandoned ship in a body, leaving American military juntas in their inexperience of the president. President Johnson with an unwinn- oppression of their own citizens. So long as the symbiotic rela¬ able war on his hands. President' Carter’s dependence tionship between the politician, the While it is probably too soon to on his own stable of intellectuals is intellectual and the media con¬ judge the ultimate success or fail¬ even more pronounced than was tinues to dominate government, we ure of the foreign policies of Henry the case with his predecessors can expect an increasing drift to Kissinger in the Nixon and Ford Nixon and Ford, who were experi¬ public diplomacy. The inevitable administrations, it seems clear that enced politicians with lengthy ex¬ result will be sweeping policy pro¬ his belief in “linkage” and obses¬ posure to foreign affairs. An excel¬ nouncements and inflated expecta¬ sion with America’s pivotal role in lent case can be made for the argu¬ tions followed by diplomatic retreat the balance of world power played ment that Zbigniew Brzezinski in the face of practical realities, an instrumental part in extending made Jimmy Carter president of with public disillusionment and the Vietnam war six years after the the United States. By introducing howls of execration as the sequel. date that President Nixon took of¬ Carter to the Trilateral Commis¬ For the last decade the intellectual fice. The same obsession with au¬ sion, and thereafter becoming his has profited in every material way thority at the expense of dissent led tutor in foreign affairs, Brzezinski from this state of affairs. It is now him to ignore public opinion at provided an entree to larger hori¬ time for him to recognize his re¬ home and to dictate conformity to zons than Carter would otherwise sponsibilities. No reasonable per¬ his subordinates, including tele¬ have aspired to. Only prior indebt¬ son would contest the rightful place phone taps on their private con¬ edness can explain why yet of the intellectual in a civilized so¬ versations. Kissinger’s most unat¬ another foreign professor, devoid ciety. But unless clothed in integ¬ tractive quality, considering his of practical experience and a rity it should not be in the field of own refugee origins, is his callous¬ stranger to this country’s wars. foreign affairs.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 45 HUMAN RIGHTS AND by the Jackson-Vanik amendment. and even within the Administra¬ AMERICAN POLICY IN AFRICA For policy-makers in Africa and tion, in the name of human rights. from page 22 elsewhere, this is a classic example Should we apply linkage, in the less likely to make the wrong of what not to do. If the primary form of conditions, to our eco¬ moves. objective is to get exit visas for nomic aid? Well, that depends. In And if our priorities are right, Soviet , you start by recogniz¬ the most tyrannical and cruel dic¬ we'll be more likely to avoid error ing that this is an essentially tatorships, we can avoid initiating in the choice of the arena for ac¬ domestic issue and hence ex¬ aid programs in the first place. But tion. We will avoid taking actions tremely sensitive for any country. for countries where programs al¬ in the UN which, because they vio¬ So you should prefer quiet diplo¬ ready exist, I think we can usually late the charter, are perceived as macy to public confrontation. And do more for human rights if we con¬ illegal and hypocritical by the peo¬ you also avoid linking this objec¬ fine our linkage to conditions relat¬ ple we are trying to influence, and tive with the quite unrelated issue ing to the practical effectiveness of are therefore destined to be ineffec¬ of whether to end our trade dis¬ our aid in attaining its objectives. tive. We will avoid actions or crimination against the USSR. In a The host countries will understand statements which encourage nutshell, a simple rule to follow is and accept the argument that we paranoia and self-righteousness on that linkage, to be successful, can hardly use tax-supported re¬ the part of rulers as well as promot¬ should associate like objects. It is sources on projects which do not ing, on the side of the challengers, a appropriate to link the neutron really reach or benefit the people. radicalization, a refusal to com¬ bomb or cruise missile with Soviet The advancement of human promise, and an unjustified reliance rocket launchers, for instance. rights is an objective which, like on salvation by outside interven¬ We’ll forego ours if they forego the pursuit of happiness, can most tion. And finally, with our eyes on theirs. This doesn't guarantee that often be achieved by indirection, the ball, we are less likely to make our offer will be accepted. But one rather than frontal assault. the serious mistake of attempting thing we can count on. We won't the wrong kind of linkages. make matters actually worse, as I am not objecting to linkage as the Jackson amendment has done. such in diplomacy, any more than I hope the Department draws the in collective bargaining between proper lesson from this experience management and labor. I just ob¬ as it reviews some of the hasty pro¬ ject to ill-chosen and ineffective posals for leverage and linkage now linkages such as that represented being urged on the Administration,

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46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October. 1978 as: “He doesn’t have a degree and lower ranking to add additional lin¬ LETTERS HD doesn’t realize what it takes to get ing to the higher ranking. If man¬ RSJ one, if he could.” Comments like agement is trying to completely de¬ From the Silent Majority that will no longer be valid for stroy the morale and initiative of many of us. I, like many others in the staff, they are certainly doing a For far too long I have the staff corps, have such great job. I find myself in the same been a silent member, similar to credentials—a B.A. in Business position as many others in my many others, in the majority of Administration and most of my bracket. I don’t really want to lower ranking people in Foreign Masters in International Relations. leave Foreign Service. Because I Service. After the latest affront to Even with those credentials, I have a family, it is difficult to leave the lower ranking, 1 feel that I no don’t think that I would like to be without having another job waiting longer can remain silent. I, like an officer any more, as was once (difficult to find when 10,000 miles many others, have voiced often and my desire. I like to think of myself from home). But, if I had a good sometimes loudly to those around as a professional and am more con¬ job offer, I would leave tomorrow me my feelings about the seemingly cerned with getting the job done as with only a few small regrets. I endless ways that management has best I can. I am not saying that all would like to feel that things are found to undermine the staff corps, officers are not concerned with get¬ going to change in the not too dis¬ in particular, and now, much to my ting the job done, but the majority tant future, but I doubt it, and I surprise, even the lower ranking of¬ that I have met, and especially the don’t wish to wait until I am 50 to ficers. The latest issue of Sep¬ fat cats back in the Department, see if it will change. tember 17 headline RICH GET are more concerned with their own I sincerely hope that many more RICHER AND POOR GET POORER personal ego trips and maintaining of the silent majority will now start really states what is happening. themselves as an elite group above to come out in the open and state The recent change in the cost of liv¬ all others. their feelings as loudly and as well ing allowance borders on the point Let’s get to some of the basics. as they can. Without this happen¬ of being ridiculous. All the statis¬ An ambassador or consul general, ing, I don't think the future of the tics, graphs, and charts cannot and, as I have seen, all the officers staff corps has a prayer. prove a thing to me. The only thing from a major section of a post may DENNIS E. HINEN that 1 see is that my allowance has be absent and the work goes on as C&R Assistant been cut to add to the already, in usual. If the secretary or com¬ AmConGen Sydney many cases, overpaid pockets of municator is gone, there is pan¬ our illustrious leaders. After the demonium. If the secretary is mis¬ Correction last promotion lists came out, there sing, there are plaintive cries of The last time I had an arti¬ was a great gnashing of teeth about “Who will type this letter” or cle in the FSJ, some years ago, you how the poor officers took a beat¬ “Who will make my coffee." When identified me as going to ing for the first time in 25 years. the communicator is gone, there Bucharest, whereas I was headed More cables and airgrams were are not only the too frequent and for Prague. In my article about transmitted on this subject than 1 ridiculous questions such as “What DCM-ships in the August issue thought was possible. about the stamps that I need” or you said I had served as DCM in It is not really strange to those of “Who is going to pick up our mail” Prague and Moscow. Actually it us in the staff corps that not too or “Who is going to mail my pack¬ was Prague and Stockholm, and I many of our leaders have been age,” the blunt truth is that in many thought maybe I should write to set upset about the constant beating cases (one man posts) there are no the record straight. the staff corps has been taking for communications period. Without JACK PERRY years. The answer to our problems communications a post cannot Washington has always been: “Why not change function. And, it is about time that fields—go Mustang—go Lateral.” management realizes this plain and Without the staff corps, Foreign simple fact. It would be interesting Long Distance Biking Service cannot survive. Manage¬ to check and see who has the most ment apparently finds it difficult to home leave accumulated, because Having served with Jorma understand that many of us in the it is never possible for a com¬ Kaukonen in Sweden from '62 to staff corps consider ourselves pro¬ municator to be gone for too long. '67, we would like to respond to fessionals. I cannot imagine any The same result would be found by “A Report from Sweden and Fin¬ ambassador wishing to have a cheeking annual leave for the same land.” Staff-9 or -8 as his secretary, or a reason. Bravo, Jorma! As veterans of Regional Communications Officer It is about time that pay and three long-distance bicycle trips, with the same rank. I, like many promotions should be given accord¬ we applaud your trip from Sweden others in the staff corps, happen to ing to merit. It is about time that to Finland and your telling of it. enjoy my job. I feel that it takes a management realizes that it costs You made a number of points great deal more technical expertise the same to house and feed a family which were dear to our hearts. to be a good communicator than to of four for a Staff Six as it does for First of all, that one is never too old be a good officer. I also feel it is the an 0-6. Allowances should be paid to embrace new experiences, par¬ same for the secretarial staff. I can on need, not rank. If it is necessary ticularly experiences which involve hear now some of the comments for an officer to entertain, then give physical effort. that will be coming from some offi¬ him representation allowances. Secondly, we couldn’t agree cers reading this—comments such Don’t take the money from the more with your choice of tube tires

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 49 over sew-ups, heavier spokes and ing such aid unilaterally and mag¬ For Moral Courage panniers, as opposed to any sort of nanimously and then reaping In Martin Herz’s recent ar¬ encumbrance on the back. worldwide plaudits for our sincere ticle “ ‘Prostitution' in the Foreign Most of all, we were smiling in arrangements to implement the Service—And What to Do About agreement as you said: “I love program of reconstruction. Did we It” (Journal, August 1978) he told long, sustained physical effort in lose our sense of graciousness the story of his encounter with a an andante tempo ... a daily when we lost a war? Foreign Service inspector who was schedule with a specified geo¬ Likewise, there are few students afraid that his own career would be graphic goal of at least a hundred of international affairs who would damaged if he reported honestly on kilometers ... I must have warm deny that maintaining our unsinka- a certain ambassador. Mr. Herz food . . . They . . . don’t like to ble launching pads at Clark Field concluded that “Perhaps one can stop in small town restaurants. . .” and Subic Bay is very much in the learn from this tale that sometimes You see, our trips through Switzer¬ interests of the United States. Yet an extra dose of moral courage is land, Ireland and Scotland (on again bitter words are being ex¬ most likely to be found among offi¬ Raleigh 4-speeds, I might add) changed in Manila as we re¬ cers who no longer have much to were taken in the company of 15 negotiate our rights to Philippine lose . . .” teen-agers, 14 through 19. Let’s bases. The majority of the vast My suggestion is this— face it, there is a “generation gap’’ acreage we hold outside of Angeles Consideration should be given to when it comes to long-distance bik¬ and Olongapo has never been used. using retired Foreign Service offi¬ ing styles. Some of that acreage is still virgin cers as members of inspection Problems do fade, and the jungle. How gracious—and how teams. They are certainly knowl¬ “golden glow” does indeed re¬ diplomatically fruitful—it would edgeable about the workings of main. We’re ready to set off again have been if years ago we had Foreign Service posts, they are not any time. How about it? ceded this unused and unwanted being drawn away from other JANIS AND PHIL BENSON land back to the Philippines, keep¬ duties, and, importantly, they have Burke, Va. ing only what we could use, and no personal axes to grind. They are thus won the applause of the world no longer affected in their judg¬ America’s Foreign Policy for our enlightenment in working ments by career possibilities. out arrangements to assist in de¬ The chief inspector of the team There’s nothing wrong veloping this land for low-cost should probably continue to be an with America’s foreign policy in housing and agricultural resettle¬ active officer—he is most currently Asia, bad as it is, that a little old- ment. aware for counseling purposes of fashioned graciousness couldn’t What seems to be lacking in personnel trends within the De¬ cure. It’s not so much what we're Foggy Bottom that these solutions partment. But a retired officer on doing but how we’re doing it that’s never were followed through by the team could be a strong element, so shameful. those mapping our diplomatic especially in cases such as those There are few students of foreign ventures? To what university or in¬ cited in Mr. Herz’s article. affairs who would deny that estab¬ stitution or establishment should I realize that at this time, with so lishing relations with the Socialist we turn in the search for men with a many senior officers floating Republic of Vietnam would be in sense of graciousness? Isn't that around without good assignments, the best interests of the United any longer a facet of diplomacy? it is not practical to suggest that in¬ States. Yet in the corridors of RICHARD P. WILSON spector assignments should not be Foggy Bottom that project now has (FSIO, Ret.) available to them. But, hopefully, all the urgency and priority of dis¬ Hauula, Hawaii this is a passing phase, and some tracted inattention. Normalization EDITOR’S NOTE: This correspondent's thought will be given to using re¬ of relations has been put on the ire with the corridors of Foggy Bottom tired officers on inspection teams, back burner. is misdirected. He should instead ad¬ for the good of the Foreign Service. Aside from our precedent-setting dress Capitol Hill, since the issue of non-provision of economic assistance ARTHUR D. FOLEY expulsion of the Vietnamese am¬ Washington, D.C. bassador to the United Nations, to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is admittedly done without the prior neither evidence of bureaucratic meanness nor a lack of AID and State DCM Selection consultation with Hanoi required Department graciousness, but rather by the 1947 US-U N treaty, our dip¬ results from explicit statutory man¬ Jack Perry's article in the lomatic initiatives in six days of dates. August Journal—On Being a Dep¬ Paris negotiations have been Provision of economic aid to Viet¬ uty Chief of Mission—was excel¬ marked by a distinct lack of imagi¬ nam is currently prohibited by a lent. Congratulations to him for nation. Holding up conclusion of number of congressional enactments: writing and to the Journal for pub¬ the whole venture is a matter of language in the Foreign Assistance Act lishing such a well-considered as¬ $4.25 billion in postwar reconstruc¬ of 1977 and Section 107 of the 1978 sessment of the needs, and at times tion grants and rehabilitation aid. Foreign Aid Appropriations Act, for¬ pleasures, of a job that does not al¬ We have let this meanness smolder bids the expenditure of any foreign as¬ ways get the attention it merits. sistance funds for Vietnam. Also, Sec¬ Having been deputy to ambas¬ and fester; we ourselves have tion 411 of the P.L. 480 “Food for created it as a thorny issue. How Peace” legislation, prevents either sadors on six occasions—and twice much more gracious it would have concessional sales of US agricultural more for temporary periods—in been if years ago we had beaten the commodities (Titles I and III) or dona¬ about ten years, I was especially Vietnamese to the punch by offer- tions (Title II) of food aid to Vietnam. gratified to read and agree with 50 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 practically all of Perry’s words of the birth of her latest daughter! of content. In the 1920s Fred Sim- advice and warning to those who MICHAEL GANNETT pich, a popular writer of magazine hold DCM positions or are about Chevy Chase articles along with his service as a to assume them. My only doubt consular officer, used to have to was raised about his view that am¬ On Professionalism beg, in the pages of the Bulletin, for bassadors should, presumably in all Congratulations on the contributions from the field, and instances, select their own DCMs. high quality of the August issue. then write unsigned articles for the No DCM should, of course, be The fine, professionally-oriented Bulletin himself as he was one of forced on a reluctant chief, nor articles by Herz, Perry and Schutz the editors. I think I have read, should one be continued long are what we should expect of the cover to cover, every issue of the whose personality obviously con¬ magazine of a professional organi¬ Bulletin and the Journal (and the flicts with the man in charge. Yet I zation. What a shame that our As¬ Newsletter) since then. have known ambassadors, usually sociation devotes only a few lines We have not solved the problem political ones, who were clearly in in its five-page annual report in the of a publisher of a second volume need of a DCM who would not same issue to professionalism and of Foreign Service Authors. hesitate to correct procedural mis¬ then only notes that its Committee Foreign Service people do not stop takes the chief was about to make on Professional Affairs has spon¬ writing, of course, and their books or, more important, to challenge sored lunches and “considered the are appearing every few weeks. We the ambassador’s judgments on feasibility of developing’’ a code of have recorded about 300 additional substantive questions. Such am¬ ethics and a statement of the authors and/or books which have bassadors are not likely to select uniqueness of the Foreign Service. appeared since 1973 which we will such deputies. JACK B. BUTTON give to the person who will compile EDWARD A. JAMISON Tokyo a second volume. Chevy Chase Work on a second volume has to AFSA President Hydle replies: The An¬ nual Report published in the August be a “labor of love” as I have not Of the Making of Books FSJ devoted about a column-and-a-half found another publisher. The pub¬ to professional affairs and the FSJ. The lisher of the first volume, the James Hansen’s article on Professional Affairs Committee, Scarecrow Press, Ltd. of Me- bookbinding (FS Journal, August) through the January FSJ, asked Mem¬ tuchen, N.J. did not make a fortune brings to mind the Foreign Ser¬ bers to participate in the consideration on it and we bought the last 40 vol¬ vice’s own bookbinding ritual in of the uniqueness/ethics issue; re¬ umes, of which a few have gone to former times. Once a year each of sponse from the Membership was dis¬ the Foreign Service Women’s our file rooms the world over appointing. Book Fair. Still, the Foreign Ser¬ would clear a table for some local vice goes on and a bibliography of Bibliophile Needed binder, who would arrive with its authors does have an increasing thread, needles, glue pots, and pre¬ I have read every page of value as the years go by. There viously prepared covers (some with the July Journal and am moved to must be someone, either active or spines that often were covered with say that it is the best issue since retired, who would like to take on gorgeous red leather, with gold let¬ 1920. Of course in 1920 it was the second volume. tering) and bind up the paper debris known as the Consular Bulletin, RICHARD FYFE BOYCE, SR. of the previous year, classified as but that does not change the facts Santa Fe well as unclassified. The resultant volumes would then join those of previous years, in some dusty closet. And in time those handsome volumes were packed off to the Na¬ tional Archives where, I am told, each was broken up and bindings thrown out, so as to discard as well those items that duplicated what materials had already been re¬ ceived from the State Department. 1 had the pleasure shortly after World War II, for instance, of re¬ moving from the empty, bomb- damaged legation residence in the Soviet sector of Vienna the ac¬ cumulated archives of our mission in that city, covering the years from when it was first opened in the 1820s. Inter alia, these volumes in¬ cluded an instruction, signed by the Secretary of State, directing the United States minister to offer congratulations to the Empress on "Almost think he was trying to tell us something!"

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 51 OCTOBER, 1978 AhbA

This portion of the JOURNAL is the re¬ AFSA LOOKS AT ITSELF sponsibility of the Governing Board of AFSA and is intended to report on Last June two retired Foreign Ser¬ ing the Keyperson Network in the employee-management issues, condi¬ vice officers who had served as course of the Membership Drive; more tions of employment and the policy and Inspectors—Ambassador Ed Clark and help is needed. former Deputy Assistant Secretary for administration of AFSA, including its Internal Structure Board, Committees, and Chapters. Budget and Fiscal Joe Donelan— Members wishing to send letters on conducted a survey of AFSA’s internal The President will review the As¬ employment, working conditions or management at the request of the Gov¬ sociation’s internal structure—the roles 1 AFSA affairs should get them to AFSA erning Board. The survey reveals sev¬ and missions of the Board, the Offi¬ by the 10th of the month preceding de¬ eral financial and organizational prob¬ cers, the Committees, and the profes¬ sired publication. AFSA News Commit¬ lems and influenced the Board's An¬ sional staff—and make recom¬ tee, Room 3644, N.S. nual Report, delivered at the June 30 mendations to the Board on how these Annual Meeting of the Washington might be made more efficient. Membership and published in the Au¬ Finance gust AFSA News, pp. 45-49. The CONTENTS Board discussed the survey at Board We will obtain an appraisal of the New V.P 53 meetings on August 30 and September current value of the AFSA headquar¬ New Treasurer 53 5 and I2. As of early September, the ters building at 2101 E Street, NW and AFSA Scholarships 53 Board has taken the following actions consider options such as refinancing Foreign Service People 54 with respect to the areas covered by the our mortgage, rental of part of the Union Affiliation 54 survey. building, or sale of the building and reinvestment of funds derived there¬ Membership Drive from. Meanwhile, we will review the A vigorous Membership Drive has allocation of overhead costs of occu¬ RESULTS OF SURVEY been launched, with a target of 7.000 pancy of the building and operations ON BIO REGISTER Members and Associates. Letters have among AFSA’s various activities to as¬ been sent to non-Member Foreign Ser¬ sure that these are fair. The FY 1979 Following are the results of the sur¬ vice people assigned overseas, and in Budget calls fora new roof on the build¬ vey on publication of the Biographic State and AID in Washington. The ing. If the financial situation of the Register which appeared in the Feb¬ goal is 7,000 Members and Associates, AFSA General Fund improves, after ruary 1978 Journal. including 3,400 State. 1001 AID. 300 adjustments in the salary of the profes¬ "I. I want the Biographic Register as a ICA. 1,900 Retired, and 500 Associ¬ sional staff have been implemented, public document. ates (which would add up to 7,001). and to the extent permitted by the need YES: 238 NO: 24 The Board is considering using its au¬ to avoid a negative cash balance due to 2. I agree that my biographic informa¬ thority under Article 11.2 of the Bylaws uneven cash flow, the Treasurer will tion be published." to create a category of affiliation called make recommendations to the Govern¬ YES: 263 NO: I0 "International Affiliate." which would ing Board on how such additional A total of 280 individual eligible votes be for certain groups of non- money should be used. Priority will be were received. This represents 4.7 per¬ Americans, and would have entitle¬ given to proposals which would in¬ cent of total Membership eligible to ments similar to those of Associates. crease income or net worth, reduce ex¬ penditures, or improve our services to vote. II ineligible ballots, consisting of Internal Communication either non-members or Associates (GS the Membership in employee relations. employees) were received. Communications must be improved, Employee Relations especially w'ith the Washington Mem¬ DISTRIBUTION BREAKDOWN bership. We will increase Redtops and The Board has decided to continue A. By Area: other communication media. We plan the present priority attached to AF- Washington 85 on reviewing framework agreements SA’s role of representing the career Academic Detail 6 with management to see whether we and employee interests of Foreign Ser¬ Retired 7 can use official facilities more effec¬ vice people. We will continue collec¬ Overseas* 182 tively for this purpose. We will estab¬ tive actions on behalf of large groups of TOTAL 280 lish a log to keep track of corre¬ Foreign Service people, as well as indi¬ * 60 votes were received from London: spondence. We are further strengthen¬ vidual grievance counseling: but in case 15 from San Salvador

B. B\ Rank and Pa\ Plan: FSO FSR FSRU FSS FSIO Retired Senior 79 19 4 6 14 6 (1,2,3) ARE YOU A PROBLEM SOLVER? Midlevel 65 12 7 6 1 (4.5) INTERESTED IN MAKING THE Junior 18 6 5 4 1 CITY WORK EFFECTIVELY? (6,7,8) TOTAL* 162 37 16 16 16 6 We need volunteers at the City Hall Complaint Center, Dis- *15 votes received from San Salvador did not indicate rank or pay plan; trict Building, Room 220, 10 am to 2 pm once a week. Call Alice 2 other votes were similarly unmarked for pay plan and rank. Rowen 652-4158 or Sue Okun EM 3-7845.

52 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 of a conflict, greater priority will go to AFSA SCHOLARSHIPS collective actions. Because of limited for dependent sons and resources, AFSA will no longer repre¬ daughters of FS Personnel sent non-Member grievants before the Grievance Board and will consider re¬ Materials for the 1979-1980 AFSA quiring payment for counseling in ex¬ Merit Awards and Financial Aid Pro¬ cess of a certain number of hours. To grams will be ready for mailing in the extent feasible, we will shift to November. All students graduating other members of the professional staff from high school in 1979 interested in the work the Office of the Counselor entering the merit awards program and presently does which is not directly re¬ 1979-1980 undergraduate students in¬ lated to employee relations. We will terested in applying for a financial aid handle our relations with the Congress, grant from the AFSA Scholarship not by hiring a professional lobbyist, Fund should apply to: but through our professional staff and AFSA Scholarship Programs volunteer AFSA Members who have a 2101 E Street, N.W. good understanding of and/or contacts Washington. D.C. 20037 with the Hill. Again this year the deadline for com¬ Foreign Service Journal pletion of the materials is FEB¬ RUARY 15th. The Board recently approved a These programs are made possible KEN ROGERS NEW VEEP statement of purpose for the FSJ. The by funds from the AFSA Scholarship Board is asking the Editorial Board to Fund and funds raised by the AAFSW On July 18 the AFSA Governing undertake a survey of readership inter¬ Book Fair. This annual event needs Board selected State Representative est which would raise, inter alia, the support throughout the year. Kenneth N. Rogers to be Vice Presi¬ possibility of more investigative report¬ In addition to the 57 scholarship re¬ dent of the Association. Ken has been a ing. With a proper allocation of mem¬ cipients announced in the September Governing Board Member since Sep¬ bership dues and the cost of publishing Journal. Kristen Coor was awarded the tember 1975 and has served as Chair¬ AFSA News in the FSJ, and considera¬ American Consulate General Ladies’ man of the Standing Committee on tion of other income-producing and Club. Frankfurt, Scholarship (North¬ State Department Affairs since July cost-saving measures, the Journal ern Arizona University), and Harrison 1977. He has also served on the Legal should be made to pay all of its direct B. Sherwood the Gertrude Stewart Committee and as Chairman of the costs, contribute to overhead operation Memorial Scholarship (Kenyon Col¬ Referendum Committee. Most nota¬ and occupancy expenses of the Associ¬ lege). bly, he has been in charge of the ation as a whole. The Finance Commit¬ negotiations on selection board pre¬ tee, in consultation with the Editorial NEW TREASURER cepts and many other personnel issues Board, will study this matter and make for three years. recommendations to the Governing Ken (an FSO-3) has been in the Board. Foreign Service over 21 years and has Foreign Service Club served in Hong Kong. Vietnam, An¬ gola and Jamaica. He also served in The Board has directed the Finance PM, AC DA, ARA and AF. He re¬ Committee to examine once again and ceived the Meritorious Honor Award make recommendations to the Board in 1962: the Superior Honor Award in concerning measures which might in¬ 1972: and the Award for Valor in 1977. crease usage and revenues of the Club, Ken has just concluded over two years to enable it not only to meet its direct as a Foreign Service Inspector and has costs, as projected in the FY 1979 been assigned to the National War Col¬ budget, but also contribute toward lege. overhead costs. Scholarship Fund FLEXITIME The corpus of the Fund should not AFSA's AID Standing Committee is be decreased. The Treasurer will make M. James Wilkinson. FSO-3, is cur¬ consulting with AID Management recommendations concerning the rently Deputy Director for Exchanges concerning procedures for implement¬ proper allocation of Fund income in the Department’s Office of Soviet ing Flexitime in Washington. While a among increases in the corpus of the Union Affairs. He has also served as variety of problems have to be worked Fund, scholarships, and budget sup¬ Administrative Officer at the American out, we have already encountered one port of the Foreign Service Educational Embassy in Moscow (1974-76). Other simple issue which seems to become and Counseling Center. prior assignments have included the unnecessarily complicated: scheduling of staff meetings. Foreign Service Educational Thai and Soviet desks in the Depart¬ It should be obvious that staff meet¬ and Counseling Center ment, Australia, Germany, and Thai¬ land. He has been active in AFSA as ings and other occasions when a The Board has rejected a proposal Chapter Chairman in Bangkok and number of employees are expected to calling for the separate corporate status more recently as an EUR Keyman. be present should be scheduled during of the FSECC. We support a review, “core time,” that is when all employ¬ with the Association of American the Center will be able to provide more ees not on leave will be in the office. Foreign Service Women, of the Cen¬ services and earn more income so that Supervisors should not schedule a ter's guidelines in order to make it more AFSA and the AAFSW will be able to meeting during those hours at the be¬ autonomous in its day-by-day opera¬ avoid increases, and possibly obtain ginning or end of a work day when tions. consistent with its present legal reductions, in their support to the Cen¬ some employees on flexitime may not and tax status. The Board hopes that ter's budget. be on duty in the office.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 53 Bangkok, Prague, The Hague, Athens, at Saigon, Ouagadougou, Istanbul and Cairo, Calcutta, London, Ottawa and Port-au-Prince before his retirement on as Ambassador to Ethiopia. He was medical disability in 1977. He received appointed Career Minister in 1956. the Superior Honor Award that year. Deaths Ambassador Bliss retired in 1961. He is Born in Korea, he had also served as an Bliss. Don C. Bliss, retired Ambas¬ survived by his wife, Gabriela, of 25 interpreter with the Department of the sador, died on June 25. He served as East End Street, New York, New Army and as a Peace Corps volunteer commercial attache and trade commis¬ York 10028. in East Pakistan. He is survived by his sioner overseas before joining the Bradley. John A. Bradley, FSSO- wife, M. Patricia Wazer, c/o American Foreign Service in 1927. He then retired, died on June 12. He joined the Embassy, Manila and two sons. Ben¬ served in Singapore, Batavia, Foreign Service in 1956 and served at jamin and Thomas. Tokyo and Bankok before his retire¬ Price. Arthur L. Price, FSO. died on ment in 1974. He is survived by his Septembers, in Washington. Mr. Price SPECIAL wife, Takako, 4430 7th Street, South, entered the Foreign Service in 1955 and r~o I St. Petersburg, Florida 33705. served at Hamilton, Berlin, Halifax, rV*l I SERVICES Bay. Charles A. Bay, FSO-retired, Vienna, Stuttgart and . He In order to be of maximum assistance to died on June 2. Mr. Bay joined the is survived by his wife, Nancy, and AFSA members and Journal readers we are Foreign Service in 1920 and served at three children, 1206 West Armory accepting these listings until the 15th of Dublin, Casablanca, Port-au-Prince, Ave., Champaign, 61820. each month for publication in the issue Tampico, Corinto, Tientsin, Bangok, Waring. Frank A. Waring, FSO re¬ dated the following month. The rate is 400 Bucharest, Tirana, Rome, Seville, tired, died on July 12, in California. per word, less 2% for payment in advance, Tegucigalpa, Mexico City and Milan Mr. Waring joined the Foreign service minimum 10 words. Mail copy for adver¬ before his retirement in 1958. He re¬ in 1935 and Served at Tokyo and Syd¬ 1 tisement and check to: Classified Ads, ceived a personal commendatior from ney before his retirement in 1961. He Foreign Service Journal, 2101 E Street, Secretary Cordell Hull for his role in also served as director of research with N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037. evacuating Americans during the the Office of Inter-American Affairs Spanish Civil War. He is survived by and adviser for the Export-Import HOUSES FOR EXCHANGE his wife, Opal, of Lahaska, Bucks Bank, as well as adviser to the US del¬ County, Pennsylvania 18931. egation at the UN conference in San HOME EXCHANGES, rentals worldwide for current Cox. Raymond E. Cox, FSO-retired, Francisco in 1945. He received Japan’s and retired members of foreign services, interna¬ died on August 25, in Washington. Mr. Order of Sacred Treasure and the Leg¬ tional organizations. INTERSERVICE, Box 87, ion of Honor of the Philippines. He is Glen Echo, Md. 20768. Cox entered the Foreign Service in 1921 and served at Lima, London, survived by his wife, Peggy, 7214 Fair- field Dr., Santa Rosa, California 95405, BOOKS Buenos Aires, Prague, Oslo and Wel¬ lington before his retirement in 1946. a daughter, Joan, and four grandchil¬ DO YOUR CHRISTMAS shopping now. Nancy’s He also served with the Tacna Arica dren. Nook, owned by AID/FSR retiree giftwraps and Plebiscitary Commission in 1925, as mails. 20% off popular books, 10% technical secretary of delegation to the Confer¬ UNION AFFILIATION??? books. Box 368, Hyden, KY 41749. ence of Wheat Exporting Countries in The ad hoc Committee on Union Af¬ IF YOU ARE LOOKING for an out-of-print book, 1931 and with the US delegation to the filiation, having examined the pos¬ perhaps I can find it. Dean Chamberlin, FSIO- United Nations in 1945. After retire¬ sibilities of affiliating with various retired, Book Cellar, Freeport, Maine 04032. ment he was President of the National public-sector unions, the responses to Symphony Orchestra and a member of the Membership questionnaire pub¬ SEASHORE RENTAL its Board of Directors. He is survived lished in the May FSJ, and the views of by his wife, Margaret, of 2346 S Street, COSTA DEL SOL, Spain. Two-bedroom the AFSA Survey completed in June, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, a son, is recommending to the governing apartment in modern Andalusian village on Alan B., and three grandchildren. Con¬ seashore. Sand beach, tennis, golf. Board that AFSA not affiliate with a Mountain/sea view. Near Motril, Salobrena, tributions in his memory may be made public-sector union at this time. south of Granada. $100-125 per week. For to the National Symphony Orchestra. In reaching this conclusion, the details, write Dayton Maxwell, American Furness. Paul Robert Furness, six- Committee carefully considered the fol¬ Embassy, N'Djamena 01, Washington, D.C. year-old son of FSO and Mrs. Brian R. lowing: 20520. Furness, died on August 29 of Reye’s • the scattered and limited response Syndrome in St. Louis, Missouri. In to the Membership questionnaire; GIFTS addition to his parents of 441 2nd St., • the close division between suppor¬ BOOMERANGS—as AMERICAN as KANGAROOS! SE, Washington, D.C. 20003 he is sur¬ ters and opponents of affiliation; Pro-Return designs from Australia, England, vived by a sister, Gioia, of the home. • the reluctance of many supporters Germany, USA make unique gifts, exciting sport. The family suggests contributions in his to pay the substantial dues increase Order FREE, illustrated catalogue of 30 styles, memory may be made to the National which would actually be required, books, news. Fast, personal service. Reye’s Syndrome Foundation, P.O. sooner or later, to affiliate with AFSA; BoomerangMan, 3081/2 Park, Monroe, LA 71201. Box 829, Bryan, Ohio 43506. • the stated willingness of many op¬ Hewitt. Lyle R. Hewitt, FSO, budget ponents to drop their AFSA Mem¬ REAL ESTATE and management officer in Nairobi, bership if AFSA did affiliate, or to BERKSHIRE FOOTHILLS. 260-acre tree farm (60 died there on July 1. Mr. Hewitt joined support an increase in the AFSA pasture, mowing). Miles horse trails. Stream¬ the Foreign Service in 1955 and served employee-relations staff as an alterna¬ lets, ponds, wildlife. 1810 house. 5 bedrooms, at Addis Ababa, Mogadiscio, Mon¬ tive to affiliation—an alternative ac¬ slate roofs, unfinished wing. Extraordinary two- rovia, Paris and Nairobi. He is sur¬ ceptable also to some supporters of af¬ story barn 80' x 38'. Gardens, maze, firepond. vived by his wife, Marianne, also a filiation. $225,000. (413) 625-6866. Foreign Service officer in Nairobi, c/o The Governing Board will consider FURNISHED GEORGETOWN HOUSE available De¬ US Embassy, Nairobi, Kenya. the Committee's recommendation and cember 1st to March 1st. Suitable for couple or Orr. Peter D. Orr, FSO-retired, died its decision will be reported to the - single person. $1650 or $600 monthly plus on July 30, in Manila. Mr. On joined membership in a subsequent issue of utilities. 202-857-0880 Ms. Armstrong. the Foreign Service in 1966 and served the Journal.

54 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, October, 1978 1750 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20006 Suite 1305 — Phone (202) 393-4220

CHANGES IN Group Life Program effective March 1, 1978

Additional insurance available up to $30,000 for those who have or take the basic $17,500 policy. It is with pleasure that we announce that our tirement or age 65 (whichever is first). Board is able to offer an additional unit of $10,000 Officers who are now members of the Association group life and AD&D for the active member, making may make application by using the amended form a total of $30,000. including information necessary to satisfy the Un¬ Members of the Association under 60 years of derwriter that they are in good health (see section age and on active service may subscribe for an of booklet entitled ENROLLMENT). additional $10,000, $20,000 or $30,000 Group Life and $10,000, $20,000 or $30,000 AD&D, effective Officers joining the Association who wish the March 1, 1978, at $85 a year per each $10,000 of additional insurance should make their application additional insurance, provided that this additional therefore at the same time as the application for coverage must terminate upon resignation or re¬ Group Life. NEW PREMIUM RATES Regretfully inflation has forced some changes in as of March 1, 1978 reads: our premium rates for the first time since 1929. RETIREMENT. Members who retire on an im¬ The new rates for old or new members for the basic mediate annuity may retain this policy unchanged $17,500 Group Life plus $17,500 AD&D, plus up to until age 65. If at age 65 they have held this policy $3,000 family coverage are: continuously for 20 years, they may continue to carry $5,000 plus reversionary if any, AD&D at To 41st birthday $100 per year (unchanged) $5,000 and Family Coverage (if they have been car¬ To 51st birthday $150 per year rying $17,500) at $185 per year (lesser amounts at To 65th birthday $185 per year lower premiums if they have been carrying less Over 65 for those who qualify for reduced coverage, than $17,500). $37 per $1,000 per year. Members who transfer without a break in service from the Foreign Service to another civilian position with the United States Government may continue their policy unchanged as long as they continue Coverage After Age 65 such Federal employment and have the same There is a minor change in retirement coverage privileges as noted above if they retire on an im¬ for old or new policies and the provision effective mediate annuity.

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