Association of Borobudur Temple with the Surrounding Buddhist Temples

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Association of Borobudur Temple with the surrounding Buddhist temples

N.A. Izza & A.A. Munandar Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: Borobudur Temple is a masterpiece exemplifying the excellence of architecture in the Indonesian civilization in the past. Unsurprisingly, it is recognized by UNESCO as a tangible World Cultural Heritage Site. Several studies have been conducted by scholars and experts, and according to one of them, Borobudur Temple is associated with other temples, such as Pawon and Mendut Temples. In this study, we offer a new interpretation on Borobudur and its surrounding temples as a cohesive unit for sacred procession. Factors such as location, religious background, ornaments, and statues are common in Borobudur and Ngawen Temples. Here, we use an archeological method, and data were collected from Borobudur and three other temples. The facets of location, religious background, ornaments, and statues of these temples were studied in depth to collect the necessary data. The collected data were then applied in the context of the Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram) period using a religious framework. The last step encompasses interpretation of the data. The author believes that this study will provide a new interpretation on the roles of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the ancient times in addition to the role of the former as a World Cultural Heritage Site.

1 INTRODUCTION

Borobudur Temple is a masterpiece of the ancient Indonesian people. It was recognized as a World Cultural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1991 (Ramelan et al., 2013, p. 28). In addition to its historical and cultural value, Borobudur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it (see Map 1).

Map 1. Four temples from left to right (source: www.maps.google.com).

567 The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and N. J. Kroom, which coincided with the temple’s restoration project (Ramelan et al., 2013, p. 27). The study indicated an association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple. This was based on the similarities with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples, indicating that they were built in the same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty era (Moens, 2007, p. 2). The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s (2007, pp. 93–99), which connected the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Tem- ples, showing that the three temples were built along a straight line (Anom, 2005: 28). Totok Roesmanto also conducted a study on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it (2011: 99–120), which shows that the three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three temples is linked to Mount Merapi. Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods (Moens, 2007, pp. 94–98). These studies led to an interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in the future.

2 METHODOLOGY

This study is conducted to explore the association between Borobudur and the other surrounding temples, especially Ngawen. On the basis of the framework established by K. R. Dark (1995, pp. 37–38), ensuring the availability of data resources in accordance with further discussion and the possible generation of data from the observation are crucial. These data will then be considered evidence for the context of the research. In the process of adhering the collected data to the context, relevant theories will be used as tools. Then, the evidence will be interpreted. The first step of this study was to conduct a survey on the data resources, including a field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen. The survey is intended to collect data regarding the association, religion, ornaments, and statues. The second step following data collection was to use them as evidence, in accordance with the periodical context of the research. In this stage, the theory regarding the belief of Mahayana Buddhism was used. Third, after matching the data, theory, and context, the analysis and interpretation phase took place to address the research objectives.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River (see Map 1). The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, 568 Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it (Huntington, 1994, p.136). Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) (Kaelan, 1959: 122). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur (see Map 1). According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However, according to Totok Roesmanto (2011, pp. 99–120), the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is sug- gested that the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map (Map 1) shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.

3.2 Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building. According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures. The existence of stupas in the main body and reliefs of the temple (Photos 1 and 2) shows that Borobudur is a Buddhist temple. Stupas are also found in Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples. In Pawon and Mendut Temples, the stupas are located on the top of the structures (Photos 3 and 4). The arrangement of the stupas is similar to that in Borobudur (Photo 5). Although the top part of Mendut Temple is not intact, stupas can still be found. Ngawen Temple, on the contrary, does not have a roof, but the ruins clearly show many stupa motifs (Photo 6). Two major schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Bud- dhism. Mahayana Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays

Photos 1 and 2. Stupas on the Arupadhatu level of Borobudur Temple (left) and stupa motifs on the reliefs of Borobudur Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

569 Photos 3 and 4. Pawon Temple with stupas (left) and stupas on the roof of Mendut Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

Photos 5 and 6. Stupas at the Langkan fence of Borobudur (left) and stupa ruins in Ngawen (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

Photos 7, 8, and 9. Bodhisattva in Pawon Temple (left), Mendut Temple (center), and Ngawen Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza 2016). on the Earth, rather than going to heaven, in order to be able to help others (Irons, 2007: 17). Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva.

570 In Borobudur Temple, there are relief panels about the life journey of Buddha, one of which is derived from the sacred text of Sutra Gandavyuha. This shows that Borobudur is a temple of Mahayana Buddhism (Irons, 2008; 17 & 57). In Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples, many of the relief panels depict the Bodhisattva (Photos 7, 8, and 9). This implies that these four temples are affiliated with Buddhism and follow the Mahayana school. In other words, the four temples located on the same imaginary axis are associated with one another on the basis of their religious affiliation, which leads to an interpretation of the four being the locations for sacred religious rituals in the past.

3.3 Association of the ornaments found in Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples The ornaments include kala-makara, kala-reliefs, pillar ornaments, sculptures, stupa ornaments, antefixes, and other types of carving that decorate the temples. In this section, we will discuss from the smallest to the biggest temples because more ornaments can be found in bigger temples. A staircase is found in Pawon Temple, whose left and right sides are adorned with reliefs, most of which, unfortunately, have faded. On the right side of the staircase, reliefs with kala- makara motifs are found (Photo 10). At the base of the staircase, most of the reliefs have also faded. The ruins of the reliefs show an image of kinara-kinari (heavenly creatures in the form of half-human half-bird) and some spiral plants. The relief panels are restricted to the pillar ornaments. In the body of the temple, two types of relief panels can be found with narrow pradaksinapatha, without balustrades. The first is a relief of the Bodhisattva, whereas the second relief is a depiction of the tree of life, with apsara-apsari (angels) at the top and kinara-kinari at the bottom (Photo 11). A long square hole is found on the second panel. On both relief panels and on the surface of the hole, pillar motifs can be seen. Inside the temple, there is a chamber for placing statues and recesses containing statues with the head of kala (Photo 12). On the upper section of the relief, ornaments (quirlande) depicting square-shaped flowers can be found. The antefix ornament with a jaladwara is found on the top in each of its four corners. At the very top, there is a composition of small stupas with bigger stupas placed in the middle (Photo 3). Ngawen Temple is an installation consisting of five temples of the same size facing the same direction. Ngawen Temple was buried 1.5 m below the ground. Four of the temples’ structures are in ruins, with only their base or foot visible, except for Ngawen II, which has been successfully restored. Each temple has a staircase with two sides containing ornaments depicting the makara with the same pattern of the kala-makara reliefs in Pawon Temple. At the base of the stairs, the reliefs of Bodhisattva are found with the tree of life in the middle, below which there is a jagged seam ornament surrounding the temple’s structures (Photo 13). On the four sides of the temple foot, there are lion statues, each with a distinguished feature

Photos 10, 11, and 12. Kala-Makara in Pawon Temple (left), the tree of life reliefs in Pawon Temple (middle), and recesses of statues in the chamber of Pawon Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

571 Photo 13. Jagged seam ornament surrounding the Ngawen Temple (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

Photos 14, 15, and 16. Lion statues in Ngawen Temples I and V (left), in Ngawen Temples II, III, and IV (middle), ribbon garland motifs in Ngawen Temple II (source: N.A. Izza, 2016). depending on its location; these lion statues can be found on temples I and V, as well as on temples II, III, and IV. (Photos 14 and 15). In the body of the temple, there are recessed spaces filled with statues on both sides of the entrance, which is adorned with a carving of kala head containing pillars on each side. The upper part is adorned with ribbon garland motifs (Photo 16). Inside the chamber of Ngawen Temple II and in the ruins of Ngawen Temple V, there is a statue of Buddha in padmasana position without head and hands (Photo 17). The upper part is decorated with an antefix, whereas the roof of the temple has collapsed. The stupa is assumed to contribute to the ruins of the temple’s roof (Photo 6). Mendut Temple consists of a large main temple and smaller adjoining temples, only the bases of which are visible at present. The base of the temple is decorated with relief panels depicting a golden womb; the tree of life, surrounded by heavenly creatures; and jagged seams, surrounding the structure, which is the same as the ornaments found in Ngawen Temple (Photos 11 and 13). The reliefs on Mendut Temple follow a zigzag pattern between flowers and the tree of life. The staircase in the main temple is adorned with kala-makara ornaments, which are bigger on Mendut than on Borobudur. The base of the relief panels is decorated with flowery carv- ings. On the first terrace, a balustrade can be seen. On the outside of the chamber located in the body of the temple, three large relief panels covering the three sides of the wall are found. The pattern of the panels on Mendut is the same as that of the panels on Pawon, which dif- fer only in size. Relief ornaments on Mendut show the figure of Bodhisattva and the tree of

572 Photo 17. Statues in the main chamber of Mendut Temple (source: N.A. Izza, 2016). life, whereas the reliefs outside the temple’s body are unreachable to human hands. The right and left sections of the main chamber of Mendut are adorned with the depiction of yaksa (Moens, 2007, p. 88). The reliefs are located on both sides of the entrance and are reachable to hands. The entrance of the main chamber has recessed niches without statues. The remain- ing statues are Bodhisattva statues on both sides as well as a Buddha statue in the middle. The Buddha statue in Mendut is the focal statue that depicts Buddha in Dharmacakramudra position (Photo 17). The front of the statue consists of an engraved ornament of a wheel between two deer. This is an illustration of the dharma wheel and the deer garden in the life story of Buddha (Moens, 2007, p. 88). The rooftop of Mendut Temple is partly in ruins; however, it shows that the top part of Mendut was once decorated with stupas as its peak with antefixes around it (Photo 4). Borobudur does not have any chamber similar to that in the other temples. Moreover, the stupas in the other three temples are unreachable to human hands, with no statues inside, whereas those in Borobudur are arranged in different ways. According to A.J. Bernet Kem- pers (1976, p. 142), the stupas in Borobudur have a distinguished structure and arrangement that differs from that of other temples in Indonesia. The base or foot section of the temple is adorned with Bodhisattva figures. However, on the next terrace, the sculptured reliefs depict the life story of Buddha. On both sides of the staircase located in all four sides of the temple, kala-makara ornaments are found. The reliefs on Borobudur are also dominated by engravings depicting the tree of life and heavenly creatures. The space between one panel and the next is adorned by pillars with shapes similar to the ones found in the other three temples. Antefixes in Borobu- dur are also similar to the ones found in the other three temples. Borobudur has much decoration along its circumference, as well as the decoration similar to the ones found in the other three temples. Temple ornamentation may provide a clue for the identity of the temple. Agus Aris Munandar (2011) stated that from the viewpoint of architecture and style of the ornamentation, temples in Java may be grouped into two categories, namely temples built in the Old Classic era (including Buddhist temples in Central Java) and the ones built in the Modern Classic era. Furthermore, a study conducted by Marijke J. Klokke (2008) reveals that Bud- dhist temples that are the relics of Sailendra dynasty in Central Java show a distinct ornamentation characteristic. Earlier discussion on the ornamentation in Pawon, Ngawen, Mendut, and Borobudur Temples shows a similarity between one type of ornamentation and another with respect to the shape of the kala-makara, kala heads, antefixes, and reliefs of the tree of life and the decoration along the circumference. This similarity, according to Marijke J. Klokke (2008, pp. 159–161), shows that the four temples are Buddhist relics of the Sailendra

573 dynasty. This ornamentation similarity confirms that the four temples were built in the same era with the same religious affiliation, namely Mahayana Buddhism.

3.4 Iconography association of the statues in Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples One important aspect to be considered when observing temples is the existence of statues. According to Edi Sedyawati (1980, p. 209), a number of entities will be defined as the same characteristics of iconography, some of them are being created in the same period and on the same geographical location, having the same surroundings, belonging to the same religion, and being created under the same authority and by the same artists. Because Pawon Temple no longer has statues, the discussion in this section will be limited to Borobudur, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples. Borobudur Temple comprises Tathagatha and lion statues. The Tathagatha statues in Borobudur are similar to the ones found in Ngawen Temple. The only difference lies in the backrest of the statues (Prabhamandala) found in Ngawen Temple because the statues found in Borobudur do not have Prabhamandala (Photos 18 and 19). In addition to the Tathagatha statues in Mendut, there is a statue of Buddha in sitting position with hands in a Dharma- cakramudra position and two Bodhisattva statues. (Photo 17). Statues in Mendut were made of stone types different from the ones used in the making of Borobudur and Ngawen statues. Statues in Mendut were made of colorful stones with soft pores and are bigger than those in Borobudur and Ngawen, which are about the size of an adult human. Statues on Mendut are depicted as wearing jewels, whereas the ones in Borobudur and Ngawen are not. Lion statues on Borobudur are depicted as standing with three legs and one of the front legs raised (Photo 20). Lion statues on Ngawen Temples I and V are depicted in a standing position with front and hind legs bending; meanwhile, on Ngawen Temples II, II, and IV, they are illustrated in a standing position with their hind legs and front legs supporting the temple (Photos 14 and 15). Although they were crafted to be in different positions, lion statues on Borobudur and Ngawen have the same facial expression and body shape. Borobudur supposedly had two Dwarapala statues located around Dagi Hill (Picture 1), one of which is now in the Bangkok National Museum (Miksic, 2012: 18). Because the other statue has not been found, the Dwarapala statue was not included as the observation object of this study. In addition to the statues of Buddha and lion on Ngawen Temple, we found statues of Nandi, identical to those found in Hindu temples; therefore, it is assumed that the statues are an original feature of Ngawen Temple. This may be related to a series of disasters that destroyed Ngawen and buried it 1.5 m below the ground. The study results of associations among the four temples from the perspectives of their positioning, religion, style of the ornaments, and iconography of the statues are presented in Table 1.

Photos 18 and 19. Buddha statue in Borobudur without Prabhamandala (left) and Buddha statue in Ngawen with Prabhamandala (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016).

574 Picture 1. The Painting of Dwarapala Statue in Dagi Photo 20. Lion Statue on Hill near Borobudur (Source: H.N. Sieburgh in Miksic, Borobudur Temple. (Source: 2012: 18). Nainunis Aulia Izza, 2016).

Table 1. Summary of similarities among Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples.

Temple’s Statue name Placement Religion Ornament iconography

Borobudur Farthest west Buddha Ornaments existing Tathagatha and Mahayana in other temples can lion statues be found in Borobudur Pawon 1.15 km east of Buddha Kala heads, kala-makara, – Borobudur Mahayana pillar, Bodhisatva, tree of life, heavenly creatures, and stupa summit Mendut 2.9 km east of Buddha Kala heads, kala-makara, Tathagata with soft Borobudur Mahayana pillar, Bodhisatva, tree of manufacturing life, heavenly creatures, stupa summit, jagged seam Ngawen 4 km east of Buddha Kala heads, kala-makara, Tathagata, and lion Borobudur Mahayana pillar, Bodhisatva, roof in statues in two styles shape of stupa summit, jagged seam

4 CONCLUSION

To conclude, Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples are located adjacent to each other and connected by an imaginary axis. Ornamentation style in Ngawen Temple shows a similarity among the four temples. The shapes of statues in Borobudur and Ngawen are also similar. Therefore, we may conclude that Borobudur is not only associated with Pawon and Mendut, but also correlates with Ngawen Temple in terms of religious affiliation, positioning, ornamentation style, and iconography as well as the structures that were used as locations for sacred Buddhist rituals during the Ancient Mataram era. In addition to the association of Borobudur and the other temples, the association between Borobudur and Mount Merapi and the hills surrounding the temple is observed. More studies need to be conducted on Bubrah, Lumbung, and Sewu Temples. The similarities and the different patterns of association among Bubrah, Lumbung, Sewu Temples as well as the association between the Buddhist temples around Borobudur and those around Sewu Temple need to be studied.

575 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is grateful to Universitas Indonesia for providing a grant for this study through the indexed Hibah Publikasi Internasional program for the final projects of the students of Universitas Indonesia in 2016, without which the publication of this study would be impos- sible. Furthermore, the author thanks LPDP for providing a scholarship for the Master’s program and also thanks all the lecturers at the Department of Archaeology, Universitas Indonesia, as well as the Borobudur Conservation Center for providing references and research permits.

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