Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62664-5 Association of Borobudur Temple with the surrounding Buddhist temples N.A. Izza & A.A. Munandar Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia ABSTRACT: Borobudur Temple is a masterpiece exemplifying the excellence of archi- tecture in the Indonesian civilization in the past. Unsurprisingly, it is recognized by UNESCO as a tangible World Cultural Heritage Site. Several studies have been conducted by scholars and experts, and according to one of them, Borobudur Temple is associated with other temples, such as Pawon and Mendut Temples. In this study, we offer a new interpretation on Borobudur and its surrounding temples as a cohesive unit for sacred procession. Factors such as location, religious background, ornaments, and statues are common in Borobudur and Ngawen Temples. Here, we use an archeological method, and data were collected from Borobudur and three other temples. The facets of location, religious background, ornaments, and statues of these temples were studied in depth to collect the necessary data. The collected data were then applied in the context of the Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram) period using a religious framework. The last step encompasses interpretation of the data. The author believes that this study will provide a new interpretation on the roles of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the ancient times in addition to the role of the former as a World Cultural Heritage Site. 1 INTRODUCTION Borobudur Temple is a masterpiece of the ancient Indonesian people. It was recognized as a World Cultural Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1991 (Ramelan et al., 2013, p. 28). In addi- tion to its historical and cultural value, Borobudur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it (see Map 1). Map 1. Four temples from left to right (source: www.maps.google.com). 567 The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and N. J. Kroom, which coincided with the temple’s restoration project (Ramelan et al., 2013, p. 27). The study indicated an association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple. This was based on the similarities with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples, indicating that they were built in the same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty era (Moens, 2007, p. 2). The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s (2007, pp. 93–99), which connected the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Tem- ples, showing that the three temples were built along a straight line (Anom, 2005: 28). Totok Roesmanto also conducted a study on the location of Borobudur and the other temples sur- rounding it (2011: 99–120), which shows that the three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three temples is linked to Mount Merapi. Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram), as well as their reli- gious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods (Moens, 2007, pp. 94–98). These studies led to an interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in the future. 2 METHODOLOGY This study is conducted to explore the association between Borobudur and the other sur- rounding temples, especially Ngawen. On the basis of the framework established by K. R. Dark (1995, pp. 37–38), ensuring the availability of data resources in accordance with further discussion and the possible generation of data from the observation are crucial. These data will then be considered evidence for the context of the research. In the process of adhering the collected data to the context, relevant theories will be used as tools. Then, the evidence will be interpreted. The first step of this study was to conduct a survey on the data resources, including a field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen. The survey is intended to collect data regarding the association, religion, orna- ments, and statues. The second step following data collection was to use them as evidence, in accordance with the periodical context of the research. In this stage, the theory regarding the belief of Mahayana Buddhism was used. Third, after matching the data, theory, and context, the analysis and interpretation phase took place to address the research objectives. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River (see Map 1). The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, 568 Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it (Huntington, 1994, p.136). Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affil- iated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) (Kaelan, 1959: 122). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur (see Map 1). According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However, according to Totok Roesmanto (2011, pp. 99–120), the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is sug- gested that the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, fur- ther examination of the map (Map 1) shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur. 3.2 Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building. According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures. The existence of stupas in the main body and reliefs of the temple (Photos 1 and 2) shows that Borobudur is a Buddhist temple. Stupas are also found in Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples. In Pawon and Mendut Temples, the stupas are located on the top of the structures (Photos 3 and 4). The arrangement of the stupas is similar to that in Borobudur (Photo 5). Although the top part of Mendut Temple is not intact, stupas can still be found. Ngawen Temple, on the contrary, does not have a roof, but the ruins clearly show many stupa motifs (Photo 6). Two major schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Bud- dhism. Mahayana Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays Photos 1 and 2. Stupas on the Arupadhatu level of Borobudur Temple (left) and stupa motifs on the reliefs of Borobudur Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016). 569 Photos 3 and 4. Pawon Temple with stupas (left) and stupas on the roof of Mendut Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016). Photos 5 and 6. Stupas at the Langkan fence of Borobudur (left) and stupa ruins in Ngawen (right) (source: N.A. Izza, 2016). Photos 7, 8, and 9. Bodhisattva in Pawon Temple (left), Mendut Temple (center), and Ngawen Temple (right) (source: N.A. Izza 2016). on the Earth, rather than going to heaven, in order to be able to help others (Irons, 2007: 17). Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva.