Marine Algae) in the Vava'u Island Group, Kingdom of Tonga: an Ethnobotanical Study
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Contemporary Uses of Limu (marine algae) in the Vava'u Island Group, Kingdom of Tonga: an Ethnobotanical Study Melinda Ostraff B.S., Brigham Young University, 1994 M.S., Brigham Young University, 1996 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Interdisciplinary between the School of Environmental Studies and the Department of Geography O Melinda Ostraff, 2003 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means without the permission of the author. Co-Supervisors: Dr. Nancy Turner Dr. Steve Lonergan ABSTRACT Seaweeds (limu) have a long tradition of human use in Tonga. Poorer families who reside near tidal areas rely almost exclusively on ocean resources for their family's nutritional needs and eat limu as part of their regular diet. However, most Tongans consume limu as a specialty item in their diet, with the exception of times of stress that follow major hurricanes and droughts. One specific type of limu, tanga 'u (Cladosiphon sp.), is now being commercially harvested in Tonga and sent to Japan. There are no rules or laws establishing a gathering season nor restricting the amount of limu that can be harvested. Conservation is practiced primarily on an incidental level in Tonga, meaning that conservation takes place mostly because of other issues. Up until now, limu has been a sustainable resource. However, with the lack of formal conservation methods, limited research, and recently introduced industrial farming techniques the future of limu as a sustainable resource is questionable. TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page Abstract Table of Contents List of Tables v1 List of Figures vii Acknowledgements viii Dedication X Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Uses of Seaweed 1 1.2 Literature Review 9 1.3 The Objective of My Work 3 1 1.4 Overview of Dissertation 34 Chapter 2. Background and Context 36 2.1 A Brief History and Context of Tongan Society 36 2.2 Limu Use Throughout the Pacific 42 2.3 My Background 4 8 2.4 General Botany of Algae 5 1 2.5 Ecology 55 Chapter 3. Methodology 57 3.1 An Ethnobotanical Approach 57 My Ethnobotanical Approach Interviews and Surveys Profiles of Interviewees Wrapping-up methodology Chapter 4. Results 4.1 Collection and Identification of Common Edible Limu in Tonga 4.2 Distribution 4.3 Collecting of Limu 4.4 A Change in Women's Roles 4.5 Limu as Food 4.6 Medicinal Applications 4.7 Commercial Farming and Exportation of Limu Chapter 5. Discussion 119 5.1 Gender Roles and Issues 119 5.2 Education 128 5.3 Conservation 136 5.4 Contemporary Mores and Issues that Impact Harvesting in Tidal Areas 145 5.5 Commercial Farming of Limu 147 5.6 The Relationship between Limu, Women's Indigenous Knowledge and the Sustainable Use of the Tidal Areas 155 Chapter 6. Conclusion Bibliography Appendix 1. Structured Interview Questions Appendix 2. Focus Groups Appendix 3. Dr. Hideo Ohba's list of seaweeds Appendix 4. List of Tongan seaweed collected by Melinda Ostraff Appendix 5. Ten village survey Appendix 6. Tupou survey Appendix 7. High school survey Appendix 8. Market survey Appendix 9. Limu recipes LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Common edible algae found in various Pacific Islands Table 2. Summery of the five women profiled Table 3. Common edible types of limu found in Tonga Table 4. Limu habitats in Vava'u Table 5. Medicinal uses of limu vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Map of Tonga, with close-up view of Vava'u Figure 2. Life cycle of Palmaria Figure 3. Focus group discussion using the artifactlinterview method Figure 4. Vai Tupou in the tidal area near her home of Okoa, Vava'u Figure 5. Caulerpa racemosa, known as fuofua in Tongan Figure 6. Hypnea charoides, known as limu vai in Tongan Figure 7. Limu habitats and location in Vava'u Figure 8. Women doingfangota Figure 9. Map of Vava'u, showing the name and location of ten villages Figure 10. Numbers of women who gleaned the previous week Figure 1 1. The amount of limu consumed at home vs purchased Figure 12. Percentage of women gleaning over the past twenty years Figure 13. The making of limu vai custard Figure 14. Farming of Eucheuma cottonii Figure 15. Meliane and her mother Vai, collecting food from the tidal area Figure 16. Tidal area between Okoa and Koloa islands in Vava'u .. Vlll ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my appreciation for the families living in Tonga, many of whom have provided invaluable information not only for my research, but also for our family's cultural education. Among those families are the many women who took time from their lives to help me understand the role limu plays in their lives. I am profoundly grateful to Vai Tupou, Meleame Tupou, and Matelita Tupou and their families for their willingness to share their knowledge, time and resources in behalf of my education. Not only did they spend countless hours with me in the tidal flats, but they also befriended my entire family and in so doing have become life-long friends. I would like to thank each of my committee members for their help and guidance with a special thank you to Nancy Turner whom not only made it possible for me to achieve my educational goals, but also made it enjoyable along the way. It is also important that I express gratitude to the following government and private organizations: The Kingdom of Tonga, for allowing my study to take place; Tongan Fisheries Department, Ofa Moalae, former head of Fisheries in Vava'u and Silika Ngahi; current head of Fisheries in Vava'u, for being willing to share pertinent literature; and the time and resources of Fisheries personnel.; and finally to Seastar Industry Ltd., for sharing their time and knowledge to acquaint us with their farming methods and storage facilities. ix There are also many others who have assisted me throughout the years with my research. Although it is impossible to mention them all, I would like to thank the following: Wendy Wilcox, Ashley Knudsen, Patricia Fefita and Luana Manakofua for being tireless research assistants; Brian Wilcox and Joe Ostraff families for being the finest, most flexible and by far the most fun film-crew possible; Brian Wilcox and Ashley Knudsen for beautiful photographs; Joseph Ostraff, Nancy Turner, Catherine Parry and Janet Colvin for proofreading and editorial comments; Isabella Abbott, professor emeritus from the University of Hawaii for help with clarification of taxonomic issues; and finally the six best kids in the world: Joshua, Jenny, Zachary, Kaleb, Ethan and Hannah for innumerable hours of babysitting, carrying out field research, listening to boring conversations about seaweed and enduring a mother who has been absorbed in researching, studying and typing for what must seem like an eternity. This study was supported in part by the Ord and Linda Anderson Interdisciplinary Graduate scholarship. TOJoe, my husband and partner Without whom, I would not be who I am today - nor would any of this have been possible. Chapter 1 Introduction This research focuses on the use and cultural roles of marine algae, called limu, by the indigenous people of Tonga. Previous work in Tonga (Ostraff et al., 2000; Ostraff and Ostraff, 1997; 1999) indicated that limu harvesting was an important women's activity, and limu was an important component of the traditional food system of Tongans. However, very little research or documentation has been accomplished regarding this important aspect of this traditional Tongan food system, nor the knowledge women hold regarding collection and use of limu species and the tidal flat environments in which they are found. In this introductory chapter, I first provide a discussion of the historical uses of macroscopic marine algae, or seaweed, by humans. Then I present my research objectives. Finally, I outline the framework of the dissertation. 1.1 Historical Uses of Seaweed Seaweeds have been used throughout coastal regions of the world for food, fodder, medicine and other uses for thousands of years, especially in Asia (Abbott, 1988; Chapman and Chapman, 1980; Turner, 2003). Indigenous coastal societies from Siberia to Tasmania have gathered and eaten seaweed (Guiry, 2003). Not only in Hawaii, but also in Japan, algae have been considered a delicacy fine enough to serve as an offering to the Gods (Madlener, 1977). In fact seaweed was so popular in early Hawaii that a specific type of cultivation was practiced. The Hawaiian ali'i, or chiefs, created special marine gardens in which they transplanted their favorite types of algae (Shoenfeld-Leber, 1979). The earliest recorded reference to seaweed occurs in a Chinese encyclopedia dated 3000 BC. The ancient Greeks (according to Pythagoras), the Aztecs and the Vikings all recorded eating seaweed (Surey-Gent, 1987). Vikings used seaweed not only for food for beasts and humans, but as fuel, mulch and cushion stuffing in chairs. Some other early uses of seaweed were for the soap and iodine industries, and in glass making for which the seaweed was burned. Burned seaweed was also used to procure salt (Kurlansky, 2002; Surey-Gent, 1987). Seaweeds are among the most nutritious plants on earth (Guiry, 2003). Nutrients in seawater are constantly being restored, and the plants have the ability to absorb and concentrate elements present in the water (Madlener, 1977). Benthic marine algae as a whole are very safe to consume. Only one genus of macroscopic alga, Desmarestia, is considered to be harmful (Turner and Szczawinski, 1991). Seaweed is a valuable source of food, containing the full spectrum of required nutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals.