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Information to Users The political ecology of a Tongan village Item Type text; Dissertation-Reproduction (electronic) Authors Stevens, Charles John, 1950- Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 09/10/2021 00:11:56 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/290684 INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly fi-om the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter &ce, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper lefr-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A Bell & Howeil Information Company 300 North Zed) Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF A TONGAN VILLAGE by Charles John Stevens Copyright ® Charles John Stevens 1996 A Dissertation Sxibtnitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 19 9 6 XJMI Nxunber: 9720647 Copyright 1996 by- Stevens, Charles John All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9720647 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. Tliis microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, Um'ted States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of che Final Examinacion Conaaiccee, we certify that we have read che dissertation prepared by Charles John Stevens entitled The Political Ecology of a Tongan Village and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy/Anthropology Thomas K. Park, PhD Dace U,- ^ 'S-' ~ 9io Susan U. Philips, PhdDace / Thomas E. Sheridan, PhD Date Date Dace Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to che Graduate College. I hereby certify chat I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend chat it be accepced as fulfilling che dissertation requirement. Dissertation Director Date 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited at the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided accurate acknowledgement of source is made Requests for permission for extended quotation from or representation of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department of the Dean of the Graduate College when, in his or her judgement, the proposed use of the material is in the interest if scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author. 4 Acknowledgement s The completion of this project is due in large measure to the investments of labor by people whose names appear neither on the title page nor in any recognizable form in the text of the dissertation. I was presented with the opportunity to go to Tonga by Dr. Susan Philips and I worked as her assistant for the National Science Foundation Grant (#BNS 8711753), The Language of Dispute Management in The Kingdom of Tonga. It was during this assistantship that I became familiar with the village of Nukunuku and recognized its potential for the study of changing human/environment relations. It has been a pleasure to be associated with Dr. Philips, and with Tad Park, who chaired this dissertation, and Tom Sheridan. The dissertation benefitted enormously from their criticisms and insights. The Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (GR 5391) and grants from the University of Arizona Graduate Students' Research Fund, funded the dissertation research. Robert McC. Netting chaired my dissertation committee until his death. Bob's groxind-up perspective provided the overarching viewpoint of this research. Tad Park took over as chair and guided me through writing this entire text. Dr. Park's deep perspective on history, and on the rational economy of indigenous farmers, was invaluable and the dissertation reflects his clear committed mentorship. Tom Sheridan's perspective, as a Student Of Bob, was indispensable. I want to thank His Royal Majesty, Taufa'ahau Tupou IV and his cabinet for permission to conduct research in Tonga. Particular thanks and 'ofa to the 'Eukaliti family. Paini and Kaihau Kaliti were my Tongan parents during my stay in their village. Loketi Kaliti, Suliana, Fa'alongo, 'Ite, and most especially 'Aisea Kaliti, my friend and brother, opened their homes to me, and to my own family. Their generosity and anga faka-Tonga inspired my work in very fundamental ways. Thanks also to Sinipata Peaua, Poso Moe'aki, Tupe Fakakovi, Tevake, Sevake, Sifa mo Meleane, Alisis Peaua, Sainimili Mohu, Sitiveni Salakielu, Amelia Tau, Koliniasis, Feleti Fihake, Hul\akape Lasike, Sioeli Limeki, Uinisa Fakakovi, Uikelotu Fakakovi, Samisi, Singa mo Alilia Peau, Tevi, Amelia Tau, and, finally, Koli Latailakepa, for marital services rendered. The help and encouragement of my friends and graduate cohort was steadfast and I would never have finished without the help of Jonathan Mabry, Mark Neupert, David Maxwell, Anne Bennett, John Higgins, Cathy Tucker and Melissa McCormick. Steve Zegura and Hermann Bliebtreau, even as biological colonialists, were great friends along the way. Finally, very special thanks to my family, Sally, Ben, Mark and Kay, David and Gayle, Cathy, Janine, Ralph, and, most especially, Lynn and Amalia, who have my adoration. 5 Kia he'eku fatnili Tonga mo he'eku famili 'Amelika 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9 LIST OF TABLES 11 ABSTRACT 12 CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION 13 CHAPTER 2: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS Introduction 36 Field Research: Tonga and Nukiinxiku: A Geographic Overview 44 Statement of Problem 55 The Ethnography of Political Ecology 62 Methods 73 Endnotes 83 CHAPTER 3: OBSERVING THE ECOLOGY; THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF POLITICAL ECOLOGY Introduction 85 Cultural Ecology in the Ethnography of Political Ecology 90 Sustainability, Ecosystem Health and Ecological Economics 103 Ecological Economics ill Autopoiesis and Ecosystem Health 116 Models of Ecosystems and Sustainability of Systems 124 Agricultural Smallholders and Sustainable Production 131 Conclusion 138 Endnotes 146 CHAPTER 4: POLITICAL ECONOMY IN THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF POLITICAL ECOLOGY Introduction 148 The Ideological Model of Tongan Social Organization..164 Dependency, MIRAB and Polynesian Peasantry 183 Conclusion 197 Endnotes 203 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued CHAPTER 5: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS IN THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF POLITICAL ECOLOGY Int roduc t i on 209 History and Anthropology 214 History and Anthropology in the Pacific 220 Polynesian History: Evolutionism 226 Polynesian History: Cultural Structural Approaches..233 Tonga's Written History and Political Ecology 238 Conclusion: History in Political Ecology 243 Endnotes 251 CHAPTER 6: THE PACIFIC BLITZKRIEG AND THE ADAPTATION OF ISLANDERS Introduction 253 The Tongan Creation Myth 256 Tongan Months and the Anticipation of Nature 269 The Evolution of Polynesian Islands 283 Agriculture, the Blitzkrieg and Islander Adaptation..289 Chaos and the In^osition of Stability 296 Characteristics of Healthy Agrof orestry 315 Conclusion 338 Endnotes 341 CHAPTER 7: THE MODERNIZATION OF THE TONGAN VILLAGE: STATE POLITICS, NUKUNUKU AND THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT Introduction 345 Fiji, the Brutality of Change and Tongan Village Formation 349 Taufa'ahau, Missionary Statehood and British Int ervent ion 385 Tonga's Share of Ecological Imperialism 405 Tupou II, British Spheres of Influence and the Reign of Salote 413 NiikunxiJcu Before the Americans 421 Bananas: The Institution of Production for the Market 443 Migration, Remittances and Village Growth 455 Conclusion 463 Endnotes 470 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued CHAPTER 8: SQUASHED PRODUCTION?: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF CONTEMPORARY AGROFORESTRY IN NUKONUKU Introduction 477 Population Growth and the Intensification of Agriculture on Tongatapu 489 Economic Growth and the Intensification of Agriculture
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