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General copyright and disclaimer In addition to the above conditions, authors give their consent for the digital copy of their work to be used subject to the conditions specified on the Library Thesis Consent Form and Deposit Licence. Sauerkraut and Salt Water: The German-Tongan Diaspora Since 1932 Kasia Renae Cook A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in German, the University of Auckland, 2017. Abstract This is a study of individuals of German-Tongan descent living around the world. Taking as its starting point the period where Germans in Tonga (2014) left off, it examines the family histories, self-conceptions of identity, and connectedness to Germany of twenty-seven individuals living in New Zealand, the United States, Europe, and Tonga, who all have German- Tongan ancestry. It seeks to illuminate the extent to which there is a German-Tongan diaspora, and to represent the overall impact German emigration to Tonga has had on the world, via the lives and contributions of German-Tongan descendants worldwide. There are many factors which contribute to either the strength or weakness of the German identity in descendants in foreign nations. The First and Second World Wars in the early and mid-twentieth century proved to be watershed influences on the identity of German and mixed- race German-descent individuals in the Pacific. Actual population sizes and demographics, too, were important factors in the strength or weakness of German identity development. Political circumstances, including the lack of opportunity for foreigners to purchase land in Tonga, proved to be catalysts for the widespread emigration of German-Tongans in the twentieth century. According to interviews conducted with them and their family members, in diaspora, German-Tongans identify widely as Tongan, yet these identities are augmented by additional ethnicities. This augmentation is due largely to the multi-racial and –national realities of most of these individuals’ lives. While almost none report a strong connection to their German heritage, this appears to be due to the historical circumstances which limited the cultural transference of German identity to them rather than a conscious decision to disconnect. Modern descendants do, however, share important, distinct phenotypic and name legacies which set them apart from their full Tongan counterparts, and their wider communities. Taken as a diaspora or simply as a subset of the wider mixed-race population, German-Tongans around the world today are a vibrant and important group of individuals and families. Their lives perfectly reflect the tremendous, long- reaching effects of the historical emigration of Germans to Tonga. Keywords: Germans in Tonga; mixed-race; diaspora; European-Tongans; Pacific personal histories; Germans in the Pacific; Pacific colonialism; Pacific family history; Tongan diaspora i For my family. ii Acknowledgements Over the course of a project like this, it is inevitable that your work as well as your life will be greatly affected by the people you come into contact with throughout. My case is no exception, and I have many people to thank for their association. I start with those scholars who came before me: I thank Christine Liava’a, Dr. Tony Muller, Anthony Brunt, and Professor Reinhard Wendt for their foundational work on aspects of the topic I seek to cover in this thesis. I am grateful for their good research and help at various times throughout my journey. I am grateful for the many individuals whose lives and stories were shared in the writing of this thesis. They are too numerous to list here, but I thank each person who spent their time with me, often welcoming me into their homes to share food and laughter along with their experiences and histories. My life has been made richer because of their association. For all those who contribute so generously to the funding sources I have benefited from, and those who made the decision on whether or not I should receive funding—thank you and may you be blessed. I owe special thanks to those who supported me in the several countries to which I travelled for research on this project. To my “young aunty” Nate in Kolomotu’a and to Rico and the kids— thank you for always having a bed, love, and some me’akai for me when I come. To my family and friends in Pangai and particularly my mum Palolo, my brother Salesi, my uncle Pulotu and his family, and my friends from church who always take care of me—I love you and owe you more than I can repay. To Emily (and Lior!) who hosted me twice in Stuttgart—I’m so glad Berlin brought us together. And to Trish and Mani who have always had a place for me in their home or on FaceTime—you’re both angels in my life. For my flat “mums” ’Ofa and Anaise in Grey Lynn, whose support and kindness in the form of meals shared and laundry folded allowed me to focus on my work the last seven months—I truly could not have finished without them. To my friends and colleagues who have made the office and campus a wonderful place to be— though some have already moved on, I’m grateful for all I’ve had the chance to meet and get to know the past three years. In particular, my workspace and PhD colleagues Sidney, Katya, Marcelo, Sanaz, Christopher, Helen, Ian, Spring, Jingjing, Maria, and Hamid have made my life richer, plus all of our assorted associates from the Arts 1 fifth floor common room. I will miss the chatter in various languages and the aromas of different international cuisines commingling during lunch and at other times. For professional staff, friends who first helped ease my transition into the University, and thereafter made it a pleasant and smoothly working place for me to be—I thank Alison in particular for all she does to serve and support all of us on the seventh floor. My heartfelt thanks to my two PhD supervisors, and their families who support them. James in particular has been my advocate and an invaluable supporter since I was still an undergraduate. I am so grateful he was willing to take me on and ‘see me through,’ even after his own retirement. He and Damon are the very best mentors I could have had, and I’ve felt extremely lucky to be the recipient of their combined expertise and experience. I’m grateful to both of them for their time, careful reading, constructive feedback, and continuous support. I hope to do their tutelage justice someday. I also owe thanks to other mentors and colleagues with whom I have been able to ‘rub shoulders’ throughout my PhD program: Wendy-Llyn, Anna, Jean-Jacques, and Anne are all friends in my book. iii On the topic of supervisors and mentors, I owe special thanks, as well, to my BYU Honours Thesis advisor, Professor Hans-Wilhelm Kelling. I would not have gotten this far without him. His support, encouragement, friendship, and love are precious to me. I also thank my other former teachers, mentors, professors, and academic friends for their faith in me and for setting such good examples of what it means to be a scholar. Dr. Cindy Brewer, also of BYU, is the one who first encouraged me to do this research. I am thankful for her example and friendship. Again, I hope that my life and work will someday reflect all that these individuals have taught me. I am particularly fortunate as a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to have had a built-in community of friends and faith when I first moved to Auckland. Over time, those associations have grown across the country and are sweet relationships that add great colour and meaning to my life. In particular, I thank President and Sister Going at the Hamilton LDS Temple and all those who serve with them for being my family in New Zealand. Their love and friendship have gotten me through many otherwise difficult times. Being involved at church and serving the youth of New Zealand has also helped me a great deal personally throughout my time the past three years: I thank my SMYC, FSY, Armour of God, Young Women, YSA, Institute, Sunday School, Visiting Teaching, and ward and stake friends, associates, students, and leaders for their examples, faith, and friendship. Many years ago, it was my “Connection down” flatmates who taught me about the possibilities of travel and international study. I’m grateful for those girls—their friendships and examples. Without them, I might have just stayed in Idaho! I also thank my other close friends outside of the University: Alyssa, Ben, Cassandra, Isa, Kalolo, Laite, Leah, Lindsey, Mel, Nicole, Ronnie, Sione, Syndi, Tetoki, and Zandria have supported, served, and loved me. I am grateful for all of them and could not have done this without their help in various ways.