DOCSLIB.ORG

2. Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
2. Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire 2. Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire Leonardo Lopez Luján The archaeology of México- Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan made up for the lack of archae- As recently as two decades ago, systematized ological exploration on a large scale. For example, information on Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the the graphic and written information on the metropolis of the most important Mesoamerican Templo Mayor (Great Temple) of Tenochtitlan state at the time of the Europeans' arrival, was was enough to reveal the history of the most extremely scarce. Unlike other cities such as Tikal, important religious building of the empire from its Monte Albán and Teotihuacan, the capital of the founding, through its multiple extensions and Mexica (Aztec) empire was never the site of right up to the time when it was completely extensive excavation projects that were to bring its dismantled. In fact, no other monument in Ancient principal remains to light. The explanation for this Mexico so commanded the attention of both archaeological ignorance is very simple. In 1521, natives and outsiders alike or was the subject of the island occupied by the twin cities of Mexico- such lengthy descriptions as this double temple Tenochtitlan and Mexico-Tlatelolco fell into the dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (the God of Sun and hands of the Spanish conquerors (fig. 8). After the War) and Tláloc (the Rain God). All kinds of victory, Hernán Cortés took the historie decision information relating to the Great Temple can be to destroy the metropolis which had been home to found in the indigenous pictographic documents between 200,000 and 300,000 inhabitants and and Náhuatl language texts; in the accounts of the covered an area of 13.5 square kilometres (Rojas European conquerors who saw it functioning and 1992: 31-5, 57-84). On its ruins was founded witnessed its destruction; in the narra tives of the Mexico City, the capital of New Spain and, from Spanish friars, which were often based on the 1821 onwards, the capital of the Mexican native tradition; and even in the fantastical Republic. Obviously, colonial and modern writings, illustrated with extravagant engravings, buildings caused problems for archaeologists. which circulated in Europe from the sixteenth In fact, it was only in exceptional circumstances century (León-Portilla 1987). and in relatively limited areas that it had been Little by little, the information contained in possible to bring to light small portions of the historical sources was augmented by the remains prehispanic city. of the Mexica culture accidentally dug up during Despite this serious constraint, those development work and the construction of researching Mexica society have one clear buildings. But it was not until the end of the advantage over colleagues studying the Maya area eighteenth century that spectacular finds such as or sites like Monte Albán and Teotihuacan: the Stone of the Sun, the sculpture of Coatlicue and numerous documentary sources from the sixteenth the Stone of Tízoc prompted scholars of century. In some ways, it could be said that the prehispanic Mexico to compare archaeological abundance of historical records of life In data and historical data in a systematic way. ~ Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire 33 Lake Texcoco \ 8 Map of the Basin of Mexico. The islands on which the twin cities of Mexico- Tenochtitlan and Mexico- Tlatelolco were built are visible on Lake Texcoco. (Drawing by Fernando Carrizosa) Unfortunately, many of the accidental discoveries situ and were rescued by archaeologists during made during the nineteenth and twentieth salvage work, thus becoming part of the centuries were destroyed or else fell easy prey to collections of the Mexico City National Museum pillaging, thus swelling national and foreign of Anthropology (Boone 1987). collections. Others, fortunately, were recorded in -------- 34 The Archaeológy of Mesoamerica 9 Aerial photograph of the ruins of the Sacred Precinct of Mexico- Tlatelolco, excavated in the 1940s, 1970s and 1980s. (Photo: courtesy of Aerofotoservicios S.A. de C.V.) The Templo Mayor project (1978-97) inactivity, work was continued in the same area. The first large-scale excavation on the ancient As a result of new fieldwork, a number of religious island of Mexico goes back to the 1940s (López buildings were exposed, together with thousands Luján 1989). We owe this unique work to Pablo of human buri~hich also formed part of the Martínez del Río and Antonieta Espejo, who Tlatelolco Sacred Pr~~g. 9). explored the portico of the Church of Santiago and By contrast, the large-scate-exploration in the retrieved the remains of the Templo Mayor of Sacred Precinct of Tenochtitlan had to wait until Tlatelolco from the rubble. After twenty years of February 1978, when the sculpture representing Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire 35 ) 10 Aerial photograph of the ruins of the Sacred Precinct of Mexico- Tenochtitlan, excavated between 1978 and 1997. (Photo: courtesy of Aerofotoservicios S.A. de c.v.) Coyolxauhqui, the Moon Goddess, was accident- fieldwork have been carried out. The first three ally discovered. Given the enormous scientific (1978-82, 1987 and 1989) were coordinated by importance of this monolith and the surrounding Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, and the last two area, the National Institute of Anthropology and (1991-2 and 1994-7) by the author of this paper. History (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e During this time we have been able to retrieve a Historia - TNAH) decided to organize a long-terrn considerablé part of one of the most prominent research project entitled 'Proyecto Templo Mayor' ritual ~rtsof the Mesoamerican world (fig. 10). (Crear Te~ple Project). So fa, five campaigns of 7' the moco significant discoveries "e the 36 The Archaeology of Mesoamerica ruins of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan and 14 would be built. We know that in prehispanic times neighbouring buildings, 134 offerings, more than one entered this substructure by two staircases 9,000 artefacts and a considerable collection of which extended from the square to the wide sculptures and wall paintings. The area excavated portico which was supported by a colonnade. To extensively measures 1.3 hectares. Nonetheless, it reach the main room one had to pass through a must be noted that although this area might seem door guarded by two ceramic sculptures which large, it is only equivalent to 0.1 per cent of the represent full-length individuals dressed in eagle total area of the twin cities. costumes. From the main room, where the altar In 1983 the archaeological site was opened to was situated, the visitor passed into the remaining visitors for the first time. That same year, once the rooms through a passageway protected by two first phase of ex:cavation was completed, our huge skeletal figures, also made of fired clay. In this project proceeded to the stage of laboratory way, one arrived at a rectangular patio bordered analysis. As a result of that phase, more than by two rooms. Each room contained an altar and 130 papers have been published by members a pair of ceramic braziers decorated with the face of the project as well as guest researchers of the Rain God. (Gutiérrez Solana 1989). Thanks to the enormous Almost all the inside walls of the House of importance of the excavated area, information of Eagles are decorated with beautiful paintings the highest quality was made available which painted on clay and long polychrome benches. The has enabled us to verify, complement and even latter are made up of two panels. The upper panel reconsider many suppositions which we formerly is a frieze depicting undulating snakes in bas-relief. held to be true (Matos Moctezuma 1988; Broda, The lower panel shows processions of armed Carrasco and Matos Moctezuma 1987; López warriors who merge in a zacatapayolli, a ball of Luján 1994). Finally, I would like to mention that grass to which the Mexicas (Aztecs) would stick in October 1987 what was without doubt one of the bloodstained agave thorns used during the our main objectives was realized: the opening of ritual of self-sacrifice. The rich iconography of the the Museum of the Templo Mayor. The premises benches tells us that the blood offering was one of presently house the project headquarters and eight the main ceremonies carried out in the building. rooms where archaeological material from the What is more, the iconography is a magnificent excavations is exhibited. example of the Mexica taste for imitating the artistic styles of more ancient civilizations, such as Recent work on the House of Eagles those ofTeotihuacan and Tula, which flourished in The House of Eagles (also known as the Precinct the Basin of Mexico several centuries earlier of the Eagle Warriors) is one of the most impressive (Fuente 1990; Matos Moctezuma and López finds from the first phase of fieldwork. Ir consists Luján 1993). In this instance, we are looking at a of a large platform with an L-shaped ground plan, 'revival' of the Burnt Palace, one of the many whose staircase is decorated with two sculptures in buildings excavated by the Mexicas at the Toltec the shape of eagle heads (col. pl. 6). In 1981, after capital of Tula, which by this time lay in ruins. exploring the inside of this building, an older Thanks to the collaboration between the INAH, substructure was found which is contemporary the Autonomous University of Mexico with Stage IVb of the Templo Mayor (c. AD 1469). (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México - Ir is characterized by the presence of several inner UNAM) and the Mesoamerican Archive and rooms which are in a perfect state of conservation Research Project of Princeton University, we have because they were buried ritually and with great been able to continue our work on this exceptional care when it was decided that a new extension building.~g-1:ñelast two phases of fieldwork Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire 37 (1991-2 and 1994-7), a small team of archae- Mexicas in the ruin s of Teotihuacan, which had ologists, biologists, chemists and restorers long been abandoned by that time.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Ancient Tollan: the Sacred Precinct
    100 RES 38 AUTUMN 2000 Figure 12. Upper section of Pillar 3: Personage with attributes of Tezcatlipoca. Photograph: Humberto Hiera. Ancient Toi Ian The sacred precinct ALBAGUADALUPE MASTACHE and ROBERTH. COBEAN Tula, along with Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, was to level the area for the plaza and to construct platforms one most of the important cities inMexico's Central that functioned as bases for buildings. Highlands. During Tula's apogee between a.d. 900-1150, It is evident that at Tula the placement of the area the city covered nearly 16 square kilometers. Its of monumental center is strategic, not only because it over an influence extended much of Central Mexico along occupies easily defended place but also because of its with other regions of Mesoamerica, including areas of central setting at a dominant point that had great visual the Baj?o, the Huasteca, the Gulf Coast, the Yucatan impact, being visible to inhabitants in every part of the city peninsula, and such distant places as the Soconusco, on and within view of many rural sites. Lefebvre observes that the Pacific Coast of Chiapas and Guatemala, and El a city's habitational zone ismade on a human scale, a Salvador. From cultural and ethnic perspective, Tula whereas the monumental zone has a superhuman scale, a constituted synthesis of principally two different which goes beyond human beings?overwhelming them, traditions: the preceding urban culture from Teotihuacan dazzling them. The monumental buildings' scale is the in the Basin of Mexico, and another tradition from the scale of divinity, of a divine ruler, of abstract institutions northern Mesoamerican periphery, especially the Baj?o that dominate human society (Lefebvre 1982:84).
    [Show full text]
  • The Toltec Invasion and Chichen Itza
    Other titles of interest published by Thames & Hudson include: Breaking the Maya Code Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs Angkor and the Khmer Civilization India: A Short History The Incas The Aztecs See our websites www.thamesandhudson.com www.thamesandhudsonusa.com 7 THE POSTCLASSIC By the close of the tenth century AD the destiny of the once proud and independent Maya had, at least in northern Yucatan, fallen into the hands of grim warriors from the highlands of central Mexico, where a new order of men had replaced the supposedly more intellectual rulers of Classic times. We know a good deal about the events that led to the conquest of Yucatan by these foreigners, and the subsequent replacement of their state by a resurgent but already decadent Maya culture, for we have entered into a kind of history, albeit far more shaky than that which was recorded on the monuments of the Classic Period. The traditional annals of the peoples of Yucatan, and also of the Guatemalan highlanders, transcribed into Spanish letters early in Colonial times, apparently reach back as far as the beginning of the Postclassic era and are very important sources. But such annals should be used with much caution, whether they come to us from Bishop Landa himself, from statements made by the native nobility, or from native lawsuits and land claims. These are often confused and often self-contradictory, not least because native lineages seem to have deliberately falsified their own histories for political reasons. Our richest (and most treacherous) sources are the K’atun Prophecies of Yucatan, contained in the “Books of Chilam Balam,” which derive their name from a Maya savant said to have predicted the arrival of the Spaniards from the east.
    [Show full text]
  • Knowledge of Skull Base Anatomy and Surgical Implications of Human Sacrifice Among Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Cultures
    See the corresponding retraction, DOI: 10.3171/2018.5.FOCUS12120r, for full details. Neurosurg Focus 33 (2):E1, 2012 Knowledge of skull base anatomy and surgical implications of human sacrifice among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures RAUL LOPEZ-SERNA, M.D.,1 JUAN LUIS GOMEZ-AMADOR, M.D.,1 JUAN BArgES-COLL, M.D.,1 NICASIO ArrIADA-MENDICOA, M.D.,1 SAMUEL ROMERO-VArgAS, M.D., M.SC.,2 MIGUEL RAMOS-PEEK, M.D.,1 MIGUEL ANGEL CELIS-LOPEZ, M.D.,1 ROGELIO REVUELTA-GUTIErrEZ, M.D.,1 AND LESLY PORTOCArrERO-ORTIZ, M.D., M.SC.3 1Department of Neurosurgery, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia “Manuel Velasco Suárez;” 2Department of Spine Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación; and 3Department of Neuroendocrinology, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia “Manuel Velasco Suárez,” Mexico City, Mexico Human sacrifice became a common cultural trait during the advanced phases of Mesoamerican civilizations. This phenomenon, influenced by complex religious beliefs, included several practices such as decapitation, cranial deformation, and the use of human cranial bones for skull mask manufacturing. Archaeological evidence suggests that all of these practices required specialized knowledge of skull base and upper cervical anatomy. The authors con- ducted a systematic search for information on skull base anatomical and surgical knowledge among Mesoamerican civilizations. A detailed exposition of these results is presented, along with some interesting information extracted from historical documents and pictorial codices to provide a better understanding of skull base surgical practices among these cultures. Paleoforensic evidence from the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan indicates that Aztec priests used a specialized decapitation technique, based on a deep anatomical knowledge.
    [Show full text]
  • God of the Month: Tlaloc
    God of the Month: Tlaloc Tlaloc, lord of celestial waters, lightning flashes and hail, patron of land workers, was one of the oldest and most important deities in the Aztec pantheon. Archaeological evidence indicates that he was worshipped in Mesoamerica before the Aztecs even settled in Mexico's central highlands in the 13th century AD. Ceramics depicting a water deity accompanied by serpentine lightning bolts date back to the 1st Tlaloc shown with a jaguar helm. Codex Vaticanus B. century BC in Veracruz, Eastern Mexico. Tlaloc's antiquity as a god is only rivalled by Xiuhtecuhtli the fire lord (also Huehueteotl, old god) whose appearance in history is marked around the last few centuries BC. Tlaloc's main purpose was to send rain to nourish the growing corn and crops. He was able to delay rains or send forth harmful hail, therefore it was very important for the Aztecs to pray to him, and secure his favour for the following agricultural cycle. Read on and discover how crying children, lepers, drowned people, moun- taintops and caves were all important parts of the symbolism surrounding this powerful ancient god... Starting at the very beginning: Tlaloc in Watery Deaths Tamoanchan. Right at the beginning of the world, before the gods were sent down to live on Earth as mortal beings, they Aztecs who died from one of a list of the fol- lived in Tamoanchan, a paradise created by the divine lowing illnesses or incidents were thought to Tlaloc vase. being Ometeotl for his deity children. be sent to the 'earthly paradise' of Tlalocan.
    [Show full text]
  • Changes and Continuities in Ritual Practice at Chechem Ha Cave, Belize
    FAMSI © 2008: Fernando Báez Urincho Building Four: a Palace in Tula Grande, the Lodging of the Toltec King Research Year: 2007 Culture: Toltec Chronology: Early Postclassic Location: Tula de Allende, Hidalgo State, Mexico Site: Tula Archaeological Zone Table of Contents Abstract Resumen Introduction Building Four and Tula Grande's Sacred Precinct The Shape of Building Four Building Four's construction System Building Four and its Occupation Processes The Toltec Occupation Abandonment Recovery Filling and Leveling Mexica Occupation Conclusions: Building Four and its Function Acknowledgments List of Figures Sources Cited 1 Abstract During the field seasons of 2002, 2003, and 2004, we had the opportunity of excavating the northeast sector (known as “Building 4”) in the main precinct of Tula’s Archaeological Zone. A series of architectonic elements were uncovered, with a spatial distribution which represents the importance and meaning that a palace complex had for Toltec society. These excavations confirmed the existence of this palace as originally was proposed by the archaeologist Jorge R. Acosta during his first investigations. Thanks to the support of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, we were able to achieve a better and greater knowledge concerning the area which we explored. These contributions, which form part of my thesis investigations, will help us to understand the cultural and social dynamics that took place in this building complex, thus relating these processes to other sectors of the precinct during different times of its occupation. This study also presents for the first time detailed information concerning an Early Postclassic palace complex in the Basin of Mexico.
    [Show full text]
  • The Bilimek Pulque Vessel (From in His Argument for the Tentative Date of 1 Ozomatli, Seler (1902-1923:2:923) Called Atten- Nicholson and Quiñones Keber 1983:No
    CHAPTER 9 The BilimekPulqueVessel:Starlore, Calendrics,andCosmologyof LatePostclassicCentralMexico The Bilimek Vessel of the Museum für Völkerkunde in Vienna is a tour de force of Aztec lapidary art (Figure 1). Carved in dark-green phyllite, the vessel is covered with complex iconographic scenes. Eduard Seler (1902, 1902-1923:2:913-952) was the first to interpret its a function and iconographic significance, noting that the imagery concerns the beverage pulque, or octli, the fermented juice of the maguey. In his pioneering analysis, Seler discussed many of the more esoteric aspects of the cult of pulque in ancient highland Mexico. In this study, I address the significance of pulque in Aztec mythology, cosmology, and calendrics and note that the Bilimek Vessel is a powerful period-ending statement pertaining to star gods of the night sky, cosmic battle, and the completion of the Aztec 52-year cycle. The Iconography of the Bilimek Vessel The most prominent element on the Bilimek Vessel is the large head projecting from the side of the vase (Figure 2a). Noting the bone jaw and fringe of malinalli grass hair, Seler (1902-1923:2:916) suggested that the head represents the day sign Malinalli, which for the b Aztec frequently appears as a skeletal head with malinalli hair (Figure 2b). However, because the head is not accompanied by the numeral coefficient required for a completetonalpohualli Figure 2. Comparison of face date, Seler rejected the Malinalli identification. Based on the appearance of the date 8 Flint on front of Bilimek Vessel with Aztec Malinalli sign: (a) face on on the vessel rim, Seler suggested that the face is the day sign Ozomatli, with an inferred Bilimek Vessel, note malinalli tonalpohualli reference to the trecena 1 Ozomatli (1902-1923:2:922-923).
    [Show full text]
  • The Case Study of Apocalypto
    See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288187016 Relativism, Revisionism, Aboriginalism, and Emic/Etic Truth: The Case Study of Apocalypto Article · August 2013 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1065-2-8 CITATIONS READS 2 2,540 1 author: Richard D Hansen University of Utah 33 PUBLICATIONS 650 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Mirador Basin Project, Guatemala View project Mirador Basin Archaeological Project View project All content following this page was uploaded by Richard D Hansen on 30 March 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Chapter 8 Relativism, Revisionism, Aboriginalism, and Emic/Etic Truth: The Case Study of Apocalypto Richard D. Hansen Abstract Popular fi lm depictions of varied cultures, ranging from the Chinese, Africans, and Native Americans have repeatedly provided a variant perception of the culture. In works of fi ction, this fl aw cannot only provide us with entertainment, but with insights and motives in the ideological, social, or economic agendas of the authors and/or directors as well as those of the critics. Mel Gibson’s Maya epic Apocalypto has provided an interesting case study depicting indigenous warfare, environmental degradation, and ritual violence, characteristics that have been derived from multidisciplinary research, ethnohistoric studies, and other historical and archaeological investigations. The fi lm received extraordinary attention from the public, both as positive feedback and negative criticism from a wide range of observ- ers. Thus, the elements of truth, public perception, relativism, revisionism, and emic/etic perspectives coalesced into a case where truth, fi ction, and the virtues and vices of the authors and director of the fi lm as well as those of critics were exposed.
    [Show full text]
  • A Regional Study
    POPULATION STRUCTURE AND INTERREGIONAL INTERACTION IN PRE- HISPANIC MESOAMERICA: A BIODISTANCE STUDY DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By B. Scott Aubry, B.A., M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2009 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Clark Spencer Larsen, Adviser Professor Paul Sciulli _________________________________ Adviser Professor Sam Stout Graduate Program in Anthropology Professor Robert DePhilip Copyright Bryan Scott Aubry 2009 ABSTRACT This study addresses long standing issues regarding the nature of interregional interaction between central Mexico and the Maya area through the analysis of dental variation. In total 25 sites were included in this study, from Teotihuacan and Tula, to Tikal and Chichen Itza. Many other sites were included in this study to obtain a more comprehensive picture of the biological relationships between these regions and to better estimate genetic heterozygosity for each sub-region. The scope of the present study results in a more comprehensive understanding of population interaction both within and between the sub-regions of Mesoamerica, and it allows for the assessment of differential interaction between sites on a regional scale. Both metric and non-metric data were recorded. Non-metric traits were scored according to the ASU system, and dental metrics include the mesiodistal and buccolingual dimensions at the CEJ following a modification of Hillson et al. (2005). Biodistance estimates were calculated for non-metric traits using Mean Measure of Divergence. R-matrix analysis, which provides an estimate of average genetic heterozygosity, was applied to the metric data. R-matrix analysis was performed for each of the sub-regions separately in order to detect specific sites that deviate from expected levels of genetic heterozygosity in each area.
    [Show full text]
  • Maya Ritual and Myth: Human Sacrifice in the Context of the Ballgame and the Relationship to the Popol Vuh Jessica Zaccagnini
    Southern Illinois University Carbondale OpenSIUC Honors Theses University Honors Program 12-2003 Maya Ritual and Myth: Human Sacrifice in the Context of the Ballgame and the Relationship to the Popol Vuh Jessica Zaccagnini Follow this and additional works at: http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/uhp_theses Recommended Citation Zaccagnini, Jessica, "Maya Ritual and Myth: Human Sacrifice in the Context of the Ballgame and the Relationship to the Popol Vuh" (2003). Honors Theses. Paper 336. This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the University Honors Program at OpenSIUC. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of OpenSIUC. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Maya Ritual and Myth: Human Sacrifice in the Co?text of the Ballgame and the Relationship to the Popol yUh Jessica Zaccagnini Dr. Jonathan Hill Anthropology 480 December 8, 2003 Maya Ritual and Myth: Ritual Human Sacrifice in the Context ofth~ Ballgame and the Relationship to the Popol Vuh Abstract The ballgarne existed as an integral facet of Mayan life. Ritual and mythic expression are inextricably linked to the execution ofthe ballgarne and are deeply integrated into Mayan culture. Ritual human sacrifice is an unquestionable aspect related to the ballgarne. The Maya rulers extended the outcome of the ballgarne by satisfYing th., deities through ritual and human sacrifice (Scarborough 1991 :143). The Quiche book of epic narratives, named the Papal Vuh, is a recurring theme in the exploration of the ballgarne and it is deeply weighted with mythic significance. A discussion of how this theme is interwoven into the political, social, and religious aspects of Mayan society wil! be addressed in this paper.
    [Show full text]
  • The Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Cult of Sacred War at Teotihuacan
    The Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the cult of sacred war at Teotihuacan KARLA. TAUBE The Temple of Quetzalcoatl at Teotihuacan has been warrior elements found in the Maya region also appear the source of startling archaeological discoveries since among the Classic Zapotee of Oaxaca. Finally, using the early portion of this century. Beginning in 1918, ethnohistoric data pertaining to the Aztec, Iwill discuss excavations by Manuel Gamio revealed an elaborate the possible ethos surrounding the Teotihuacan cult and beautifully preserved facade underlying later of war. construction. Although excavations were performed intermittently during the subsequent decades, some of The Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Tezcacoac the most important discoveries have occurred during the last several years. Recent investigations have Located in the rear center of the great Ciudadela revealed mass dedicatory burials in the foundations of compound, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl is one of the the Temple of Quetzalcoatl (Sugiyama 1989; Cabrera, largest pyramidal structures at Teotihuacan. In volume, Sugiyama, and Cowgill 1988); at the time of this it ranks only third after the Pyramid of the Moon and writing, more than eighty individuals have been the Pyramid of the Sun (Cowgill 1983: 322). As a result discovered interred in the foundations of the pyramid. of the Teotihuacan Mapping Project, it is now known Sugiyama (1989) persuasively argues that many of the that the Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the enclosing individuals appear to be either warriors or dressed in Ciudadela are located in the center of the ancient city the office of war. (Mill?n 1976: 236). The Ciudadela iswidely considered The archaeological investigations by Cabrera, to have been the seat of Teotihuacan rulership, and Sugiyama, and Cowgill are ongoing, and to comment held the palaces of the principal Teotihuacan lords extensively on the implications of their work would be (e.g., Armillas 1964: 307; Mill?n 1973: 55; Coe 1981: both premature and presumptuous.
    [Show full text]
  • The Chronological Period Is a Temporal Unito There Is a Wealth of Material on Late Pre-Columbian Middle America Available Sin the Chronicles and Codices
    THE POSTCLASSIC STAGE IN MESOAMERICA Jane Holden INTRODUCTION The subject of inquiry in this paper is the PostcLassic stage in Middle America. As used by prehistorians, the term "Postclassic" has referred to either a developmental stage or to a chronological period. These two con- cepts are quite different, both operationally and theoretically. The stage concept in contemporary usage is a classificatory device for st,udying cul- ture units in terms of developmental and theoretical problems. For com- parative purposes, a stage is usually defined in broad and diffuse terms, in order to outline a culture type. A developmental stage is not tempor- c3lyl detined although it is necessarily a function of relative time. The chronological period on the other hand is defined through the temporal alignment of culture units and establishes the historical contemporaneity of those units. Thus the developmental stage is a typological device and the chronological period is a temporal unito There is a wealth of material on late pre-Columbian Middle America available sin the chronicles and codices. However, the study of such mater- ials. is a ppecialty in itself, hence only a minimum of historical informa- tion *ill be presented in this paper and this will be of necessity, based on secondary sources. The following procedure will be employed in this paper. First, brief summaries of formal statements by various authors on the developmental stage concept will be presented, as well as some temporal classifications of the Postclassic. Secondly, the available archaeological evidence will be summarized to provide a temporal framework. And finally, consideration will be given to the implications derived from the comparison of the Post- classic as a temporal category and as a developmental stage.
    [Show full text]
  • Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ
    Journal of Book of Mormon Studies Volume 11 Number 1 Article 3 7-31-2002 Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ Diane E. Wirth Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms BYU ScholarsArchive Citation Wirth, Diane E. (2002) "Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ," Journal of Book of Mormon Studies: Vol. 11 : No. 1 , Article 3. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol11/iss1/3 This Feature Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Journals at BYU ScholarsArchive. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Book of Mormon Studies by an authorized editor of BYU ScholarsArchive. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. Title Quetzalcoatl, the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ Author(s) Diane E. Wirth Reference Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 11/1 (2002): 4–15, 107. ISSN 1065-9366 (print), 2168-3158 (online) Abstract Many scholars suggest that Quetzalcoatl of Mesoamerica (also known as the Feathered Serpent), the Maya Maize God, and Jesus Christ could all be the same being. By looking at ancient Mayan writings such as the Popol Vuh, this theory is further explored and developed. These ancient writings include several stories that coincide with the stories of Jesus Christ in the Bible, such as the creation and the resurrec- tion. The role that both Quetzalcoatl and the Maize God played in bringing maize to humankind is com- parable to Christ’s role in bringing the bread of life to humankind. Furthermore, Quetzalcoatl is said to have descended to the Underworld to perform a sacrifice strikingly similar to the atonement of Jesus Christ.
    [Show full text]