Ancient Tollan: the Sacred Precinct

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2. Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire

2. Water and Fire: Archaeology in the Capital of the Mexica Empire Leonardo Lopez Luján The archaeology of México- Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan made up for the lack of archae- As recently as two decades ago, systematized ological exploration on a large scale. For example, information on Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the the graphic and written information on the metropolis of the most important Mesoamerican Templo Mayor (Great Temple) of Tenochtitlan state at the time of the Europeans' arrival, was was enough to reveal the history of the most extremely scarce. Unlike other cities such as Tikal, important religious building of the empire from its Monte Albán and Teotihuacan, the capital of the founding, through its multiple extensions and Mexica (Aztec) empire was never the site of right up to the time when it was completely extensive excavation projects that were to bring its dismantled. In fact, no other monument in Ancient principal remains to light. The explanation for this Mexico so commanded the attention of both archaeological ignorance is very simple. In 1521, natives and outsiders alike or was the subject of the island occupied by the twin cities of Mexico- such lengthy descriptions as this double temple Tenochtitlan and Mexico-Tlatelolco fell into the dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (the God of Sun and hands of the Spanish conquerors (fig. 8). After the War) and Tláloc (the Rain God). All kinds of victory, Hernán Cortés took the historie decision information relating to the Great Temple can be to destroy the metropolis which had been home to found in the indigenous pictographic documents between 200,000 and 300,000 inhabitants and and Náhuatl language texts; in the accounts of the covered an area of 13.5 square kilometres (Rojas European conquerors who saw it functioning and 1992: 31-5, 57-84).
The Olmec, Toltec, and Aztec

Mesoamerican Ancient Civilizations The Olmec, Toltec, and Aztec Olmecs of Teotihuacán -“The People of the Land of Rubber…” -Large stone heads -Art found throughout Mesoamerica Olmec Civilization Origin and Impact n The Olmec civilization was thought to have originated around 1500 BCE. Within the next three centuries of their arrival, the people built their capital at Teotihuacán n This ancient civilization was believed by some historians to be the Mother-culture and base of Mesoamerica. “The city may well be the basic civilization out of which developed such high art centers as those of Maya, Zapotecs, Toltecs, and Totonacs.” – Stirling Cultural Practices n The Olmec people would bind wooden planks to the heads of infants to create longer and flatter skulls. n A game was played with a rubber ball where any part of the body could be used except for hands. Religion and Art n The Olmecs believed that celestial phenomena such as the phases of the moon affected daily life. n They worshipped jaguars, were-jaguars, and sometimes snakes. n Artistic figurines and toys were found, consisting of a jaguar with a tube joining its front and back feet, with clay disks forming an early model of the wheel. n Large carved heads were found that were made from the Olmecs. Olmec Advancements n The Olmecs were the first of the Mesoamerican societies, and the first to cultivate corn. n They built pyramid type structures n The Olmecs were the first of the Mesoamerican civilizations to create a form of the wheel, though it was only used for toys.
Memorias De Piedra Verde: Miradas Simbólicas De Las Reliquias Toltecas

Memorias de piedra verde: miradas simbólicas de las reliquias toltecas Stephen Castillo Bernal* Museo Nacional de Antropología, INAH RESUMEN: Las placas de piedra verde son características del periodo Epiclásico (650-900 d.C.), en ellas se encuentran plasmadas las memorias de los guerreros, dignatarios y sacerdotes. Me- diante este texto se realiza un análisis simbólico y contextual de diversas placas recuperadas en los sitios de Xochicalco (650-900 d.C.) y de Tula (900-1200 d.C.), fundamentado en los significados simbólicos y anímicos que los toltecas le asignaron a esta clase de objetos. Al abrigo de la teoría del ritual de Victor Turner [1980, 1988], se avanza en una interpretación alterna de estos objetos, pues se ha asumido que ellos aluden a sacerdotes en estado de trance. Se postula también que los sujetos son representaciones de muertos, depositados como reliquias cargadas de meta-mensajes de tiempos pasados y que aparecen en contextos posteriores, como Tula o Tenochtitlan. PALABRAS CLAVE: Toltecas, piedra verde, reliquias, ancestros, muerte. Memories of green stone: A symbolic look at some Toltec relics ABSTRACT: Green stone slabs are characteristic of the Epiclassic period (650-900 A.D.). On them, warriors, dignitaries and priests were embodied. This paper provides a symbolic and contextual analysis of several of the said plates —in this case— recovered at the sites of Xochicalco (650-900 AD) and Tula (900-1200 AD), focusing specifically on the symbolic and emotional meanings that the Toltecs assigned to this class of object. From the ritual theory of Victor Turner [1980, 1988], an alternative interpretation of these objects is proposed, since it has been assumed that they allude to priests in a state of trance.
The Toltec Invasion and Chichen Itza

Other titles of interest published by Thames & Hudson include: Breaking the Maya Code Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs Angkor and the Khmer Civilization India: A Short History The Incas The Aztecs See our websites www.thamesandhudson.com www.thamesandhudsonusa.com 7 THE POSTCLASSIC By the close of the tenth century AD the destiny of the once proud and independent Maya had, at least in northern Yucatan, fallen into the hands of grim warriors from the highlands of central Mexico, where a new order of men had replaced the supposedly more intellectual rulers of Classic times. We know a good deal about the events that led to the conquest of Yucatan by these foreigners, and the subsequent replacement of their state by a resurgent but already decadent Maya culture, for we have entered into a kind of history, albeit far more shaky than that which was recorded on the monuments of the Classic Period. The traditional annals of the peoples of Yucatan, and also of the Guatemalan highlanders, transcribed into Spanish letters early in Colonial times, apparently reach back as far as the beginning of the Postclassic era and are very important sources. But such annals should be used with much caution, whether they come to us from Bishop Landa himself, from statements made by the native nobility, or from native lawsuits and land claims. These are often confused and often self-contradictory, not least because native lineages seem to have deliberately falsified their own histories for political reasons. Our richest (and most treacherous) sources are the K’atun Prophecies of Yucatan, contained in the “Books of Chilam Balam,” which derive their name from a Maya savant said to have predicted the arrival of the Spaniards from the east.
"Comments on the Historicity of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, Tollan, and the Toltecs" by Michael E

31 COMMENTARY "Comments on the Historicity of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, Tollan, and the Toltecs" by Michael E. Smith University at Albany, State University of New York Can we believe Aztec historical accounts about Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, Tollan, and other Toltec phenomena? The fascinating and important recent exchange in the Nahua Newsletter between H. B. Nicholson and Michel Graulich focused on this question. Stimulated partly by this debate and partly by a recent invitation to contribute an essay to an edited volume on Tula and Chichén Itzá (Smith n.d.), I have taken a new look at Aztec and Maya native historical traditions within the context of comparative oral histories from around the world. This exercise suggests that conquest-period native historical accounts are unlikely to preserve reliable information about events from the Early Postclassic period. Surviving accounts of the Toltecs, the Itzas (prior to Mayapan), Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, Tula, and Chichén Itzá all belong more to the realm of myth than history. In the spirit of encouraging discussion and debate, I offer a summary here of my views on early Aztec native history; a more complete version of which, including discussion of the Maya Chilam Balam accounts, will be published in Smith (n.d.). I have long thought that Mesoamericanists have been far too credulous in their acceptance of native historical sources; this is an example of what historian David Fischer (1970:58-61) calls "the fallacy of misplaced literalism." Aztec native history was an oral genre that employed painted books as mnemonic devices to aid the historian or scribe in their recitation (Calnek 1978; Nicholson 1971).
Knowledge of Skull Base Anatomy and Surgical Implications of Human Sacrifice Among Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Cultures

See the corresponding retraction, DOI: 10.3171/2018.5.FOCUS12120r, for full details. Neurosurg Focus 33 (2):E1, 2012 Knowledge of skull base anatomy and surgical implications of human sacrifice among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures RAUL LOPEZ-SERNA, M.D.,1 JUAN LUIS GOMEZ-AMADOR, M.D.,1 JUAN BArgES-COLL, M.D.,1 NICASIO ArrIADA-MENDICOA, M.D.,1 SAMUEL ROMERO-VArgAS, M.D., M.SC.,2 MIGUEL RAMOS-PEEK, M.D.,1 MIGUEL ANGEL CELIS-LOPEZ, M.D.,1 ROGELIO REVUELTA-GUTIErrEZ, M.D.,1 AND LESLY PORTOCArrERO-ORTIZ, M.D., M.SC.3 1Department of Neurosurgery, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia “Manuel Velasco Suárez;” 2Department of Spine Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación; and 3Department of Neuroendocrinology, Instituto Nacional de Neurologia y Neurocirugia “Manuel Velasco Suárez,” Mexico City, Mexico Human sacrifice became a common cultural trait during the advanced phases of Mesoamerican civilizations. This phenomenon, influenced by complex religious beliefs, included several practices such as decapitation, cranial deformation, and the use of human cranial bones for skull mask manufacturing. Archaeological evidence suggests that all of these practices required specialized knowledge of skull base and upper cervical anatomy. The authors con- ducted a systematic search for information on skull base anatomical and surgical knowledge among Mesoamerican civilizations. A detailed exposition of these results is presented, along with some interesting information extracted from historical documents and pictorial codices to provide a better understanding of skull base surgical practices among these cultures. Paleoforensic evidence from the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan indicates that Aztec priests used a specialized decapitation technique, based on a deep anatomical knowledge.
Toltec.Html Toltec

Text and pictures adapted from http://www.crystalinks.com/toltec.html Toltec The Atlantes are columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula The word Toltec in Mesoamerican studies has been used in different ways by different scholars to refer to actual populations and polities of pre-Columbian central Mexico or to the mythical ancestors mentioned in the mythical/historical narratives of the Aztecs. It is an ongoing debate whether the Toltecs can be understood to have formed an actual ethnic group at any point in Mesoamerican history or if they are mostly or only a product of Aztec myth. The scholars who have understood the Toltecs to have been an actual ethnic group often connect them to the archeological site of Tula, Hidalgo which is then supposed to have been the Tollan of Aztec myth. This tradition assumes the "Toltec empire" to have dominated much of central Mexico between the 10th and 12th century AD. Other Mexican cities such as Teotihuacán have also been proposed to have been the historical Tollan "Place of Reeds", the city from which the name Tolteca "inhabitant of Tollan" is derived in the Nahuatl language. The term Toltec has also been associated with the arrival of certain Central Mexican cultural traits into the Mayan sphere of dominance that took place in the late classic and early postclassic periods, and the Postclassic Mayan civilizations of Chichén Itzá, Mayapán and the Guatemalan highlands have been referred to as "toltecized" or "mexicanized" Mayas. For example the striking similarities between the city of Tula, Hidalgo and Chichen Itza have often been cited as direct evidence for Toltec dominance of the Postclassic Maya.
Changes and Continuities in Ritual Practice at Chechem Ha Cave, Belize

FAMSI © 2008: Fernando Báez Urincho Building Four: a Palace in Tula Grande, the Lodging of the Toltec King Research Year: 2007 Culture: Toltec Chronology: Early Postclassic Location: Tula de Allende, Hidalgo State, Mexico Site: Tula Archaeological Zone Table of Contents Abstract Resumen Introduction Building Four and Tula Grande's Sacred Precinct The Shape of Building Four Building Four's construction System Building Four and its Occupation Processes The Toltec Occupation Abandonment Recovery Filling and Leveling Mexica Occupation Conclusions: Building Four and its Function Acknowledgments List of Figures Sources Cited 1 Abstract During the field seasons of 2002, 2003, and 2004, we had the opportunity of excavating the northeast sector (known as “Building 4”) in the main precinct of Tula’s Archaeological Zone. A series of architectonic elements were uncovered, with a spatial distribution which represents the importance and meaning that a palace complex had for Toltec society. These excavations confirmed the existence of this palace as originally was proposed by the archaeologist Jorge R. Acosta during his first investigations. Thanks to the support of the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, we were able to achieve a better and greater knowledge concerning the area which we explored. These contributions, which form part of my thesis investigations, will help us to understand the cultural and social dynamics that took place in this building complex, thus relating these processes to other sectors of the precinct during different times of its occupation. This study also presents for the first time detailed information concerning an Early Postclassic palace complex in the Basin of Mexico.
The Unintentional and Intentional Recharge of Aquifers in the Tula and the Mexico Valleys: the Megalopolis Needs Mega Solutions

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267957844 The unintentional and intentional recharge of aquifers in the Tula and the Mexico Valleys: The Megalopolis needs Mega solutions Chapter · January 2014 CITATION READS 1 215 1 author: Blanca Jiménez Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 293 PUBLICATIONS 5,301 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Water Quality View project Disinfection View project All content following this page was uploaded by Blanca Jiménez on 20 January 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. 23 Unplanned reuse of wastewater for human consumption: The Tula Valley, Mexico Blanca Jiménez 23.1 INTRODUCTION In irrigation, water is frequently used with low efficiencies (< 50%), seldom realizing that the “lost” water often recharges aquifers that are being used for several purposes. This results in unplanned water reuse together with concerns that depend on the quality of the irrigating water. This situation is illustrated by the Tula Valley case study that shows how an “inefficient” use of wastewater turned out to be a successful, though unplanned, example of water reuse in a semi-arid area. Environmental and economic conditions were dramatically improved while a new drinking water source was provided. However, in order to maximize the advantages while reducing future risks, special management – described in this chapter – is required. Payne was the first to report, in 1975, that 90-100% of the aquifer in Tula Valley was formed by Mexico City’s wastewater. Later, in 1995, the British Geological Survey and the National Water Commission (BGS-CNA, 1998) quantified the phenomenon as at least 2 194 560 m3/d (25.4 m3/s).
The Case Study of Apocalypto

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288187016 Relativism, Revisionism, Aboriginalism, and Emic/Etic Truth: The Case Study of Apocalypto Article · August 2013 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-1065-2-8 CITATIONS READS 2 2,540 1 author: Richard D Hansen University of Utah 33 PUBLICATIONS 650 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Mirador Basin Project, Guatemala View project Mirador Basin Archaeological Project View project All content following this page was uploaded by Richard D Hansen on 30 March 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Chapter 8 Relativism, Revisionism, Aboriginalism, and Emic/Etic Truth: The Case Study of Apocalypto Richard D. Hansen Abstract Popular fi lm depictions of varied cultures, ranging from the Chinese, Africans, and Native Americans have repeatedly provided a variant perception of the culture. In works of fi ction, this fl aw cannot only provide us with entertainment, but with insights and motives in the ideological, social, or economic agendas of the authors and/or directors as well as those of the critics. Mel Gibson’s Maya epic Apocalypto has provided an interesting case study depicting indigenous warfare, environmental degradation, and ritual violence, characteristics that have been derived from multidisciplinary research, ethnohistoric studies, and other historical and archaeological investigations. The fi lm received extraordinary attention from the public, both as positive feedback and negative criticism from a wide range of observ- ers. Thus, the elements of truth, public perception, relativism, revisionism, and emic/etic perspectives coalesced into a case where truth, fi ction, and the virtues and vices of the authors and director of the fi lm as well as those of critics were exposed.
Encounter with the Plumed Serpent

Maarten Jansen and Gabina Aurora Pérez Jiménez ENCOUNTENCOUNTEERR withwith thethe Drama and Power in the Heart of Mesoamerica Preface Encounter WITH THE plumed serpent i Mesoamerican Worlds From the Olmecs to the Danzantes GENERAL EDITORS: DAVÍD CARRASCO AND EDUARDO MATOS MOCTEZUMA The Apotheosis of Janaab’ Pakal: Science, History, and Religion at Classic Maya Palenque, GERARDO ALDANA Commoner Ritual and Ideology in Ancient Mesoamerica, NANCY GONLIN AND JON C. LOHSE, EDITORS Eating Landscape: Aztec and European Occupation of Tlalocan, PHILIP P. ARNOLD Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures, Revised Edition, ANTHONY AVENI Encounter with the Plumed Serpent: Drama and Power in the Heart of Mesoamerica, MAARTEN JANSEN AND GABINA AURORA PÉREZ JIMÉNEZ In the Realm of Nachan Kan: Postclassic Maya Archaeology at Laguna de On, Belize, MARILYN A. MASSON Life and Death in the Templo Mayor, EDUARDO MATOS MOCTEZUMA The Madrid Codex: New Approaches to Understanding an Ancient Maya Manuscript, GABRIELLE VAIL AND ANTHONY AVENI, EDITORS Mesoamerican Ritual Economy: Archaeological and Ethnological Perspectives, E. CHRISTIAN WELLS AND KARLA L. DAVIS-SALAZAR, EDITORS Mesoamerica’s Classic Heritage: Teotihuacan to the Aztecs, DAVÍD CARRASCO, LINDSAY JONES, AND SCOTT SESSIONS Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God: Tezcatlipoca, “Lord of the Smoking Mirror,” GUILHEM OLIVIER, TRANSLATED BY MICHEL BESSON Rabinal Achi: A Fifteenth-Century Maya Dynastic Drama, ALAIN BRETON, EDITOR; TRANSLATED BY TERESA LAVENDER FAGAN AND ROBERT SCHNEIDER Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún, ELOISE QUIÑONES KEBER, EDITOR The Social Experience of Childhood in Mesoamerica, TRACI ARDREN AND SCOTT R. HUTSON, EDITORS Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, KEITH M.
Changes and Continuities in Ritual Practice at Chechem Ha Cave, Belize

FAMSI © 2010: Esperanza Elizabeth Jiménez García Sculptural-Iconographic Catalogue of Tula, Hidalgo: The Stone Figures Research Year: 2007 Culture : Toltec Chronology : Post-Classic Location : México, Hidalgo Site : Tula Table of Contents Abstract Resumen Introduction The Tula Archaeological Zone The Settlement Tula's Sculpture 1 The Conformation of the Catalogue Recording the Materials The Formal-architectural Classification Architectural Elements The Catalogue Proposed Chronological Periods Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Acknowledgments List of Figures Sources Cited Abstract The goal of this study was to make a catalogue of sculptures integrated by archaeological materials made of stone from the Prehispanic city of Tula, in the state of Hidalgo, Mexico. A total of 971 pieces or fragments were recorded, as well as 17 panels or sections pertaining to projecting panels and banquettes found in situ . Because of the great amount of pieces we found, as well as the variety of designs we detected both in whole pieces and in fragments, it was necessary to perform their recording and classification as well. As a result of this study we were able to define the sculptural and iconographic characteristics of this metropolis, which had a great political, religious, and ideological importance throughout Mesoamerica. The study of these materials allowed us to have a better knowledge of the figures represented, therefore in this study we offer a tentative periodic scheme which may reflect several historical stages through which the city's sculptural and architectural development went between AD 700-1200. Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo, fue la realización de un catálogo escultórico integrado por materiales arqueológicos de piedra que procedieran de la ciudad prehispánica de Tula, en el estado de Hidalgo, México.