TECHNICAL PAPER 53

Nilo Forest Reserve A Biodiversity Survey

Frontier Tanzania 2002

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme

Technical Paper 53

Nilo Forest Reserve

A biodiversity survey

Beharrell, N. K., Fanning, E. and Howell, K. M. (eds)

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania Forestry and Beekeeping Division

Department of International Frontier-Tanzania Development Co-operation, Finland University of Dar es Salaam Finnish Forest and Park Service Society for Environmental Exploration

Tanga 2002

Suggested Technical Paper citation:

Frontier Tanzania (2002) Beharrell, N. K., Fanning, E., & Howell K. (eds) Nilo Forest Feserve: A biodiversity survey. East Usambara Conservation Area Managmenet Programme, Technical Paper 53. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Divison and Metsahallitus Consulting, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Vantaa, Finland.

Suggested Section citations:

Beharrell, N. K., Hall, S. M., & Ntemi, S. A. (2002) Vegetation: In Nilo Forest Feserve: A biodiversity survey. pp. 12-74. East Usambara Conservation Area Managmenet Programme, Technical Paper 53. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Divison and Metsahallitus Consulting, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Vantaa, Finland.

Beharrell, N.K., Emmett, D., Hall, S. M., & Loader, S. (2002) Fauna: In Nilo Forest Feserve: A biodiversity survey. pp. 75-116. East Usambara Conservation Area Managmenet Programme, Technical Paper 53. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Divison and Metsahallitus Consulting, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Vantaa, Finland.

Beharrell, N. K., Ntemi, S. A., & Hall, S. M. (2002) Conclusions: In Nilo Forest Feserve: A biodiversity survey. pp. 119-122. East Usambara Conservation Area Managmenet Programme, Technical Paper 53. Frontier Tanzania; Forestry and Beekeeping Divison and Metsahallitus Consulting, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Vantaa, Finland.

© Metsähallitus - Forest and Park Service

Cover painting: Jaffary Aussi (1995)

ISSN 1236-620X ISBN 9987-64609 3 East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) The East Usambara rain forests are one of the most valuable conservation areas in Africa. Several plant and animal species are found only in the East Usambara mountains. The rain forests secure the water supply of 200,000 people and the local people in the mountains depend on these forests. The East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme has established the Amani Nature Reserve and aims; at protecting water sources; establishing and protecting forest reserves; sustaining villager’s benefits from the forest; and rehabilitating the Amani Botanical Garden. The programme is implemented by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism with financial support from the Government of Finland, and implementation support from the Finnish Forest and Park Service. To monitor the impact of the project, both baseline biodiversity assessments and development of a monitoring system are needed. The present activity is aimed at establishing baseline information on biological diversity in selected East Usambara forests.

The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research in the arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is surveying and mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania and is conducting research into the maintenance and improvement of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s natural resources.

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries.

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been conducting collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of Frontier Tanzania, of which one component is the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP). Since July 1994, the FT FRP has been working in the forests of the East Usambara mountains in collaboration with the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP). This survey of selected forests collects baseline biodiversity data and assists the EUCAMP in the management of the East Usambara forests.

FOR MORE INFORMATION: Forestry and Beekeeping Division Department for Development Co-operation P.O. Box 426, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Ministry for Foreign Affairs Tel: 255-22-2111 062/3/4 Katajanokanlaituri 3 Fax: 255-22-2114 659 FIN-00160 Helsinki, Finland E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 358-9-134 161 Fax: 358-9-1341 6293

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Metsähallitus Consulting Programme P.O. Box 94, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland P.O. Box 5869, Tanga, Tanzania Tel: 358-205-64100 Tel: 255-27-2643453, 2646907, 2643820 Fax: 358-205-644401 Fax: 255-27-2643820 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.usambara.com Society for Environmental Exploration Dept. of Zoology & Marine Biology 50-52 Rivington Street, London, EC2A 3QP. U.K. University of Dar es Salaam Tel: +44 20 76 13 24 22 P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 Tel: 255-22-2410462 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.frontier.ac.uk

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables iii List of Figures iv Executive Summary v Foreword vii Acknowledgements viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The East Usambara Mountains and forest diversity 1 1.2 Report structure 3 1.3 Maps 4 1.4 Data and monitoring 4 1.5 Survey period and personnel 5 2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY 6 3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST 7 3.1 General description 7 3.1.1 Description 7 3.1.2 Location 7 3.1.3 Land use 7 3.1.4 Topography 8 3.1.5 History and Status 8 4.0 VEGETATION 12 4.1 Introduction 12 4.2 Methods 12 4.2.1 Forest composition 12 4.2.1.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 12 4.2.1.2 Opportunistic collection and observation 12 4.2.1.3 Disturbance transects 12 4.3 Results 15 4.3.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 15 4.3.1.1 Systematic vegetation plots 15 4.3.1.2 Species ranking 21 4.3.1.3 Species accumulation 23 4.3.1.4 Regeneration 23 4.3.1.5 Species range extensions 24 4.3.1.6 Ecological type 27 4.3.1.7 Habitat 28 4.3.1.8 Endemic status 29 4.3.1.9 Timber value 30 4.2 Opportunistic botanical records 41 4.3 Disturbance transects 56 4.4 Discussion 71 4.4.1 Species richness 71 4.4.2 Species Accumulation Rates 72 4.4.3 Ecological Type 72 4.4.4 Habitat 73 4.4.5 Endemic Status 73 4.4.6 Regeneration 73 4.4.7 Range extensions and new records for the East Usambara Mountains 74 4.4.8 Disturbance 74 5.0 FAUNA 75 5.1 Introduction 75 5.2 Methods 75 5.2.1 Mammals 75

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5.2.1.1 Sherman live trapping 75 5.2.1.2 Bucket pitfall trapping 75 5.2.1.3 Mist netting for bats 76 5.2.1.4 Dung survey 76 5.2.1.5 Mammal observations 76 5.2.2 Birds 76 5.2.1 Reptiles 76 5.2.2 Amphibians 76 5.2.3 Invertebrates 77 5.2.3.1 Butterflies 77 5.2.3.2 Molluscs 77 5.2.3.3 Millipedes 77 5.3 Trapping sites and sampling intensity 79 5.4 Results 81 5.4.1 Mammals 81 5.4.1.1 Small mammals 81 5.4.1.2 Dung survey 83 5.4.1.3 Mammal observations 84 5.4.2 Bats 86 5.4.3 Birds 90 5.4.4 Reptiles 95 5.4.5 Amphibians 101 5.4.6 Invertebrates 107 5.4.6.1 Butterflies 107 5.4.6.2 Molluscs 110 5.4.6.3 Millipedes 110 5.5 Discussion 111 5.5.1 Species richness and abundance 111 5.5.1.1 Mammals 111 5.5.1.2 Reptiles 112 5.5.1.3 Amphibians 112 5.5.1.4 Endemics and near-endemics 113 5.5.1.5 Forest dependent species 113 5.5.1.6 High risk species 114 5.5.2 Ecological type 114 5.5.3 Endemic Status 115 5.5.4 Threat Status 116 6.0 CONCLUSIONS 119 6.1 Disturbance 119 6.2 Species Richness 119 6.3 Flora 120 6.4 Fauna 120 6.5 Conservation 120 7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 122 Appendix 1 General Plot Information, Nilo FR 127 Appendix 2 Taxonomic Verification 130 Appendix 3 Geo-coordinates of vegetation plots, Nilo FR 131 Appendix 4 New botanical records for the East Usambara Plant Database, Nilo FR 124 Appendix 5 Geo-coordinates of trap sites, Nilo FR 138 Appendix 6 List of mammal species and type of observation recorded for Nilo FR 139 Appendix 7 Non-forest dependent bird species recorded, Nilo FR 141 Appendix 8 Reptile capture data, Nilo FR 143 Appendix 9 Amphibian Capture data: Nilo FR (excluding caecilians): Trap sites 1-10 147 Appendix 10 15 man hour amphibian study: Trap sites 1-9, Nilo FR 151 Appendix 11 Caecilian records from Nilo FR 153 East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper Series 154

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity taxa surveyed vi Table 2 Forest area in the East Usambaras (based on Johansson and Sandy 1996) 2 Table 3 Land use distribution (Johansson and Sandy 1996) 7 Table 4 Gazettement information (from Iversen 1991a): Lutindi, Kilanga and Nkombola 8 forest reserves Table 5 Checklist of trees and shrubs from systematic plots, Nilo FR 15 Table 6 Species coverage and abundance 22 Table 7 Species recorded exclusively in the regeneration layer 23 Table 8 Tree and shrub species found outside their previously recorded range Ruffo et 24 al. (1989) in the East Usambara Mountains and those species not listed by the 1986/7 survey Table 9 Summary of ecological type for tree and shrub species 28 Table 10 Summary of habitat for tree and shrub species 27 Table 11 Submontane and montane species occurring in lowland (below 850 m asl) areas 28 and the altitudes where they were recorded Table 12 Summary of endemic status for tree and shrub species 29 Table 13 The abundance of selected timber species 30 Table 14 Summary of opportunistic species by life form, excluding pteridophytes and 41 gymnosperms Table 15 List of opportunistic botanical species records, Nilo FR 41 Table 16 Disturbance transect results for pole counts in Nilo FR. 56 Table 17 Disturbance transect results for timber counts in Nilo FR. 60 Table 18 Numbers of plant taxa recorded in Nilo FR 71 Table 19 Distribution of vegetation plots within habitat types 71 Table 20 Summary descriptions of trap sites 79 Table 21 Sampling intensity by trap night (number of nights x number of traps) 79 Table 22 Summary of bat mist net sites 80 Table 23 Summary of small mammals (shrews and rodents) recorded in Nilo FR 82 Table 24 Abundance of most frequently collected dung 83 Table 25 Summary of dung survey in Nilo FR 84 Table 26 Summary of mammal observations in Nilo FR 85 Table 27 Bat species recorded in Nilo FR 86 Table 28 Summary and ranges of near endemic mammal species recorded in Nilo FR 87 Table 29 Summary of forest dependent bird species, Nilo FR 90 Table 30 Restricted range and forest dependent bird species, Nilo FR 93 Table 31 Summary of the Threat status of Forest dependent birds from Nilo FR 93 Table 32 Reptile species inventory, status and number of records for Nilo FR 95 Table 33 Ranges of endemic and near-endemic reptile species 98 Table 34 Amphibian species inventory list, status and number of records, Nilo FR 101 Table 35 Ranges of endemic and near-endemic amphibian species recorded, Nilo FR 103 Table 36 Number of caecilian records Nilo FR 104 Table 37 Butterfly species inventory list, Nilo FR 107 Table 38 Summary of faunal families and species (identified to date) 111 Table 39 Summary of ecological type of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly 115 species Table 40 Summary of endemic status of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly 115 species.

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 The location of Nilo Forest Reserve in relation to other East Usambara forests 10 Figure 2 Topographical sketch map of Nilo FR 11 Figure 3 Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects, Nilo FR 14 Figure 4 Species accumulation rates of recorded species by vegetation plot (trees > 10 dbh) 23 Figure 5 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR 32 Figure 6 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species in Nilo FR 33 Figure 7 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species in Nilo FR 34 Figure 8 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR 35 Figure 9 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub species in Nilo FR 36 Figure 10 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR 37 Figure 11 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub species in Nilo FR 38 Figure 12 Vegetation sketch map of Nilo FR 39 Figure 13 Botanical species richness in Nilo FR 40 Figure 14 Cut and naturally fallen poles recorded by transect 56 Figure 15 Distribution of pole cutting/hectare in Nilo FR. 58 Figure 16 Distribution of NEW pole cutting/hectare in Nilo FR. 59 Figure 17 The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber in Nilo FR 60 Figure 18 Distribution of timber extraction/ hectare, Nilo FR 61 Figure 19 Distribution of NEW timber extraction/ hectare in Nilo FR. 62 Figure 20 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and 63 shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey. Figure 21 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and 64 shrub species that are both forest dependent and endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey. Figure 22 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and 65 shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and near-endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey. Figure 23 Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub species 66 that are both forest dependent and near-endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR.. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey. Figure 24 Incidence of fire evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect lines, Nilo FR 67 Figure 25 Incidence of animal trapping evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect 68 lines, Nilo FR. Figure 26 Incidence of cultivation evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect lines, 69 Nilo FR Figure 27 Records of Maeopsis eminii within the systematic vegetation plots, Nilo FR 70 Figure 28 Location of trap sites in Nilo FR 78 Figure 29 Distribution of forest dependent mammal species 88 Figure 30 Distribution of near endemic mammal species 89 Figure 31 Distribution of forest dependent reptile species 99 Figure 32 Distribution of endemic and near endemic reptile species 100 Figure 33 Distribution of forest dependent amphibian species 105 Figure 34 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic amphibian species 106 Figure 35 Mammal, reptile and amphibian species that were both recorded as forest 118 dependent and endemic or near-endemic in Nilo FR at each trap site.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Nilo Forest Reserve, in the East Usambara Mountains, north-east Tanzania was gazetted in 1999. It is situated in Muheza and Korogwe Districts, Tanga Region and covers approximately 6,025 ha between 400 m – 1,506 m asl, encompassing lowland, riverine, submontane and montane forest.

As part of the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (from 1999 East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, EUCAMP), Frontier-Tanzania conducted a biological survey of Nilo Forest Reserve from June 2000 until March 2001, for a total of 254 research-days. Vegetation was surveyed systematically at 0.25% intensity throughout all parts of the forest reserve. The zoological survey focused on ten trapping sites with opportunistic observations recorded throughout the survey period. This report provides an inventory of the tree and shrub species recorded from the systematic plots with additional species recorded from opportunistic collections. Mammal, reptile, amphibian and butterfly species were recorded during the survey at trap sites and through opportunistic observations and collections. Birds were recorded on a casual basis. This report does not provide a complete inventory of bird species for the reserve. Patterns of human disturbance within the reserve are presented. The species richness, endemism and ecological affinities of the taxa recorded are summarised as Table 1. Table 1 Summary of biodiversity of taxa surveyed Taxon Total no. % forest No. of No. of No. of No. of forest of dependent non-forest endemics near- dependent species species endemics endemics and near-endemics Trees and shrubs 207* 37 % 12 13 39 23 2** 530*** Mammals 47 § 11 % 7 0 5 4 Birds 97 70 % 33 0 10 10 Reptiles 41 54 % 1 4 15 16 Amphibians 35 54 % 3 3 13 16 Butterflies 121 41 % 23 3 11 11

Total 1,080 n/a 79 23 92 80

* Species recorded from vegetation plots > 10 cm dbh ** additional species recorded specifically within the regeneration subplots. *** opportunistic collections of trees, shrubs and herbs. § including 15 species of bat

Nilo Forest Reserve (FR) has significant conservation value on local, national and international levels. It is the second largest forest block in the East Usambara mountains, to Amani Nature Reserve (ANR). Nilo FR harbours the highest peak in the East Usambara mountains at 1,506 m asl, a wide altitudinal range (400 m-1,500 m asl) and maintains areas of montane habitat. Nilo FR is highly species rich compared with other reserves surveyed.

With regard to fauna, the reserve is home to 6 endangered species, 31 vulnerable species and 5 near threatened species, according to the National Biodiversity Database (NBD) UDSM (1997) and IUCN 2000 categories. Relative to other forest reserves in the East Usambara mountains the species richness is above average for mammals, reptiles and amphibians and butterflies. 16 specimens are included on the CITES 2001 list.

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The habitats and species of Nilo FR are under pressure from fire, grazing, hunting, pole cutting and timber extraction. Pole and timber cutting were recorded on all transect lines and fire damage was most evident within the western part of the reserve.

Nilo Forest Reserve encompasses lowland, submontane and the only montane forest within the East Usambara mountains. Small patches of montane forest exist in the Lutindi and Nilo peak regions of the reserve. These patches have strong affinities with the West Usambara mountains and are home to some species not previously recorded in the East Usambara range.

The information collected will be used for management planning by the EUCAMP. The survey results are also available as a baseline for monitoring. The data is stored on an Access database and will be available on the Internet at the address: www.usambara.com

Animal specimens have been deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and sent on loan to: The British Museum of Natural History, London; Zoological Museum of Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt Zoological Museum, Germany; The Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe, Bulawayo and the African Butterfly Research Institue, Nairobi. Appendix 2 provides contact details.

Botanical specimens are held at the TAFORI herbarium in Lushoto and the National Herbarium in Arusha.

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FOREWORD The East Usambara forests in north-eastern Tanzania are part of the Eastern Arc mountains. More than one hundred years of biological interest and research have shown that these forests have a unique diversity of flora and fauna, and an exceptionally high degree of endemism. They have gained global recognition as being part of a Biodiversity Hotspot (Conservation International), an Endemic Bird Area (BirdLife), a Centre of Plant Diversity (WWF and IUCN) and a Globally Important Ecoregion (WWF). Since 1990, the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) (formerly known as the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (EUCFP)) has worked in the East Usambara Mountains with the mission to protect these natural forests. The project is implemented by Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD) of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) with financial support from the Government of Finland, and implementation support from the Finnish Forest and Park Service.

Although a considerable amount of biological information exists from the East Usambaras much of this is restricted to the Amani area and systematic surveys are few. In order to get more comprehensive information on the forests, biodiversity surveys were initiated and contracted in July 1995. The surveys are conducted by Frontier Tanzania, a joint venture between the University of Dar es Salaam and the Society for Environmental Exploration, together with EUCAMP. The aim of the surveys is to provide systematic baseline information on the biological values of different forests as a basis for management planning and long-term monitoring, as well as training forestry staff in the use of biological inventory techniques. They will also help setting of priorities in the conservation of this valuable area.

The surveys have been carried out over ten-week field phases. The programme involves short- term expatriate volunteer research assistants, permanent EUCAMP, Frontier-Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam, and Tanzania Forestry Research Institute staff, as well as an international network of taxonomists and other experts. The surveys have become progressively more systematic and quantitative, and have already resulted in the discovery of several previously unknown taxa. This will further raise awareness of the unique conservation values of the East Usambaras. EUCAMP has also commissioned the development of a biodiversity database, work that also contributed the maps of these reports. All data collected during the surveys is entered into this database, which is linked to the national biodiversity database.

The reports are the result of the work of many people – too many to be listed here. We would like to thank all of them for their invaluable effort. We hope that the surveys will make yet another contribution to the long historic chain of efforts to study and understand these unique forests. Perhaps even more than that we hope that this information will contribute to a better management and conservation of the East Usambaras so that the beauty of the area will continue to amaze coming generations and that the light in the tunnel will become the bright future.

Evarast Nashanda Veli Pohjonen Project Manager Chief Technical Adviser

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many people. In particular acknowledgments are due to the following:

EUCAMP Project Manager: Mr. Evarest. Nashanda Acting Project Manager: Mr. Matiko Wambura, Mr. Lema Mathias Chief Technical Advisor: Dr. Veli Pohjonen

Biodiversity Co-ordinator: Mr. Raymond R. Killenga. Biodiversity Co-ordinator and Mr. Albert Ntemi Sallu Botanical collector

Foresters: Mr. Raymond Muna, Mr .Juma Ntogolela, Mr. Mussa Jackson, Mr. Ally Athumani, Mr. Juma Madege, Mr. Abraham Mshihiri, Mr. Said Mdoe, Mr. Malki Obeid, Mr. Gerald Otieno, Mr. Rajabu Mzee Ms. Mwanidi Hassani, Ms. Agnes Boi, Ms. Asia Ezekiel, Mr. Johari Mtango, Mr. Steven John, Mr. Hussein Chowa and Mr. Josephat Maingu.

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION Managing Director: Ms. Eibleis Fanning Development Programme Manager: Ms. Elizabeth Humphreys Research Programme Manager: Dr. Damon Stanwell-Smith Operations Manager: Mr. Matthew Willson

UDSM FT Co-ordinators: Dr. M. Muruke & Prof. K. M. Howell.

FRONTIER-TANZANIA Project Co-ordinator: Ms. Kathryn Doody Research Co-ordinator: Ms. Nicola Beharrell Assistant Research Co-ordinators: Ms. Susannah Hall, Mr. David Emmett, Mr. Simon Loader, Ms. Annette Ollson Logistics Managers: Mr. David Naish, Ms. Kelly Abram Field Assistants: Mr. Hassani Abedi, Mr. Ramathan Rajabu, Ms. Zahara Rashidi, Mr. Ashraf Omari, Mr. Godfrey Matthew, Mr. Francis Kiondo, Mr. Lawrence Mateus FT Driver: Mr. Yahaya Salimu Research Assistants: Ms. Sophie Arthurell, Mr. Alastair Barter, Mr. Thomas Broder, Mr. Thomas Kellet, Mr. Adam Murphy, Ms.Victoria Putman, Mr. Christopher Vallis.

TAFORI Botanist: Mr. Ahmed Mndolwa

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We are also grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix 2 for providing us with the identifications of the zoological specimens.

Editorial Comments: Veli Pohjonen, EUCAMP; Damon Stanwell-Smith, SEE; Prof. K. Howell, UDSM.

We would like to express gratitude towards the residents of the villages surrounding Nilo Forest Reserve, notably: Kizara, Kwemkole, Kilanga, Zirai and Kitivo. In particular thanks go to the hard work of Ajibu as our head porter for his knowledge of the forest reserve. Thanks to the village chairmen and head teachers of Kizara and Zirai for allowing the field team to share the survey findings and the warm welcomes received.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The East Usambara Mountains and forest diversity The East Usambara Mountains support ancient and unique forests rich in endemic species (Hamilton, 1989). Their old age, isolation and role as condensers of the moisture from the Indian Ocean make them an important conservation resource. The mountains are situated in north-east Tanzania within 40 km of the coastal town of Tanga between 4O48’-5O13’S and 38O32’-38O48’E. These mountains form part of a chain known as the Eastern Arc that stretches down the coast of East Africa from southern Kenya to southern Tanzania. This is a chain of isolated mountains composed of Precambrian rock exposed by block faulting and slow uprising (Griffiths, 1993). Being adjacent to the Indian Ocean, considerable orographic rainfall occurs in this area. The rainfall distribution is bi-modal, peaking between March and May and between September and December. The dry seasons are from June to August and January to March. However precipitation occurs in all months. Rainfall is greatest at higher altitudes and in the south-east of the mountains, increasing from 1,200 mm annually in the foothills to over 2,200 mm at higher altitudes. Because of the topographical and climatic interactions, the west-facing slopes of the mountains are drier compared to the east-facing slopes.

Research in the East Usambara Mountains began in the late 1890s with substantial botanical collections being undertaken. Later, in 1928, surveys were undertaken on amphibians and by the 1930s detailed ornithological work had begun. Since these early studies biological research in the mountains has steadily increased. Recently, work in the area has also included an attempt to understand the drainage and catchment value of the mountain’s forests (Bruen, 1989; Litterick, 1989).

The East Usambara forests have been likened to the African equivalent of the Galapagos Islands in terms of their endemism and biodiversity (Rodgers & Homewood, 1982; Howell, 1989). They are considered to be one of the most important forest blocks in Africa, if not the most important (Tye, 1994). Currently, at least 3450 species of vascular plants have been recorded in the Usambaras of which it is suggested that over one quarter are endemic or near- endemic (Iversen, 1991a). Many are threatened (Rodgers, 1996).

The forests of the East Usambaras are not only important for their biodiversity; they also play an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle that feeds the Sigi River. The Sigi River is a vital water source for the local communities as well as supplying water for the large coastal town of Tanga. Deforestation in the area will lead to increased soil erosion particularly from the steeper slopes. Soil erosion is liable to result in more irregular run off and in deterioration in water quality due to siltation.

The latest survey of the East Usambaras, shows that approximately 45,137 ha of the East Usambaras remain as natural forest Johansson & Sandy (1996). This can be divided into two types: submontane rain forest and lowland forest. Altitude is the factor differentiating these two forest types (Hamilton, 1989), with submontane forest generally occurring above 850 m. The area recorded as forest in the East Usambaras according to these categories is described in Table 2.

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Table 2 Forest area in the East Usambaras (based on Johansson and Sandy 1996) Forest type Area (hectares) % of area Lowland forest 29497.4 62.9 Submontane forest 12916.6 30.6 Forest plantation 2723.6 6.5 TOTAL 45137.6

The mammals of the East Usambaras show limited endemism (Kingdon and Howell 1993). However, there are several species of special interest. These include: the restricted Zanj elephant shrew, Rhynchocyon petersi, which is common in the Usambaras (Collar & Stuart, 1987) yet listed as globally ‘Near Threatened’ by IUCN (2000) due to a decline in habitat extent and quality; Eastern tree hyrax, Dendrohyrax validus, listed as ‘Endangered’ by IUCN (2000) and the Lesser Pouched Rat, Beamys hindei which is considered ‘Data Deficient’ by IUCN (2000).

There are at least 11 species of reptiles and amphibians endemic to the East and West Usambaras (Howell, 1993). The East Usambara Biodiversity Surveys provide further information on new species and species’ range extensions. A new species of snake, Prosymna semifasciata, was recently found in Kwamgumi Forest Reserve (Broadley, 1995) and an undescribed species of Stephopaedes usambarae. has been recorded by the surveys in Mtai and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves.

The forest avifauna of the East Usambaras has a high diversity with at least 110 species (Stuart, 1989). Six species occurring in the lowland forests are considered ‘Vulnerable’ to global extinction: Sokoke Scops Owl, Otus ireneae; the endemic Usambara Eagle Owl, Bubo vosseleri; Swynnerton’s Robin, Swynnertonia swynnertoni; East Coast Akalat, Sheppardia gunningi; Amani Sunbird, Anthreptes pallidigaster and the Banded Green Sunbird, Anthreptes rubritorques (IUCN, 1996).

The East Usambaras are essentially forest ‘islands’ (Lovett, 1989). There has been natural forest in the area for several million years. The Usambaras harbour many species that have been geographically separated from their closest relatives for long periods. They also serve as a refuge for formerly widespread flora and fauna that have become extinct over much of their former area (Iversen, 1991).

These forests have been under continuous exploitative human pressure for at least 2,000 years (Schmidt, 1989). Until recently, especially before the past 50 years, (Kikula, 1989), this pressure was sustainable. However, the growing human population in the area is leading to increased pressure on the remaining natural forest, and represents the main threat to their survival.

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1.2 Report structure This report provides a floral and faunal inventory of Nilo Forest Reserve. Each species is described in terms of its ecological requirements and its endemic status.

Ecological requirements are defined in terms of: • Forest dependent species (F): Species dependent on primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest species; • Forest non-dependent species (f): Forest dwelling but not dependent on primary forest: species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. It should be emphasised that many of these species are still dependent on a forest habitat albeit forest edge or disturbed forest. Most species in this category will still be adversely affected by forest destruction. • Non-forest species (O): These are species that do not normally occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Levels of endemism are defined in terms of: • Endemic (E): Occurring only in the Usambara Mountains; • Near-endemic (N): Species with ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc Mountains and / or the Coastal forest and some East African lowland forests; • Widespread (W): Species with ranges extending beyond the Eastern Arc and East African lowland forests.

The typical habitat association of plant species is categorised as either: • Lowland (L): Species occurring at altitudes of <850 m. • Submontane (S): Species occurring at altitudes of >850 m.

This refers to the habitat in which they are typically found in East Africa rather than to where they have been recorded in the reserve.

These three criteria are used to analyse the uniqueness of the biodiversity of the reserve and its vulnerability to disturbance.

The categories are based on information from various sources. For plants the ecological type and endemic status are primarily based on Iversen (1991a). Forest dependent species refers to those species listed as being exclusively associated with Iversen’s categories 1a (wet evergreen forest), 1b (dry evergreen forest) and / or 1c (riverine forest). Species defined as forest dwelling also occur in other habitats.

Definitions of habitat type are based on Hamilton (1989). For those species not listed by Iversen or Hamilton, the information is taken from the Flora of Tropical East Africa (FTEA) for the species recorded from the systematic plots and from the List of East African Plants - LEAP (Knox 2000), for the opportunistic plant records.

Endemic and near-endemic status for plants was taken from Iversen (1991a) and FTEA categories Tanzania T3, T6, T8 and Kenya K7. For animals, the endemic and near-endemic status was gleaned from the NBD (1997).

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 4

The following references were also used (in order of priority): Mammals: Kingdon (1997), Kingdon (1989) and Kingdon (1974) Birds: Zimmerman et al. (1996) Reptiles: Howell (1993) and Broadley and Howell (1991). Amphibians: Howell (1993) Butterflies: Kielland (1990) and Larsen (1996) Plants: Schulman, et al (1998)

Ecological type of bird species recorded were additionally based on, Mlingwa et al. (2000) which in turn is based on Bennum, et al. (in press). Those species not included in the above were categorised by Neil Baker pers. comm. and Stuart. Species listed categorised by Stuart (1989) only, were given an F irrespective of the ranking (1, 2 & 3).

Forest dependence Mlingwa et al. (2000): FF: ‘Forest specialist’ species that are typical of forest interior and likely to disappear when the forest is modified to any extent.

F: ‘Forest generalist’ species that can occur in undisturbed forest but which are able to exist (and may even be numerous) at the forest edge or in modified and fragmented forests. However, these generalists continue to depend upon forests for some of their resources, such as nesting sites.

Stuart (1989) categorises species by adaptability: 1. those which live in forest but are not dependent upon it for their survival 2. those which live in forest and ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats, but are dependent upon forest for their continued survival 3. those that can only survive in forest and hardly ‘overspill’ into adjacent habitats.

The National Biodiversity Database (NBD) (UDSM 1997) is used to categorise threat status of the animals listed. The lists were compiled with regard to status and threat within Tanzania and East Africa. Listed species of amphibians and reptiles are solely based on the Tanzanian National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997). The status of these species are undergoing national and international evaluation. IUCN, categorises species in terms of global threat and produces Red data books, available from 1996 and earlier. However, a new IUCN 2000 CD- Rom has been released. Many Tanzanian species are not included in the 2000 IUCN Red data CD-Rom. IUCN 2000 status is given for mammals in addition to NBD and is the main source of threat status for bird species.

1.3 Maps The distribution of species within the reserve is presented as a series of maps (Map Info 5.0). These are thematic maps where the size of each spot (symbol) is directly proportional to the value, which they represent. The thematic maps of animals only illustrate the forest dependent and endemic / near endemic species from the trap sites. For the purposes of this report data from opportunistic animal observations were not included in the thematic maps.

1.4 Data and monitoring Data are stored in a Microsoft Access database currently held at the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, Frontier-Tanzania and at the University of Dar es Salaam. The database is available on the Internet at www.usambara.com. Zoological data is also stored on the National Biodiversity Database at the University of Dar es Salaam. This is

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 5

also a Microsoft Access database. The data are geographically referenced and so can be used as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring. 1.5 Survey period and personnel The survey of Nilo Forest Reserve was conducted between June 2000 and March 2001 for a total of 254 field research-days. The survey was conducted by: Frontier-Tanzania staff, EUCAMP Forest Officers, overseas volunteers and residents from Kwemkole, Kizara, Maramba, Kuze, Amani and Tanga.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 6

2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY The specific aims of the survey as outlined in the Terms of Reference between the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme and the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme are: • to conduct biological baseline surveys in selected gazetted forests and in forests which are proposed for gazettement; • to provide information on the biological value and importance of these forests in order to assist in the development of management plans and practices for these forests; • to develop a system for monitoring aspects of forest biodiversity, both on a general as well as a forest-specific level. Furthermore, the aims of the survey methods applied are: • to sample the vegetation and tree species composition of six forests of the East Usambaras using systematic sampling techniques along systematically located vegetation transects, which sample approximately 0.25% of the area of each forest reserve; • to assess levels of disturbance by systematically sampling the incidence of tree cutting, animal trapping and other illegal activities along the vegetation transects; • to use standardised and repeatable methods to record biodiversity values of the forest in terms of small mammal, reptile, amphibian, and invertebrate species; • to collect opportunistic data on all other groups of vertebrate and invertebrates. Species lists resulting from this will be compared against IUCN categories of threat and other conservation criteria in order to assess the overall biodiversity values of each forest; • train EUCAMP staff in biological inventory techniques, data recording and field data management; • train locally employed field assistants in biological inventory techniques.

By using standardised and repeatable methods these surveys provide an assessment of the biodiversity value of the forests enabling their importance to be determined and their biodiversity value to be monitored in future.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 7

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST

3.1 General description 3.1.1 Description Name: Nilo Forest Reserve Muheza & Korogwe Districts, Tanga Region, Tanzania.

Area: 6,025 ha

Status: Central Area Forest Reserve Government Notice: No. 287 1.10.99

Maps: Ordnance Survey topographic maps Y742 (DOS 422) Sheet 110/3 ‘Hemagoma’.

Forest Division map: JB.2261

3.1.2 Location

Geo-ordinates: S 04° 50’ – 59’ E 038° 37’ – 41’

Elevation 400 – 1,506 m a.s.l.

Nilo Forest Reserve is situated in the north west of the East Usambara Mountains (Figure 1). It is the second largest contiguous forest block under protection, the largest being Amani Nature Reserve. The reserve is ‘Y’ shaped. The southern border of the eastern ‘arm’ is close to Semdoe FR, whilst the western border of the western ‘arm’ faces the Lwengera valley and across to the West Usambaras. A central ridge runs along the southern ‘leg’ of the reserve towards the proposed Derema wildlife corridor, which is planned to link Nilo FR and Amani Nature Reserve.

3.1.3 Land use The latest survey of the area was carried out by Hyytiäinen (1995), and updated by Johansson & Sandy (1996). The results for Nilo Forest Reserve are summarised in Table 3 below. Table 3 Land use distribution (Johansson & Sandy, 1996)

Nilo Forest Reserve Area (ha) Percent (%) Dense submontane forest 1,670.7 28.5 % Cultivation under submontane forest 1,738.1 29.6 % Dense lowland forest 1,190.3 20.3 % Poorly stocked forests 356.1 6.1 % Cultivation under lowland forest 335.8 5.7 % Bush 169.7 2.9 % Peasant cultivation 372.3 6.3 % Barren land 37.2 0.6 % Settlement 1.9 0.0 % Total for the reserve: 5,872.1 100.0

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Note: This does not include the additional public land that was incorporated into the forest reserve. 3.1.4 Description The topography of Nilo FR is extreme, made up of a Y-shaped ridge system with steep sided slopes with two main peak areas. The highest point, at Nilo Peak in the north-west of the reserve rises to 1,506 m a.s.l. The secondary peak to the south west of this peak is Lutindi peak at c. 1,300 m where there is a 360 degree view of the East and West Usambaras. The forest feeds the Hundu, Bombo and Muzi rivers. There are numerous streams throughout the reserve, which serve many surrounding villages.

3.1.5 History and Status The East Usambara forests hold evidence of Iron Age activity (Schmidt 1989), and exploitation of the forests is thought to have occurred over the past 2,000 years. Nilo FR is surrounded by villages on all slopes, (Figure 3). There have been settlements within the vicinity of Kizara village since the 19th century (Feierman 1974 from Hamilton 1989). Dense forests were reported by Meyer & Bauman (1888) to dominate the whole plateau of the East Usambaras from the Sigi to Lutindi, as well as in Mafi, Mlinga (except the steepest slopes, which were grassland), Segoma, Tongwe and Sigi Valley.

In 1912 the German administration had 9 forest reserves in the West Usambaras and 8 in the East Usambaras. These included some private holdings and natural and plantation forest (Amtliche Anzeigen 1913, from Iversen 1991a). The British re-proclaimed the old forest reserves in the Forest Ordnance in 1921 (Troup 1936, in Iversen 1991a). In 1972 the district councils were abolished and the forest reserves became under the power of the local authority. During this period increasing encroachment of forests occurred, and much estate land without clear borders was regarded as public land. The Director of Forestry launched the Tanga Catchment Forest Project in 1976 due to the forest loss. The Catchment forest reserve system was created, 25 of which were natural forests with the Usambaras. At this stage Nilo forest reserve (FR) as it is today did not exist. Instead 3 smaller forest reserves had been gazetted. The details of gazettement are shown in Table 4. These reserves are now within the current Nilo FR.

Table 4 Gazettement information (from Iversen 1991a)

Name Status Original size (ha) Gazetted

Lutindi Forest reserve 2,180 1913; 1923; GN 458, 1961 Kilanga Forest reserve 917 GN 99, 1931; GN 165, 1932 Nkombola Forest reserve 260 ?, (1963)

Note: GN: government notice.

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Iversen (1991a) provides background history to the forest reserves of the East and West Usambaras. The following was extracted from Iversen (1991a):

Lutindi was first gazetted by the Germans and re-proclaimed by the British in 1928. It was re-gazetteed in 1961 where some parts of the reserve were excised; the remaining size was estimated at 2,077 ha. The high population pressure resulted in widespread encroachment with cardamom growth and fires converting forest to grassland. Such non-forest habitat still exists today. Hermansen et al. (1985) estimated one third of the area to be under some kind of cultivation. Sikh Saw Mills logged timber until 1987 when the activity was discontinued (Iversen 1986, 1988b). Illegal encroachment was prosecuted in 1986/87 when 289 ha of villages were cleared (FINNIDA 1988a). The FINNIDA inventory (1988b) covered 2,165 ha and reported 1,900 ha of natural forests remained but only 36 % were considered to be intact.

Kilanga was first gazetted as a private land forest and covered 917 ha in 1931 when it was declared a FR in 1932. A new gazettment in 1956 reduced the size to 810 ha and the borders were re-demarcated in 1963. In 1988 it was reported that further parts of the FR had been de- gazetted after independence and prior to this in 1985, the forest size was estimated to be only 431 ha. Sikh Saw Mills had a concession for mechanical logging and parts were heavily damaged. Activity was discontinued in 1987 (Iversen 1986, 1988b). Illegal encroachment and cardamom cultivation was evident and in 1987, a 138 ha village area and 100 ha of cardamom were cleared (FINNIDA 1988a). The FINNIDA inventory (1988a,b) covered 791 ha and classified 635 ha as natural forest with only 35 % intact.

Nkombola, a small forest reserve. It was reported to be 185 ha in size by FINNIDA (1988b) with only 6 % considered intact. Cardamom plantations were recorded.

Extension of the FRs were recommended by Iversen (1986, 1988b) and Hamilton (1988), FINNIDA (1988a). From the FINNIDA inventory the reserves were reported in size as: Lutindi – 2,165 ha; Kilanga – 791 ha and Nkombola 185 ha. An expansion was proposed to incorporate the 3 reserves and extend to include public forest, from the then 3,141 ha to 5,276 ha. The size and boundaries of the three former forest reserves have changed with time. Nilo was first proposed to be 5,276 ha, then recorded by Hyytiäinen (1995) as 5,872.1 ha, and is now 6,025 ha and includes more public land than previously recorded in 1995.

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Mgambo F.R Mpanga V.F.R Bombo East II P.F.R.

Bombo East I P.F.R N

Mtai F.R.

Nilo F.R.

Kwamgumi F.R. Mlungui P.F.R.

Semdoe P.F.R Segoma. F.R. Bamba Ridge F.R.

Kambai F.R. Manga F.R. Handei V.F.R. Longuza (north) F.R. Kwamarimba F.R.

Mlinga F.R.

Magoroto F.R.

Amani Nature Reserve 0 1 2 345 10 km

Figure 1 The location of Nilo Forest Reserve in relation to other East Usambara forests

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Figure 2 Topographical sketch map of Nilo FR

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4.0 VEGETATION Beharrell, N.K., Hall, S. M., & Ntemi, S. A. pp. 12-74 4.1 Introduction A species inventory list was complied of the trees and shrubs found within the reserve. Simple, quantitative and repeatable methods were employed and the results are comparable with other forest surveys undertaken by Frontier Tanzania. Human disturbance within the forest was also documented. Botanical and disturbance data collected by this survey have been presented to EUCAMP for entry onto the database. 4.2 Methods The forest reserve was divided into a grid of numbered rectangles marked in the field by tagged transect lines. All methods are based on this grid system and are detailed in the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme methodologies report (SEE, 1998). A brief description is presented below. The location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects are illustrated in Figure 3.

4.2.1 Forest composition Three methods were used to analyse forest composition: (1) quantitative vegetation analysis, (2) opportunistic observations and (3) disturbance transects. 4.2.1.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis The vegetation survey was based on a 450 m x 900 m grid marked in the field using tagged transect lines. One plot 50 m x 20 m was sampled in each grid rectangle, giving an approximate sampling intensity of 0.25%. Within each sample (vegetation) plot, every tree with a dbh (diameter at breast height) of 10 cm and over was recorded, marked (painted) and identified. Botanists from the Tanzanian Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) and from the EUCAMP provided the field identification of plant species.

The regeneration layer was sampled within 3 m x 3 m (and 6 m x 6 m) nested subplots at the centre of each vegetation plot. All trees and shrubs less than 10 cm dbh but greater than 0.5 cm dbh were recorded and identified within the subplots. Descriptions of soil and ground cover were recorded per plot using standardised recording templates.

4.2.1.2 Opportunistic collection and observation Opportunistic collections and observations of herb, shrub and tree species were made throughout the survey. Fertile material was collected at every opportunity. A copy of all specimens were deposited at either the National Herbarium, Arusha, or the Lushoto herbarium Tanzania. Selected material is sent to Missouri Botanical Gardens, USA and or Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK at the descretion of the botanist and the Arusha herbaium curators. 4.2.1.3 Disturbance transects Disturbance transects were used to record the intensity of pole cutting and logging in the forest reserve. The disturbance transect lines were based on the 450 m x 900 m grid prepared for the

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 13 vegetation plots. Transect lines ran east west and were sampled from border to border. Evidence of disturbance was recorded by 50 m section along each transect.

Self-standing trees and saplings (i.e. not lianas or creepers) above 5 cm dbh were measured within an area of 5 m either side of each transect line. Stems were recorded under one of three categories: live, cut or naturally dead. Within these categories a distinction was made between poles and timbers. Poles were classified as a stem of dbh between 5 and 15 cm with a minimum of 2 m relatively straight trunk. Timbers were classified as stems of a dbh > 15 cm with a minimum 3 m relatively straight trunk. These divisions were based on differences in use. Data have been presented as a total and as an average per hectare.

The incidence of other signs of disturbance for example: fire, cultivation, animal trapping and pit sawing were recorded within every 50 m section along the disturbance transects. .

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N 60 61 Transect-7 Inaccessible plots 80 76 77 64 63 62 Transect -6

6874 75 7978 65 Transect -5

66 67 73 Transect -4

69 70 71 72 Transect -3

85 86 87 91 92 93 Transect -2

81 89 90 94 95 88 82 83 84 100 31 30 26 2728 29 Transect -1

96 97 9899 18 17 16 8 34 5 53 52 51 50 Transect 0

101105 104 103 102 106 2 16 7915 21 22 23 Transect 1

38 37 36 35 34 24 25 19 20 45 47 46 48 49 Transect 2

3332 44 43 42 41 40 39 14 13 1210 11 Transect 3

58 57 56 55 54 Transect 4

117 116 111 59 Transect 5

120 119 108 107 Transect 6

121 122 109 Transect 7

114 113 110 Transect 8

112 Transect 9

115 Transect 10

0 450 900 m

Figure 3 Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects, Nilo FR

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4.3 Results 4.3.2 Quantitative vegetation analysis

4.3.1.1 Systematic vegetation plots

A checklist of the tree and shrub species recorded in the 20 m x 50 m vegetation plots is presented in Table 5. A total of 207 species were recorded from 122 plots, a total sampling area of 12.2 ha. 37 % of species with 53 % of individuals (a total of 4,102) were forest dependent. 6 % of species were classed as enedmic to the Usambara mountains, with 4 % of these endemic to the East Usambara mountains and 2 % to the East and West usambara mountains. 19 % were recorded as near endemic to the Usambara mountains with the majority of remainder of widespread distribution.

The positions of the vegetation plots within the reserve are presented in Figure 3 with geo co- ordinates of the plots recorded in Appendix 3. The majority of plots were recorded within sub- montane forest, 44 % with 31 % within lowland forest 16 % in montane habitats and the remainder within disturbed habitats. Altitude records ranged from 425 m – 1,430 m asl. 42 % of the plots were situated of gentle mid slopes (GMS) with 21 % on steep mid slopes. The average slope of the accessible plots was 22.6 degrees, ± 10.7 degrees. Canopy height within plots was most commonly recorded as 20 – 30 m, 52 % of plots with 26 % above 30 m and the remainder below 20 m. Appendix 1 contains the vegetation plot summary data.

Species are described, where adequate information exists, in terms of ecological type, habitat and endemic status. These details were extracted from Iversen (1991a) and the Flora of Tropical East Africa. Nomenclature follows Iversen (1991a) and the Flora of Tropical East Africa. The plot data has been encorporated onto the EUCAMP database.

Table 5 Checklist of trees and shrubs from systematic plots, Nilo FR (key at the end of table)

Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. ALANGIACEAE * Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms f L&S&M W 40 ANACARDIACEAE Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. f L&S W 1 Lannea welwitschii (Hiern). Engl. f L&S N 5 Ozoroa insignis reticulata (Rak. F) R. & A. Fernandes f L&S&M W 1 * Sorindeia madagascariensis DC. f L&S W 360 ANNONACEAE * Annickia kummeriae (syn. Enantia kummeriae (Engl. & F S N 23 Diels.) Annona senegalensis Pers. f L&S W 5 * Greenwayodendron suaveolens (Engl.& Diels) Verdc. F S N 6 * Polyceratocarpus scheffleri Engl. & Diels F S N 7 Uvariodendron oligocarpum Verdc. F S E (EU &WU) 1 Uvariodendron pycnophyllum Diels. F S E (EU &WU) 3 Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. f L&S W 2 Xylopia parviflora (A. Rich.) Benth f L W 2

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. APOCYNACEAE * Funtumia africana (Benth.) Stapf F L&S&M W 55 Pleiocarpa pycnantha (K. Schum) Stapf f L&S W 3 Rauvolfia caffra Sonder F L&S&M W 5 * Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf F L&S&M W 34 * Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten f L&S&M W 50 * Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst F L&S&M W 37 Voacanga africana Stapf f L&S W 2 Voacanga thouarsii Roem & Schult f L&S&M W 3 ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea A. Rich f L&S&M W 7 Cussonia spicata Thunb. f M W 2 Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms F S&M W 27 BIGNONIACEAE Fernandoa magnifica Seem f L W 1 * Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum f L&S W 5 Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Spargue f S W 4 Stereospernum kunthianum Cham. f L&S W 4 BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum f L&S N 23 BORAGINACEAE * Cordia africana Lam. f L&S&M W 1 Cordia sinensis Lam. f ? W 4 BURSERACEAE Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. f L&S&M W 1 Commiphora eminii zimmermannii (Engl.) Gillet f L&S&M W 4 CARICACEAE Cylicomorpha parviflora Urban f L&S&M N 50 CECROPIACEAE * Myrianthus holstii Engl. f S W 278 CHRYSOBALANACEAE Magnistipula butayei De Wild. F S E(EU) 4 * Parinari excelsa Sabine f S W 13 COMBRETACEAE Combretum molle G. Don O L W 4 Combretum padoides Engl. & Diels f ? W 1 * Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & Diela f L W 2 COMPOSITAE Vernonia colorata (Willd.) W. F.M. Drake f L&S W 2 EBENACEAE * Diospyros mespiliformis A. D.C. f L&S W 1 * Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan f L&S&M W 14 Diospyros occulta F. White F L&S N 6 Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch f L&S&M W 4 EUPHORBIACEAE * Alchornea hirtella Benth. f S&M W 12 * Antidesma membranaceum Mull f L&S W 17

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. EUPHORBIACEAE continued Bridelia atroviridis Moell. f L&S&M W 3 Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill f L&S&M W 9 Cleistanthus polystachyus Planch. f L&S&M W 1 Croton sylvaticus Hochst. f L&S&M W 23 * Drypetes gerrardii Hutch F S&M W 22 * Drypetes natalensis (Harv.) Hutch f L&S&M W 1 * Drypetes usambarica (Pax) Hutch f L&S&M N 4 * Erythrococca fischeri Pax. 1 f M W 1 * Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Sim F L&S&M W 110 Magaritatia discoidea (Baill.) Webster f L&S&M W 2 * Neoboutonia macrocalyx Pax. f S W 24 Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel f L&S W 10 Sapium ellipticum (Krauss) Pax f L&S&M W 53 FLACOURTIACEAE * Caloncoba welwitschii (Oliv.) Gilg f L&S&M W 3 Dasylepis integra Warb. F S N 1 Homalium longistylum Mast. (syn. H. calodendron ) f L W 9 Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Harr. f L&S&M W 1 GUTTIFERAE * Allanblackia stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. F L&S&M N 142 GUTTIFERAE continued Garcinia stuhlmannii 1 F S N 9 Garcinia buchananii Bak. f L&S&M W 1 Garcinia sp. (c.f.tinctoria) 1 F S N 1 Garcinia volkensii Engl. F L&S&M W 1 * Harungana madagascariensis Poir F S W 18 ICACINACEAE * Alsodeiopsis schumannii (Engl.) Engl. F S&M N 130 Apodytes dimidiata Arn. f L&S&M W 2 LAURACEAE * Beilschmiedia kweo (Mildbr.) Robyns & R. Wilczek F S&M N 6 LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: CAESALPINOIDEAE * Cynometra brachyrrahchis Harms F L&S E(EU) 16 * Cynometra longipedicellata Harms F L&S E(EU) 6 Cynometra sp. A F S E(EU) 4 * Englerodendron usambarense Harms F L&S E (EU &WU) 16 Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan F L&S W 3 * Isoberlinia scheffleri (Harms) F L&S&M N 42 * Julbernardia magnistipulata (Marms) Troupin f L&S N 1 Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. f L&S&M W 3 * Zenkerella grotei (Harms) J. Leon F S&M E(EU) 5 LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: MIMOSOIDEAE Acacia senegalensis (L.) Willd. O L&S W 1 Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F. Wight f L&S W 1 Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. (exotic) O L&S W 3

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: MIMOSOIDEAE continued Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. & Thonn.) Benth. f L&S W 3 * Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C.A. Sm. f L&S&M W 54 Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.1 (exotic) ? L&S W 1 Albizia petersiana (Bolle) Oliv. f L&S&M W 1 Albizia versicolor [Welw.ex] Oliv. O L&S&M W 2 Albizia zimmermannii Harms f L&S W 2 * Newtonia buchananii (Baker) Gilb.& Bout. F L&S&M W 65 * Parkia filicoidea [Welw.ex] Oliv. F L&S&M W 2 LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE Angylocalyx braunii Harms F L N 8 Craibia brownii Dunn F S&M W 4 * Craibia zimmermannii (Harms) Dunn ? ? ? 4 Erythrina abyssinica D.C. O L&S W 1 Lonchocarpus bussei Harms O L&S&M W 2 Millettia dura Dunn F S&M W 2 Millettia oblata intermedia Gillet F S&M N 3 * Pterocarpus mildbraedii Harms F L W 3 Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw. F S&L W 6 LOGANIACEAE Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg. f S W 19 MELASTOMATACEAE Memecylon brenanii A. & R. Fernandes F S N 1 MELIACEAE Entandrophragma excelsum Dawe & Spague F S&M W 12 * Trichilia dregeana Sond. F L&S&M W 39 * Trichilia emetica Vahl f L&S W 2 * Turraea holstii Gurke F L&S&M W 3 MELIANTHACAEAE * Bersama a. abyssinica var. holstii (Guerke) f L&S&M W 12 * Bersama abyssinica Fresen f S N 15 MONIMIACEAE * Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Warb. F S&M W 55 MORACEAE * Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. f L&S W 22 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (exotic) O ? W 1 * Ficus exasperata Vahl f L&S&M W 50 * Ficus lutea Vahl (syn. F. subcalcarta) f L&S W 2 Ficus natalensis Hochst. f L&S&M W 3 Ficus scassellatii Pamp. f S W 1 Ficus stuhlmanii Warb.1 F L&S&M W 1 Ficus sur Forssk f L&S&M W 68 Ficus sycomorus L. f L&S&M W 4 * Ficus vallis-choudae Del. f L&S W 41 * Mesogyne insignis Engl. F L&S N 56 Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C. Berg f L&S W 11 Streblus usambarensis (Engl.) C.C. Berg f L W 3 * Trilepsium madagascariensis D.C. F S&M W 53

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. MYRISTICACEAE * Cephalosphaera usambarensis (Warb.) Warb. F L&S N 53 MYRSINACEAE * Maesa lanceolata Forssk. f S&L&M W 56 Rapanea melanophoeos (L.) Mez f S W 1 MYRTACEAE * Syzygium guineense (Willd). DC. F ? W 9 OCHNACEAE Ochna macrocalyx Oliv. O ? W 1 OLACACEAE * Strombosia scheffleri Engl. F L&S&M W 174 OLEACEAE Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gilg & Schellenb.) f ? W 1 PALMAE Phoenix reclinata Jacq. f L&S&M W 3 PITTOSPORACAEA Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims f S W 3 RHAMNACEAE Maesopsis eminii Engl. (exotic) F L&S W 8 RHIZOPHORACEAE Cassipourea gummiflua Tul. F ? W 3 Cassipourea malosana Bak. Alston F ? W 1 RUBIACEAE * Aoranthe penduliflora (K. Schum.) F L&S N 2 Canthium oligocarpum (Bullock) Bridson, Hiern F S&M W 1 Chassalia albiflora K. Krause F ? E(EU&WU) 5 Coffea pseudozanguebariae (Bridson) f L N 3 * Heinsenia diervilleoides K. Schum F L&S&M W 5 Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson f L&S&M W 10 Lagynias pallidiflora Bullock f L N 11 Morinda asteroscepa K. Schum f S&M N 7 * Oxyanthus speciosus D.C. F S&M W 11 * Psychotria goetzei (K. Schum) F S&M N 1 * Rothmannia manganjae (Hiern) Keay F L&S&M W 45 Rothmannia urcelliformis (Hiern) Robyns F L S&M 12 * Rytigynia flavida Robyns (syn. Rytigynia schummanii) F M N 6 * Rytigynia xanthotricha (K. Schum) F S E(EU) 3 Tarenna graveolens (S. Moore) Bremek. O ? W 2 Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim F L&S&M W 7 * Tarrenna nigrenscens (Hook. f.) Hiern 1 f L W 24 Tricalysia anomala E.A.Bruce F S&M N 1 * Tricalysia pallens Hiern (syn. T. myrtifolia) f S&L W 4 Vangueria infausta Burchell f L&S&M W 1 RUTACEAE * Vepris nobilis (Bullock) Brison, Hiern (Syn. Teclea f ? W 11 nobilis Del.) Zanthoxylum deremense (Engl.) Kokwaro F S&M N 1

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. RUTACEAE continued * Zanthoxylum gillettii (De Wild.) waterm, F S&M W 4 Zanthoxylum usambarense (Engl.) Kokwaro F S&M W 7 SAPINDACEAE * Allophylus melliodorus Radlk. f S&M N 72 Allophylus polystachyus 1 ? ? ? 1 * Blighia unijugata Baker (syn. Phialodiscus zambesiacus)f L&S&M W 11 Chytranthus obliquinervis Engl. f L N 1 * Deinbolla kilimandscharica Taub F S&M N 1 Haplocoelum foliolosum (Heirn) O S&M W 1 * Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Baker f L&S&M W 18 Placodiscus amaniensis Radlk. F L (S) E(EU) 7 * Zanha golungensis Heirn F L&S&M W 16 SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum gorungosanum Engl. ? ? ? 4 * Chrysophyllum perpulchrum Hutch. & Dalz. ? ? ? 27 Chrysophyllum zimmermanni Engl. F ? E(EU&WU) 5 * Englerophytum natalense (syn. Bequaertiodendron f L&S&M W 53 natalense (Sond.) Heine & J.H. Hemsl.) * Malacantha adolfi-friedericii (Baker) Pierre f L W 14 * Malacantha alnifolia (Baker) Pierre f L W 2 Manilkara obovata (Sabine & G. Don) f S W 9 Mimusopis kummel A. DC. (exotic) f L&S&M W 2 * Pouteria pseudoracemosa J. H. Hemsl. (syn. Aningeria ? ? ? 1 pseudoracemosa) * Synsepalum cerasiferum (syn. Pachystela cerasiferum) ? ? ? 52 * Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) Engl. (syn. Pachystela msolo) F L&S&M W 126 SIMAROUBACEAE * Quassia undulata (Gleill. & Perr.) D. Dietr. F L&S&M W 24 (syn. Odyendea zimmermanii) STERCULIACEAE Byttneria fruticosa K. Schum F ? E(EU) 2 Cola clavata Mast. in Oliv. 1 (syn. C. minor) ? ? ? 41 Cola greenwayi Brennan F M W 14 Cola lateritia 1 ? ? ? 2 * Cola scheffleri K. Schum. F ? E(EU) 25 Cola sp. ? ? ? 1 Cola usambarense Engl. F ? E(EU) 7 Cola vercillata (Stapf) A. Chev ? ? ? 1 Dombeya cincinnata K. Schum O ? W 1 * Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst). Planch. ? ? ? 17 * Dombeya shupangae K. Schum O ? N 2 * Leptonychia usambariensis K. Schum F ? N 449 THEACEAE Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern f M W 2 TILIACEAE Grewia goetzeana K. Schum f ? N 9 Grewia holstii Burrett f ? N 4

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Table 5 continued Species Ecol. Habitat End. Status No. type indivs. ULMACEAE * Celtis africana Burm. f. F L&S&M W 3 * Celtis gomphophylla Bak. (syn. C. durandii) F L&S&M W 36 * Celtis mildbraedii Engl. F L&S&M W 10 * Celtis phillipensis (syn. C. wightii Planch.) f L&S W 4 * Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. F L&S&M W 39 URTICACEAE Obetia radula (Bak.) B.D. Jackson (syn. O. pinnatifida) O L&S&M W 3 VERBENACEAE * Premna schliebenii Werderm. O L N 8 Vitex amaniensis Pieper f S&M N 3 VIOLACEAE * Rinorea angustifolia albersii (Engl.) Grey-Wilson F S&M E(EU& WU) 4 * Rinorea ferruginea Engl. F L&S&M W 1

1 Species which do not appear in Iversen (1991b). Summary information is based on FTEA, Ruffo et al. (1989), or Lovett (1993)

2 Not included/ written in FTEA yet, information based on Iversen (1991b) or Ruffo et al (1989).

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 5. Ecological type: (based on Iversen, 1991b) • F - Forest dependent species: Species previously recorded as restricted to primary or closed canopy forest only, e.g. wet evergreen forest, dry evergreen forest and or riverine forest. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species previously recorded primary forest or closed forest as defined above and or in forest edge, clearings, secondary forest, deciduous forest and woodland. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge, (e.g. species that have ben recorded in bushland, heathland, thicket, secondary scrub, grassland, rocky outcrops, swamps, wastelands and cultivation.

Habitat: (based on Hamilton, 1989) • L - Lowland: Species occurring at altitudes of <850 m; • S - Submontane: Species occurring at altitudes of >850 m < 1,250 m • M – Montane : Species occurring > 1,250 m

Those species which are combinations of the above, have been recorded within the altitude bands. Altitude records were from FTEA. Therefore is a species is recorded as L&S&M, it has been recorded at a range of altitudes 0 – 1,250 m +.

Endemic status: (based on Iversen, 1991b): • E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains; E(EU) East Usambaras only, E(EU&WU) East and West Usambaras • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and/or the East African lowland forests including Coastal forest; • W - Widespread distribution. ? Insufficient data exotic: not of African origin i.e. not indigenous. Regeneration Layer *Rinorea ferruginea: species recorded in the regeneration layer are marked with an asterisk.

4.3.1.2 Species ranking

Species were ranked according to coverage and abundance. Species coverage presents thefrequency of plots the species was recorded in and species abundance relatse to the number of individuals recorded as a percentage of all individauls recorded within the plots.

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Table 6 Species coverage and abundance

Family Species Rank: No. % Rank: No. % Species Plots Plots Species Indivs. Indivs. Coverage♣ Abundance ♦ Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis DC. 2 53 43.44 2 360 8.78 Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii Engl. 1 73 59.84 3 278 6.78 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Sim 7 40 32.79 8 110 2.68 Guttiferae Allanblackia stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. 5 44 36.07 5 142 3.46 Icacinaceae Alsodeiopsis schumannii (Engl.) Engl. 0 0 0 6 130 3.17 Leguminosae Newtonia buchananii (Baker) Gilb.& 6 42 34.43 0 0 0 subfamily: Bout. Mimosaceae Leguminosae Albizia gummifera (J. F. Gmel.) C.A. 9 30 24.59 0 0 0 subfamily: Sm. Mimosaceae Moraceae Ficus sur Forssk 8 34 27.87 10 68 1.66 Olacaceae Strombosia scheffleri Engl. 4 46 37.70 4 174 4.24 Sapindaceae Allophylus melliodorus Radlk. 10 29 23.77 9 72 1.76

Sapotaceae Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) Engl. (syn. 0 0 0 7 126 3.07 Pachystela msolo)

Sterculiaceae Leptonychia usambariensis K. Schum 3 52 42.62 1 449 10.95

Top ten Ranking: Species Coverage♣: most common species recorded during systematic survey (recorded by plot). Species Abundance♦: individuals of a species recorded during the systematic survey compared to total number of individuals recorded. Where a species is ranked 0 is does not appear in the top ten.

Myrianthus holstii was ranked first for species coverage as it was recorded in 60 % of the plots and was thus the most commonly recorded species but it was ranked third with regard to species abundance, represnting 7 % of all individuals. The forest dependent species, Leptonychia usambariensis was the most abundant species and ranked first for species abundance, 449 stems, 11 % of all individuals and present in 43 % of plots, ranked third for species coverage (Table 6).

Two species were ranked for species coverage but did not appear in the top ten when ranked for abundance. These were the forest dependent timber species Newtonia buchananii, and Albizia gummifera. Newtonia buchananii was ranked 6th for species coverage and 11th for species abundance; 65 individuals, 1.6 % of total individuals recorded. Albizia gummifera was ranked 9th for species coverage and 16th for species abundance; 54 individuals 1.3 % of total individuals (Table 6).

Similarly, two species were ranked in the top ten of species abundance but did not appear in the top ten for species coverage. These were, forest dependent species Alsodeiopsis schumannii and Synsepalum msolo. Alsodeiopsis schumannii was ranked 6th in terms of species abundance but only 17th for species coverage; recorded in 24 plots, 20 % of plots. Synsepalum msolo was ranked 7th for species abundance but only 16th for species coverage; recorded in 26 plots, 21 % of plots (Table 6).

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4.3.1.3 Species accumulation

Species Accumulation curve: Nilo Forest Reserve

250

200

150

100

Number of species Number 50

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Vegetation plot number

Figure 4 Species accumulation rates of recorded species by vegetation plot (trees > 10 dbh) Figure 4 shows the accumulation of tree and shrub species recorded in Nilo FR during the systematic vegetation survey. The curve has not yet leveled out thus there are yet more species to record within the FR. The opportunistics list helps to paint a more complete picture (see Table 8).

4.3.1.5 Regeneration

Nine species were recorded in the regeneration layer but not in the larger vegetation plots Table 7 Species recorded exclusively in the regeneration layer

Family Species Ecological Habitat Endemic type status Boraginaceae Cordia monoica Roxb. L&S&M W Celastraceae Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock L&S&M W Celastraceae Maytenus sp. ? ? ? Flacourtiaceae Ludia mauritiana J.F.Gmel. L&S&M W Flacourtiaceae Rawsonia lucida Harv. & Sond L&S&M W Melastomataceae Memecylon sp. ? ? ? Rubiaceae Rothmania sp. ? ? ? Rubiaceae Tricalysia sp. ? ? ? Leguminosae subfamily: Cynometra sp. ? ? ? Caesalpiniaceae

The regeneration identified to genus only could represent species which were recorded within the vegetation plots or perhaps species not yet recorded. Identifications were inconclusive and cannot be categorized.

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4.3.1.5 Species range extensions - since Ruffo et al (1989) In 1986 - 1987 a botanical survey was conducted in the East Usambaras (Ruffo et al. 1989). 103 species recorded in Nilo FR vegetation plots by the current survey were not recorded by Ruffo et al. (1989). 41 species of which had been recorded at other locations within the East Usambaras and 62 species of which none had been recorded by the 1986/7 survey. These species are listed in Table 10.

Table 8 Tree and shrub species found outside their previously recorded range Ruffo et al. (1989) in the East Usambara Mountains and those species not listed by the 1986/7 survey

Species Range

ANACARDIACEAE Ozoroa insignis reticulata (Rak. F) R. & A. Not listed Fernandes ANNONACEAE Annona senegalensis Pers. Not listed Polyceratocarpus scheffleri Engl. & Diels Kwamkoro Uvariodendron oligocarpum Verdc. Kwamkoro Uvariodendron pycnophyllum Diels. Kwamsambia, Marimba Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia, Longuza Xylopia parviflora (A. Rich.) Benth Kwamsambia, Longuza, Kwamgumi/Segoma APOCYNACEAE Pleiocarpa pycnantha (K. Schum) Stapf Not listed Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst Kwamsambia, Longuza, Mlinga, Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai Voacanga africana Stapf Not listed Voacanga thouarsii Roem & Schult Amani area east and west forests ARALIACEAE Cussonia arborea A. Rich Not listed BIGNONIACEAE Fernandoa magnifica Seem Kwamsambia, Marimba, Mlinga, Kwamgumi/Segoma Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Spargue Not listed Stereospernum kunthianum Cham. Not listed BURSERACEAE Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. Not listed CECROPIACEAE Myrianthus holstii Engl. Not listed CHRYSOBALANACEAE Magnistipula butayei De Wild. Amani (FTEA) COMBRETACEAE Combretum molle G. Don Not listed COMPOSITAE Vernonia colorata (Willd.) W. F.M. Drake Not listed EBENACEAE Diospyros mespiliformis A. D.C. Amani area, Kwamgumi/Segoma Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai Diospyros occulta F. White Not listed

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Table 8 continued Species Range

EUPHORBIACEAE Bridelia atroviridis Moell. Not listed Cleistanthus polystachyus Planch. Mtai Croton sylvaticus Hochst. Kwamsambia, Longuza, Kwamgumi, Mtai Drypetes natalensis (Harv.) Hutch Longuza, Churwa area Erythrococca fischeri Pax. Not listed Magaritatia discoidea (Baill.) Webster Not listed FLACOURTIACEAE Dasylepis integra Warb. Amani-Sigi, Mtai Homalium longistylum Mast. (syn. H. Derema (FTEA) calodendron ) GUTTIFERAE Garcinia stuhlmannii 1 Not listed Garcinia buchananii Bak. Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia Garcinia c.f. tinctoria 1 Not listed LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: CAESALPINIOIDEAE Cynometra brachyrrahchis Harms Amani (FTEA) Cynometra longipedicellata Harms Amani (FTEA) Cynometra sp. A Not listed Englerodendron usambarense Harms Kwamkoro Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Kwamsambia, Longuza, Mtai Brenan Julbernardia magnistipulata (Marms) Kwamkoro, Amani area, Longuza Troupin Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne- Not listed Redh. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: MIMOSOIDEAE Acacia senegalensis (L.) Willd. Not listed Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.F. Amani (FTEA) Wight Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. (exotic) Not listed Albizia petersiana (Bolle) Oliv. Not listed Albizia versicolor [Welw.ex] Oliv. Not listed Albizia zimmermannii Harms Kwamgumi/Segoma, Mtai LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE Angylocalyx braunii Harms Kwamsambia, Mtai Craibia brownii Dunn Not listed Erythrina abyssinica D.C. Not listed Lonchocarpus bussei Harms Not listed Millettia oblata intermedia Gillet Not listed Pterocarpus mildbraedii Harms Kwamsambia, Longuza, Kwamgumi/Segoma MELASTOMATACEAE Memecylon brenanii A. & R. Fernandes Kwamkoro (FTEA) MELIACEAE Turraea holstii Gurke Not listed MELIANTHACAEAE Bersama a. abyssinica var. holstii (Guerke) Not listed

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Table 8 continued Species Range

MORACEAE Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (exotic) Not listed Ficus stuhlmanii Warb. Not listed Ficus sycomorus L. Kwamsambia, Mtai Ficus vallis-choudae Del. Kwamsambia, Mlinga Streblus usambarensis (Engl.) C.C. Berg Not listed OCHNACEAE Ochna macrocalyx Oliv. Not listed OLEACEAE Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gilg & Schellenb.) Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia PITTOSPORACAEA Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Maramba, Longuza (FTEA) RHAMNACEAE Maesopsis eminii Engl. (exotic) Not listed RHIZOPHORACEAE Cassipourea gummiflua Distribution uncertain Cassipourea malosonia Not listed RUBIACEAE Aoranthe penduliflora (K. Schum.) Not listed Canthium oligocarpum (Bullock) Bridson, Not listed Hiern Chassalia albiflora K. Krause Not listed Coffea pseudozanguebariae (Bridson) Not listed Heinsenia diervilleoides K. Schum Not listed Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson Not listed Lagynias pallidiflora Bullock Not listed Oxyanthus speciosus D.C. Southern part of the range, Longuza, Mlinga Rothmannia urcelliformis (Hiern) Robyns Kwamgumi Rytigynia xanthotricha (K. Schum) Not listed Tarenna graveolens (S. Moore) Bremek Not listed Tarrenna nigrenscens (Hook .f.) Hiern 1 Not listed Tricalysia anomala E.A.Bruce Not listed Tricalysia pallens Hiern (syn. T. myrtifolia) Not listed Vangueria infausta Burchell Not listed RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum deremense (Engl.) Kokwaro Derema & Amani (FTEA) SAPINDACEAE Allophylus polystachyus 1 Not listed Deinbolla kilimandscharica Taub Not listed Haplocoelum foliolosum (Heirn) Not listed Placodiscus amaniensis Radlk. Amani (FTEA) SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum perpulchrum Hutch. & Dalz. Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia, Mtai Chrysophyllum zimermanii Not listed Manilkara obovata (Sabine & G. Don) Kwamkoro Mimusopis kummel A. DC. (exotic) Amani (FTEA) Pouteria pseudoracemosa J. H. Hemsl. (syn. Not listed Aningeria pseudoracemosa)

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Table 8 continued Species Range

STERCULIACEAE Byttneria fruticosa Not listed Cola clavata Mast. in Oliv.(syn. C. minor) Not listed Cola usambarense Engl. Kwamkoro, Amani area, Kwamsambia Cola vercillata (Stapf) A. Chev Not listed Dombeya cincinnata K. Schum Not listed STERCULIACEAE continued Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst). Planch. Not listed TILIACEAE Grewia holstii Burrett Not listed ULMACEAE Celtis phillipensis (syn. C. wightii Planch.) Not listed URTICACEAE Obetia radula (Bak.) B.D. Jackson Not listed (syn. O. pinnatifida) VERBENACEAE Premna schliebenii Werderm. Not listed Vitex amaniensis Pieper Kwamkoro, Amani area, Kwamsambia

4.3.1.6 Ecological type (refer to Figures 5,6 & 7)

Table 9 Summary of ecological type for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4)

Number of % of total Number if % of total number

species number of individuals of individuals Ecological type species (F) Forest dependent species 77 37.2 2156 52.6 (f) Non-forest dependent species 93 44.9 1709 41.7 (O) Non-forest species 12 5.8 29 0.7 Unknown 25 12.1 208 5.1 207 100 4102 100

Species were categorised using the Iversen (1991b) as the main, refer to section 1.2.

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4.3.1.7 Habitat (refer to Figures 8 & 9) Table 10 Summary of habitat for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4)

Number of % of total Number of % of total Code Habitat species number of individuals number of species individuals S&M Submontane and montane 24 11.6 392 9.6 S Submontane 23 11.1 445 10.8 M Montane 5 2.4 25 0.6 52 25.1 862 21.0

L&S&M Lowland, submontane & montane 67 32.4 1659 40.4

L&S Lowland and submontane 40 19.3 770 18.8 L Lowland 15 7.2 105 2.6 55 26.6 875 21.3

? Unknown 33 15.9 706 17.2

Total 207 100 4102 100

Species were categorised from the altitude recorded in the FTEA. Categorisations were as defined in section 1.2 and summarised as in the key. No priority order was stated for habitat i.e. L&S&M refers to species recorded from a range of elevations, 0 m to above 1,250 m a.s.l. Figures 9 and 10 show the distribution of submontane and montane individuals and species, and include those species categorized as S, S&M or M.

Table 11 Submontane and montane species occurring in lowland (below 850 m asl) areas and the altitudes where they were recorded Family Species Altitude (m)

Annonaceae Annickia kummeriae (syn. Enantia 840, 820, 810, 820 kummeriae) Araliaceae Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms 820 Bignoniaceae Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Spargue 730

Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii Engl. 820, 820, 840, 740, 710, 840, 820, 760, 710, 760, 820, 820 Chrysobalanaceae Magnistipula butayei De Wild. 820 Chrysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa Sabine 810 Guttiferae Garcinia c.f. tinctoria 465 Icacinaceae Alsodeiopsis schumannii (Engl.) Engl. 820

Leguminosae Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. & Thonn.) 710, 540 subfamily: Benth. Mimosaceae Leguminosae Millettia oblata intermedia Gillet 600, 740 subfamily: Papilionaceae

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Family Species Altitude (m)

Leguminosae Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw. 500, 820 subfamily: Papilionaceae Loganiaceae Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg. 820, 820, 820, 710 Meliaceae Entandrophragma excelsum Dawe & Spague 710, 840, 800 Melianthacaeae Bersama abyssinica Fresen 760 Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. 820, 800, 520, 500, 500, 710, 820, 600, 740, 740 Pittosporaceae Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims 620, 740 Rubiaceae Rytigynia flavida Robyns (syn. Rytigynia 800 schummanii) Rubiaceae Rytigynia xanthotricha (K. Schum) 820 Rubiaceae Tricalysia pallens Hiern (syn. T. myrtifolia) 540

Sapindaceae Allophylus melliodorus Radlk. 725, 840, 800, 800, 820, 760, 840, 540, 740

Sapotaceae Manilkara obovata (Sabine & G. Don) 680

Sterculiaceae Cola greenwayi Brennan 540 Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia albersii (Engl.) Grey- 520, 520 Wilson

The majority of the above species recorded below the cut off point (850 m) for submontane habitat were recorded just below i.e. 800 – 849 m. Species recorded at lower elevations were Tricalysia pallens, Cola greenwayi, Rinorea angustifolia albersii, Garcinia c.f. tinctoria, Manilkara obovata. Some species were recorded for the majority close to the submontane cut off point, with a single or few individuals recorded at a lower elevation (often less than 600 m asl). This information adds weight to the fact that habitats are better classified by species composition rather than an abiotic factor such as altitude.

4.3.1.8 Endemic status (refer to Figures 10 & 11) Table 12 Summary of endemic status for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4)

Number of % of total number Number of % of total Endemic status species of species individuals number of species Endemic (EU) 9 4.3 77 1.9 Endemic (EU&WU) 4 1.9 24 0.6

Endemic to Usambaras 13 6.3 101 2.5

Near endemic (N) 39 18.8 1169 28.5 Widespread (W) 130 62.8 2624 64.0 Unknown (?) 25 12.1 208 5.1

Total 207 100 4102 100 Endemic status was ascertained from Iversen (1991) and the FTEA.

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4.3.1.9 Timber value

Formerly logging was permitted in Nilo FR. Sikh Saw Mills had concessions in certain areas (see forest description section 3.1.5 for more detail). Table 15 represents the tree species listed by Sikh Saw Mills that were extracted from the East Usambaras and those species listed by the Forestry Division that were regarded as timber species (Ruffo, 1989). The species listed were either for plywood or timber and are differentiated between by superscript numbers, (see key for explanation).

Several species listed by Ruffo (1989) were not recorded in the plots within Nilo FR, in particular Ocotea usambarensis and Khaya nyasica. Pitsawing activities are rather selective and Ruffo (1989) states that Khaya, Milicia, Newtonia and Ocotea are almost exclusively cut.

Table 13 The abundance of selected timber species (species noted by Ruffo 1989) Number of % of plots Number % of total Family Species plots in in which individuals number of which present individuals present Bombaceae Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum 1 10 8.20 23 0.56 Boraginaceae Cordia africana Lam. 2 1 0.82 1 0.02 Chrysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa Sabine2 7 5.74 13 0.32 Combretaceae Terminalia sambesiaca Engl. & Diels2 1 0.82 2 0.05 Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis A. D.C. 2 1 0.82 1 0.02 Euphorbiaceae Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Sim2 40 32.79 110 2.68 Guttiferae Allanblackia stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. 2 44 36.07 142 3.46 Lauraceae Beilschmiedia kweo (Mildbr.) Robyns 4 3.28 6 0.15 & R. Wilczek3 Leguminosae subfamily: Isoberlinia scheffleri (Harms) 3 21 17.21 42 1.02 Caesalpiniaceae Leguminosae subfamily: Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. & 3 2.46 54 1.32 Mimosaceae Thonn.) Benth. 2 Leguminosae subfamily: Newtonia buchananii (Baker) Gilb.& 42 34.43 65 1.58 Mimosaceae Bout. 3 Leguminosae subfamily: Erythrina abyssinica D.C. 3 1 0.82 1 0.02 Papilionaceae Loganiaceae Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg.1 14 11.48 19 0.46 Melianthacaeae Bersama abyssinica Fresen2 5 4.10 12 0.29 Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria Leschen. 3 14 11.48 22 0.54 Moraceae Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C. Berg2 8 6.56 11 0.27 Myristicaceae Cephalosphaera usambarensis (Warb.) 14 11.48 53 1.29 Warb. 3 Myrsinaceae Rapanea melanophoeos (L.) Mez2 1 0.82 1 0.02 Myrtaceae Syzygium guineense 3 6 4.92 9 0.22 Olacaceae Strombosia scheffleri Engl. 46 37.70 174 4.24 Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii Engl. 3 (exotic) 6 4.92 8 0.20 Rutaceae Zanthoxylum gillettii (De Wild.) 2 1.64 4 0.10 waterm, 1 Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum gorungosanum Engl. 3 3 2.46 4 0.10

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Table 12 continued Number of % of plots Number % of total Family Species plots in in which individuals number of which present individuals present Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum perpulchrum Hutch. & 12 9.84 27 0.66 Dalz. 3 Sapotaceae Malacantha adolfi-friedericii (Baker) 11 9.02 14 0.34 Pierre2 Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata (Gleill. & Perr.) D. 13 10.66 24 0.59 Dietr.(syn. Odyendea zimmermanii) 3 Theaceae Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern2 1 0.82 2 0.05

1 – Species listed by Sikh Saw Mills as plywood species from Ruffo (1989) 2 – Species listed by Sikh Saw Mills as plywood and timber species from Ruffo (1989). 3 – Species listed by Forest Division as timber species but were not necessarily extracted from the East Usambaras, (Ruffo 1989).

Newtonia buchananii was recorded in 34.4 % of the plots, 1.6 % of individuals whilst Milicia excelsa was present in 6.5 % of plots, 0.3 % of individuals. Khaya and Ocotea were not recorded in the systematic plots. The most commonly recorded tree species classed by Forest Division as a timber species was Strombosia scheffleri, present in 37.7 % of plots, 4.2 % of individuals, seconded by Allanblackia stuhlmannii present in 36.1 % of the plots, 3.5 % of individuals.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 32

N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent trees and shrubs Number of individuals 8 40

80

0 450 900 m

Figure 5 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 33

N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent trees and shrubs Number of species 2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 6 Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species in Nilo FR

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 34

N

Inaccessible plots

Tree and shrub species Non forest dependent

3

6

0 450 900 m

Figure 7 Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species in Nilo FR

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N

Inaccessible plots

Submontane and montane trees and shrubs Number of individuals 4 20

40

0 450 900 m

Figure 8 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR

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N

Inaccessible plots

Submontane and montane trees and Number of species

2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 9 Distribution of submontane and montane tree and shrub species in Nilo FR

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N

Inaccessible plots

Endemic and near endemic trees and Number of individuals 6 30

60

0 450 900 m

Figure 10 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub individuals in Nilo FR

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N

Inaccessible plots

Endemic and near endemic trees and Number of species 2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 11 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic tree and shrub species in Nilo FR

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Figure 12 Vegetation sketch map of Nilo FR (formulated using plot data)

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N

Inaccessible plots

Botanical species richness 3 15

30

0 450 900 m

Figure 13 Botanical species richness in Nilo FR (data from vegeetation plots only)

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4.3.2 Opportunistic botanical records

Table 14 Summary of opportunistic species by life form, excluding pteridophytes and gymnosperms Angiosperms Dictyledonae Monocotyledonae Gymosperm Pteridophyte Lifeform Number of Percentage Number of Percentage Total Number of Number of Total species of dicot species of monocot number of species species number of species (%) species (%) angiosperm opportunistic species species Tree 132 31.0 2 2 134 1 0 135 Shrub 145 34.0 7 8 152 0 0 152 Liana 41 10.0 4 5 45 0 0 45 Herb 101 24.0 68 80 169 0 15 184 Climber 10 2.0 2 2 12 0 0 12 Palm 0 0.0 2 2 2 0 0 2 Total 429 100.0 85 100 514 1 15 530

Of the 530 species recorded from opportunistic collections 15 were pteridophytes, one a gymnosperm species and the remainder (514) angiosperms; 429 dicotyledons and 85 monoctyledons. Table 15 presents the list of opportunistic botanical records with collector and lifeform information presented.

New records for the East Usambara mountains

The opportunistic collection of vegetation produced a total of 91 new species records for the East Usamabara mountains, based on the East Usambara Plant Database (Pohjonen 2001), refer to Appendix 4. This compares to only 6 new records from systematic vegetation plots presented in Appendix 4, highlighted in bold. Additionally, one species Telfairia pedata was sighted, the first record in the East Usambara mountains since 1909 (Amani Nature Reserve).

Table 15 List of opportunistic botanical species records, Nilo FR (key at the end of table) Species Collector Life form

Pteridophyta ADIANTACEAE Adiantum raddianum C. Presl AM H Pellaea schweinfurthii (Hieron.) Hieron. AM H ASPIDIACEAE Didymochlaena truncatula (Sw.) J. Sm. AM H ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium nidus L. AM H Asplenium pellucidum Lam. AM H Asplenium warneckei Hieron. AM H CYATHEACEAE Cyathea manniana Hook. AM H DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Blotiella stipitata (Alston) Faden AM H Pteridium aquilinum (L.) AM H

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Table 15 continued Pteridophyta continued Collector Life form

LYCOPODIACEAE Huperzia dura Pichi-Serm. AM H MARATTIACEAE Marattia fraxinea Gmel. AM H POLYPODIACEAE Drynaria laurentii (Christ) Hieron. AM H Phymatosorous scolopendria (Burm.f.) Pichi-Serm. AM H Platycerium angolense (syn. P. elephantotis) Schweinf. AM H VITTARIACEAE Vittaria guineensis var. orientalis Hieron. AM H

Gymnosperm ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos hildebrantii (L.) Maton AM T

Angiosperm: Dicotyledons Collector Life form

ACANTHACEAE Brachystephanus holstii Lindau AM H Brillantaisia madagascariensis T. Anderson ex Lindau AN 585 S Crossandra tridentata Lindau AM H Hypoestes aristata (Vahl) Reom. & Schult. AM S Justicia anisophylla (Mildbr.) Brummitt AM H Justicia phyllostachys C.B. Clarke AN 554 H Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii Lindau AM, AN 657 H Sclerochiton boivinii C.B. Cl. AM S Stenandriopsis warneckei (S. Moore) Napper AM, AN 601 S Thunbergia holstii Lindau AN 550 H Thunbergia petersiana Lindau AM H Thunbergia usambarica Lindau AM H Whitfieldia elongata (Beauv.) De Wild. & T. Dur. AM S AMARANTHACEAE Achyranthes aspera L. AM, AN 607 H Cyathula prostrata var. pedicellata (C.B.Cl.) Cavaco AM, AN 537 H ANACARDIACEAE Lannea schimperi (A.Rich.) Engl. AM T Rhus natalensis Krauss AM T Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. AM T ANNONACEAE Asteranthe asterias (S.Moore) Engl. & Diels AM T Isolona heinsenii Engl. & Diels AM S Mkilua fragrans Verdc. AM S Monanthotaxis buchananii (Engl.) Verdc. AM S Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.) Verdc. AM S Monodora granidieri Baill. AM S Ophrypetalum odoratum Diels AM S

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

ANNONACEAE continued Uvaria acuminata Oliv. AM S Uvaria dependens Engl. & Diels AM C Uvaria tanzaniae Verdc. AM L Uvariodendron gorgonis Verdc. AM T Uvariodendron kirkii Verdc. AM S Uvariodendron usambarense R.E. Fr. AM T APOCYNACEAE Alafia microstylis K. Schum. AM C Alafia orientalis K. Schum AM L Ancylobothyrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Pierre AM L Carvalhoa campanulata K. Schum. AM, AN 677 S Landolphia kirkii Dyer AM S Rauvolfia mombasiana Stapf AM T Rauvolfia volkensii (K. Schum) Stapf. AM S Saba comorensis (Bojer) Pichon AM S Schizozygia coffaeoides Baill. AM S AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. AM T ARALIACEAE Schefflera goetzenii Harms AM S ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia albida Duchartre AM L ASCLEPIADACEAE Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R.Br AM S Mondia whitei (Hook.f.)Skeels AM L Secomone parvifolia (Oliv.) Bullock AM L BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens engleri Gilg AM H Impatiens keilii Gilg AM H Impatiens niamniamensis AM H Impatiens raphidothrix Warb. AN 567 H Impatiens sodenii Engl. AM H Impatiens walleriana Hook.f. AM H BASELLACEAE Basella alba L. AM L BEGONIACEAE Begonia engleri Gilg AM H Begonia meyeri var johannis Engl. AM H Begonia oxyloba Hook.f. AM H Begonia princeae AM H Begonia sp. AN 576 H Begonia wakefieldii Gilg AM H BIGNONIACEAE Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. AM T Markhamia zanzibarica (DC.)K.Schum. AM T BOMBACACEAE Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum. AM T Ceiba pentandra (L.)Gartn. AM T

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

BORAGINACEAE Ehretia cymosa var.cymosa Thonn AM T Heliotropium steudneri Vatke AM H Tournefortia usambarensis (Verdc.) Verdc. AM S BURSERACEAE Commiphora pteleifolia Engl. AM S CACTACEAE Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S. Mill.) Stearn AM H CAPPARIDACEAE Boscia coriaceae Pax AM T Boscia salicifolia Oliv. AM T Capparis erythrocarpos var. rosea (Klotzsch) De Wolf AM S Capparis tomentosa Lam. AM S Cleome hirta (Klotzsch)Oliv. AM S Cleome monophylla L. AM S Maerua triphylla var. pubescens (Klotzsch) De Wolf AM S CARYOPHYLLACEAE Drymaria cordata (L.)Rom. & Schultes AM H Stellaria mannii Hook.f. AN 565 H CELASTRACEAE Maytenus acuminata (L.f.)Los. AM T Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell AM S Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. AM T Platypterocarpus tanganyikensis Dunkley & Brenan AM T Pristimera graciliflora (Oliv.) Halle AM S Reinssantia indica var. orientslis AM S Salacia lehmbachii var. usambarensis Los. AM S CHRYSOBALANACEAE Maranthes goetzeniana (Engl.) Plance AM T COMBRETACEAE Combretum hereroense volkensii Wickens AM T Combretum schummanii Engl. AM T Pteleopsis myrtifolia (Laws.) Engl. & Diels AM T COMPOSITAE Ageratum conyzaides L. AM H Anisoppapus oliveranus AN 622 H Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.)Wild AM H Bidens kilimandscharica (O. Hoffm.) Sherff AM H Bidens pilosa L. AM H Bothriocline fusca (S. Moore) AN 553 H Bothriocline longipes (Oliv. & Hiern)N.E.Br. AN 615 H Brachylaena huillensis O. Hoffm. AM H Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore AN 557 H Crassocephalum rubens (Juss. Ex Jacq.) S. Moore AN 606 H Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (I) AM H Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Less. AM H Microglossa oblongifolia O. Hoffm. AM S Microglossa parvifolia (Lam.) Kuntze AM S Montanoa bipinnatifolia AM S Pseudognaphalium uniounis AN 614 H

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

COMPOSITAE continued Senecio sp. AN 653 C Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.)C.Jeffrey AM S Tithonia diversiflora (Hemsl.) A. Gray AM S Vernonia brachycalyx O. Hoffm. AM S Vernonia lasiopus var. iodicalyx (O. Hoffm.) C.Jeffrey AN 609 S Vernonia myriantha Hook.f. AM S Vernonia usambarensis O. Hoffm. AN 629, 668 S CONNARACEAE Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. AM L CONVOLULACEAE Astripomoea malvaceae var. floccosa (Vatke) Verdc. AM L Hewittia sublobata (L.f.)Kuntze AM L Ipomoea mombassana Vatke AN 625 C Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. AM L CRASSULACEAE Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe AM H Kalanchoe sp. Adans. AM, AN 634 H CUCURBITACEAE Coccinia grandis (L.)Voigt AM L Cucumis prophetarum L. AM L Gerrardanthus grandifloris Cogn. AM L Kedrostis heterophylla A. Zimm. AM L Luffa cylindnia (L.) M.J. Róm.(I) AM L Momordica glabra A. Zimm. AM L Momordica prophetarum AM L Peporium vogelii (Hook.f.) Engl. AM L Telfairia pedata (Sims) Hook. AM L Zehneria emirnensis (Bak.) Keraudren AM L DICHAPETALACEAE Dichapetalum mossambicense (Klotzsch)Engl. AM S Dichapetalum ruhlandii Engl. AM S EBENACEAE Euclea natalensis obovata F. White AM T ERICACEAE Agauria salicifolia (Lam.) Oliv. AM T ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn. AM T Erythroxylum fischeri Engl. AN 662 T EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha neptunica var.pubescens (Pax) Hutch. AM S Acalypha ornata A.Rich. AM S Acalypha racemosa Baill. AN 556, 590 S Alchornea laxiflora (Benth.) Pax & K. Hoffm. AM S Antidesma venosum Tul. AM T Bridelia melanthesoides AM T Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach AM S Clutia abyssinica var. pedicellata(Pax) Pax AN 676 S Drypetes subdentata AM T Euphorbia candelabrum Kotschy AM T

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons Collector Life form

EUPHORBIACEAE continued Euphorbia usambarica Pax AM S Euphorbia usambarica usambarica Pax AN 571 S Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt AM S Mildbraedia carpinifolia (Pax) Hutch AM S Mildbraedia fallax AM S Phyllanthus inflatus Hutch. AM T Pycnocoma macrantha Pax AM T Spirostachys africana Sond. AM T Suregada lithoxyla (Pax & K. Hoffm.) Croiz. AM S Synadenium glaucescens Pax AM S Tragia brevipes Pax AM H Zimmermannia capillipes Pax AM S FLACOURTIACEAE Aphloia theiformis (Vahl) Benn. AM S Grandidiera boivinii Jaub. AM T Oncoba spinosa AM T Rawsonia reticulata Gilg AM T Trimeria grandifolia (Burkill) Sleumer AM S GESNERIACEAE Saintpaulia confusa B.L.Burtt AM H Saintpaulia difficilis B.L.Burtt AM H Saintpaulia grotei Engl. AM H Saintpaulia magungensis E. Roberts AM H Saintpaulia pendula var. kizarae B.L.Burtt AM H Saintpaulia sp. AM 213, AN 580 H Saintpaulia tongwensis B.L.Burtt AM H Streptocarpus buchananii AM, AN 575 H Streptocarpus glandulosissimus Engl. AM H GUTTIFERAE Vismia orientalis Engl. AM T HERNANDIACEAE Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. AM T ICACINACEAE Leptaulus holstii (Engl.)Engl. AM S Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. AM L LABIATAE Achyrospermum radicans syn. A. calvahii Gurke AM, AN 542 S Caleus luteus AM S Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. AM S Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. AM S Leonotis oxymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson AM S Leucas densiflora Vatke AM, AN 608 S Leucas glabrata(Vahl) R. Br. AN 586 C Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gurke AM S Ocimum suave AN 605 H Platostoma africanum Beauv. AN 620 H Plectranthus barbatus Andr. AM S Plectranthus luteus Gurke AN 597 S Plectranthus parvus Oliv. AM S Satureua pseudosimensis AM H Solenotemon silvaticus (Gurke) Agnew AN 577 H

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

LAURACEAE Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd AM S Cryptocarya libertiana Engl. AM T Ocotea usambarensis Engl. AM T LECYTHIDACEAE Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Sprengel AM T LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: CAESALPINOIDEAE Afzelia quanzensis Welw. AM T Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston AM S Caesalpinia volkensii Harms AM T Cynometra webberi Bak.f. AM T Dialum holtzii Harms AM T Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin AM T Scorophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. Leon. AM T Senna singueana (Del.) Lock AM T LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: MIMOSOIDEAE Tamarindus indica L. AM T Acacia polyacantha ssp. Campylacantha (A.Rich.) AM T Acacia schweinfurthii Brenan & Exell AM T Albizia anthelmintica Brongn. AM T Albizia schimperiana Oliv. AM T Dichrostachys cinerea (L.)Wight & Arn AM T Entada rheedei syn. E. pursaetha Sprengel AM L Mimosa pudica var. unijugata (Duchass. & Walp.) Griseb. AM H Newtonia paucijuga (Harms)Brenan AM T LEGUMINOSAE subfamily: PAPILIONOIDEAE Aeschynomene schimperi A. Rich. AM S Cordyla africana Lour. AM T Crotaralia lukwangulensis Harms AN 578 C Dalbergia lactea Vatke AM S Desimodium repandum (Vahl) DC. AM, AN 566 H Desmodium salicifoluim (Poir.) DC. AM H Eriosema parviflorum E. Mey. AN 633 H Eriosema psoraleoides(Lam.) G.Don AM S Indigofera hirsuta L. AM H Indigofera volkensii Taub. AM H Millettia lasiantha Dunn AM T Millettia oblata Dunn AM T Millettia sacleuxii Dunn AM T Millettia usaramensis Taub. AM T Mucana gigantea (Willd.)DC. AM T Mucana pruriens (L.)DC. AM T Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. AM T Ormocarpum kirkii S. Moore AM T Schefflerodendron usambarense Harms AM T Tephrosia aequilata Bak. AM, AN 570 S Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. AM S Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.)Mendonca &E.P Sousa AM T LINACEAE Hugonia castaneifolia Engl. AM S

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

LOBELIACEAE Lobelia fervens Thunb. AM H Lobelia holstii Engl. AM, AN 647 H Lobelia longisepala Engl. AM, AN 646 H LOGANIACEAE Strychnos spinosa Lam. AM T LORANTHACEAE Tapinanthus oehleri AM T Tapinanthus ziziphifollus AM T LYTHRACEAE Ammannia prieuriana Guill. & Perr. AM H MALVACEAE Abutilon longicuspe A. Rich. AM S Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Medic. AM 664 H Gossypioides kirkii (Mast.) Hutch. AM S Hibiscus fuscus Garcke AM, AN 611 S Sida acuta Burm.f. AM, AN 555 S Thepesia danis Oliv. AM T MELASTOMACEAE Calvoa orientalis Taub. AM H Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don AM S Dissotis rotundifolia (Sm.)Triana AM, AN 619, 629 H Memecylon erythranthum Gilg AM T Memecylon greenwayi Brenan AM T Memecylon semseii A. & R. Fernandes AM T MELIACEAE Cedrela odorata L. AM T Erkebegia capensis Sparrm. AM T Khaya anthotheca (Welw.) C. DC. AM T Lepidotrichilia volkensii (Gurke) Leroy AM T Turraea floribunda Hochst. AM T Turraea robusta Gurke AM T MELIANTHACEAE Bersma abyssinica puallinoides var. usambarica (Gurke) Verdc. AM T MENISPERMACEAE Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. AM L Stephania abyssinica var. abyssinica(Dillon & A.Rich.) Walp. AN 671 C Tiliacora funifera (Miers) Oliv. AM L Triclisia sacleuxii (Pierre) Diels AM L MONIMIACEAE Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Warb. AN 675 T MORACEAE Dorstenia alta Engl. AN 638 S Dorstenia bicaudata Peter AN 666 H Dorstenia hildebrantii Engl. AM H Dorstenia holstii Engl. AN 645 H Dorstenia kameruniana Engl. AM T Ficus bubu Warb. AM T Ficus craterastoma Mildbr. & Burret AM T Ficus cyathistipula cyathistipula (syn.F.rhynchocarpa) AM T

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

MORACEAE continued Ficus thonningii Blume AM T Ficus usambarensis Warb. AM T Morus mesozygia Stapf AM T MYRSINACEAE Rapanea pulchura AM T MYRTACEAE Psidium guajava L. (I) AM T Syzigium cordatum Krauss AM T NYCTAGINACEAE Mirabilis jalapa L. (I) AM H NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea nouchali var.zanzibariensis (Casp.) Verdc. AM H OCHNACEAE Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv. AM T Ochna holstii Engl. AM T Ouratea sacleuxii AM T Ouratea warneckii Gilg AN 604 S OLACACEAE Ximenia americana L. AM T OLEACEAE Chionanthus niloticus AM T ONAGRACEAE Jussiacea jussieoides syn. Ludwigia jussieoides) AM H Ludwigia abyssinica A. Rich. AN 624 H OXALIDACEAE Oxalis corniculata L. AM H Oxalis corymbosa DC. AN 543 H Oxalis latifolia Kunth AM H PASSIFLORACEAE Adenia cissampeloides (Hook. Harms) AM C Adenia reticulata (De Wild. & T. Dur.) Engl. AM L Adenia rumicifolia Engl. AM L Basananthe hanningtoniana (Mast.) de Wilde AN 545 C Schlechterina mitostemmatoides Harms AM L PIPERACEAE Peperomia fernandopoiana C. DC. AM H Piper betle L. AM L Piper capensis L.f. AM, AN 558 S piper umbellatum L. AM S PLUMBAGINACEAE Plumbago dawei Rolfe AM H POLYGALACEAE Polygala amboniensisn Gurke AM H Polygala paniculata L. AM, AN 546 H RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. AM T Ziziphus mucronata Willd. AM T Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. AM T

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons continued Collector Life form

ROSACEAE Prunus africana (Synpygeum africana)(Hook.f.) Kalkm. AM T Rubus niveus Thunb. AM S Rubus pinnatus Willd. AM S Rubus rosifolius Sm. AM S RUBIACEAE Breonadia salicina(Vahl) Hepper & Wood AM T Canthium sp.Lam. AN 596 T Chassalia discolor var. discolor K. Schum. AN 678 S Chassalia parvifolia K. Schum. AM, AN 610 S Chazaliella abrupta (Hiern) Petit & Verdc. AM S Coffea robusta AM T Coffea zanguebarica AN 658 T Cremaspora triflora (Thonn.) K. Schum. AM S Crossopteryx febrifuga (G. Don) Benth. AM T Didymosalpinx norae (Swynnerton) Keay AN 540 S Geophila obvallata loides (K.Schum) Verdc. AM H Hallea rubrostipulata (K. Schum.) Leroy AM T Heinsia densiflora AM S Keetia venosa (Oliv.) Bridson AM S Kraussia speciosa Bullock AN 644 L Lasianthus kilimandscharicus K. Schum. AM T Leptactina platyphylla(Hiern) Wernh. AM T Mussaenda arcuata Poir. AM S Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb. AM, AN 612 H Oldenlandia sp. AN 631 H Oxyanthus pyrformis (Hochst.) Skeels AM T Parapentas silvatica AN 648 H Pauridiantha holstii AM S Pauridiantha paurinervis holstii (K. Schum.)Verdc. AN 680 T Pavetta amaniensis Bremek. AM S Pavetta hymenophylla Bremek. AM S Pavetta lynesii Bridson AM S Pavetta mazumbaiensis Bridson AN 559 S Pentas bussei K. Krause AM S Pentas ionolaena K. Schum. AM S Pentas zanzibarica (Klotzsch) Vatke AN 613 S Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern AM S Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern AM S Psychotria brevicaulis K. Schum. AM S Psychotria cyathicalyx Petit AM S Psychotria griseola K. Schum. AN 588 S Psychotria lauracea (K. Schum.) Petit AN 581 S Psychotria leocopoda Petit AN 654 S Psychotria pandurata Verdc. AN 593 H Psychotria peteri Petit AN 670 S Psychotria porphyroclada K. Schum. AN 587 S Psychotria schliebenii Petit AN 589 S Psychotria sp. K. AN 594, 617 H Psychotria tanganyicensis Verdc. AM, AN 536, 595 S Psychotria triclada Petit AN 561 S

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons Collector Life form

RUBIACEAE continued Psychotria usambarensis Verdc. AM S Rutidea orientalis Bridson AM, AN 669 H Rytigynia acuminatissma (K. Schum.) Robyns. AM S Rytigynia bagshawei (S. Moore) Robyns AM S Rytigynia eickii (K.Schum. & K. Krause) Bullock AN 681 T Rytigynia uhligii (K. Schum. & K. Krause) Verdc. AM, AN 672 S Sericanthe odoratissima (K. Schum.) Robbr. AM T Tricalysia acidophylla Robbr. AM T RUTACEAE Clansena anisata (Willd.) Benth. AM S Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. AM S Vepris amaniensis AM T Vepris trichocarpa AM T Vepris simplicifolia AM T SAPINDACEAE Allophylus callophylus AM S Allophylus strachyanthus Gilg AM T Aporrhiza paniculata Radlk. AM S Deinibollia boribonica Scheff. AN 655 S Pancovia holtzii Radlk. AM S Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. AM S Paullinia pinnata L. AM L SAPOTACEAE Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard AM T Vincentella passargei (Engl.) Aubrev. AM T SCROPHULARIACEAE Alectra asperrima Benth. AN 618 H Cycnium herzfeldiana (syn. Rhamphicarpa) (Vatke) Engl. AM H Cycnium tubulosum montanum (N.E.Br.) O.J. Hansen AN 649 H SIMAROUBACEAE Brucea tenuifolia Engl. AM S Harrinsonia abyssinica Oliv. AM T SOLANACEAE Capsicum frutescens L. AM S Physalis peruviana L. AM, AN 591 H Solanum anguivi Lam. AM S Solanum goetzei Dammer AM, AN 603 T Solanum kitivuense Dammer AM S SOLANACEAE Dombeya acutangula Cav. AM T Pterygota mildbraedii Engl. AM T Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum. AM T TAMARICACEAE Tamarix sp. AN 572 H THEACEAE Balthasaria schliebenii var. glabra (Verdc.) Verdc. AM T THYMELAEACEAE Peddiea fischeri Engl. AM, AN 599 S Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. AM S

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Dicotyledons Collector Life form

TILIACEAE Grewia bicolor var. tephrodermis(K. Schum.) Burret AM T Grewia similis K. Schum. AM T Triumfelta rhomboidea Jacq. AM S ULMACEAE Celtis zenkeri Engl. AM T UMBELLIFERAE Heteromorpha arborescens AM H Sanicula elata D. Don AN 569 H Sentella asiatica AM H Steganotaenia araliaceae Hochst. AM S Sunicula elata D. Don AN 592 H URTICACEAE Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem. AN 541 S Pilea holstii Engl. AM H Urera cameroonensis AM L Urera hypselodendron (A. Rich.) Wedd. AM L Urera sansibarica Engl. AN 661 C Urera trinervis (Hochst.) Friis & Immelman AM L VERBENACEAE Clerodendrum capitatum (Willd.) K.Schum. & Thonn. AM S Clerodendrum cephalanthum impesum (B. Thomas) Verdc. AN 582 S Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) Mabb. AM S Clerodendrum myricoides myricoides (Hochst.) Vatke AN 560 S Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv. AM S Clerodendrum scheffleri AM S Lantana camara L. AM S Premna chrysoclada (Boj.) Gurke AM T Strachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl AM H Vitex doniana Sweet AM T Vitex ferruginea K. Schum. & Thonn AM T Vitex strickeri Vatke & Hildebr. AM T VIOLACEAE Rinorea ilicifolia (Oliv.) Kuntze AM S VISCACEAE Viscum nervosum A. Rich. AM H VITACEAE Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. AM L Cissus oliveri (Engl.) Gilg AM L Cissus quadrangularis L. AM L Cyphostema njegerre (Gilg) Desc. AM L Rhoicissus revoilii Planch. AM, AN 683 L Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & Drummond AM L

Angiosperm: Monocotyledons

ALISMATACEAE Sagittaria montevidensis Cham & Schlechtd AM H ALOEACEAE Aloe sp. AM H

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Monocotyledons continued Collector Life form

AMARYLLIDACEAE Crinum macownii Milne-Redh. AM H Scadoxus multiflora (Martyn) Raff AM H ANTHERIACEAE Anthericum suffruticosum (Bak.) Milne-Redh. AM H Chlorophytum macrophyllum (A. Rich.) AM H Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Bak. AM H ARACEAE Culcasia orientalis Mayo AM, AN 660 L Amorphophallus stuhlmanii (Engl.) Eng. & Gehrm AM H Anchomanes abbreviatus Engl. AM H Callopsis volkensii Engl. AM, AN 602 H Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. AM H Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L). Schott AM H Zamioculcas zamiifolia (Lodd.) Engl. AM H ASPARACEAE Asparagus falcatus L. AM S Asparagus racemosus Willd. AM S CANNACEAE Canna indica L. AM H COLCHICACEAE Gloriosa superba L. AM H COMMELINACEAE Aneilema hockii De Willd. AM H Aneilema pedunculosum C.B. Cl. AM H Aneilema sp. AN 579 H Commelina africana L. AM H Pollia condensata C. B. Cl. AM, AN 538 H CYPERACEAE Carex spicato-paniculata C. B. Cl. AM H Coleochloa abyssinica var. castanea (C. B. Cl) Pich-Serm. AN 636 H Coleochloa sp. AN 639 H Cyperus distans (Cherm.) AM H Cyperus halpan (Braun 5502, Semsei 2383) AN 628 H Cyperus latifoluis Poir AM H Cyperus pseudoleptocladus Kuk AN 627 H Fuirena umbellata Rottb AN 621 H Hypolytrum herteromorphom Nelmes AN 564 H DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea alata L. AM L Dioscorea asteriscus Burkill AM L Dioscorea longicuspis R. Knuth AM L Dioscorea sp. AN 642 C DRACAENACEAE Dracaena steudneri Engl. AM T Dracaena usambarensis Engl. AM T Dracaena afromontana Mildbr. AM S

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Monocotyledons continued Collector Life form

DRACAENACEAE Dracaena deremensis Engl. AM S Dracaena laxissima Engl. AM, AN 548 S Sansevieria kirkii Thunb. AM S FLAGELLARIACEAE Flagellaria guineensis Schumach. AM S GRAMINEAE Agrostis kilimandsharica Mez AM H Agrostis schimperiana Steudel AM H Bambusa vulgaris AM H Cymbopogon caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf AN 616 H Digitaria sp. AN 574 H Imperata cylindrica (L.) Ranschel AM H Isachne mauritaniana Kunth AN 573 H Leptaspis cochleataI Thwaites AM H Olyra latifolia L. AM H Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) AM H Oreobambos buchwaldii K. Schum. AM H Oxytenanthera braunii AM H Panicum brevifolium L. AM H Panicum maximum Jacq. AM H Paspalum conjugatum Berg. AM H Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. AM H Phragmites mauritianus Kunth AM H Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D. Clayton AM H Setaria megaphylla (Steudel) AM H Sorghum arundinaceum (Desv.) Stapf. AM H Stipa dregeana Steudel AM H Themeda triandra Forssk. AM H Trichoneura ciliata (Peter) S.M.Philips AM H HYPXIDACEAE Hypoxis sp. L. AN 635 H MARANTACEAE Marantochloa leucantha (K.Schum) Milne-Redh. AM, AN 549 H MUSACEAE Ensete edule (Gmel.) Horan. (syn. E.ventricosum) AM H ORCHIDACEAE Aerangis hologlottis (Schltr.) Schltr. AM H Calanthe sylvatica (Thou.) Lindl. AM H Cytorchis arcuataI (Lindl.) Schltr. AM H Eulophia horsfalli (Batem.) Summerh. AM H Habenaria macrandra Lindl. AM H Polystachya pudorina Cribb AM H PALMAE Elaeis guineensis Jacq. AM P PANDANACEAE Pandanus stuhlmannii Warb. AM P

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Table 15 continued Angiosperm: Monocotyledons continued Collector Life form

SMILACACEAE Smilax anceps Willd. AM, AN 682 C TYPHACEAE Typha capensis (Rohrb) N.E. Br. AN 632 H ZINGIBERACEAE Afraomomum amaniense Los AM H Aframomum angustifolia (Sonn.) K.Schum. AM H Costus sarmentosus Boj AM H Elelttaria cardamon arguta (L.) Maton AM H Hedychium coronarium Konig AM H Renealmia engleri K. Schum. AM H

Key: Table 15 Life form Collector T: Tree AN XXX: Albert Ntemi (EUCAMP Botanist) S: Shrub Specimens deposited at the Arusha herbarium L: Liana C: Climber AM: Ahmed Mndolwa (TAFORI Botanist) H: Herb Specimens deposited at the Lushoto herbarium P: Palm

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 56

4.3 Disturbance transects Pole and timber extraction was recorded along all transect lines. The results of the disturbance transects are summarised in Table 16 for poles and Table 17 for timber. The term pole refers to all stems 5 – 15 cm dbh, the term timber refers to stems > 15 cm dbh. Other disturbances recorded systematically are discussed in the next section. Table 16 Disturbance transect results for pole counts in Nilo FR. Transect Transect Total Standing Mean Cut poles Mean cut Naturally Mean number Length poles poles standing poles/ ha fallen naturally (m) sampled poles/ ha poles fallen poles/ ha -7 850 207 179 211 17 20 11 13 -6 2280 746 658 289 31 14 57 25 -5 2750 1023 833 303 109 40 81 29 -4 1400 577 479 342 42 30 56 40 -3 1850 758 631 341 78 42 49 26 -2 3050 938 715 234 81 27 142 47 -1 7000 3753 3292 470 183 26 273 39 0 6750 3510 2967 440 340 50 197 29 1 6650 2840 2457 369 158 24 225 34 2 5980 3374 2875 481 193 32 306 51 3 5550 2997 2432 438 98 18 467 84 4 2400 1106 975 406 39 16 92 38 5 1750 1002 882 504 66 38 54 31 6 1795 1044 858 478 26 14 160 89 7 1350 839 725 537 59 44 55 41 8 1700 943 839 494 47 28 57 34 9 600 314 296 493 9 15 9 15 10 750 268 241 321 10 13 17 23 11 150 115 95 633 9 60 11 73 Note: A pole is defined as 5-15 cm dbh with 2 m straight trunk.

900 e 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 Number of poles per hectar 0 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Live Poles Naturally Dead Transect Number Cut Poles

Figure 14 Cut and naturally fallen poles recorded by transect

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Figures 20 – 24 show areas of highest disturbance, the top 10 %. These areas were calculated by ranking the sum results of pole and timber cutting per 450 m section and by the ranking of the sum of incidence of other disturbance. Thus produces a potenial of 28 sections of highest disturbance. 143 sections of disturbance data were recorded, the top 10 % being 14 sections from each ranking type. 27 sections were shown to have the highest disturbance as there was overlap of one plot of both types of ranking, i.e the section had high pole and timber cutting and high incidence of other disturbance.

Figures 24 – 27 show incidence of other disturbance, evidence of fire, animal trapping, evidence of cultivation and records of Maeopsis eminii respectively.

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Key N Village Sub-villages Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots

Folo folo

Kwemkole

Kwemkoyu

Kilanga Ngua Kizara

Kuze

Kitivo

Kizerui Number of cut poles per hectare 20 100

Kombora 200

Zirai

0 450 900 m

Figure 15 Distribution of pole cutting/hectare in Nilo FR.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 59

Key N Village Sub-villages Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots

Folo folo

Kwemkole Kwemkoyu

Kilanga Ngua Kizara

Kuze

Kitivo

Kizerui

New cut poles per ha 4 Kombora 20

40

Zirai

0 450 900 m

Figure 16 Distribution of NEW pole cutting/hectare in Nilo FR.

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Table 17 Disturbance transect results for timber counts in Nilo FR.

Transect Transect Total Standing Mean Cut Mean cut Naturally Mean number Length timber timber standing timber timber/ ha fallen naturally (m) sampled timber/ ha timber fallen timber/ ha -7 850 216 193 227 2 2 21 25 -6 2280 524 457 200 11 5 56 25 -5 2750 770 657 239 27 10 86 31 -4 1400 356 317 226 6 4 33 24 -3 1850 555 474 256 37 20 44 24 -2 3050 665 468 153 34 11 163 53 -1 7000 2155 1850 264 85 12 218 31 0 6750 2053 1783 264 52 8 182 27 1 6650 1655 1408 212 55 8 192 29 2 5980 1821 1530 256 50 8 241 40 3 5550 1724 1450 261 49 9 225 41 4 2400 749 677 282 14 6 58 24 5 1750 708 614 351 15 9 79 45 6 1795 554 448 250 8 4 98 55 7 1350 434 349 259 30 22 55 41 8 1700 678 522 307 42 25 114 67 9 600 192 172 287 15 25 5 8 10 750 229 200 267 1 1 28 37 11 150 75 70 467 0 0 5 33 Note: Timber is defined as >15 cm dbh and 3 m straight trunk.

600

500

400

300 200

100

Number of timber per hectare 0 -7-6-5-4-3-2-101234567891011 Cut T imber Transect line Naturally Dead Timber Live Timber

Figure 17 The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber in Nilo FR.

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Key N Village Sub-villages Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots

Folo folo

Kwemkole

Kwemkoyu

Kilanga Ngua Kizara

Kuze

Kitivo

Kizerui Number of cut timber per hectare 10 50

Kombora 100

Zirai

0 450 900 m

Figure 18 Distribution of timber extraction/ hectare, Nilo FR

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Key N Village Sub-villages Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots

Folo folo

Kwemkole

Kwemkoyu

Kilanga Ngua Kizara

Kuze

Kitivo

Kizerui

Number of new cut timbers

Kombora 4 20

40

Zirai

0 450 900 m

Figure 19 Distribution of NEW timber extraction/ hectare in Nilo FR.

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N

Inaccessible plots

Number of forest dependent and endemic Individuals 2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 20 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 64

N

Inaccessible plots

Number of forest dependent and endemic Species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 21 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub species that are both forest dependent and endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 65

N

Inaccessible plots

Number of forest dependent and near endemic Individuals 6 30

60

0 450 900 m

Figure 22 Areas of highest (top 10%) disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and near-endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 66

N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent and near endemic Species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 23 Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub species that are both forest dependent and near-endemic to the Usambaras in Nilo FR.. Areas with the top 10 % disturbance are highlighted in blue/ pale grey.

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Key N Village Sub-villages Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots α

α Folo folo α α α

Kwemkole Kwemkoyu αα αα α Kilanga Ngua α α αα Kizara αα Kuze αααα α α Kitivo ααα α α α α α α α αα αα Kizerui α Incide nce of fire Kombora α 1 α 5 Zirai αα 10

0 450 900 m

Figure 24 Incidence of fire evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect lines, Nilo FR

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N

Inaccessible plots ιι ιι ιιι ιιι ιιιιι ιιιιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι ιι

ιι ιι ιι Incidence of a minal tr aps ιι 1 ιι 2

0 450 900 m

Figure 25 Incidence of animal trapping evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect lines, Nilo FR.

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Key N Village Α Sub-villages Α Bombo Maji Moto Inaccessible plots ΑΑΑ Α Folo folo ΑΑΑ Α Α Α Kwemkole Α KwemkoyuΑΑ Α ΑΑ Kilanga Ngua Α Α Α Α Α Α ΑΑ Kizara Α Α Α ΑΑΑ Α Α Α Kuze ΑΑ Α Α Α Α Kitivo Α Α Α Α Α Α

Α Α ΑΑ Kizerui Α

Α Incide nce of c ulti vati on Α 1 Kombora Α 5 Α 10 Zirai Α

0 450 900 m

Figure 26 Incidence of cultivation evidence recorded per section (450 m) of transect lines, Nilo FR

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N

≅ Maesopsis Inaccessible plots

≅ ≅

≅ ≅ ≅ ≅ ≅

≅ ≅

≅

0450 900 m

Figure 27 Records of Maeopsis eminii within the systematic vegetation plots, Nilo FR

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4.4 Discussion Nilo Forest Reserve covers an area of 6,025 ha with an altitudinal range of 400m – 1,506m. This section is primarily concerned with discussing the systematic vegetation plot results. Opportunistic collections are discussed on occasion.

4.4.1 Species richness

In the systematic vegetation plots 4,102 tree and shrub individuals were surveyed, representing 207 species from 51 families. An additional 9 species were recorded in the regeneration plots. Opportunistic plant collections from outside of the vegetation plots recorded an additional 530 species from 122 families including 76 families not previously recorded. 37 % (45) of families and 12 % (55) of genera were recorded from both the systematic plots and from opportunistic collections. In total 746 species from 127 families were recorded. Table 18 Numbers of plant taxa recorded in Nilo FR

Systematic plots Regeneration plots Opportunistic Total collection Family 51 0 76 127 Genera 140 2 307 449 Species 207 9 530 746

The ranking of species coverage and abundance (Table 6) within the vegetation plots revealed Myrianthus holstii (Cecropiaceae) to be the most abundant in terms of total individuals, occurring in 60 % of the vegetation plots and representing 7 % of all individuals recorded. Whilst Leptonychia usambariensis (Sterculiaceae) resprented only 11 % of all individuals recorded and was recorded in 43 % of the vegetation plots. The basic ranking summary of Table 6 only encorporates species presence within plots (coverage) and number of individuals recorded in total (abundance). Calculating basal area from the dbh measurements may produce a different result.

Of the 122 plots systematically surveyed the majority were within submontane forest. Table 19 represents the number and percentage of plots per habitat type. Table 19 Distribution of vegetation plots within habitat types

Habitat type Number of vegetation Percentage of plots vegetation plots (%)

Lowland forest (LF) 38 31.4 Submontane forest (SMF) 53 43.8 Montane forest (MF) 19 15.7 Cultivation (C) 2 1.7 Fallow / Previously disturbed (F/PD) 6 5.0 Scrub / thicket / bush (S/T/B) 3 2.5

A number of plots categorised as lowland forest had strong affinities with submontane forest and could be termed transition forest. However, for the purposes of this report they have been categorised as lowland forest. These generally occurred at altitudes of less than 850 m but over 800 m asl. This adds to the argument that forest type/ vegetation type maybe better presented by

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 72 species composition, which requires comprehensive plot analysis, not in the re-mit of this technical report.

Signs of disturbance were apparent in many of the vegetation plots (VPs), these are summarised in Appendix 1. A small number of plots (9 %) were categorised as non-forest vegetation types (Table 19). The vegetation types of theses 11 plots were; cultivation (2), fallow/ previously disturbed (6) and scrub/ thicket/ bush (3). All were recorded with a canopy height < 10 m and tree cover < 10 %. The two plots recorded as cultivation were VPs 97 & 103. Plot 97 contained 6 individuals of 4 species; Cussonia arborea, Albizia glaberrima, Ficus exasperata and Sapium ellepticum. Plot 103 contained 13 individuals of 5 species; Markhamia obtusifolia, Scolopia zeyheri, Combretum molle, Annona sengalensis, and Stereosperium kunthianum. The scrub/ thicket/ bush plots were VPs 12, 85 & 86. All had low numbers of individuals. Plots 85 and 86 had been heavily disturbed by fire with evidence of pole cutting and cultivation respectively. Two individuals were recorded in VP 85; Myrianthus holstii and Sorindeia madagascariensis and three individuals within VP 86, Sorindeia madagascariensis (2) and Albizia gummerifera.

Relative to other forest reserves in the East Usambaras, Nilo FR has a high botanical species richness and number of restricted range species.

4.4.2 Species Accumulation Rates The species accumulation curve (Figure 4) for the 50 m x 20 m vegetation plots increased rapidly initially, then began to level off. Towards the end of the curve there appears to be an increased rate of species accumulation, suggesting there are more species of tree and shrub yet to be recorded. This is complemented by an additional 135 tree species and 152 shrub species were recorded through opportunistic collections. These tree and shrub species represent 26 % and 29 % respectively of the opportunistic plant species recorded (refer to Table 15 for more information).

4.4.3 Ecological Type Species were defined as either forest dependent (F), forest dwelling (f) and non-forest dependent (O) (Table 11 and Figures 5, 6 & 7). Species were categorised into the above with the use of Iversen (1991), Lovett (1993) and the FTEA (section 1.2).

Forest dependent species, defined as limited to primary forest were recorded 2,156 times. Forest dependent species were present in 112 (92 %) of the 122 vegetation plots. The most common forest dependent tree species was Leptonychia usambariensis represented by 449 individuals (11 %) within 52 vegetation plots (43 %). 36 (47 %) of the forest dependent species were also recorded as endemic or near-endemic to the Usambaras.

Twelve species typical of more open habitats were categorised as non-forest dependent (O); Combretum molle, Acacia senegalensis, Albizia chinensis, Albizia versicolor, Erythrina abyssinica, Lonchocarpus bussei, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Haplocoelum foliolosum, Dombeya cincinnata, Dombeya shupangae, Obetia radula and Premna schliebenii. These were recorded within 13 of the 122 plots (11 %) and represented by 29 individuals (0.7 %). Representatives of these species were present in the following vegetation plots: 11, 12, 32, 61, 62, 97, 102, 103, 105, 106, 116, 119, 120 (Figure 7). Premna schliebenii was the most commonly recorded and represented by 8 individuals within 5 plots.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 73

4.4.4 Habitat Of the tree species recorded with known altitude characteristics, 25 % were recorded as submontane and/or montane, 27 % as lowland and or submontane and the majority, 32 % were species that may be found at a range of altitudes and thus may exist within lowland, submontane and montane forest. Altitude characteristics could not be gleaned from the literature for 16 % of the species recorded.

Table 12 provides a summary of habitat types, where species have been categorised by forest type or a combination of forest type, i.e. species exist in more than one forest type. Habitat / forest type is not finite but a graduation that incorporates many factors such, as rainfall, humidity, soil type, altitude, water availability. Species have been categorised in a simplified form by altitude characteristics. Species appear to have variability in their ecological requirements and niches. The most common species characterised as submontane and or montane was Myrianthus holstii, 278 individuals recorded in 73 plots (Table 6).

4.4.5 Endemic Status Of the plant species recorded, 130 (63 %) were of widespread distribution. Near-endemics contributed 39 species (19 %) from 21 families to the floristic composition of the reserve. These near-endemic species were found in the majority of plots 105 (86 %) and account for 1,169 tree and shrub individuals recorded, 29 %. Of the 122 plots surveyed, 3 were found to have greater than 10 near-endemic species, and 43 plots supported more than 10 near-endemic individuals. VP 29 contained the highest number of near endemic individuals 52, of 6 species with 30 individuals of Leptonychia usambarensis. The most common near-endemic species in the reserve was Leptonychia usambariensis. Of the 39 near-endemic species, 23 species were considered to be forest dependent.

13 species were recorded as endemic to the Usambaras. Four species endemic to the East and West Usambaras were recorded: Uvariodendron oligocarpum, Uvariodendron pycnophyllum, Englerodendron usambarense and Rinorea angustifolia albersi. These represent 1.9 % of species recorded and 0.6 % of individuals.

Nine species were recorded as endemic to the East Usambaras: Magnistipula butayei, Cynometra brachyrrahchis, Cynometra longipedicellata, Cynometra sp. A, Zenkerella grotei, Rytigynia xanthotricha, Placodiscus amaniensis, Cola scheffleri and Cola usambarense. These represent 4.3 % of species recorded and 1.9 % of individuals.

4.4.6 Regeneration 44 % of species found in the main vegetation plots were recorded within the regeneration plots. These species were marked with * in Table 5.

Of the 28 species listed in Table 15, that were deemed selected timber, 18 (64 %) were recorded in the regeneration plots. Of the top four selectively cut genera Khaya, Milicia, Newtonia & Ocotea, only Newtonia was found regenerating.

Ocotea usambarensis was not recorded in the vegetation plots or the regeneration plots but was recorded through opportunistic observation.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 74

4.4.7 Range extensions and new records for the East Usambara Mountains

Many species range extensions were recorded from Nilo FR, since Rufo et al (1989) (Table 10) and new species recorded for botanical inventories of the East Usambara mountains (Appendix 3), adding significantly to the botanical knowledge of the East Usambara mountains. 94% of new records were noted from the opportunistic botanical collection, demonstrating the significance of opportunistic collection. 4.4.8 Disturbance The rate of pole extraction was less than the rate of naturally fallen poles for the majority. However, the mean number of cut poles was greater than the mean number of naturally fallen poles along transects, -7, -5, -3, 0, 5 & 7. Figure 15 highlights those areas where pole extraction was greatest, with concentrations close to the villages of Kizara, Kilanga, Kuze and Kombora. New cut poles (defined as cut within 6 months of survey) were of a similar pattern to total cut poles in that the highest concentrations were close to the villages of Kuze, Kizara and Kilanga with additional focus on Kwemkole and Folo folo.

Timber extraction was less on all counts than the recorded mean number of naturally fallen timbers. Areas of high timber extraction were close to the eastern border of the north western ‘arm’ of Nilo, west of Kizara village and on the western border close to Kitivo village. Evidence of new cut timbers concentrated again close to the borders, which were close to the villages of Kuze, Kizara and Folo folo.

Signs of fire were recorded in 33 plots, Figure 24 illustrates the location and incidence of fire recorded. Incidence of fire was assessed on records for each 450 m at every 50 m section, thus the maximum count was 9 for a 450 m section. The maximum incidence within 450 m was 9, illustrating that evidence of fire was recorded within every 50 m sub-section. There was greater evidence of fire on the western side of reserve. The western slopes of Nilo FR were drier in comparison to the eastern side and may be more susceptible to natural fire or catching light from local shamba (farm) burning.

Signs of animal trapping were recorded along 10 of the 19 transect lines. Figure 25 illustrates the location of the animal trap record and incidence. A maximum of 2 traps, were recorded along a 450 m section, within plots 68, 73, 10, 83, 94 and 26. These plots were located within the vicinity of Kilanga, Kizara and Folo folo villages.

Incidence of cultivation was recorded throughout the reserve within 54 plots (450 m sections). Incidence of cultivation was assessed as for fire. The highest incidences of cultivation were recorded from plots 104 and 105 were a village still exists within the reserve boundary. However this small patch within the boundary may soon be de-gazetted. Plots 75, 76 and 59 had high incidence of cultivation, these were close to the border of the reserve within the vicinity of villages.

The invasive species Maesopsis eminii was recorded in 8 vegetation plots. The furthest north was VP 16. This species was recorded in the following VPs: 7, 16, 40, 55, 59, 111, 112, 122. Since its introduction into the area this species has spread rapidly in the Usambara Mountains particularly around Amani where there is concern that it may begin to dominate the forest (Binggeli 1989).

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 75

5.0 FAUNA Beharrell, N.K., Emmett, D., Hall, S. M., & Loader, S. pp. 75-116. 5.1 Introduction The faunal biodiversity of Nilo Forest Reserve was studied using systematic and replicable survey methods. An inventory was compiled of mammal, reptile, amphibian and selected invertebrate species. The results of the inventory were analysed to assess the biodiversity value of the reserve. 5.2 Methods Methods used during the survey are described in detail in the Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme methodologies report (SEE, 1998). A brief description is presented below. The locations of trap sites are presented in Figure 28.

5.2.1 Mammals The aim of this survey was to compile a species list of the reserve’s mammals. Five different methods were used to sample mammals within Nilo FR: (1) Sherman live traps, (2) bucket pitfalls, (3) mist netting for bats (4) dung surveys and (5) opportunistic observations. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens were identified by Prof. K. M. Howell or by Dr. D. Kock (see Appendix 2). Specimens were deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and at the Frankfurt Zoological Museum. 5.2.1.1 Sherman live trapping Small mammals were sampled using standard Sherman traps (22.9 x 7.6 x 8.9 cm). 1000 trap nights per trap site was the maximum sampling intensity, which involved the use of 100 traps for 10 nights per trap site.

At the first 5 trap sites, traps were set out in three lines of approximately 33, with traps positioned around the bucket pitfall lines, at least 2 m apart. At trap sites 6 –10, traps were positioned in a grid system with traps positioned every 5 m, in order to glean additional population data. Traps were not placed around bucket pitfall lines at these sites.

The traps were set each evening and checked early the following morning. All traps were baited with roasted coconut and peanut butter. Each mammal caught was weighed and measured and detailed habitat notes were recorded. Trapping and biometric data was recorded on standardised data sheets. Voucher specimens were retained. 5.2.1.2 Bucket pitfall trapping The bucket pitfall traps consisted of three lines of eleven 20 litre plastic buckets sunk flush to ground level in a linear transect. These were positioned approximately 5 m apart. A continuous piece of plastic sheeting ran perpendicular to the ground across the centre of each bucket forming a ‘drift fence’. A lip of plastic sheeting was kept on the ground onto which soil and leaf litter was placed. Animals were channelled along the plastic to one of the buckets. The bucket pitfalls,

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 76 acting as live traps, were designed to sample shrews within the forest. Each mammal captured was weighed and measured. Trapping and biometric information was recorded on standardised data sheets.

5.2.1.3 Mist netting for bats Nocturnal mist netting was used to sample bats within the reserve. Mist nets were placed near potential roost sites and across flight “corridors”, such as paths and rivers. Nets were set in a variety of configurations, dependent on the vegetation structure and flight corridor. Nets were attended continuously. They were generally opened at dusk, checked at 10 minute intervals and closed shortly before dawn. Netting took place close to each trap site and at opportunistic locations when time allowed. Each bat caught was weighed and measured at the netting site. Trapping and biometric information were recorded on standardised data sheets. 5.2.1.4 Dung survey The aim of this study was to provide baseline information of the more cryptic mammals of the reserve, particularly duiker. The tagged transects were surveyed for dung from border to border of the reserve. The transects were walked by a team of three people. One person surveyed 2 m on one side of the transect, the other person, 2 m on the other side. The third person recorded the findings.

5.2.1.5 Mammal observations Observations of other mammals, particularly primates, were recorded throughout the survey.

5.2.2 Birds Birds were observed on a casual basis. More detailed bird observations were recorded during February and March 2001. Billy Mnisi (employed by EUCAMP) recorded observations from four main locations throughout the reserve. Birds were recorded from visual and vocal observations.

5.2.3 Reptiles The aim of this study was to compile a species list of the reptiles within the reserve. Ground- dwelling reptiles were sampled using bucket pitfall traps (see 5.2.1.2 above). Opportunistic captures were also made by hand, or with a snake stick where necessary. Unless otherwise indicated, taxonomic identifications were made by Prof. Kim Howell or Dr. Don Broadley (see Appendix 2). Specimens were deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and at the Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe.

5.2.4 Amphibians The aim of this study was to compile a species list of the amphibians within the reserve. Ground- dwelling amphibians were sampled using the bucket pitfall method (see 5.2.1.2 above). Opportunistic captures were also made, particularly of tree frogs. After rain, typical amphibian habitats were targeted for sampling. In addition to standard methods a standardised 15 man hour

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 77 study was conducted at a selected of trap sites. Amphibians were rearched for a total of 15 man hours at night by select personnel. All individuals were collected during the reasrch period and only relesed after the event. The data of which are presented in Appendix 10.

Unless otherwise indicated, taxonomic identifications were made by Prof. K. Howell or by Prof. J. Poynton (see Appendix 2). Specimens were deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and at the British Natural History Museum.

5.2.5 Invertebrates Three groups of invertebrates were sampled: (1) butterflies; (2) molluscs and (3) millepedes. 5.2.5.1 Butterflies The aim of this study was to compile a species list of the butterflies within the reserve. Butterflies were sampled using Blendon-style traps set in the tree canopy. Rotting banana was used as bait. Traps were checked at midday. Five traps are set for 10 nights in each of the 10 trapping sites. Specimens were deposited at the African Butterfly Research Institute. 5.2.5.2 Molluscs The aim of this study was to compile a species list of the molluscs within the reserve. At each trap site, three sites with representative microhabitats were selected. At each of these sites a 1m x 1m quadrat was established. In this square, the leaf litter and the first 3 cm depth of soil was searched carefully for molluscs. All specimens were collected. Specimens were deposited at the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen. 5.2.5.3 Millipedes The aim of this study was to compile a species list of the millipedes within the reserve. At each trap site, three sites with representative microhabitats were selected. At each of these sites a 3m x 3m quadrat was established. In this square, the leaf litter and the first 3 cm depth of soil was searched carefully for millipedes. All specimens were collected. Specimens were deposited at the Zoological Museum of the University of Copenhagen.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 78

N

Inaccessible plots

Trapsites ∃ 5

∃ 3 6 ∃ ∃ 7 1 ∃

∃ ∃ 4 2

∃ 8

9 ∃

∃ 10 0 450 900 m

Figure 28 Location of trap sites in Nilo FR

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5.3 Trapping sites and sampling intensity 10 trap sites were conducted within representative habitats of the reserve. Table 20 describes the sites and Tables 21 and 22 summarise the sampling intensity for each site and for each trapping method. Table 20 Summary descriptions of trap sites

Trap Plot Vegetation type Altitude Topography Slope site number (m) (degrees) 1 6 Lowland forest 800-855 Gentle mid slope 5 – 32 2 14 Submontane forest 1030 Gentle mid slope 5 – 25 3 26 Submontane forest 1020-1040 Gentle mid slope 5 – 25 4 32 Riverine/lowland forest 470-490 Gentle lower slope 0 –25 5 65 Montane forest 1440-1460 Gentle upper slope 2 – 19 6 83 Fallow / previously 1000-1035 Gentle mid slope 3 –25 disturbed 7 97 Pristine submontane forest 1000 Gentle mid slope 3 –32 8 59A Submontane forest 910-940 Gentle mid slope 0 –27 9 121 Lowland forest 630-640 Gentle lower slope 0 – 6 10 118A Montane forest 1215-1260 Steep mid slope 8 – 36

Table 21 Sampling intensity by trap night (number of nights x number of traps)

Trapping method Trap site Dates Sherman Bucket Butterfly Molluscs** Millipedes** traps pitfalls* traps 1 7 – 16/6/ 2000 970 330 50 3 3 2 22/6 – 1/7 2000 984 330 50 3 3 3 7 – 16/7 2000 979 330 50 3 3 4 26/7 – 4/8 2000 943 330 50 3 3 5 23/9 – 2/10 2000 949 330 50 3 3 6 7 –16/11 2000 990 330 50 3 3 7 21/11 – 1/12 2000 979 330 50 3 3 8 22 – 31/1 2001 958 330 50 3 3 9 8 – 17/2 2001 955 330 50 3 3 10 25/2 – 6/3 20001 934 330 50 3 3

* Each bucket represents one trap night **This represents plots sampled not trap nights

The trap intensity of the sherman trapping was calculated by subtracting the number of traps that were not in working order and that had sprung closed with no contents. This was calculated per night per site i.e. those traps that were not effective and did not have the potential to trap the target animals were disregarded.

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Table 22 Summary of bat mist net sites

Site description Sampling Altitude Location intensity (net metre hours)* Lowland forest over a road 282 800 Denmark base camp, close to traps site 1, plot 6 Montane forest 144 1400 Close to Trap site 5, plot 65 Montane forest 90 1250 Cambridge camp, plot 73A Submontane forest 135 1000 Close to trap site 6 and camp chura, plot 82 Submontane forest previously disturbed 90 1000 Close to traps site 3, plot 26 Bamboo / ruderal / forest edge 179.5 940 Close to trap site 8, plot 59A Lowland forest 296 650 Close to trap site 9, plot 121 Submontane forest / forest edge 350 1230 Close to trap site 10, plot 118 Riverine/ lowland forest 72 1010 Close trap site 2, plot 14 Riverine/ lowland forest 360 500 Trap site 4 Total 1996.5 * net metre hours: length of the mist net multiplied by the hours nets were open

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5.4 Results 5.4.1 Mammals A total of 47 species of mammal were recorded within Nilo FR, presenting 21 families. Appendix 6 provides a full list of all species and method of record, whilst the tables within the text present information specific to the sub-section. 5.4.1.1 Small mammals A total of 112 rodent and 176 shrew specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes. These represent at least 18 species of 12 genera from five families. All specimens were identified to at least genus level.

Preliminary field identification suggests the presence of a minimum of two species of the genus Crocidura, (C. olivieri, C. hildegardeae) and more than likely at least 5 species. These species are presented in Table 23. Grammomys specimens were tentatively identified as G. ibeanus and G. macmillani rather than as in the past lumping both into the G. dolichurus. These identifications were based on size class i.e. G. ibeanus the larger of the two. Sub-adult G. ibeanus were larger than adult G. macmillani. However, the data set is insufficient to show this statistically and we await formal identification of specimens.

Ecological type, Endemic status and Threat status were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997), Hamilton-Taylor (2000) IUCN and Kingdon (1989). Nomenclature follows Kingdon (1997).

Table 23 presents the trap data per site of shrews and rodents. The shrew specimens represent the individuals caught per trap site within the pitfall traps. Due to the difficult nature of identifying shrews in the field all captures of shrews were retained as specimens. The same is not true for rodents. Of the 347 individuals captured throughout the survey at the 10 trap sites 112 rodent individuals were retained as specimens.

The majority of the shrew captures were of the genus Crocidura, with representatives from Sylvisorex and possibly Suncus. The Sylvisorex were caught from trap sites 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 & 10 all above 1,000 m asl, with the exception of trap site 1 at 850 m asl. This genus appears restricted by altitude but not necessarily to forest e.g. trap site 7 was once forest but now a fallow area which was slowly reverting back to forest. This is only an indication and only one individual was caught.

The most abundant rodent genus was Praomys. Individuals were identified as Praomys delectorum but may well prove to comprise two species. Hylomyscus were caught at trap sites 3, 5, 6, & 10, but was not caught below 1,000 m asl.

Verified identifications were received for some individuals from trap sites 1, 2, 3, & 4 from W. Stanely (Chicago Field Museum). Representatives of Crocidura hildegardeae and Sylvisorex howelli were positively identified and are highlighted in Table 23 in bold and italics. The remaining specimens from trap sites 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, & 10 were deposited at the Zoological Museum in Frankfurt. We await formal identification of these specimens.

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Table 23 Summary of small mammals (shrews and rodents) recorded in Nilo FR (key at end of table)

Species Eco. type Endemic Threat Trap sites status status SORICIDAE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Climbing shrew Sylvisorex howelli F N EN1 1 7 3 1 1 1 14 VU2 Musk shrew 3 3 Suncus sp. ? ? ? 2 2 White toothed shrews Crocidura f W 1 1 7 9 hildegardeae Crocidura oliveri ? ? ? 1 3 1 2 7 Crocidura I ? ? ? 2 12 6 1 15 8 20 6 4 7 81 Crocidura II ? ? ? 1 2 4 8 5 12 4 3 2 6 47 Crocidura III ? ? ? 1 1 3 5 3 13 Total 7 22 23 23 20 21 25 9 7 19 176

MYOXIDAE African dormouse Graphiurus murinus F W 1 1 2 DENDROMURINAE Climbing mouse Dendromus sp. - - 1 1 CRICETOMYINAE Lesser pouched rat Beamys hindei F N DD1 1 2 1 2 6 VU2 MURIDAE Brush furred rat Lophuromys F W 4 4 2 4 8 6 7 1 2 38 flavopunctatus Soft furred rat Praomys delectorum F W 28 49 37 28 19 3 23 11 7 205 African wood mouse Hylomyscus dennai F W 9 12 1 1 23 Multimammate rat Mastomys natalensis O W 21 1 14 5 41 Common mouse Mus minutoides f W 4 11 3 18 Narrow footed woodland mice Grammomys O W 6 3 1 10 macmillani Grammomys ibeanus O W 2 2 Black rat Rattus rattus O W 3 1 1 2 7 Total 34 61 51 33 38 16 62 19 21 18 353 *: includes captures from Sherman and pitfall traps

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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 23 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2)

Ecological type: • F - forest dependent: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include secondary forest or forest edge. • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Endemic status: • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W - Widespread distribution.

Threat status: Threat was assessed using three sources the primary National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997) 1, followed by IUCN 2000 2 and CITES 2001 3. • EN - Endangered • VU – Vulnerable • DD – Data deficient

Non forest dependent genera, found within secondary forest and other habitats were Mastomys, Mus, Grammomys and Rattus. Rattus was caught at trap sites 2, 3, 5 & 9, all of which were in close proximity to a village. 5.4.1.2 Dung survey Dung from at least eight mammal species were recorded during the survey. Identifications were made based on a reference collection, field assistant’s experience (Wasambaa) and using Walker (1996). A summary of dung specimen identifications are presented in Table 25. It is difficult to determine the dung of particular duiker species and so the dung that may be of Cephalophus sp. and Sylvicapra sp. have been grouped under Cephalophus sp. only.

Table 24 Abundance of most frequently collected dung Hyrax Gaint pouched rat Genet Transect Transect Dung Rate / ha Dung Rate / ha Dung Rate / ha length (m) sitings sitings sitings -7 850 1 2.9 0 0 0 0 -6 2280 1 1.1 0 0 1 1.1 -5 2750 1 0.9 0 0 0 0 -4 1400 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3 1850 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2 3050 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 7000 4 1.4 1 0.36 1 0.36 0 6750 2 0.74 2 0.74 2 0.74 1 6650 3 1.13 2 0.75 0 0.75 2 5980 4 1.67 2 0.84 0 0 3 5550 8 3.6 1 0.45 3 1.35 4 2400 1 1.04 2 2.08 0 0 5 1750 2 2.86 0 0 0 0 6 1795 2 2.79 0 0 0 0 7 1350 1 1.85 1 1.85 0 0 8 1700 2 2.94 1 1.47 0 0 9 600 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 750 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 150 0 0 0 0 0 0

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 84

Hyrax dung was the most commonly collected and found at the highest density, a maximum of 3.6 per hectare. Transect lines along which the majority of dung collection occurred were the longest lines and central to the reserve. This may suggest that individuals are more abundant in central parts of the reserve where there is less disturbance and edge effect.

Table 25 Summary of dung survey in Nilo FR Species Ecol. Type End. Status Threat Times Altitudinal status encountered range (m) Papio cynocephalus f W 3 920-1025 Cercopithecus mitis f W 5 680-1250 Thryonomys sp. ? W 1 720 Cricetomys gambianus O W 11 500-1280 Genetta sp. O W 7 500-1200 Dendrohyrax validus f N EN1 VU2 25 520-1300 Potamochoerus larvatus f W 2 1060-1410 Cephalophus sp. f W 2 800-1280

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 25, 26, 27 & 28 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2)

Ecological type: • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Endemic status: • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W - Widespread distribution.

Threat status: Threat was assessed using three sources the primary National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997) 1, followed by IUCN 2000 2 and CITES 2001 3. • EN - Endangered • VU – Vulnerable • NT – Near Threatened ? –insufficient data

5.4.1.3 Mammal observations A total of 14 additional species from 12 families were observed on a casual basis throughout the field work. Ecological type, Endemic status and Threat status were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997) and Kingdon (1989). Nomenclature follows Kingdon (1997).

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 85

Table 26 Summary of mammal observations in Nilo FR Species Certainty Eco. Endemic IUCN Observation location type status status COLOBIDAE Angola pied colobus Colobus angolensis Definite F W Plots 6, 65 , 43, 98, 14, palliatus CERCOPITHECIDAE Yellow baboon Papio cynocepalus Probable f W Plots 22, 102, 121 Gentle monkey Cercopithecus mitis Definite f W Plots 6, 59A, 42. GALAGONIDAE Small-eared galago Otolemur garnetti Definite f W Plots 6 Lesser galago Galago sp. Probable ? ? Plot 6 +? RHYNCHOCYONINAE Zanj elephant shrew Rhynchocyon petersi Definite F N NT1 Plot 97 EN2 SCURIDAE Red legged sun squirrel Heliosciurus rufobrachium Definite F W Plot 6 ANOMALURIDAE Anomalure Anomalurus sp. Probable f W Plot 6 CRICETOMYINAE Gaint pouched rat Cricetomys gambianus Definite O W Plots 6, 121 HERPESTIDAE Banded mongoose Mungos mungo Probable f W Plot 31 VIVERRIDAE Genet Genetta sp. Probable O W Plot 6, 59A. PROCAVIDAE Tree Hyrax Dendrohyrax validus Definite f N EN1 Plots 6, 26, 14, 26, 32, VU2 59A, 97, 83, 121,118A SUIDAE Bush pig Potamochoerus larvatus Definite f W Plot 59A BOVIDAE Blue duiker Cephalophus sp. Definite f W Plot 59A

The above provides location of sightings, not abundance. Tree hyrax were recorded throughout the reserve and could be heard at night from all temporary camps close to the trap site locations. Pied colobus and Gentle monkey were recorded in most parts of the reserve and were observed on a regular basis. The Zanj elephant shrew was definitely identified from one location, as a dead individual was found after having been attacked by a bird of prey. Additional observations of this

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 86 species were made within undisturbed submontane forest but positive identifications cannot be verified due to the cryptic nature of this species.

5.4.2 Bats 15 species of five families were recorded. 49 specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes. Ecological type, Endemic status and Threat status were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1997), IUCN (2000) and Kingdon (1997). Nomenclature follows Kingdon (1997) and (1974). Bat netting was carried out close to all zoological trap sites, geo-coordinates of the netting locations are given in the Appendix 4.

Table 27 Bat species recorded in Nilo FR

Species Eco. EN Threat Trap sites where mist netswere located Total type status status PTEROPODIDAE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Egyptican rousette bat Rousettus aegyptiacus f W 2 2 Angola fruit bat Lissonycteris angolensis F W 1 1 1 3 1 1 8 Little collared fruit bat Myonycteris relicta F N VU1,2 1 2 3 Wahlberg’s fruit bat Epomophorus wahlbergi f W 1 7 1 2 11 NYCTERIDAE Slit faced bat Nycteris grandis F W 1 1 RHINOLOPHIDAE Horseshoe bats Rhinolophus c.f. f W 1 1 2 hildebranti Rhinolophus c.f. f W 2 2 simulator Rhinolophus c.f. clivosus f W 1 2 1 1 5 Rhinolophus c.f. landeri f W 1 1 2 HIPPOSIDERIDAE Leaf nosed bats Hipposideros ruber F W 2 1 1 4 Hipposideros cyclops F W 1 1 Persian leaf nosed bat Triaenops periscus f W 1 1 VESPERTILIONIDAE Butterfly bat Chalinolobus c.f. f W 3 3 argentata Banana bat Pipistrellus nanus O W 1 1 Pipistrelle bat Pipistrellus sp. ? ? 1 1 Long fingered bat Miniopterus sp. ? ? 1 1 2

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Four species of fruit bat were recorded, including the near endemic, the Little collared fruitbat. This species was recorded over 900m above sea level within submontane forest. The Banana bat was recorded within the centre of rolled banana leaves, this information does not appear in the above table as the data is from mist netting alone. Banana bats were recorded in pairs and alone within the central leaves of the native banana Ensete sp. and the introduced banana Musa sp.

The most intensely netted site was at the Riverine forest site at 400 m above sea level, where 3 species of insectivorous bat were recorded. One species Rhinolophus c.f. simulator was not recorded at any other location within the reserve and Rhinolophus landeri from one other site. The highest number of fruitbat species and individuals were recorded within plot 82, in submontane forest, where the netting site targeted fruiting fig trees. An individual was caught on average every hour, during the 12 hour netting period.

Table 28 Summary and ranges of near endemic mammal species recorded in Nilo FR, (Howell, 1993).

Species Endemic Threat Range Common name status status

Sylvisorex howelli Long tailed N EN1 VU2 Ulugurus, Usambaras and other forest shrew Eastern Arc forests Beamys hindei Lesser pouched N DD1 VU2 Coastal forestsin NE & E Tanzania & rat SE Kenya and Eastern Arc forests Dendrohyrax Tree hyrax N EN1 VU2 E Tanzania forests, Eastern Arc validus forests Rhynochocyon Zanji elephant N NT1 EN2 Coastal forest & Eastern Arc petersi shrew Myonycteris relicta Little collared N VU1,2 Usambara, Nguru, Coastal forests, fruit bat Shimba Hills.

This information is based on preliminary field identifications. No formal taxonomic verifications were available at the time of print. However, the majority of specimens were accurately identified to genus, with the exception of some shrews being misidentified. A selection of very small shrews were mis-identified in the field as Crocidura sp., but were in fact Sylvisorex howelli, identified from trap sites 1, 2 & 3.

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N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent Mammal species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 29 Distribution of forest dependent mammal species

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N

Inaccessible plots

Endemic and near endemic Mammal species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 30 Distribution of near endemic mammal species

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5.4.3 Birds

A total of 97 species from 30 families were recorded, 64 species from 27 families were classed as forest dependent, whilst 33 species from 20 families were classed as non-forest dependent species. The non-forest dependent species represent 3 additional families to the list. These species are listed in Appendix 7.

Ecological type was taken from Mlingwa et al. (2000) taken from Bennun et al. (1996) Endemic status and range of restricted species was taken from Stattersfield et al. (1998). Threat status was compiled from IUCN, Hamilton-Taylor (2000), CITES: TRAFFIC (2001) and NBD (1997). Nomenclature follows Zimmerman et al. (1996).

Table 29 Summary of forest dependent bird species, Nilo FR

Species Common name Ecological Endemic Threat type status status

ACCIPITRIDAE Circaetus fasciolatus Southern banded snake eagle F W LR/nt2 II3 Accipiter tachiro African goshawk F1 W NUMIDIDAE Guttera pucherani Crested guineafowl F W COLUMBIDAE Treron calva African green pigeon F W III 3 Turtur tympanistria Tambourine dove F W III 3 Columba delegorguei Eastern bronze naped pigeon FF W MUSOPHAGIDAE Tauraco fischeri Fischer's turaco F N LR/nt2 II3 CUCULIDAE Cercococcyx montanus Barred long-tailed cuckoo FF W Chrysococcyx cupreus African emerald cuckoo F W STRIGIDAE Bubo lacteus Verreaux's eagle owl W Bubo vosseleri Usambara eagle-owl FF N VU2 II3 Strix woodfordii African wood owl F W II3 TROGONIDAE Apalpoderma vittatum Bar tailed trogon F2 W BUCEROTIDAE Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter hornbill F W Bycanistes brevis Silvery-cheeked hornbill F W CAPITONIDAE Stactolaema leucotis White-eared barbet F W Stactolaema olivacea Green barbet FF W

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Table 29 continued Species Common name Ecological Endemic Threat type status status

CAPITONIDAE continued Pogoniulus leucomystax Moustached green tinkerbird F2 W PICIDAE Dendropicos griseocephalus Olive woodpecker F2 W EURYLAIMIDAE Smithornis capensis African broadbill FF W PYCNONOTIDAE Andropadus virens Little greenbul F W Andropadus masukuensis Shelley's Greenbull W Andropadus milanjensis Stripe cheeked greenbul FF W Phyllastrephus cabanis Cabanis's greenbul W Phyllastrephus fischeri Fisher's greenbul FF N Phyllastrephus flavostriatus Yellow-streaked greenbul FF W Phyllastrephus debilis Tiny greenbul FF W Chlorocichla flaviventris Yellow-bellied greenbul F2 W Nicator gularis Eastern nicator F TIMALIIDAE Modulatrix stictigula Spot throat F2 W lc4 Illadopsis rufipennis Pale-breasted illadopsis F2 W TURDIDAE Pogonocichla stellata White starred robin F W Sheppardia sharpei Sharpe's akalat F2 N lc4 Alethe fuelleborni White chested alethe FF Neocossyphus rufus Red-tailed ant thrush FF W Zoothera gurneyi Orange ground thrush FF W MUSCICAPIDAE Muscicapa adusta African dusky flycatcher F2 W Muscicapa caerulescens Ashy flycatcher F W SYLVIIDAE Phylloscopus ruficapillus Yellow throated woodland F2 N warbler Bradypterus lopezi Evergreen forest warbler F2 W Apalis melanocephala Black-headed apalis F2 W Orthotomus metopias Red capped forest warbler F2 N lc4 Hyliota australis usambarae Southern Hyliota F2 W ZOSTEROPIDAE Zosterops senegalensis Yellow white eye F W

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Table 29 continued Species Common name Ecological Endemic Threat type status status

MONARCHIDAE Trochocercus albonotatus White tailed crested flycatcher F2 W PLATYSTEIRIDAE Batis mixta Forest batis FF W Batis soror Pale batis F W MALACONOTIDAE Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed puffback F W CAMPEPHAGIDAE Coracina caesia Grey cuckoo-shrike F2 W DICRURIDAE Dicrurus ludwigii Square-tailed drongo F W ORIOLIDAE Oriolus chlorocephalus Green-headed oriole F W STURNIDAE Poeoptera kenricki Kenrick's starling F2 N lc4 Onychognathus walleri Waller's starling W Lamprotornis corruscus Black-bellied starling F W NECTARINIIDAE Anthreptes reichenowi Plain-backed sunbird FF N LR/nt2 Anthreptes neglectus Uluguru violet-backed sunbird F W Anthrepetes pallidigaster Amani sunbird F N EN2 Anthrepetes rubritorques Banded green sunbird F2 N VU2 Anthreptes collaris Collared sunbird F W Nectarinia olivacea Olive sunbird FF W Nectarinia bifasciate Purple banded sunbird W PLOCEIDAE Ploceus bicolor Dark-backed weaver F W ESTRILDIDAE Mandingoa nitidula Green backed twinspot FF W Cryptospiza reichenovii Red faced crimsonwing F2 W

Species highlighted in Table 30 are classified as near-endemic to the East Usambaras and exist with the Endemic Bird Area (EBA) 105: Tanzania-Malawi mountains. Tauraco fischeri and Anthrepetes pallidigaster are also found in EBA 111: East African coastal forests and Poeoptera kenricki in EBA 109: Kenyan mountains.

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Table 30 Restricted range and forest dependent bird species, Nilo FR

Species Common name Range

Sheppardia sharpei Sharpe's akalat Usambara mts, Nguru & Nguus, Uluguru, Udzungwa, Southern Highlands, NW Malawi mts. Phylloscopus ruficapillus Yellow throated Listed by NBD, no range stated woodland warbler Tauraco fischeri Fischer's turaco Usambara mts. And EBA 111 (East African coastal forests) Bubo vosseleri Usambara eagle-owl Usambara mts & Uluguru mts. Phyllastrephus fischeri Fisher's greenbul Coastal thicket, including E. Usambaras also Somalia & Mozambique (NBD 1997) Orthotomus metopias Red capped forest Usambara, Nguru & Nguus, Ukaguru, Uluguru, warbler Udzungwa, Southern Highlands, Matengo highlands, Njesi plateau Poeoptera kenricki Kenrick's starling Usambara, Nguru & Nguus, Ukaguru, Uluguru, Udzungwa, Southern highlands and EBA109 Anthreptes reichenowi Plain-backed sunbird Listed by NBD, no range stated Anthrepetes pallidigaster Amani sunbird Usambara, Udzungwa, EBA 111 Anthrepetes rubritorques Banded green sunbird Usambara, Nguru & Nguus, Uluguru, Udzungwa.

Information for Table 29 were primarily taken from Statterfield et al. (1998) with the NBD (1997) as the secondary source.

Table 31 Summary of the Threat status of Forest dependent birds from Nilo FR

Species Common name Ecological Endemic Threat status type status

Bubo vosseleri Usambara eagle-owl FF N VU2 II3 Anthrepetes rubritorques Banded green sunbird F2 N VU2 Circaetus fasciolatus Southern banded snake eagle F W LR/nt2 II3 Tauraco fischeri Fischer's turaco F N LR/nt2 II3 Anthreptes reichenowi Plain-backed sunbird FF N LR/nt2 Modulatrix stictigula Spot throat F2 W lc4 Sheppardia sharpei Sharpe's akalat F2 N lc4 Orthotomus metopias Red capped forest warbler F2 N lc4 Poeoptera kenricki Kenrick's starling F2 W lc4 Treron calva African green pigeon F W III 3 Turtur tympanistria Tambourine dove F W III 3 Strix woodfordii African wood owl F W II3 Anthrepetes pallidigaster Amani sunbird F N EN2

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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLEs 29 & 31 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2).

Ecological (Ecol.) type: • FF - Forest dependent species: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; • F - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; • F1 – Neil Baker personnel communication, used when species not listed elsewhere. • F2 – Species listed by Stuart (1993) as forest dependent (see section 1.2 for explanation) • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Endemic (End.) status: • E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains; • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W - Widespread distribution. Threat status: Threat was assessed using four sources, National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997) 1, followed by IUCN 2000 2, CITES 2001 3 & Endemic Bird Area (EBA)4 Stratterfield et al (1989). • EN – Endangered II – Cites Appendix II • VU – Vulnerable III – Cites appendix III • LR/ nt – Lower risk/ near threathened • Lc – least concern

Ploceus nicolli (Usambara weaver) has not been recorded since 1930’s and was believed to still survive at higher altitude in the Lutindi area, which is now part of Nilo FR. A probable sighting was recorded during the EUBS of Nilo FR from the Zirai ‘leg’ of Nilo FR, which at the time of Stuart (1989) was not gazetted forest. The probable record was from high altitude 1,240 m asl within submontane forest. This record is however not included in Table 29, as the sighting was not definite.

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5.4.4 Reptiles A total of 139 individuals were retained for taxonomic purposes. These specimens represent 40 species from 10 families. An additional two species were observed but not collected, these are highlighted with an asterisk in the table below. A total species count of reptiles for Nilo FR was 42 species from 11 families.

Table 32 lists reptile species inventory, differentiating between records from trap sites and those from additional locations. Appendix 8 represents the frequency of reptile species recorded at trap sites and additional locations.

Ecological type, Endemic and Threat status were compiled from the Statterfield et al 91998) NBD (1997), Broadley & Howell (unpubl.), Howell (1993), Branch (1994) and Hamilton-Taylor (2000) IUCN.

Table 32 Reptile species inventory, status and number of records for Nilo FR

No. of individuals Species Ecological Endemic Thtreat Trap Additional Total type status status sites locations

TESTUDINIDAE Southeastern hinge-back tortoise Kinixys sp.* ? ? 1 0 1 GEKKONIDAE Dwarf gecko Lygodactylus viscatus ? N VU1 2 1 3 Gecko Urtocotyledon wolterstorffi F N VU1 1 0 1 Usambara forest gecko Cnemaspis africana F W NT1 16 4 20 Tropical House gecko Hemidactylus mabouia f W 0 1 1 Baobab gecko Hemidactylus platycephalus f W 0 2 2 AGAMIDAE Montane rock agama Agama montana f N VU1 0 3 3 CHAMAELEONIDAE Eastern Usambara two-horned chameleon Chamaeleo fischeri F N VU1 II3 1 2 3 Usambara soft-horned chameleon Chamaeleo tenue F N VU1 II3 5 1 6 Common flap necked chameleon Chamaeleo dilepis f W II3 3 2 5 Usambara three horned chameleon Chamaeleo deremensis F E EN1 II3 8 1 9

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Table 32 continued Species Ecological Endemic Thtreat Trap Additional Total type status status sites locations

Pitted pigmy chameleon Rhampholeon temporalis F E EN1 II3 6 0 6 Bearded pigmy chameleon Rhampholeon brevicaudatus F N VU1 II3 4 2 6 SCINIDAE Usambara five toed fossorial skink Proscelotes eggeli F E EN1 II3 4 1 5 Speckle lipped skink Mabuya maculilabris f W 29 1 30 Mabuya varia ? W 0 1 1 Peters' writhing skink Lygosoma afrum f W 1 0 1 Kilimanjaro five toed skink Leptosiaphos kilimensis F N VU1 15 2 17 LACERTIDAE Eastern serrate toed tree lizard Holaspis guentheri laevis F W LC1 1 0 1 VARANIDAE Nile monitor Varanus niloticus f W II3 1 0 1 TYPHOLIDAE Usambara blind snake Rhinotyphlops gierrai F N VU1 1 3 4 VIPERIDAE Horned bush viper Atheris ceratophorus F N NT1 1 2 3 Eastern Gaboon viper Bitis gabonica F W 1 0 1 ELAPSOIDEA Usambara garter snake Elaspsoidea nigra F N VU1 2 4 6 Forest cobra Naja melanoleuca F W 1 1 2 Naja nigricollis O W 0 1 1 Eastern green mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps* f W 0 1 1 COLUBRIDAE Commom house snake Lamprophis fuliginosus ? ? 1 0 1 Wolf snake Lycophidion capense F W 1 0 1 Lycophidion meleagre F W 1 0 1 Usambara forest snake Buhoma vauerocegae F N VU1 4 1 5

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Table 32 continued Species Ecological Endemic Thtreat Trap Additional Total type status status sites* locations* Olive grass snake Psammophis mossabicus ? ? 0 1 1 Usambara centipede eater Apparallactus werneri F N VU1 5 2 7 Tanzanian purple glossed snake Amblyodipsas polylepis hildebrandtii ? W LC1 0 1 1 Olive marsh snake Natriciteres olivacea f W 1 2 3 Grey beaked snake Scapiophis albopunctatus albopunctatus ? ? 0 1 1 Usambara green snake Philothamnus macrops F N VU1 3 2 5 Spotted bush snake Philothamnus punctatus f W 5 2 7 Bush snake Philothamnus battersbyi ? ? 0 1 1 Philothamnus hoplogaster f W 1 0 1 Tornier's cat snake Crotaphopeltis tornieri F N VU1 2 0 2 Vine snake Theletornis "usambaricus" sp. nov. F E 3 3 6

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 32 & 33 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2).

Ecological type: • F - Forest dependent species: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Endemic status: • E – Endemic E(EU&WU) endemic to both east and West Usambaras, E (EU) Endemic to the East Usambaras. • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W - Widespread distribution.

Threat status: Threat was assessed using three sources the primary National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997) 1, followed by IUCN 2000 2 and CITES 2001 3. • EN - Endangered • VU – Vulnerable • NT – Near threatened

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Table 33 Ranges of endemic and near-endemic reptile species

Species Ecologic Endemic Threat Range al type status status Proscelotes eggeli F E EN1 II3 West Usambaras Theletornis "usambaricus" sp. nov. F E Type locality Amani. Chamaeleo deremensis F E EN1 II3 West and East Usambaras ** Rhampholeon temporalis F E EN1 II3 Usambara and Shimba Hills Chamaeleo fisheri F N VU1 II3 East Usambara, Nguru & Ulguru mts. Chamaeleo tenuis F N VU1 II3 Usambara and Shimba Hills Rhampholeon brevicaudatus F N VU1 II3 East Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa mts, and coastal forests Lygodactylus viscatus ? N VU1 Coastal forests including Zanzibar and Mafia (now Eastern Arc forests) Urtocotyledon wolterstorffi F N VU1 East Usambara and Uluguru mts.

Agama Montana F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru, Nguru (now more Arc forests) Leptosiaphos kilimensis F N VU1 Kenya and norther Tanzania (montane forests) Rhinotyphlops gierrai F N VU1 Usambara, Ulguru, Udzungwa & Ukaguru mts. Elaspsoidea nigra F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru, Ukaguru mts.

Buhoma vauerocegae F N VU1 East Usambara & Uluguru mts. Apparallactus werneri F N VU1 Usambara & Uluguru mts. Philothamnus macrops F N VU1 Coastal foresta and East Usambara mts. Crotaphopeltis tornieri F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru, Udzungwa, Ukinga, Rungwe Atheris ceratophorus F N NT1 Usambara, Ulguru, Udzungwa mts.

The Usambara three horned chameleon (Chamaeleo deremensis) has since been recorded from the Ngurus and thus should in future be classed as a near endemic, but for the purposes of this report, it shall be classed as endemic and the status follows Howell (1993).

The Usambara five toed Fossorial skink (Proscelotes eggeli) recorded from Nilo FR, represents the first record for the East Usambaras, previous records were from the West Usambaras (D. Broadley pers. comms). Records were confined to trap site 5, the highest location trapped within montane forest at 1,440 m asl and one individual, a casual recorded at 1,250 m asl. Thus it appears that this species is a relic and the small montane forest region within the Lutindi area of Nilo has close affinities with the West Usambaras forests.

All the Thelotornis (Vine snake) material from the East Usambaras will constitue the type material for T. “usambaricus”, with Amani the type locality (D. Broadley pers. comms.). Previously this snake species was identified as T. capensis.

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N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent Reptile species 2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 31 Distribution of forest dependent reptile species

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N

Inaccessible plots

Endemic and near endemic Reptile species 2 10

20

0 450 900 m

Figure 32 Distribution of endemic and near endemic reptile species

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5.4.5 Amphibians A total of 368 individuals were retained for taxonomic purposes, including 261 frogs & toads and 107 caecilians. These specimens represent 35 species from nine families. Specimens were retained of all species observed. The majority of species were recorded from the trap sites and opportunistic observations. However, a single specimen of, Hemisus marmoratus was only collected from a pitfall trap at one trap site. Similarly, a single specimen of, Breviceps mossambicus was collected from an opportunistic observation at a single location.

Table 34 represents the amphibian species inventory, status and number of records throughout the survey. Appendix 9 represents the location and frequency of amphibian records from the Nilo FR survey. The trap site results include the records from the 15 man hour / site study carried out at sites 1-9. Appendix 10 details the frequency of records per species from the 15 man hour / site study. Table 36 represents the number of caecilians recorded.

Ecological type, Endemic status and Threat status were compiled from the NBD (UDSM, 1997), Howell (1993) and Poynton & Broadley (1991). Common names are taken from Passmore and Carruthers (1995). IUCN 2000 (Hamilton-Taylor 2000) was accessed. None of the species listed below were present on the IUCN 2000 list. Threat status has followed NBD 1997 for continuity within the report series.

Table 34 Amphibian species inventory list, status and number of records, Nilo FR Species Ecological Endemic Threat Trap sites Other Total type status status locations individuals observed ARTHROLEPIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides f W 11 1 12 Shovel nosed squeaker Arthroleptis stenodactylus f W 212 7 219 Arthroleptis xenodactylus F N VU1 28 1 29 Arthroleptis affinis F N VU1 4 3 7 BUFONIDAE Bufo brauni F N VU1 12 0 12 Guttural toad Bufo gutteralis O W 5 1 6 Dwarf toad Nectophrynoides tornieri F N VU1 I3 142 10 152 HYPEROLIDAE Argus reed frog Hyperolius argus ? W 2 0 2 Mitchell's reed frog Hyperolius mitchelli F W 9 5 14 Parker's reed frog Hyperolius parkeri ? W 8 0 8 Hyperolius puncticulatus F W 67 5 72 Tinker reed frog Hyperolius tuberilinguis ? W 6 1 7 Hyperolius spinigularis ? W 11 9 20

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Table 34 continued Species Ecological Endemic Threat Trap sites Other Total type status status locations individuals observed Greater leaf folding frog Afrixalus forasini ? W 13 3 16 Afrixalus uluguruensis F N VU1 19 3 21 Afrixalus c.f. ? ? 9 1 10 pygmaeus/brachycnemis Afrixalus sp. ? ? 15 0 15 Leptopelis barbouri F N VU1 4 1 5 Leptopelis flavomaculatus F W 61 2 63 Leptopelis parkeri F N VU1 13 1 14 Leptopelis uluguruensis F N VU1 57 5 62 Leptopelis vermiculatus F N NT1 31 4 35 HEMISIDAE Mottled shovel nosed frog Hemisus marmoratus ? W 1 0 1 RANIDAE Usambara torrent frog Arthroleptides martiensseni F N VU1 34 1 35 East African puddle frog Phrynobatrachus acridoides f W 38 2 40 Phrynobatrachus kreffti F E(E&W) VU1 44 1 45 Plain grass frog f W Ptychadena anchietae ? ? 30 0 30 Ptychadena mascareniensis ? ? 1 Common river frog Rana angolensis O W 8 1 9 MICROHYLIDAE Mozambique rain frog Breviceps mossambicus O W Callulina kreffti F N VU1 68 1 69 Probreviceps macrodactylus F N NT1 81 2 83 Hoplophryne rogersi F E (E&W) VU1 2 0 2 RHACOPHORIDAE Foam nest frog Chiromantis xerampelina f W 7 1 8 CAECILIIDAE Boulengerula boulengeri F E(E&W) VU1 0 85 85 SCOLECOMORPHIDAE Scolecomorphus vittatus F N VU1 3 21 24

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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 34 & 35 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2).

Ecological type: • F - Forest dependent species: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge.

Endemic status: • E – Endemic E(EU&WU) endemic to both east and West Usambaras, E (EU) Endemic to the East Usambaras. • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W - Widespread distribution.

Threat status: Threat was assessed using three sources the primary National Biodiversity Database (UDSM 1997) 1, followed by IUCN 2000 2 and CITES 2001 3. • EN – Endangered I – Cites Appendix I • VU – Vulnerable • NT – Near threatened

Table 35 Ranges of endemic and near-endemic amphibian species recorded, Nilo FR

Species Ecological Endemic Threat Range type status status Hoplophryne rogersi F E (E&W) VU1 East and West Usambara mts. Phrynobatrachus kreffti F E (E&W) VU1 East and West Usambara mts. Boulengerula boulengeri F E (E&W) VU1 East and West Usambara mts.

Arthroleptis xenodactylus F N VU1 Usambara & Uluguru mts. Arthroleptis affinis F N VU1 Usambara & Udzungwa mts. Bufo brauni F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru & Udzungwa mts. Nectophrynoides tornieri F N VU1 I3 Usambara, Uluguru & Udzungwa mts. Afrixalus uluguruensis F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru & Udzungwa mts. Leptopelis barbouri F N VU1 East Usambara & Udzungwa mts. Leptopelis parkeri F N VU1 Usambara & Uluguru mts. Leptopelis uluguruensis F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru & Udzungwa mts. Leptopelis vermiculatus F N NT1 Usambara mts. & Shimba Hills Arthroleptides martiensseni F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru & Udzungwa mts. Callulina kreffti F N VU1 Usambara, Nguru, Uluguru, Udzungwa & Taita Hills Probreviceps macrodactylus F N NT1 Usambara. Uluguru & Rungwe Scolecomorphus vittatus F N VU1 Usambara, Uluguru & North Pare mts.

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Table 36 Number of caecilian records Nilo FR Species Dig Opportunistic observation Boulengerula boulengeri 85 0 Scolecomorphus vittatus 3 19

Total 88 19

A number of species were recorded at higher altitudes than expected. Hyperolius argus is considered a lowland species (J. Poynton pers. comm) but was collected at over 1,000 m asl. The case is similar for H. tuberilinguis which is basically a lowland species and was recorded at 1,300 m asl. By contrast H. puncticulatus is basically an upland species, however junveniles were atypically recorded within lowland habitats.

Phrynobatrachus acridoides was recorded at higher altitude than one may expect (J. Poynton pers. comms). It is usually replaced by P. natalensis.

The single record of Breviceps mossabicus at 950 m asl recorded within Nilo FR represents the northernmost record of this species to date (J. Poynton pers. comms).

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N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent Amphibian species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 33 Distribution of forest dependent amphibian species

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N

Inaccessible plots

Endemic and near endemic Amphibian species 1 5

10

0 450 900 m

Figure 34 Distribution of endemic and near-endemic amphibian species

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5.4.6 Invertebrates

5.4.6.1 Butterflies A total of 453 specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes. These represent 121 species from nine families. Species highlighted in bold, are new to the EUBS species inventory list, a total of 33.

Ecological type and endemic status were compiled from Kielland (1990). Formal identifications have yet to be confirmed. Nomenclature follows Kielland (1990).

Table 37 Butterfly species inventory list, Nilo FR Trap sites Species Ecological Endemic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C T type status PAPILIONIDAE Papilio dardanus f W 1 1 1 3 Papilio dardanus tibullus f W 1 1 Papilio echeroides echeroides f W 1 1 2 Papilio ophidicephalus f W 2 1 1 4 ophidicephalus Papilio phorcas f W 1 1 Graphium antheus O W 1 1 Graphium policenes F W 1 1 2 PIERIDAE Catopsilla florella O W 1 1 Eurema brigitta brigitta O W 1 1 Eurema floricola F W 1 3 4 Eurema hapale O W 1 1 Eurema senegalensis F W 3 2 3 1 4 2 3 18 Nepheronia argia mhondana F W 2 2 Colotis evippe omphale O W 2 1 3 Belenois creona severina O W 1 1 Belenois thysa thysa f W 2 5 3 10 Belenois subeida O W 2 2 Dixeia spilleri f W 1 1 Leptosia alcesta inalcesta f W 2 2 4 Mylothris ruppelli rhodesiana f W 2 1 3 Mylothris sagala narcissus F W 1 1 DANAIDAE Danaus formosa formosa F W 1 1 Danaus petiverana O W 1 1 2 Amauris albimaculata F N 1 1 hanningtoni Amauris niavius dominicanus F W 2 3 1 1 1 8 SATYRIDAE Melanitis leda f W 2 3 5 Aphysoneura pigmentaria F E 3 1 4 pigmentaria

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Table 37 continued

Species Ecological Endemic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C T type status Bicyclus campinus ocelligerus F N 3 1 4 Bicyclus danckelmani F N 2 1 3 Bicyclus safitza f W 1 2 2 2 2 9 Bicyclus sp. ? ? 9 9 Henotesia sp. ? ? 1 1 Physcaeneura leda f N 2 2 LIBYTHEIDAE Libythea labdaca laius f W 1 1 NYMPHALIDAE Euxanthe tiberius tiberius F N 1 1 2 Charaxes acuminatus F N 1 1 2 1 3 8 usambarensis Charaxes brutus alcyone f E 1 3 4 Charaxes candiope candiope f W 1 1 1 3 Charaxes castor flavifasciatus f W 1 1 Charaxes macclounii O W 5 5 Charaxes pleione oriens F W 1 1 2 Charaxes pollux mirabilis F W 1 4 1 1 2 3 12 Charaxes protoclea azota f W 1 1 1 Charaxes usambarae usambarae F E 1 1 Charaxes xiphares maudei F N 1 1 6 8 Harma theobene blassi f W 1 1 Euptera kinungnana F W 7 1 8 Bebearia orientis f W 1 1 2 Bebearia sp. 2 1 3 Euphaedra neophron littoralis F W 3 1 2 6 Hamanumida daedalus f W 1 1 Aterica galene theophanes f W 1 1 1 3 Pseudacraea boisduvali trimeni F W 1 1 Pseudacraea dolomena usagara F W 1 1 Pseudacraea eurytus condrati F W 1 1 Pseudacraea lucreta expansa f W 1 1 Neptis nina F N 1 1 1 1 4 Neptis saclava marpessa f W 2 2 Cyrestis camillus camillus F W 1 1 Sallya boisduvali boisduvali f W 2 Sallya moranti F W 1 1 2 2 5 11 Sallya natalensis f W 3 3 Neptidopsis ophione velleda F W 1 1 1 3 Eurytela dryope angulata F W 4 1 3 8 Eurytela hiarbas lita F W 1 1 Hypolimnas anthedon wahlbergi F W 1 1 Hypolimnas missipus O W 1 1 Salamis parhassus f W 2 3 5 Junonia natalica f W 4 4

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Table 37 continued Species Ecological Endemic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C T type status NYMPHALIDAE continued Junonia oenone O W 3 3 Junonia terea elgiva f W 2 2 2 2 2 10 Precis tugela aurorina F W 2 2 Vanessa cardui O W 1 1 Antanartia schaenia dubia F W 5 5 ACRAEIDAE Bematistes aganice montana F W 1 2 3 Bematistes quadricolor leptis F W 1 1 Acraea baxteri baxteri F W 1 1 Acraea cepheus F W 3 1 4 Acraea egina O W 10 1 5 14 30 Acraea eponina eponina f W 2 2 Acraea esebria f W 2 2 Acraea igola F W 1 1 Acraea insignis f W 1 5 6 Acraea johnstoni johnstoni F W 3 2 1 1 4 11 Acraea manca O W 1 1 Acraea neobule neobule O W 1 1 Acraea pharsalus pharsaloides f W 1 1 2 Acraea quirina rosa F W 5 5 Acraea satis F W 1 1 Acraea servona orientis F W 1 1 Acraea sotikensis f W 2 3 5 Acraea zonata F W 1 1 LYCAENIDAE Teriominia micra F W 1 1 Hypolycaena buxtoni rogersi f W 1 1 Anthene rubrimaculata F N 1 1 2 rubrimaculata Lampides boeticus O W 1 1 Uranothauma falkensteini F W 2 2 4 Cacyreus lingeus f W 2 2 Leptotes pirithous O W 1 1 2 4 Leptotes jeanneli O W 1 1 Zizula hylax O W 1 5 1 7 Zizina antanossa O W 1 1 4 6 Euchrysops subpallida O W 1 1 2 Thermoniphas micylus colorata F W 2 1 Oboronia bueronica F W 9 1 1 4 2 17 HESPERIIDAE W Coeliades chalbye F 3 1 1 5 Coeliades forestan f W 1 1 Coeliades sejuncta F W 1 1 Celaeorrhinus galenus f W 1 1 Eagris sabadius F W 1 3 4 Eretis lugens f W 1 1 2

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Table 37 continued Species Ecological Endemic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C T type status HESPERIIDAE continued Sarangesa maculata F W 1 2 3 Sarangesa motozi O W 1 1 Abantis paradisea O W 1 1 Metisella orientalis O W 2 1 3 Astictopterus tura f W 1 1 Ampittia parva f N 2 1 1 Gorgyra bibulus F W 1 1 Ceratrichia bonga F N 1 1 Pardaleodes incerta f W 1 1 2 Acleros mackenii f W 1 1 Acleros ploetzi f W 1 1 2 Species in bold text are new to the EUBS list for the East Usambara FRs C: casual collections throughout Nilo FR T: total: combined canopy trap and sweep netting records from trap sites.

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 37 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2). Ecological type: • F - Forest dependent species: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; • f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge. Endemic status: • E – Endemic: Occurring only in the Usambaras mountains • N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; • W – Widespread distribution

5.4.6.2 Molluscs Taxonomic determinations were not available at the time of publication. Specimens were deposited at the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen c/o Dr. N. Scharff.

5.4.6.3 Millipedes Taxonomic determinations were not available at the time of publication. Specimens were deposited at the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen c/o Dr. N. Scharff

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5.5 Discussion 5.5.1 Species richness and abundance In this section, species were examined in terms of how frequently they were recorded. Those species which were recorded three or more times during the survey were considered locally common. An assumption was made that the frequency with which an animal was recorded reflected abundance. It was recognised that some species are highly cryptic and so could be easily overlooked. Such cryptic species may therefore be more abundant than was suggested by this survey. However the objective of the discussion was to identify species which may of concern as well as to broadly describe the fauna of the reserve. Table 38 Summary of faunal families and species (identified to date)

Taxon Number of families Number of species Mammals (not bats) 22 46 Bats 5 16 Birds 30 97 Reptiles 11 41 Amphibians 35 9 Butterflies 9 121

Relative to the other East Usambara forest reserves surveyed by Frontier-Tanzania Nilo FR has above average species richness for mammals, reptiles, butterflies and amphibians.

5.5.1.1 Mammals The most commonly recorded small mammal species were from the genera Crocidura. (White toothed shrews) and Praomys (Soft furred rats).

Other species which appeared to be locally common were: Sylvisorex howelli, Crocidura oliveri, Crocidura hildegardeae, Beamys hindei, Lophuromys flavopunctatus, Praomys delectorum, Hylomyscus dennai, Mastomys natalensis, Mus minutoides, Grammomys macmillani and Rattus rattus

Bat species that appeared to be locally common were: Lissonycteris angolensis, Epomophorus wahlbergi, Rhinolophus clivosus, Hipposideros ruber, and Chalinolobus argentata.

Dendrohyrax validus (Tree hyrax) was recorded for the majority from vocalizations throughout the survey and the reserve with visual observations noted less frequently. Colobus angolensis palliatus (Angola pied colobus), Papio cynocephalus (Yellow baboon) and Cercopithecus mitis (Gentle monkey) were recorded throughout the survey. The Yellow baboon was recorded less often and only by reserve borders and at the forest edge, where as the Angola pied colobus and Gentle monkey, were recorded within forest proper. In addition to those species surveyed through techniques other than opportunistic observations, these four species appeared to be locally common within Nilo FR.

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5.5.1.2 Reptiles The most commonly recorded reptile species were Mabuya maculilabris (Speckle lipped skink) and Cnemaspis africana (Usambara forest gecko).

Other species which appeared to be locally common were: Lygodactylus viscatus, Chamaeleo tenuis, Chamaeleo dilepis, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, Rhampholeon temporalis, Proscelotes eggeli, Leptosiaphos kilimensis, Rhinotyphlops gierrai, Atheris ceratophorus, Elapsoidea nigra, Buhoma vauerocegae, Aparallactus werneri, Natriciteres olivacea, Philothamnus macrops, Philothamnus punctatus, and Thelotornis “usambaricus” sp. nov.

The Usambara mountain specimens of the Vine snake were previously recorded as Thelotornis capensis mossambicanus. These specimens are currently being reclassified as Thelotornis usambaricus (D. Broadley, pers. comm.) and is currently known as Thelotornis “usambaricus” sp. nov.

Two snake species, Atheris ceratophorus (Horned bush viper) and Amblyodipsas polylepis hildebrandtii (Tanzania purple gloss snake) were recorded for the first time by the East Usambara Biodiversity Surveys (EUBS) in Amani NR, thus these records respresent the second from EUBS.

The record of Proscelotes eggeli (Usambara five toed fossorial skink) in Nilo FR represents the first record of this species in the East Usambaras. This species was recorded within montane habitats, above 1,250 m asl. Nilo FR is the only forest reserve in the East Usambaras which harbours montane habitats and where this species has been recorded.

The reptile species inventory represents one tortoise species, 19 lizard including 6 chameleon species and 22 species of snake. Nilo FR is particularly rich in reptilian fauna.

5.5.1.3 Amphibians The most common amphibian species were Arthroleptis stenodactylus (Shovel nosed squeaker) and Nectophrynoides tornieri (Usambara viviparous toad).

For the case of amphibian records in Nilo FR, locally common species were classified as 10 or more records of the species. The reason being that the survey effort with regard to amphibian study was greater in Nilo FR, with the addition of the 15 man hour study at trap sites 1 – 9 and additional opportunistic night searchs.

Other species that appeared to be locally common were (10 or more records): Arthroleptis xenodactyloides, Arthroleptis xenodactylus, Bufo brauni, Hyperolius mitchelli, Hyperolius puncticulatus, Hyperolius spinigularis, Afrixalus forasini, Afrixalus ulugurensis, Afrixalus c.f. pygmaeus/ brachycnemis, Leptopelis flavomaculatus, Leptopelis parkeri, Leptopelis ulugurensis, Leptopelis vermiculatus, Arthroleptides martiensseni, Phrynobatrachus acridoides, Phrynobatrachus kreffti, Ptychadena anchietae, Callulina kreffti, and Probreviceps macrodactylus.

Caecilians are of the order Gymnophionia and are legless worm-like. They were specifically searched for, as an additional survey technique. The two species recorded Boulengerula

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Nilo Forest Reserve 113 boulengeri and Scolecomorphus vittatus both appeared to be locally common, with B. boulengeri recorded 3.5 times more than the S. vittatus.

If classed as previous reports, where locally common species were recorded 3 or more times, additional species to the above list would be: Arthroleptis affinis, Bufo gutteralis, Hyperolius parkeri, Hyperolius tuberilinguis, Leptopelis barbouri, Rana angolensis and Chiromantis xerampelina. An additional seven species.

Nilo FR is rich in amphibian fauna with 35 species recorded for the reserve, the most species diverse reserve with regard to amphibians surveyed by EUBS so far.

5.5.1.4 Endemics and near-endemics Of the 39 species that were considered endemic or near-endemic to the Usambara Mountains, 33 appeared to be locally common (as they were recorded at least three times during the survey), 4 mammal, 16 reptile and 13 amphibian species.

Four near-endemic mammal species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Sylvisorex howelli, Beamys hindei, Dendrohyrax validus, Myonycteris relicta.

Four endemic reptile species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Proscelotes eggeli, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon temporalis, Thelotornis “usambaricus” sp. nov.

Twleve near-endemic reptile species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Lygodactylus viscatus, Agama montana, Chameleo fishceri, Chamaeleo tenuis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, Leptosiaphos kilimensis, Rhinotyphlops gierrai, Atheris ceratophorus, Elapsoidea nigra, Buhoma vauerocegae, Aparallactus werneri and Philothamnus macrops.

One endemic amphibian species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR: Boulengerula boulengeri.

Twelve near-endemic amphibian species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Arthroleptis xenodactylus, Bufo brauni, Nectophrynoides tornieri, Afrixalus ulugurensis, Leptopelis parkeri, Leptopelis ulugurensis, Leptopelis vermiculatus, Arthroleptides martiensseni, Phrynobatrachus krefftii, Callulina krefftii, Probreviceps macrodactylus and Scolecomorphus vuittatus.

5.5.1.5 Forest dependent species

Of the 55 species classed as forest dependent (i.e. dependent on primary forest), 41 species appeared to be locally common, 14 mammal, 22 reptile and 19 amphibian species. Nine forest dependent mammal species appeared to be locally common were; Sylvisorex howelli, Beamys hindei, Lophuromys flavopunctatus, Praomys delectorum, Colobus angolensis palliatus, Lissonyctersi angolensis, Myonycteris relicta and Hipposideros ruber. Fifteen forest dependent reptile species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Cnemaspsis africana, Chamaeleo fischeri, Chamaeleo tenuis, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, Rhampholeon temporalis, Proscelotes eggeli, Leptosiaphos kilimensis, Rhinotyphlops gierrai, Atheris ceratophorus, Elaspsoidea nigra, Buhoma vauerocegae, Aparallactus werneri, Philothamnus macrops and Theletornis “usambaricus” sp. nov.

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Sixteen forest dependent amphibian species appeared to be locally common in Nilo FR; Arthroleptis xenodactylus, Bufo brauni, Nectophrynoides tornieri, Hyperolius mitchelli, Hyperolius puncticulatus, Afrixalus ulugurensis, Leptopelis flavomaculatus, Leptopelis parkeri, Leptopelis ulugurensis, Leptopelis vermiculatus, Arthroleptides martiensseni, Phrynobatrachus krefftii, Callulina kreffti, Probreviceps macrodactylus, Boulengerula boulengeri and Scolecomorphus vittatus.

The above species were classed as locally common from 10 or more records throughout the survey. To follow in line with previous reports which classifies locally common as records of 3 or more of the species, two species would be added to the above list. These would be, Arthroleptis affinis and Leptopelis barbouri.

5.5.1.6 High risk species

Assuming the number of individuals of a particular species recorded reflects relative population size, one would expect locally uncommon species (forest dependent and near-endemic or endemic species) to be of conservation concern due to their low population density. Fourteen high risk species were recorded in Nilo FR: • Four mammal species; Graphiurus murinus (African doormouse), Rhynochocyon petersi (Zanj elephant shrew), Nycteris grandis (Slit faced bat) and Hipposideros cyclops (Cyclops leaf nosed bat). • Seven reptile species; Urtocotyledon wolterstorffi (Gecko), Holaspsis geutheri leavis (Eastern serrate toed tree lizard), Bitis gabonica (Eastern gaboon viper), Naja melanleua (Forest cobra), Lycophidion capense (Wolf snake), L. meleagre (Wolf snake) and Crotapholpeltis tornieri (Tornier’s cat snake). • Three species of amphibian; Arthroleptis affinis (A squeaker frog), Leptopelis barbouri (A tree frog) and Hoplophryne rogersi (A microhylid frog).

5.5.2 Ecological type Of the 169 forest dependent species, 14 were mammals, 64 were birds, 22 were reptiles, 19 were amphibians and 50 were butterflies.

Of the 63 species characteristic of open habitats, 33 were birds and 19 were butterflies. Seven remaining species were mammals (Mastomys natalensis, Grammonys macmillani, Grammomys ibeanus, Rattus rattus, Pipistrellus nanus, Cricetomys gambianus and Genetta sp.); one was a reptile (Naja nigricollis), and three were amphibians (Bufo gutteralis, Rana angolensis and Breviceps mossambicus). Many of the observations of species typical of open habitats were recorded from the forest edge or from land adjoining the forest reserve.

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Table 39 Summary of ecological type of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly species

Ecological type No. of species % of total species recorded (F) Forest dependent 169 50 (f) Forest dwelling but not forest dependent 76 22 (O) Non-forest species 67* 20 Unknown 28 8 340 100 Total: * birds were either classified as forest dependent of non-forest dependent, thus did not fall into the categories of forest dwelling or unknown.

5.5.3 Endemic Status

Seven of the recorded animal species and 3 subspecies in Nilo FR were endemic to the Usambara Mountains. These were:

Amphibians: Hoplophryne rogersi, Phrynobatrachus krefftii and Boulengerula boulengeri.

Reptiles: Proscelotes eggeli, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon temporalis and Thelotornis “usambaricus” sp. nov.

Butterfly: Aphysoneura pigmentaria pigmentaria, Charaxes brutus alcyone, and Charaxes usambarae usambarae.

Fifty two of the animal species recorded were near-endemic to the Usambara mountains, 5 mammals, 10 birds, 14 reptiles, 13 amphibians, and 10 butterflies.

Table 40 Summary of endemic status of mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and butterfly species.

Endemic status No. of species % of total species recorded (E) Endemic to the Usambara Mountains 11 3 (N) Near-Endemic: ranges in restricted locations 52 15 (W) Widespread 258 76 Unknown 19 6 340 100 Total:

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5.5.4 Threat Status

National Biodiversity Database (NBD) of Tanzania

According to NBD (UDSM 1997) criteria, many species were categorised as endangered, vulnerable, near threatened or data deficient.

Five species from Nilo FR were categorised as Endangered towards extinction by the NBD. These species were Sylvisorex howelli, Dendrohyrax validus [Mammals], Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon temporalis and Proscelotes eggeli [Reptiles]. Twenty-nine species from Nilo FR were categorised as Vulnerable to extinction by the NBD. These species were Myonycteris relicta [Mammal], Lygodactylus viscatus, Urtocotyledon woltestorffi, Agama montana, Chamaeleo fischeri, Chamaeleo tenuis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, Leptosiaphos kilimensis, Rhinotyphlops gierrai, Elapsoidea nigra, Buhoma vauerocegae, Aparallactus werneri, Philothamnus macrops, Crotaphopeltis tornieri [Reptiles], Hoplophryne rogersi, Phrynobatrachus krefftii, Boulengerula boulengeri, Arthroleptis xenodactylus, Arthroleptis affinis, Bufo brauni, Nectophrynoides tornieri, Afrixalus uluguruensis, Leptopelis barbouri, leptopelis parkeri, Leptopelis uluguruensis, Leptopeltis vermiculatus, Arthroleptides martiensseni, Callulina kreffti and Scolecomorphus vittatus [Amphibians].

Three species from Nilo FR were categorised as Near threatened to extinction by the NBD. These species were Rhynochoyon petersi [Mammal], Artheris ceratophoros [Reptile] and Probreviceps macrodactylus [Amphibian].

One species was categorised as Data deficient by the NBD, Dendrohyrax validus [Mammal].

IUCN 2000

According to IUCN 2000 criteria, species were categorised as endangered, vulnerable and lower risk/ near threatened to extinction. Additionally, some bird species were categorised from Statterfield et al. (1998) as of least concern.

Two species found in Nilo FR, were categorised as Endangered to extinction by IUCN 2000. These species were Rhynochocyon petersi [Mammal], Anthrepetes pallidigaster [Bird].

Six species found in Nilo FR, were categorised as Vulnerable to extinction by IUCN 2000. These species were Sylvisorex howelli, Beamys hindei, Dendrohyrax validas, Myonycteris relicta [Mammals], Bubo vosseleri, Anthrepetes rebritorques [Birds].

Three species found in Nilo FR, were categorised as Lower risk/ near threatened to extinction by IUCN 2000. These species were Circatetus fasciolatus, Tauraco fischeri and Anthreptes reichenowi.

Four species of bird were categorised by Stattersfield et al. (1998) as of least concern. These were Modulatrix stictigula, Sheppardia sharpei, Orthotomus metopias and Poeoptera kenricki.

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CITES 2001

Sixteen species recorded during the survey of Nilo Forest reserve were listed by CITES 2001.

One species was listed by Appendix I: Nectophrynoides tornieri [Amphibian].

Twelve species were listed by Append ix II: Cercopithecus mitis, Colobus angolensis, Papio cynocephalus [Mammals], Bubo vosserleri, Strix woodfordi, Circaetus fasiolatus [Birds], Chamaeleo fischeri, Chamaeleo tenuis, Chamaeleo dilepis, Chamaeleo deremensis, Rhampholeon temporalis, Rhampholeon brevicaudatus, and Naranus niloticus [Reptiles].

Two species were listed by Appendix III: Treron calva and Turtur tympanistria [Birds].

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N

Inaccessible plots

Forest dependent and near endemic or endemic mammal, reptile and amphibian species 3 15

30

0 450 900 m

Figure 35 Mammal, reptile and amphibian species that were both recorded as forest dependent and endemic or near-endemic in Nilo FR at each trap site.

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6.0 CONCLUSIONS Beharrell, N. K. Ntemi. S. A., & Hall, S. M. pp. 119-122.

This report presents the raw data of the survey with preliminary descriptions in terms of ecological type and endemic status. These two factors provide an indication of three aspects of biodiversity and conservation:

1. the relationship between forest dependency and endemism; 2. the extent to which non-forest species are established in the reserve; and 3. the relationship between disturbance and areas of biological value.

Nilo Forest Reserve was gazetted in 1999. The gazetted forest covers an area of 6,025 ha. Elevation ranges from altitudes between approximately 400m and 1,506m. The former forest reserves Lutindi, Kilanga and Nkombola now exist within the current Nilo FR with additionally gazetted land.

6.1 Disturbance Poles continue to be taken illegally from across the reserve. Areas of particularly high levels of new pole cutting were on the eastern border of the old Kilanga region. New pole cutting evidence was highest close to the reserve borders, Figure 16. New timber extraction presents a similar pattern to new cut poles, however on a smaller scale, Figure 19.

Fire poses a threat to specific areas of the forest. The western slopes appeared to be most susceptible to fire. The greatest evidence of fire were recorded along the western side of the reserve, Figure 24.

Animal trapping was recorded throughout the reserve and animals continue to be hunted illegally in the reserve. The highest concentrations of evidence were found within the old Lutindi and Kilanga regions, Figure 25.

Cultivation was evident under the forest canopy with areas remaining with little or no canopy. Stands of cardamom and coffee were still present within the reserve and patches of domestic banana and scatterd cassava and yam plants.

The invasive species Maesopsis eminii was recorded in 8 of the 122 vegetation plots, with a total of eight individuals recorded in the systematic plots.

6.2 Species Richness Nilo FR contains a minimum of 342 species of trees and shrubs (207 trees and shrubs from systematic survey and 152 tree species from the opportunistic collections), additionally 395 species of shrub, herb, palm, liana and climber were recorded from opportunistic records. A total of 737 plant species were recorded with the reserve during the survey period.

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An array of animal species were recorded; 47 mammal, including 15 bat, 97 bird, 41 reptile, 35 amphibian and 121 butterfly species. Relative to the ten previously surveyed forest reserves and Amani Nature Reserve, Nilo FR has an above average species richness for plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and butterflies. This maybe partly due to the large size of the reserve, heterogeneous habitats and a wide altitudinal range. Nilo FR is the only reserve in the East Usambaras that harbours montane habitats. These areas present species that have close affinities with the West Usambara forests.

6.3 Flora

Thirteen tree and shrub species recorded from the systematic vegetation plots (from a total of 207 species) were classed as endemic to the Usambara Mountains. Nine were specifically endemic to the East Usambaras and four species endemic to the East and West Usambaras. 39 species were recorded with ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc and/or East African lowland forests and thus termed near-endemic to the Usambara mountains.

Seventy seven species were dependent on primary forest, and of these species, 13 were endemic and 23 were near endemic to the Usambara Mountains.

Twelve non-forest tree and shrub species were established within the reserve boundaries and 25 species were not classified with an ecological type due to insufficient data. Opportunistic collections of flora added significantly to the value of Nilo FR botanical list, yielding more endemic and near-endemic species.

6.4 Fauna Seven animal species and three subspecies were recorded that were endemic to the Usambara Mountains. 52 species were recorded as near-endemic to the Usambara mountains, with restricted ranges limited to the Eastern Arc and/or East African lowland forests.

One hundred and sixty nine animal species were dependent on primary forest, of these species, 8 were endemic and 49 near endemic to the Usambara Mountains. 67 non-forest animal species were established in the reserve 33 bird, 23 butterfly, 1 reptile, 7 mammal and 3 amphibian.

6.5 Conservation

The forests of the East Usambara mountains have been widely recognised as being an area of particularly high biodiversity. The habitats of which are unfortunately under threat with many species threatened with extinction.

Biodiversity Hotspots were categorised by Conservation International (Mittermeier 1999) stating the East Usambara forests are part of the Eastern Arc and Coastal Forests of Tanzania/ Kenya hotspot. This hotspot contains 0.5 % of global endemic plants and 0.4 % of global endemic vertebrates. However this hotspot ranks 1st in terms of endemic plants and animals per 100km2, 75 plant and 6.1 vertebrate species, closely followed by the Phillipines. The East Usambara mountains are highly ranked with regard to endemic flora and fauna within the Eastern Arc.

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The East Usambara Mountains lie within the Endemic Bird Area 105 Tanzania-Malawi mountains. It has been classed as a priority area that has been termed critical (Stattersfield et al. 1998).

Centres of Plant Diversity have been defined (WWF and IUCN) as well as Globally Important Ecoregions (WWF). The East Usambara mountains have been classed as above. They are a conservation priority due to diversity of flora and fauna and the high number of endemic species. The forests also have a direct value to surrounding communities as a principal water catchment area and as a source of fuel-wood and medicinal plants.

The forests of the East Usambara mountains have been reduced to fragments within a matrix of agricultural land. Little forest remains outside of the gazetted forest reserves. For those species that are forest dependent, the forest reserves now provide almost the only available habitat.

There are differences in the perceived value of the forests between the villagers and the Forest and Beekeeping Division. Alternative sources of building material and fuel are required in order to meet the needs of surrounding villages while ensuring the protection of the forests.

The impact of fire is of serious concern on the western borders of Nilo Forest Reserve. Hunting continues illegally, the full impact of hunting on the populations of targeted species is unknown.

Severe degradation of Nilo Forest Reserve could lead to local extinctions of populations of those species identified as being at high risk. The loss of forested areas in Nilo will also reduce the reliability of the water supply to the region.

Nilo Forest Reserve is the second largest forest block in the East Usambara mountains and thus has a lower risk of population extinction than smaller highly fragmented forest reserves. This gives Nilo Forest Reserve a special value as a ‘pool’ of individuals of species that might be capable of migration to re-colonise other East Usambara forests, or perhaps could be translocated. Nilo is partly isolated from other forest reserves in the East Usambara mountains and borders the Lwengera Valley which separates the East and West Usambara ranges. However, this does not give a rein for continued or additional extraction use from the forest. The habitats need to be preserved in order for the endemic, near-endemic and forest dependent species to have a chance of survival in the long term future.

Semdoe forest reserve lies close to the eastern Kilanga region of Nilo. The proposed Derema corridor can provide a necessary link between Nilo and Amani Nature Reserve. At present no legal status protects the Derema forest, other than basic legislation regarding water catchments and the felling of specific tree species. Recently there has been extensive discussion regarding the type of legislation that should be instated to protect the Derema forest corridor (V. Pohjonen, pers. comm., Jambiya. 2000.). The proposals have ranged from gazetting the Derema forest corridor as a non-extractive forest reserve, to handing complete control of the forests to the local communities. The outcome has not yet been finalised, however, boundary crop compensation schemes are underway at present. From a biological perspective, effective protection of this only forested link from the largest block of forest (Amani) to more northerly (Nilo) forests is of up- most importance. However long term management decisiona can not purely based on biological considerations, social factors are a priority to ensure the sustainable protection of the East Usambara forest reserves.

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7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Appendix 1 General Plot Information, Nilo FR (key at end of table)

Plot Number Topography Altitude Slope Vegetation Canopy Disturbance (metres) (degrees) Condition Height category (metres) 1 GLS 820 5 LF 10-20m C 2 GLS 820 11 LF 20-30m L 3 GLS 725 16.5 LF 10-20m 4 GLS 820 13 LF >30m CU 5 GUS 920 22 SMF >30m C 6 GMS 920 30 SMF 20-30m L 7 SMS 960 40 SMF >30m L 8 GLS 925 25 SMF 20-30m C 9 GMS 1120 26 SMF >30m 10 GLS 475 20 LF >30m CU & F 11 GLS 425 10 LF >30m CU & F 12 GMS 600 22 S/T/B 10-20m 13 SMS 740 44 LF 20-30m 14 SUS 940 45 SMF >30m 15 GMS 950 15 SMF 20-30m 16 GUS 1010 18 SMF 10-20m CU & C 17 GUS 1100 13 SMF 20-30m CU & L 18 SUS 1100 45 SMF 10-20m C 19 SUS 950 20 SMF >30m L 20 SUS 1040 15 SMF >30m 21 GUS 1000 21 SMF 10-20m 22 GMS 940 19 SMF 20-30m C 23 GMS 790 19 LF 20-30m CU 24 SMS 1050 35 SMF 20-30m 25 GMS 1000 18 SMF 20-30m L 26 GLS 1040 20 F/PD 10-20m C 27 GMS 1050 20 SMF 10-20m 28 GMS 1050 15 SMF 10-20m C 29 SMS 900 39 SMF >30m T 30 SMS 840 30 LF >30m 31 GMS 800 20 LF 20-30m CU 32 GMS 520 15 LF 20-30m 33 SMS 500 35 LF 20-30m CU 34 GMS 740 25 LF 20-30m L 35 SMS 710 30 LF >30m F 36 RT 800 6 LF 10-20m F 37 GLS 580 15 LF 10-20m F 38 GMS 500 15 LF 10-20m C 39 GMS 840 7 LF 20-30m 40 GUS 980 17 SMF >30m 41 GMS 960 24 SMF >30m 42 GMS 820 15 LF 20-30m 43 SMS 910 35 SMF 20-30m 44 SUS 710 40 LF >30m 45 GMS 1060 16 SMF 20-30m

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Plot Number Topography Altitude Slope Vegetation Canopy Disturbance (metres) (degrees) Condition Height category (metres) 46 GMS 810 38 LF >30m 47 GMS 900 16 SMF >30m L 48 GMS 760 22 LF 10-20m 49 GLS 710 19 LF 10-20m C 50 SLS 1060 25 SMF 20-30m 51 SMS 1340 38 MF 20-30m 52 SMS 1075 33 SMF 20-30m 53 GMS 1140 15 SMF >30m 54 GLS 760 0 LF 20-30m C & CU 55 GMS 820 22 LF 20-30m CU 56 SMS 853 30 SMF 20-30m CU & L 57 SMS 800 33 LF 10-20m F &T 58 GMS 600 22 LF 20-30m 59 GMS 940 12 SMF 20-30m C 60 GMS 1300 14 F/PD 20-30m C 61 GMS 1140 26 SMF >30m T 62 GMS 1250 10 MF 20-30m C 63 GMS 1300 24 MF >30m 64 SUS 1400 30 MF 10-20m CU & F 65 SMS 1200 30 SMF 20-30m C 66 GUS 1290 26 MF 20-30m C 67 GUS 1300 28 MF 10-20m C 68 GUS 1290 16 MF <10m C & L 69 SUS 1320 37 MF <10m CU 70 SMS 1250 3 MF 20-30m 71 GUS 1250 26 MF 10-20m 72 GMS 1225 29 SMF >30m 73 SUS 1370 37 MF 20-30m CU 74 GUS 1280 18 MF 20-30m Honey 75 GUS 1320 20 MF 10-20m CU & CU 76 GUS 1250 25 MF >30m C 77 GMS 1290 3 MF 20-30m C 78 SUS 1430 44 MF 20-30m 79 GUS 1320 26 MF >30m 80 SUS 1220 58 F/PD 0 C, CU & F 81 GUS 1360 25 MF 20-30m 82 GMS 1000 13 SMF 10-20m CU 83 SMS 1180 32 SMF 10-20m C 84 GMS 1220 10 SMF >30m 85 GUS 1350 18 S/T/B <10m CU & F 86 GMS 1237 20 S/T/B 10-20m C & F 87 GMS 1180 22 SMF 20-30m 88 RT 1120 20 SMF >30m 89 SUS 1150 25 SMF 10-20m 90 GUS 1180 22 SMF 10-20m 91 GMS 1180 10 SMF 10-20m 92 SMS 1180 31 SMF 20-30m 93 SMS 1050 35 SMF 20-30m CU

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Plot Number Topography Altitude Slope Vegetation Canopy Disturbance (metres) (degrees) Condition Height category (metres) 94 SMS 1140 32 SMF 10-20m 95 SMS 1160 30 SMF 20-30m 96 GMS 1060 21 SMF 10-20m F 97 GMS 950 11 C <10m C 98 GMS 820 15 LF 20-30m 99 GMS 860 4 SMF 10-20m L 100 GMS 1100 16 SMF 20-30m 101 SMS 880 22 F/PD <10m F, C & G 102 SMS 680 38 LF >30m 103 GLS 730 33 C <10m F 104 GMS 820 20 F/PD 10-20m CU & F 105 SMS 970 39 F/PD <10m F 106 GMS 840 15 LF 20-30m 107 GUS 940 26 SMF 20-30m 108 GMS 850 20 SMF 20-30m CU 109 GMS 1055 11 SMF 20-30m CU 110 GUS 960 4 SMF 20-30m 111 SMS 880 30 SMF L 112 GMS 1120 22 SMF 20-30m 113 GMS 800 22 LF 20-30m 114 GMS 620 25 LF 20-30m 115 SMS 1280 32 MF <10m 116 SUS 610 32 LF 10-20m 117 GMS 465 2 LF 10-20m CU & F 118 INACCESSIBLE - NO PLOT 119 SUS 540 26 LF 10-20m CU 120 GMS 520 7 LF <10m F 121 SMS 740 31 LF 10-20m F 122 GMS 740 5 LF 20-30m

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS Topography Vegetation condition Disturbance category

GLS - gentle lower slope LF - Lowland forest L – logging/pitsawing SLS - steep lower slope SMF - Submontane forest C – cutting GMS - gentle mid-slope MF – Montane forest CU - cultivation SMS - steep mid-slope CF - Colonizing forest F - fire GUS - gentle upper slope RF - Riverine forest T – trappinjg SUS - steep upper slope MF - Montane forest G – animal grazing FV - flat valley floor S/T/B - Scrub / thicket / Bush RT - ridge top F/PD – Fallow / Previously disturbed

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Appendix 2 Taxonomic Verification BOTANY Mr. A. Mndolwa Tanzanian Forestry Research Silvicultural Research Centre, P.O. Box Institute (TAFORI) 95, Lushoto, Tanzania Mr. A. Ntemi Sallu EUCAMP P.O. Box 5869, Tanga [email protected] ZOOLOGY - VERTEBRATES

Bats and small mammals: Prof. K. Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected]

Dr. D. Kock Frankfurt Zoological Museum Saugetiere III, Senckenberg, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany [email protected] Dr. W. Stanley Chicago Field Museum Mammal Section, Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605, USA [email protected] Rodents and Shrews: Prof. K. Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected] Dr. D. Kock Frankfurt Zoological Museum Saugetiere III, Senckenberg, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany [email protected] Amphibians: Prof. K. Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected] Prof. J. Poynton British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, South Kensington, London, UK. Reptiles: Prof. K. Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam , P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania [email protected] Dr. D. Broadley The Natural History Museum of P.O. Box 240, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Zimbabwe [email protected] ZOOLOGY - INVERTEBRATES

Millipedes Dr R. Hoffman Virginia Museum of Natural 1001 Douglas Avenue, Martinsville, History Virginia 24112, USA [email protected]

Butterflies Mr. S. Collins African Butterfly Research P.O. Box 14308, Nairobi, Kenya Institute [email protected]

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Appendix 3 Geo-coordinates of vegetation plots, Nilo FR (key at end of table)

Veg.plot Waypoint Longitude Latitude Grid Ref. Grid Ref. Nearest 37M UTM veg. plot * 1 N-V1 E038o40'36.4" S04o54'38.8" 0464164 9457240 21 2 N-V2 E038o39'23.4" S04o54'38.8" 0461914 9457240 21 3 N-V3 E038o40'21.3" S04o54'13.9" 0463699 9458004 21 4 N-V4 E038o40'35.9" S04o54'13.9" 0464149 9458004 21 5 N-V5 E038o40'50.5" S04o54'13.9" 0464599 9458004 21 6 N-V6 E038o39'52.6" S04o54'38.8" 0462814 9457240 21 7 N-V7 E038o40'07.2" S04o54'38.8" 0463264 9457240 21 8 N-VP08 E038o39'25.2" S04o54'19.6" 0461972 9457829 9 N-V9 E038o40'21.8" S04o54'38.8" 0463714 9457240 21 10 N-VP10 E038o41'35.9" S04o55'42.5" 0465996 9455285 11 N-VP11 E038o41'51.7" S04o55'42.5" 0466483 9455284 12 N-VP12 E038o41'22.4" S04o55'43.3" 0465581 9455261 13 N-VP13 E038o41'07.7" S04o55'43.6" 0465128 9455251 14 N-V14 E038o40'50.8" S04o55'44.7" 0464607 9455215 39 15 N-V15 E038o40'36.4" S04o54'38.8" 0464164 9457240 21 16 N-VP16 E038o39'11.4" S04o54'21.7" 0461545 9457764 17 N-VP17 E038o38'56.1" S04o54'21.3" 0461075 9457774 18 N-VP18 E038o38'43.5" S04o54'22.3" 0460687 9457745 19 N-VP19 E038o40'08.3" S04o55'14.3" 0463299 9456148 20 N-V20 E038o40'22.9" S04o55'14.3" 0463749 9456148 19 21 N-VP21 E038o40'51.0" S04o54'38.8" 0464614 9457240 22 N-VP22 E038o41'09.3" S04o54'40.0" 0465178 9457205 23 N-VP23 E038o41'18.7" S04o54'43.2" 0465499 9457104 24 N-VP24 E038o39'55.3" S04o55'14.3" 0462898 9456148 25 N-VP25 E038o38'40.0" S04o55'15.0" 0462428 9456126 26 N-VP26 E038o40'53.1" S04o53'48.4" 0464679 9458941 27 N-V27 E038o41'07.8" S04o53'43.4" 0465129 9458941 26 28 N-V28 E038o41'25.6" S04o53'43.4" 0465679 9458941 26 29 N-V29 E038o41'40.2" S04o53'43.4" 0466129 9458941 26 30 N-V30 E038o40'38.5" S04o53'43.4" 0464229 9458941 26 31 N-V31 E038o40'28.9" S04o53'43.4" 0463779 9458941 26 32 N-V32 E038o39'09.8" S04o55'46.2" 0461497 9455168 33 33 N-VP33 E038o38'55.2" S04o55'46.2" 0461047 9455168 34 N-VP34 E038o38'25.0" S04o55'14.0" 0461965 9456159 35 N-VP35 E038o39'09.8" S04o55'14.7" 0461497 9456137 36 N-VP36 E038o38'54.1" S04o55'14.8" 0461013 9456132 37 N-VP37 E038o38'41.4" S04o55'11.1" 0460623 9456245 38 N-VP38 E038o38'18.7" S04o55'18.3" 0459923 9456025 39 N-VP39 E038o40'36.1" S04o55'44.7" 0464157 9455215 40 N-VP40 E038o40'22.2" S04o55'45.1" 0463727 9455204 41 N-VP41 E038o40'04.5" S04o55'46.0" 0463181 9455175 42 N-VP42 E038o39'52.8" S04o55'43.4" 0462822 9455254 43 N-VP43 E038o39'45.2" S04o55'52.1" 0462587 9454987 44 N-V44 E038o39'30.6" S04o55'52.1" 0462137 9454987 43 45 N-V45 E038o40'37.2" S04o55'13.8" 0464189 9456164 27 46 N-VP46 E038o41'06.5" S04o55'13.7" 0465091 9456169 47 N-VP47 E038o40'51.8" S04o55'13.8" 0464639 9456164

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Appendices 132

Veg.plot Waypoint Longitude Latitude Grid Ref. Grid Ref. Nearest 37M UTM veg. plot * 48 N-V48 E038o41'15.4" S04o55'01.48" 0465364 9456547 49 49 N-VP49 E038o41'26.7" S04o55'01.4" 0465714 9456547 50 N-V50 E038o41'19.8" S04o54'13.9" 0465499 9458004 23 51 N-V51 E038o41'09.3" S04o54'10.6" 0465178 9458105 22 52 N-V52 E038o40'51.0" S04o54'09.5" 0464614 9458140 21 53 N-V53 E038o41'05.1" S04o54'13.9" 0465049 9458004 21 54 N-VP54 E038o40'07.9" S04o58'17.1" 0463288 9454220 55 N-VP55 EO38o39'53.8" S04o58'16.4" 0462854 9454241 56 N-VP56 E038o39'39.4" S04o56'15.1" 0462411 9454280 57 N-VP57 E038o39'20.9" S04o56'14.9" 461839 9454289 58 N-VP58 E038o39'05.1" S04o56'12.1" 0461353 9454372 59 N-VP59 E038o39'27.4" S04o58'45.1" 0462041 9453360 60 N-VP60 E038o39'24.0" S04o50'56.4" 0461932 9464068 61 N-VP61 E038o39'41.7" S04o51'00.2" 0462475 9463950 62 N-VP62 E038o38'41.0" S04o51'31.2" 0462455 9459357 63 N-V63 E038o39'26.4" S04o51'31.1" 0462005 9463000 62 64 N-V64 E038o39'11.8" S04o51'31.1" 0461555 9463000 62 65 N-V65 E038o39'26.4" S04o51'31.1" 0462005 9462100 62 66 N-VP66 E038o37'33.2" S04o52'30.0" 0458520 9461191 67 N-VP67 E038o38'41.5" S04o52'31.8" 0458989 9461136 68 N-V68 E038o37'55.8" S04o52'03.1" 0459215 9462016 75 69 N-VP69 E038o37'31.0" S04o53'03.9" 0458452 9560151 70 N-V70 E038o37'45.6" S04o53'03.9" 0458902 9460151 69 71 N-V71 E038o38'00.2" S04o53'03.9" 0459352 9460151 69 72 N-V72 E038o38'14.8" S04o53'03.9" 0459802 9460151 69 73 N-V73 E038o38'03.1" S04o52'31.8" 0459439 9461136 67 74 N-V74 E038o38'16.9" S04o52'03.2" 0459865 9462016 75 75 N-VP75 E038o38'31.5" S04o52'03.2" 0460315 9462016 76 N-V76 E038o38'26.3" S04o51'35.9" 0460152 9462852 77 N-V77 E038o38'45.3" S04o51'30.5" 0460740 9463019 78 N-V78 E038o39'11.8" S04o52'00.4" 0461555 9462100 62 79 N-V79 E038o39'00.7" S04o52'03.2" 0461215 9462016 75 80 N-V80 E038o38'11.6" S04o51'35.9" 0459702 9462852 76 81 N-V81 E038o37'01.6" S04o53'52.8" 0457549 9458648 84 82 N-V82 E038o38'29.3" S04o53'52.9" 0460249 9458648 84 83 N-V83 E038o37'01.6" S04o53'52.8" 0460699 9458648 84 84 N-VP84 E038o38'58.5" S04o53'52.8" 0461149 9458648 85 N-VP85 E038o37'16.8" S04o53'28.7" 0458016 9459357 86 N-VP86 E038o37'31.0" S04o53'28.2" 0458454 9459403 87 N-VP87 E038o37'47.8" S04o53'27.7" 0458964 9459421 88 N-VP88 E038o38'14.7" S04o53'52.8" 0459799 9458648 84 89 N-VP89 E038o37'16.3" S04o53'52.8" 0457999 9458648 84 90 N-VP90 E038o37'30.9" S04o53'52.8" 0458449 9458648 84 91 N-VP91 E038o38'02.1" S04o53'24.5" 0459409 9459518 92 N-VP92 E038o38'14.3" S04o53'23.9" 0459785 9459537 93 N-VP93 E038o38'32.1 S04o53'24.6" 0460333 9459515 94 N-V94 E038o37'45.5" S04o53'52.8" 0458899 9458648 84 95 N-V95 E038o38'00.1" S04o53'52.8" 0459349 9458648 84 96 N-VP96 E038o37'42.1" S04o54'23.2" 0458796 9457715

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Veg.plot Waypoint Longitude Latitude Grid Ref. Grid Ref. Nearest 37M UTM veg. plot * 97 N-VP97 E038o37'56.9" S04o54'22.1" 0459250 9457750 98 N-VP98 E038o38'11.0" S04o54'21.6" 0459685 9457764 99 N-VP99 E038o38'25.6" S04o54'23.4" 0460136 9457710 100 N-VP100 E038o39'13.4" S04o53'54.7" 0461605 9458593 101 N-VP101 E038o39'10.2" S04o53'52.8" 0461508 9458649 102 N-V102 E038o38'27.5" S04o54'42.5" 0460195 9457125 103 N-V103 E038o38'11.9" S04o54'43.5" 0459715 9457092 104 N-V104 E038o37'56.3" S04o54'44.8" 0459233 9457053 105 N-V105 E038o37'43.5" S04o54'47.9" 0458839 9456956 106 N-VP106 E038o38'40.2" S04o54'45.9" 0460586 9457019 107 N-V107 E038o39'15.9" S04o57'13.6" 0461686 9452485 117 108 N-V108 E038o39'01.3" S04o57'13.6" 0461236 9452485 117 109 N-VP109 E038o38'59.5" S04o57'46.6" 0461184 9451472 110 N-VP110 E038o38'28.2" S04o58'20.3" 0460220 9450437 111 N-V111 E038o39'13.0" S04o50'56.4" 0461591 9464068 59 112 N-VP112 E038o38'16.2" S04o58'42.7" 0459850 9449749 113 N-V113 E038o38'12.9" S04o38'17.2" 0459748 9450532 114 114 N-VP114 E038o37'58.3" S04o58'17.2" 0459298 9450532 115 N-V115 E038o38'02.3" S04o59'15.5" 0459421` 9448741 116 N-V116 E038o39'01.3" S04o56'44.3" 0461236 9453385 117 117 N-VP117 E038o38'46.6" S04o56'44.3" 0460786 9453385 118 INACCESSIBLE LOCATION - no vegetation plot demarcated 119 N-VP119 E038o38'42.3" S04o57'20.3" 0460652 9452279 120 N-VP120 E038o38'28.0" S04o57'18.6" 0460211 9452332 121 N-VP121 E038o38'27.3" S04o57'46.5" 0460189 9451475 122 N-VP122 E038o38'41.0" S04o57'46.2" 0460613 9451478

* NOTE: Information highlighted in bold represent ‘actual’ GPS co-ordinates recorded from a GARMIN 12 unit using map datum ARC 1960. The co-ordinates which are not in bold were calculated from the nearest ‘actual’ co-ordinate and are thus ‘theorectical’ co-ordinates.

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Appendix 4 New botanical records for the East Usambara Plant Database, Nilo FR (key at end of table) Angiosperms: Dicotyledons Species Notes ACANTHACEAE Justicia phyllostachys C.B.Cl NEW SPECIES Justicia palustris (Hochst) T.Anders NEW SPECIES Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii Lindau NEW SPECIES Thunbergia holstii Lindau NEW SPECIES ANNONACEAE Ophrypetalum odoratum papaowia NEW SPECIES APOCYNACEAE Alafia orientalis NEW SPECIES ASCLEPIADACEAE Mondia whitei NEW SPECIES BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens niamniamensis NEW SPECIES Impatiens sodenii NEW SPECIES Impatiens raphidothrix Warb NEW SPECIES BOMBACACEAE Rhodognaphalon schumannianum NEW SPECIES BORAGINACEAE Ehretia cymosa var. cymosa NEW VARIETY Heliotropium steudneri NEW SPECIES CAESALPINIOIDEAE Caesalpinia decapitula NEW SPECIES Cynometra webberi NEW SPECIES CAMPANULACEAE Wahlenbergia krebsii NEW SPECIES CAPPARIDACEAE Capparis erythrocarpos var. rosea NEW VARIETY Boscia coriaceae NEW SPECIES Boscia salicifolia NEW SPECIES Cleome hirta NEW SPECIES Cleome monophylla NEW SPECIES Cleome stenopetala NEW SPECIES CELASTRACEAE Reinssantia indica var. orientalis (Wild) N.Hall & Benther NEW SPECIES Salacia lehmbachii var. usambarensis NEW SPECIES COMBRETACEAE Combretum hereroense volkensii NEW SPECIES COMPOSITAE Anisoppapus oliveranus Wild NEW SPECIES Bidens kilimandscharica NEW SPECIES Bothriocline fusca NEW SPECIES Crossocephalum rubens (Jacq)S.Moore NEW SPECIES Helichrysum odoratissima NEW SPECIES Pseudognaphalium uniounis Sch.Bip NEW SPECIES Senecio sp. NEW SPECIES

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Species Notes CRASSULACEAE Kalanchoe sp. NEW SPECIES CUCURBITACEAE Momordica prophetarum NEW SPECIES Telfairia pedata Last found in Amani 1909 * EBENACEAE Euclea natalensis obovata NEW SUB-SPECIES EUPHORBIACEAE Erythrococca fischeriPax. NEW SPECIES Spirostachys africana NEW SPECIES Alchornea laxiflora (Beth.)Pax & Hoff. NEW SPECIES FLACOURTIACEAE Rawsonia reticulata NEW SPECIES Aphloia theiformis (Vahl) Benn. NEW SPECIES GESNERIACEAE Streptocarpus glandulosissimus NEW SPECIES Streptocarpus buchananii C.B.Cl NEW SPECIES Saintpaulia sp. NEW SPECIES LABIATAE Heptis suaveolens NEW SPECIES Heptis pectinata NEW SPECIES Plectranthus luteus Guerke NEW SPECIES Plectranthus parvus Olv. NEW SPECIES Satureua pseudosimensis NEW SPECIES Aeollanthus repens NEW SPECIES LEGUMINOSACEAE: Subfamily MIMOSOIDEAE Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth. NEW SPECIES - EXOTIC Mimosa pudica var. unijugata NEW VARIETY LOBELIACEAE Lobelia fervens NEW SPECIES LORANTHACEAE Tapinanthus oehleri NEW SPECIES Tapinanthus ziziphifollus NEW SPECIES MALVACEAE Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq)Medic NEW SPECIES MELIACEAE Erkebegia capensis NEW SPECIES MENISPERMACEAE Stephania abyssinica var. abyssinica (Rich&Diel)Walf NEW SPECIES MORACEAE Ficus stuhlmannii Warb. NEW SPECIES ** NYCTAGINACEAE Mirabilis jalapa NEW SPECIES NYMPHAEACEAE Nymphaea nouchali var. zanzibariensis NEW VARIETY OCHNACEAE Ouratea warneckii Gilg&Engl NEW SPECIES

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Species Notes ONAGRACEAE Jussiacea jussieoides (syn.Ludwigia jussieoides) NEW SPECIES PAPILIONOIDEAE Crotoralia lukwangulensis Harms NEW SPECIES Schefflerodendron usambarense NEW SPECIES PLAMBAGIACEAE Plambago doweii NEW SPECIES POLYGALACEAE Polygala amboniensis NEW SPECIES RHAMNACEAE Ziziphus mauritiana NEW SPECIES ROSACEAE Rubus alba L. NEW SPECIES RUBIACEAE Canthium discolor K.Schum NEW SPECIES Canthium sp. NEW SPECIES Pavetta mazumbaiensis Bridson NEW SPECIES Rytigynia acuminatissma acuminatissima K.Schum NEW SPECIES Parvetta amaniensis NEW SPECIES RUTACEAE Clansena anisata NEW SPECIES SAPINDACEAE Aporrhiza paniculata Radlk. NEW SPECIES SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum perpulchrum Hutch & Dalz. NEW SPECIES Malacantha adolfi-fredericii (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert (syn. Aningeria) NEW SPECIES TAMARICACEAE Tamarix sp. NEW GENUS THEACEAE Balthasaria schliebenii var. glabra (Muelchior) Verdc. NEW SPECIES Ficalhoa laurifolia Hiern NEW SPECIES THYMELAECEAE Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. NEW SPECIES UMBELLIFERAE Sanicula elata D.Don NEW GENUS Sentella asiatica NEW SPECIES URTICACEAE Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem NEW SPECIES VITACEAE Rhoicissus tridentata (L.) Wild & Drummond NEW SPECIES Ampelocissus africana NEW SPECIES

Angiosperms: Monocotyledons Species Notes ALOEACEAE Aloe sp. NEW SPECIES ANTHERIACEAE Chlorophytum tuberosum NEW SPECIES

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Appendices 137

Species Notes CANNACEAE Canna indica NEW SPECIES COMMELINACEAE Aneilema hockii NEW SPECIES Aneilema pedunculosum NEW SPECIES CYPERACEAE Carex spicato-paniculata NEW SPECIES Coleochloa abyssinica var. castar (C.B.Cl)Pich-Serm NEW GENUS Coleochloa sp. NEW SPECIES Hypolytrum herteromophom Nelmes NEW SPECIES GRAMINEAE Stipa dregeana NEW SPECIES Themeda triandra NEW SPECIES Agrostis kilimandsherica Mez. NEW SPECIES Agrostis schimperiana NEW SPECIES Trichoneura ciliata Mez. NEW SPECIES ORCHIDACEAE Disa deckenii NEW SPECIES

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR APPENDIX 4

Bold type – species recorded from the systematic plots Non bold record: records from opportunistic records.

NEW SPECIES – new species record for the EUPDB NEW SUB-SPECIES – new sub-species record for the EUPDB NEW VARIETY – species previously recorded, but new variety to EUPDB

* - not a new record for the EUPDB, but last found in the East Usambara Mountains in 1909 ** - new record for the EUPDB and only previously recorded in the West Usambara Mountains

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Appendix 5 Geo-coordinates of trap sites, Nilo FR

Trapsite Waypoint Longitude Latitude 37M UTM Plot ID 1 N-BC E038o54'30.3" S04o39'45.8" 0462604 9457499 6 2 N-TS02 E038o40'48.3" S04o55'34.3" 0464531 9455534 14 3 N-TS03 E038o40'48.1" S04o53'52.6" 0464523 9458659 26 4 N-TS04 E038o39'06.4" S04o55'46.2" 0461393 9455168 32 5 N-TS05 E038o39'04.1" S04o51'47.2" 0461318 9462507 65 6 N-TS06 E038o38'29.8" S04o53'33.2" 0460264 9459252 83 7 N-TS07 E038o38'09.8" S04o54'00.0" 0459648 9458428 97 8 N-TS08 E038o34'38.5" S04o56'32.6" 0462381 8453746 59A 9 N-TS09 E038o38'28.6" S04o57'33.1" 0460231 9451887 121 10 N-T11E E038o37'56.8" S04o59'44.2" 0459255 9447860 118A

NOTE: GPS co-ordinates were recorded from GARMIN 12 units using map datum ARC 1960.

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Appendix 6 List of mammal species and type of observation recorded for Nilo FR

Species Generic name Trap Visual Vocal Dung

COLOBIDAE Colobus angolensis Angola pied colobus x x CEROPITHECIDAE Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon x x x Cercopithecus mitis Blue monkey x x x GALAGONIDAE Otolemur crassicaudatus Small eared galago x x Galago sp. Lesser galago x PTEROPDIDAE Rousettus aegyptiacus Egyptian fruit bat x Lissonycteris angolensis Angola fruit bat x Myonycteris relicta Little collared fruit bat x Epomophorus wahlbergi Wahlberg's fruit bat x x NYCTERIDAE Nycteris grandis Slit faced bat x RHINOLOPHIDAE Rhinolophus c.f. hildebranti Horseshoe bat x Rhinolophus c.f. simulator Horseshoe bat x Rhinolophus c.f. clivosus Horseshoe bat x Rhinolophus c.f. landeri Horseshoe bat x HIPPOSIDERIDAE Hipposideros rubber Leaf nosed bat x Hipposideros cyclops Leaf nosed bat x Trianenops periscus Persian leaf nosed bat x VESPERTILIONIDAE Chalinolbus c.f. argentata Butterfly bat x (syn. Glauconycteris) Pipistrellus nanus Banana bat x Pipistrellus sp. Pipistrelle bat x Miniopterus sp. Long fingered bat x SORICIDAE Sylvisorex sp. Climbing shrew x Crocidura sp1. White toothed shrew x Crocidura sp2. White toothed shrew x Crocidura sp3. White toothed shrew x RHYNCHOCYONINAE Rhynchocyon petersi Zanj elephant shrew x SCURIDAE Heliosciurus rufobrachium Red legged sun squirrel x ANOMALURIDAE Anomalurus sp. Anomalure x MYOXIDAE Graphiurus murinus African dormouse x DENDROMURINAE Dendromus sp. Climbing mouse x THRYONOMYIDAE Thryonomys sp. Cane rat x

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Species Generic name Trap Visual Vocal Dung

CRICETOMYINAE Beamys hindei Lesser pouched rat x Cricetomys gambianus Gaint pouched rat x x MURIDAE Lophuromys flavopunctatus Brush furred rat x Praomys delectorum Soft furred rat x Hylomyscus dennai African woodmouse x Mastomys sp. Multimammate rat x Mus minutoides Common mouse x Grammomys c.f. macmillani Narrow footed woodland mouse x Grammomys c.f. ibeanus Narrow footed woodland mouse x Rattus rattus Black rat x x HERSPESTIDAE Mungos mungo Banded mongoose x VIVERRIDAE Genetta sp. Genet x x PROCAVIDAE Dendrohyrax validus Tree Hyrax x x x SUIDAE Potamochoerus larvatus Bush pig x BOVIDAE Cephalophus sp. Duiker x x x

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Appendix 7 Non-forest dependent bird species recorded, Nilo FR (key at end of table)

Species Common name Eco. Endemic IUCN CITES Type status status 2001 2000 ACCIPITRIDAE Polyboroides typus African harrier hawk O W II Melierax metabates Dark chanting goshawk O W II Buteo augur Augur buzzard O W II Gypohierax angolensis Palm-nut vulture O W II Hieraaetus spilogaster African hawk eagle O W II Lophaetus occipitalis Long crested eagle O W II COLUMBIDAE Streptopelia semitorquata Red eyed dove O W III GH CUCULIDAE Cuculus canorus Eurasian cuckoo O W Centropus superciliosus White-browed coucal O W COLIIDAE Colius striatus Speckled mousebird O W PHOENICULIDAE Phoeniculus purpureus Green wood-hoopoe O1 W BUCEROTIDAE Tockus alboterminatus Crowned hornbill O1 W MOTACILLIDAE Motacilla aguimp African pied wagtail O W Motacilla clara Mountain wagtail O W PYCNONOTIDAE Pycnonotus barbatus Common bulbul O W TURDIDAE Cossypha heuglini White browed robin chat O W SYLVIIDAE Bradypterus baboecala Little rush warbler O W Prinia subflava Tawny flanked prinia O W Camaroptera brachyura Grey-backed camaroptera O1 W MONARCHIDAE Terpsiphone viridis African paradise flycatcher O1 W PLATYSTEIRIDAE Bias musicus Black and white flycatcher O1 W LANIIDAE Lanius collaris Common fiscal O W MALACONOTIDAE Tchagra australis Brown crowned tchagra O W Malaconotus nigrifrons Black fronted bush shrike O W Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical boubou O W ORIOLIDAE Oriolus oriolus Eurasian golden oriole O W CORVIDAE Corvus albicollis White naped raven O W PLOCEIDAE Ploceus ocularis Spectacled weaver O W Euplectes hordeaceus Black winged red bishop O W III GH

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Species Common name Eco. Endemic IUCN CITES Type status status 2001 2000 ESTRILDIDAE Estrilda astrild Common waxbill O W Lonchura bicolor Black and white mannikin O W FRINGILLIDAE Serinus mozambicus Yellow fronted canary O W III GH EMBERIZIDAE Emberiza cabanisi Cabanis's bunting O W

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR APPENDIX 7 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2).

Ecological (Ecol.) type: • O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge. • O1 – Species stated as non-forest dependent by Neil Baker personal communications, which were listed by Stuart (1993) as forest birds within categories 1 or 2, but not 3 (see Section 1.2 for more detail).

Endemic (End.) status: • W - Widespread distribution.

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Appendix 8 Reptile capture data, Nilo FR

Species Plot ID 6 14 26 32 65 83 97 59A 121 118A No. of individuals Trap site number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 other total specimen released locations

TESTUDINIDAE Southeastern hinge-back tortoise Kinixys sp. * 1 GEKKONIDAE Dwarf gecko Lygodactylus viscatus 0 2 Gecko Urtocotyledon wolterstorffi 1 Usambara forest gecko Cnemaspis africana 0 1 (1) 2 (1) (1). 3 (2) 1 (1). (1). (2). 1, 3 20 14 6 Gecko Hemidactylus mabouia 0 1 1 1 Baobab gecko Hemidactylus platycephalus 6 0 2 2 2 AGAMIDAE 3 3 3 Montane rock agama Agama montana 92, 0* CHAMAELEONIDAE Eastern Usambara two-horned chameleon Chamaeleo fischeri 3, 0 (1). 2 3 3 Usambara soft-horned chameleon Chamaeleo tenue 40 (5). 1 6 6 Common flap necked chameleon Chamaeleo dilepis 0* (2). (1). 2 5 2 1

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Species Plot ID 6 14 26 32 65 83 97 59A 121 118A No. of individuals Trap site number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 other total specimen released locations

Usambara three horned chameleon Chamaeleo deremensis 2 (7). 1 1 9 5 5 Pitted pigmy chameleon Rhampholeon temporalis (2). (2). (1). 0 5 5 0 Bearded pigmy chameleon Rhampholeon brevicaudatus 8, 59 (3). (1). 2 6 6 0 SCINIDAE Usambara five toed fossorial skink Proscelotes eggeli 71 1 (4). 1 5 5 0 Speckle lipped skink Mabuya maculilabris 82 1 (1). 1 9 (3) (6). 3 (3) (1). (1). 1 30 10 20 Mabuya varia 6 1 1 1 0 Peters' writhing skink Lygosoma afrum 6 1 1 1 0 Kilimanjaro five toed skink Leptosiaphos kilimensis 82, 112 1 (3) (1). 1 (2) (2). (1). 1 (3). 2 17 10 7 LACERTIDAE Eastern serrate toed tree lizard Holaspis guentheri laevis (1). VARANIDAE Nile monitor Varanus niloticus 1 TYPHOLIDAE Usambara blind snake Rhinotyphlops gierrai 82 1 3 4 4 0 VIPERIDAE

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Species Plot ID 6 14 26 32 65 83 97 59A 121 118A No. of individuals Trap site number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 other total specimen released locations

Horned bush viper Atheris ceratophorus 45, 46 (1). 2 3 2 1 Eastern Gaboon viper Bitis gabonica 1 0 1 1 0 ELAPSOIDEA Usambara garter snake Elaspsoidea nigra 4, 0, 77, (1). (1). 4 6 6 0 82 Forest cobra Naja melanoleuca 82 1 1 2 2 0 Naja nigricollis 0 1 1 1 0 Eastern green mamba Dendroaspis angusticeps 113 1 1 0 1 COLUBRIDAE Commom house snake Lamprophis capensis 6 1 0 1 0 Wolf snake Lycophidion capense (1). 0 1 1 0 Lycophidion meleagre (1). 0 1 1 0 Usambara forest snake Buhoma vauerocegae 41 (1). 1 1 (1) 1 5 5 0 Olive grass snake Psammophis mossambicus 0 1 1 1 0 Usambara centipede eater Apparallactus werneri 41, 10 (1). (1). 1 1 (1). 2 7 5 2 Tanzanian purple glossed snake Amblyodipsas polylepis hildebrandtii 59 1 1 1 0

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Species Plot ID 6 14 26 32 65 83 97 59A 121 118A No. of individuals Trap site number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Other total specimen released locations

Olive marsh snake Natriciteres olivacea 0* (1). 2 3 3 0 Grey beaked snake Scapiophis albopunctatus albopunctatus 0 1 1 1 0 Usambara green snake Philothamnus macrops 91, 117 (1). (2). 2 5 5 0 Spotted bush snake Philothamnus punctatus 0, 55 (5). 2 7 7 0 Bush snake Philothamnus battersbyi 0 1 1 1 0 Philothamnus hoplogaster 1 0 1 1 0 Tornier's cat snake Crotaphopeltis tornieri (2). 0 2 2 0 Vine snake Theletornis "usambaricus sp. nov. 3, 24, 0 (1). (2). 3 6 6 0

Appendix 8 represents the location and frequency of reptile observations. Numbers in brackets e.g. (3) were observations from pitfall traps. Location “0” represents a position outside the FR boundary. These areas were associated with the FR and thus significant. Plot ID represents the location of an observation, where asterisks are present, more than one observation was recorded of the species at the location i.e. one asterisk by the Plot ID represents two observations of the species at the location, two asterisks represents three observations and three asterisks represents four observations.

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Appendix 9 Amphibian Capture data: Nilo FR (excluding caecilians): Trap sites 1-10

Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Other locations: Plot IDs

ARTHROLEPIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 5 5 1 11 112 Shovel nosed squeaker Arthroleptis stenodactylus 3 (2) 10 2 (5) 9 4 (4) 3 14 21 32 0 212 0*, 10, 62, 82 115*. (70) (10) (4) (8) (11) Arthroleptis xenodactylus 5 2 3 4 2 12 28 10 Arthroleptis affinis 1 3 4 115*, 62 BUFONIDAE Bufo brauni 2 (1) 5 (1) 3 12 Guttural toad Bufo gutteralis 0 (1) 0 (1) 1 1 (1) 5 80 Dwarf toad Nectophrynoides tornieri 9 (1) 54 8 (1)22 17 19 9 0 (2) 142 7, 0, 10*, 59***, 111, 110 HYPEROLIDAE Argus reed frog Hyperolius argus 2 2 Mitchell's reed frog Hyperolius mitchelli 4 4 1 9 0, 18, 111, 110, 109 Parker's reed frog Hyperolius parkeri 8 8 Hyperolius puncticulatus 31 20 4 3 3 6 67 0**, 18, 111. Tinker reed frog Hyperolius tuberilinguis 2 2 1 1 6 82 Hyperolius spinigularis 1 8 2 11 0**, 18**, 74** Greater leaf folding frog

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Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Other locations: Plot IDs

Afrixalus forasini 2 3 1 3 4 13 27, 18, 59 Afrixalus uluguruensis 10 3 2 4 19 0** Afrixalus c.f. pygmaeus/brachycnemis 6 1 1 1 9 18 Afrixalus sp. 7 2 1 2 3 15 62, 115A** Leptopelis barbouri 1 3 4 82 Leptopelis flavomaculatus 2 53 3 3 61 58, 111 Leptopelis parkeri 7 5 1 13 75 Leptopelis uluguruensis 15 6 16 1 2 5 12 57 8, 5, 113, 115A Leptopelis vermiculatus 4 3 3 4 15 2 31 5*, 4, 40 HEMISIDAE Motled shovel nosed frog Hemisus marmoratus 0 (1) 1 RANIDAE Usambara torrent frog Arthroleptides martiensseni 3 5 3 7 3 9 4 34 3, Esat African puddle frog Phrynobatrachus acridoides 1 37 38 41, 101 Phrynobatrachus kreffti 8 16 2 3 3 5 7 44 73 Plain grass frog Ptychadena anchietae 6 2 15 7 30 Ptychadena mascareniensis Pychadena in det. Common river frog Rana angolensis 2 1 2 3 8 109A

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Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Other locations: Plot IDs

MICROHYLIDAE Mozambique rain frog Breviceps mossambicus 49, Callulina kreffti 5 20 16 6 3 11 7 68 4, 62 Probreviceps macrodactylus 0 (4) 3(6) 3 0(4) 9 (3)10 6 (3) 0 (9) 81 (11) (13) Hoplophryne rogersi 2 2 RHACOPHORIDAE Foam nest frog Chiromantis xerampelina 6 1 7 0,

Capture data includes bucket pitfall data, casual collection at trap site locations and casual collection and observations from other locations within and associated with Nilo FR.

* 2 sightings of species at the same location ** 3 sightings of species at the same location *** 4 sightings of species at the same location e.g. 26* = 2 sightings of the species at plot 26.

Pitfall data is highlighted in parthenses. The above data does not differentiate between specimens and released individuals, figures are of total observation Irrespective of the number of specimens taken. Specimen data is available on the EUCAMP database.

.Location “0” represents a position outside of the FR boundary. These positions are associated with the FR and thus significant.

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Appendix 10: 15 man hour amphibian study: Trap sites 1-9, Nilo FR

Trap site 1234567 8 9Total Plot ID 6142632658397 59A 121

ARTHROLEPIDAE Arthroleptis xenodactyloides 0 Shovel nosed squeaker Arthroleptis stenodactylus 5 10 1 9 7 11 14 21 32 110 Arthroleptis xenodactylus 5523542 1238 Arthroleptis affinis BUFONIDAE Bufo brauni 25 3 10 Guttural toad Bufo gutteralis 0 Dwarf toad Nectophrynoides tornieri 9 54 8 22 17 19 9 138 HYPEROLIDAE Argus reed frog Hyperolius argus 0 Mitchell’s reed frog Hyperolius mitchelli 4 1 5 Parker’s reed frog Hyperolius parkeri 8 8 Hyperolius puncticulatus 31 20 4 3 3 6 67 Tinker reed frog Hyperolius tuberilinguis 21 14 Hyperolius spinigularis 8 8 Hyperolius spp. A Hyperolius spp. B Greater leaf folding frog Afrixalus forasini 3 4 7 Afrixalus uluguruensis 10 2 2 4 18 Afrixalus c.f. pygmaeus/brachycnemis Afrixalus sp. Leptopelis barbouri 21 3 6 Leptopelis flavomaculatus 53 3 3 59 Leptopelis parkeri 75 1 13 Leptopelis uluguruensis 15 6 16 1 2 5 12 57 Leptopelis vermiculatus 4 3 4 15 2 28 HEMISIDAE 0 Motled shovel nosed frog Hemisus marmtosus 0 RANIDAE Usambara torrent frog Arthroleptides martiensseni 353739 434 Esat African puddle frog Phrynobatrachus acridoides 1 37 38 Phrynobatrachus kreffti 816 3 3 5 7 42 Snoring puddle frog Phrynobatrachus natalensis 0

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Plain grass frog Ptychadena anchietae 6 2 15 7 30 Common river frog Rana angolensis 2 3 5 Trap site 1234567 8 9Total Plot ID 6142632658397 59A 121

MICROHYLIDAE Mozambique rain frog Breviceps mossambicus 0 Callulina kreffti 52016 6 311 7 68 Probreviceps macrodactylus 3 3 9 10 6 31 Hoplophryne rogersi 2 2 RHACOPHORIDAE Foam nest frog Chiromantis xerampelina 0 CAECILIIDAE Boulengerula boulengeri 0 SCOLECOMORPHIDAE Scolecomorphus vittatus 0

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Appendix 11 Caecilian records from Nilo FR

Boulengeula boulengeri Scolecomorphous vittatus Plots Digs Casual Digs Casual 1 4 1 4 3 6 5 7 3 8 1 18 2 19 7 1 22 1 24 6 27 2 30 1 35 10 39 1 41 4 43 5 45 4 4 46 10 47 2 48 1 51 1 53 2 3 65 3 73 1 82 2 88 1 89 92 4 96 3 98 2 106 7 Sub- 85 0 3 19 totals 85 21

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Appendices: Nilo Forest Reserve: A biodiversity report 153

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper Series

(ISSN 1236-620X)

The East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Papers Series consists of reports on forestry issues in the East Usambara Mountains. This series started in 1991. These reports aim to make information more widely available to staff members of the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, to the Forestry and Beekeeping Division, and to other institutions and individuals concerned and interested in the conservation of the East Usambara forests.

The reports are prepared by staff members of the East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme or by other researchers, consultants and interested individuals. The views expressed in the reports are those of the author(s).

Current titles in the series are:

1. Mwihomeke, S.T. 1991. Some notes to identify and discuss cooperation in forestry research in the East Usambara mountains. Räsänen, P.K. 1991. Outline of a research planning programme for the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project. 2. Hyytiäinen, K. 1992. Forest management plan for Longuza teak plantations. 3. Seymour, M. 1992. Manual harvesting of Maesopsis eminii in the East Usambara mountains, Tanzania. 4. Newmark, W.D. 1992. Recommendations for wildlife corridors and the extension and management of forest reserves in the East Usambara mountains, Tanzania. 5. Häkkinen, I. & Wambura, M. 1992. A Frame plan for the Amani Nature Reserve. 6. Masilingi, W.M.K. 1992. Consultancy report on the legal establishment of the Amani Nature Reserve. 7. Binagi, E.R. 1992. Consolidation of environmental education for adults: critique of FINNIDA- funded forestry projects in Tanzania. A case study of the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project. 8. Tuominen, V. 1993. Marking of the forest reserve boundaries in the East Usambara mountains. 9. Pirttilä, I. 1993. The discharge of Sigi River as an indicator of water catchment value of the East Usambara mountains in Tanzania. 10. Hyytiäinen, K. 1993. Combined seed and timber production in Longuza Teak plantations, Tanzania. 11. Kajembe, G.C. & Mwaseba, D. 1994. The extension and communication programme for the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project. 12. Hyytiäinen, K. 1995. Land use classification and mapping for the East Usambara Mountains. 13. Hall, J.B. 1995. Maesopsis eminii and its status in the East Usambara Mountains. 14. Heinonen, P. 1995. PSPs in East Usambara Mountains: present findings and future recommendations. 15. Mnyuku, F.C.N. 1995. Report on an inventory of selected proposed forest reserves in Muheza District, Tanga Region. 16. Kamugisha, S.M. & Materu, E.M.A. 1995. Preliminary results from a study on water flow and in Sigi and Bombo rivers in the East Usambara mountains. 17. Ellman, A., Tye, A., Rwamugira, S., Mallya, B., Mahenge, F. and Mndolwa, A. 1995. Development of forest trails and drive routes in the Amani Nature Reserve. 18. Ellman, A.E. 1996. Handing over the stick? Report of a village forest management and farm forestry consultancy 19. Kigula, J.J., Kijazi, M., Nyangasa, H., Mtango, J., Mahenge, F. 1998. Local communities aspirations and needs.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53 Appendices: Nilo Forest Reserve: A biodiversity report 154

20. Fowler, S. & Nyambo, B. 1996. Report of a short consultancy on the potential of biological control of invasive species in Amani Nature Reserve. International Institute for Biological Control & EUCFP. 21 Howard, P.C. 1996. Baseline biological surveys in selected East Usambara forest reserves and forests, 1995-96 – project evaluation report 22. Woodcock, K. 1995. Local utilisation and indigenous knowledge – two case studies on forest resources use in the East Usambara Mountains. 23. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Bamba Ridge forest reserve, Maramba Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 24. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Mlungui proposed forest reserve, Maramba Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 25. Shaka J.M. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Kwamarimba and north Longuza forest reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 26. Shaka J.M., Kabushemera, W. & Msangi, A. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Kambai forest reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 27. Shelutete, M. 1996. Women in focus. Report of a consultancy on conservation and women in East Usambara. 28. Johansson, S.G. & Sandy, R. 1996. Protected areas and public lands – land use in the East Usambara mountains. 29. SEE. 1996. Biodiversity survey methods report. – Technical Paper of the Society for Environmental Exploration, London. 30. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Magarotto Forest. A biodiversity survey. 31. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Bamba Ridge Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 32. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Mlungui proposed forest reserve. A biodiversity survey. 33. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Kwamarimba Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 34. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Longuza Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 35. Fronter Tanzania. 1996. Kambai Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 36. Shaka, J.M., W. Kabushemera & A. Msangi.1997. A survey and vegetation of Semdoe proposed forest reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga 37. Vainio-Mattila, K., Mwasumbi, L. & Lahti, K. 1997. Traditional use of wild vegetables in East Usambara mountains. 38. Sandy,R.P., Boniface, G. & Rajabu, I. 1997. A survey and inventory of the Amani Botanical Garden. 39. Fronter Tanzania. 1999. Mtai Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 40. Fronter Tanzania. 1999. Kwamgumi Forest Reserve. A biodiversity survey. 41. Frontier Tanzania 1999. Manga forest reserve. A biodiversity survey. 42. Frontier Tanzania 2001. Doggart, N. H., Doody, K. Z., Howell, K. M., and Fanning, E. (eds.) Semdoe Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 44. Doggart, N. 2000. The East Usambara biodiversity database: A user’s manual 45. Jambiya, G. 2000. The Social Impact Assessment of the proposed Derema Forest Reserve and Wildlife Corridors. 46. Kamugisha, S.M. 2000. Progress Report on water flow and sediment load in Sigi & Bombo rivers. 47. Cordeiro, J. N. 2001. Population study on the Long-billed tailorbird in the East Usambara Mountains. 48. Kobb, D. 1998. Forestry royalties in Tanga region: Paper versus reality 50. Frontier Tanzania 2001. Doody, K. Z., Howell, K. M., and Fanning, E. (eds.) Segoma Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 51. Frontier Tanzania 2001. Doody, K. Z., Beharrell, N. K, Howell, K. M., and Fanning, E. (eds.) Mpanga Village Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 52. Frontier Tanzania 2001. Doody, K. Z., Howell, K. M., and Fanning, E. (eds.) Amani Nature Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 53. Frontier Tanzania 2002. Beharrell, N. K., Fanning, E., and Howell, K. M.(eds.) Nilo Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey.

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper 53