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A Biography of the English Language 1019763_FM_VOL-I.qxp 9/17/07 4:22 PM Page viii 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 S 50 R 51 1st Pass Pages CONSONANT PHONEMES OF PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH Point of Articulation Labio- Inter- Alveo- Manner of Articulation Bilabial dental dental Alveolar palatal Velar Stops Voiceless ptk Voiced bdg Affricates Voiceless cˇ Voiced Jˇ Fricatives Voiceless f T s š h* Voiced vðz ž Nasals mnŋy Lateral l Retroflex r Semivowels w j (w)z /p/ pill /f/ feel /m/ hum /b/ bill /v/ veal /n/ Hun /t/ till /T/ thigh /ŋ/ hung /d/ dill /ð/ thy /l/ lore /k/ kill /s/ seal /r/ roar /g/ gill /z/ zeal /w/ wore /c/ˇ chill /š/ mesher /j/ yore /Jˇ/ Jill /ž/ measure /h/ heel *The fricative /h/, in modern English only a burst of aspiration preceding a vowel, is actually produced at various points in the mouth, depending on the nature of the following vowel. For the sake of convenience, it is listed here as a velar phoneme. y The velar /ŋ/ is not phonemic for many speakers of English, but only an allophone of /n/ that occurs before /k/ and /g/. If, in your speech, the words finger and singer rhyme, [ŋ] is probably not phonemic for you. z The phoneme /w/ actually has a dual articulation; it is bilabial by virtue of the rounding and near closure of the lips and velar by virtue of the raising of the back of the tongue toward the velum. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. VOWEL PHONEMES OF PRESENT-DAY AMERICAN ENGLISH Unrounded Rounded Front Central Back High i u I (lax) ⍀ (lax) e e o Mid ε (lax) c (lax) æ Low a /i/ Keyed /a/ cod, card /I/ kid /u/ cooed /e/ Kade /⍀ / could /ε/ Ked /o/ code /æ/ cad / c / cawed / e / cud, curd DIPHTHONG PHONEMES OF PRESENT-DAY AMERICAN ENGLISH c I a I Ω a aI buy a Ω bough c I boy Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ✵ A Biography of the English Language Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ✵ A Biography of the English Language THIRD EDITION C. M. MILLWARD Late, Boston University MARY HAYES University of Mississippi Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppress ed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 52609_00_fm_pi-pxxvi.indd ii 2/1/10 11:37:43 PM A Biography of the English © 2012, 1996 Wadsworth, Cengage learning Language, Third Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the C. M. Millward, Mary Hayes copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, Senior Publisher: Lyn Uhl including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, Publisher: Michael Rosenberg digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or Development Editor: Joan M information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted Flaherty under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 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Manager: Glenn McGibbon Project Management: Library of Congress Control Number: 2010940924 PreMediaGlobal ISBN-13: 978-0-495-90641-4 Art Director: Marissa Falco 10: 0-495-90641-7 Print Buyer: Susan Spencer ISBN- Rights Acquisitions Specialist (Text): Katie Huha Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Rights Acquisitions Specialist Boston, MA 02210 (Image): Jennifer Meyer Dare USA Cover Designer: Susan Shapiro Compositor: PreMediaGlobal Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil and Japan. Locate your local office at international.cengage.com/region Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Instructors: Please visit login.cengage.com and log in to access instructor-specific resources. Printed in the United States of America 12345671413121110 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. ✵ Contents PREFACE xv 1 Introduction 1 Features Common to All Languages 1 All Languages Are Systematic 1 All Natural Languages Are Conventional and Arbitrary 6 All Natural Languages Are Redundant 7 All Natural Languages Change 7 Changes in Language 8 What Is Language Change? 8 Why Does Language Change? 11 Internal and External Pressures for Change 14 Predicting Change 15 Factors Impeding Change 15 Demarcating the History of English 17 Evaluating Sources of Information 18 Essential Concepts 21 References and Suggested Readings 21 2 Phonology 23 The Production of Speech 24 Phonemes and Allophones 24 v Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. vi CONTENTS The Phonemes of Present-Day American English 28 Consonants 28 Vowels 30 Prosody 32 Essential Concepts 33 References and Suggested Readings 33 3 Writing 35 The Effects of Writing on Speech 36 Why Was Writing Invented? 37 Types of Writing Systems 38 Pictograms and Ideograms 38 Logograms 40 Syllabaries 40 Alphabets 42 Essential Concepts 44 References and Suggested Readings 44 4 Language Families and Indo-European Languages 47 Major Language Families of the World 50 Development of Historical Linguistics in Europe 53 The Outer History of Indo-European 55 The Indo-European Languages 56 Indo-Iranian 56 Tocharian 60 Armenian 60 Anatolian 60 Balto-Slavic 61 Hellenic 61 Albanian 62 Celtic 62 Italic 63 Germanic 63 From Indo-European to Germanic 65 Phonology 65 Graphics 70 Morphology 70 Syntax 72 Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience.
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