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7. Old English Feet Chris Golston California State University, Fresno 1. Introduction In this chapter I show that the Beowulf poet carefully avoids lines whose halves are identical in terms of stressed (x) and stressless (.) syllables. The half-line (x.x.), for instance, is happily paired with anything but another (x.x.), despite the fact that (x.x.) is by far the commonest half-line type in the poem. Statistical analysis shows that this avoidance is not by chance and suggests that having identical adjacent half-lines is unmetrical in the poem. The same appears to be the case for half-lines identical in weight: a half-line with heavy and light syllables that runs (HLHL) does not pair with one that runs (HLHL). The results are obtained by looking at each and every syllable in the poem, regardless of stress, morphological status, or position within the line. This shows that Beowulf meter strictly regulates every syllable in the poem. Theories that ignore pre-tonic syllables (Bliss 1958), syllables that occur in prefixes (Russom 1987), stressless syllables in general (Keyser 1969, Fabb & Halle 2008), or stress in general (Golston & Riad 2001) cannot account for this fact. An adequate theory of OE meter must include stress, quantity, and the avoidance of identical half-lines. 2. Variation We may begin with a metrical scansion of the first part of the poem, where the first syllable of every lexical root (noun, verb, adjective) is stressed (x) and all others are stressless (.): (1)!Beowulf lines 1-11 Hwat, w" g#r-dena in ge#r-dagum, ! . x x .! . x x .! 1 $"od-cyninga $rym gefr%non, ! x x . .! x . x .! 2 h% &# æ$elingas ellen fremedon! ! . x . .! x . x . .! 3 oft Scyld Sc"fing scea$ena $r"atum, ! . x x .! x . x .! 4 monegum m'g$um meodo-setla oft"ah, ! x . x .! x . x . x!5 egsode eorlas, sy&&an 'rest wear&! x . x .! . x . x! 6 f"asceaft funden; h" $æs fr(fre geb#d,! x . x .! . x . x!7 w"ox under wolcnum weor&-myndum $#h,! x . x .! x x . x! 8 o& $æt him 'ghwylc ymb-sittendra! . x .! x x . .! 9 106! Versatility in Versification ofer hron-r#de h)ran scolde, ! . x x .! x . x .! 10 gomban gyldan; $æt wæs g(d cyning! ! x . x .! . x x .!11 Listen up! We have heard of the power of the kings of the spear-Danes, how the nobles won their honors! Oft Scyld Scefing took the mead-benches from many enemy nations’ troops, terrified warriors. After he was first found destitute, he found this consolation, he grew up under clouds, he prospered in honor, until each of the surrounding nations on the sea-lanes had to obey him paying tribute; that was a good king! Two things should be mentioned before we go on. First, I’ll have nothing to say about the important issue of alliteration, only because it falls outside the scope of this article. Second, only primary stress is recorded in the scansions—secondary is sometimes taken to be metrically significant in Old English meter and I do not mean to deny that it could be; but to test scansion empirically one needs to have a simple and replicable method of scanning and I have chosen to scan only primary stresses as ekses. ! Looking at the patterns of stressed and stressless syllables, it should be clear that there is no meter in the usual sense of a simple rhythmic pattern repeated a number of times. We do not find four trochees here or five iambs or six dactyls or the like. Rather, there seems to be a fairly haphazard distribution of stressed and stressless syllables. But a closer look at the data reveals an anti-pattern: the Beowulf poet strenuously avoids lines whose first and second halves are identical in terms of stress. The point of the meter is to have rhythmic variety between the two halves in every line, more Coltrane than Chopin. Note that in the eleven lines above, none has a line composed of two stress-identical half-lines. This is a robust pattern in the poem as we will see below. ! Interestingly, the pattern does not hold of all adjacent half-lines. Specifically, if we look at the second half of one line and the first half of the next we find two cases (lines 4-5 and 10-11) where adjacent half-lines are identical, as the underlined portions below show: (2)!Adjacent identical half-lines across lines oft Scyld Sc"fing scea$ena $r"atum, ! . x x .! x . x .! l. 4 monegum m'g$um meodo-setla oft"ah, ! x . x .! x . x . x! l. 5 ! Old English feet! 107 ofer hron-r#de h)ran scolde, ! . x x .! x . x .! l. 10 gomban gyldan; $æt wæs g(d cyning! ! x . x .! . x x .! l. 11 So the avoidance of stress-identical half-lines holds only within lines, not across them. Below we will encounter a small number of lines (one percent of the total) that does not obey this generalization, but that number is far smaller than would be expected by chance. The avoidance of stress-identical half-lines within a line is statistically quite robust. ! To determine the statistical significance of this we need to calculate how common a given type of line should be, all else being equal, and compare that number to the actual number of times a given type of line occurs. We can begin with the commonest type of half-line (x.x.), which occurs 1125 times in the 6338 half lines of Beowulf , roughly once per six lines. If the likelihood of getting (x.x.) in a line is 1/6, the likelihood of getting two such half-lines in the same line is 1/6 * 1/6, or 1/36. The math will be familiar from rolling dice: my chances of rolling a 4 with one die are 1/6 and my chances of rolling two fours simultaneously with two dice are 1/36. Likewise with half-lines. 1/36th of the 3169 lines in Beowulf is 88, the number of lines we would expect whose stress-pattern is (x.x. x.x.), all things being equal. We find only six such lines and the difference between the actual 6 and the expected 88 is highly significant given a corpus of 3169 lines (p<.000001). Put another way, the probability of the number being this low by chance is one in a million. We can safely conclude from this that the Beowulf poet avoided lines with a perfect trochaic rhythm (x.x. x.x.). (This is a binomial probability: see Lowry 2008 for discussion and for the engine that generated the numbers in this paper.) ! The same process can be repeated with the next most common types of half-lines: ! 665 (x..x.) half-lines = 1/10 of the total; ! ! probability of (x..x.)(x..x.) = 1/100. ! 32 such lines expected, 5 found; ! ! difference is highly significant (p<0.000001). 108! Versatility in Versification ! 474 (..x.x) half-lines = 1/14 of the total; ! ! probability of (..x.x) (..x.x) = 1/196. ! 16 such lines expected, 5 found; ! ! difference is highly significant (p<0.004). ! 464 (..xx.) half-lines = 1/14 of the total; ! ! probability of (..xx.) (..xx.) = 1/196. ! 16 such lines expected, 4 found; ! ! difference is highly significant (p<0.0018). ! 281 (xx.x) half-lines = 1/22 of the total; ! ! probability of (xx.x) (xx.x) = 1/484. ! 6 such lines expected, 1 found; ! ! difference is highly significant (p<0.024). The remaining types of half-line are not common enough to allow use of this kind of binomial probability. So while we expect 3 lines that run (…x.x) (…x.x) and get only 1 such line, that result could simply be by chance. The upshot of all this is that for all the cases we can study with this method, the low number of lines with identical half- lines is not due to chance. 2. Theory We turn now to what this fact tells us about theories of the meter of Beowulf. This is not the place to cover all extant theories of Old English meter, though, so consideration of some of the most important ones will have to suffice. 2.1. Extant theories of the meter of Beowulf Let us begin with Sievers 1888, the most influential theory of OE meter and the most commonly taught. Sievers’ theory is based on five half-line types whose stress profiles are given below in the same eks and dot notation used above: (3)!Sievers’ 5 types ! A! x.x.!‘trochaic’! ! ! B! .x.x!‘iambic’ ! C! .xx.!! ! ! ! ! D! xxx. ! E! xx.x ! Old English feet! 109 The theory is usually extended to encompass subtypes of A-E, but that is not something we need to consider here: the problems for the theory multiply with a greater number of types. For now it will do to point out that all five half-line types have four syllables, unlike most of the half-lines of Beowulf. To accommodate those half-lines that do not have four syllables, syllables are split apart, joined together, or ignored in Sievers’ theory until there are only four syllables left. Splitting syllables is necessary, for instance, in half-lines with only three syllables; splitting a heavy syllable into two lights brings the syllable count to four, as the 5 types require. Syllables are joined together when a half-line has more than four syllables; ‘resolving’ a light syllable with a following syllable brings the syllable count to four again.
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