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Old English Phonology After our first few lessons using This Language, A River, I’ve decided that you need supplementary materials that are a little bit clearer and more schematic, as well as a little bit more complete. The following pages are intended to supplement the material on pp. 125-132.
The Old English Alphabet The Anglo-Saxons acquired the alphabet that they used in manuscripts from Christians who led efforts to convert them from the 580s onward. The Christians, as the inheritors of Roman textual traditions, used the Latin alphabet. When Christian monks began writing down Old English texts, they discovered that Old English included a number of sounds that the Latin alphabet did not represent easily. For this reason, they adapted a few runic characters into the Latin alphabet that they used to represent Old English. A momentary digression about Runes The runic alphabet was used throughout Northern Europe among communities who spoke languages that were part of the larger Germanic language family, but it was an alphabet that was best adapted for carving and inscription on stone, wood, metal, and bone rather than for writing on parchment or vellum. The oldest surviving artifact that certainly reflects a runic text is a bone comb from approximately 150AD found in a bog in Denmark (Looijenga 161). The inscription reads ᚺᚫᚱᛃᚫ: “harja.” The text may mean “warrior,” or “member of the Harii tribe,” or “hair.” Personally, I have always preferred the last interpretation because it seems like an amusingly obvious thing to put on a comb. In any case, the runic alphabets employed single graphical representations for phonemes that Germanic languages had but that Latin did not: <æ> ‘æsh’, which is also the character used in the IPA for the low front vowel phoneme in English /æ/; <þ> ‘thorn’, which represented the phoneme /θ/; <ƿ> ‘wynn’, which represented the phoneme /w/. The Old English alphabet also used the character <ð> ‘eth’, which was adapted from a crossed
Lower case (known as “miniscule” forms): a b c d e f ȝ[g] h i l m n o p r s t u ƿ[w] y x ð þ In addition, two “digraphs” are used to represent two other sounds:
Old English Consonant Phonemes and their Allophones Old English had two categories of phonemes that had radically different allophones based on the context in which they were found: voiceless fricatives and velar consonants. Old English did not have any “voiced fricative” phonemes as PDE does. PDE has both voiceless fricative phonemes and voiced fricative phonemes. Here is a little review of the fricative inventory of English. PDE Voiceless phonemes: Voiceless labio-dental phoneme: /f/ as in the following words
When voiceless fricative phonemes appeared between two voiced sounds, they became voiced. Remember that all vowels are voiced, as are the following sounds /w, m, n, l, r, ʤ/ that frequently appear in Old English words around voiceless fricatives. Verbal prefixes, such as ā- and ġe-never triggered the voicing of the following consonant, most likely because the stress appears on the vowel following the initial consonant of the root. Thus, the word <ġefēran> 'companions' would be transcribed /jefe:rɑn/, and <āfyllan> 'to fill up' would be transcribed /ɑ:fyllɑn/. Old English Word IPA Transcription PDE Meaning wulfas, n. [wulvɑs] wolves leþerhosa, n. [leðerhoza] leather leggings (accusative plural) In linguistic terms, we can describe this voicing rule as a type of assimilation, a phonetic process where one sound takes on the traits of the sounds around it. In the case of the Old English voiceless fricatives, /f, θ, s/, they "catch" the voicing from the voiced sounds around them. The other major category of consonants that showed significant allophonic variation is the velar consonants. Old English included three velar phonemes: two stops--/k/ and /g/--and one fricative--/x/. The voiceless velar fricative was spelled with the letter
/k/-->[k] elsewhere cræft, n. [kræft] occupation /g/--> [j] / front vowels ġeġeocod, ppl. [jejeokod] yoked /g/--> [ɣ] /between two fugleras, n. [fuɣlerɑs] fowlers (bird- back vowels or between farmers/bird-catchers) back vowel and /l, r/ /g/--> [g]/ initially and gāde, n. [gɑ:de] goad (or prod) in consonant clusters /x/--> [h] initially hæbbe, v. [hæbbe] have (1st p. pres.) /x/--> [ç] after a front āwihte, n. [ɑwiçte] anything vowel /x/--> [x] elsewhere sylh, n. [sylx] plow
Old English Vowels Phonologists differ about how to represent the Old English vowel system. Smith and Kim have decided to follow the "cardinal vowel" principle. They argue that Old English was, in effect, a fourteen vowel system: six short vowels and six long vowels. In our Old English texts, long vowels are indicated with a macron. A long [ɑ] is spelled <ā>, for example. In Old English, vowel length was a phonemic property, not an allophonic one. In other words, a word with a long vowel in it was distinctive from a word that had the same structure but a short vowel. Thus, the word
Front Back High i i: y y: u u: Mid e e: o o: Low æ æ: ɑ ɑ: In addition, Old English had at least six diphthongs: three short and three long. The first sound in the diphthong can be long, so the macron sits over the first vowel in the sequence.
Exercises: Ælfric’s Colloquy on the Occupations We are going to use the selections below drawn from the work of Ælfric, Abbot of Eynsham, a monk who wrote one of the largest collections of sermons and educational texts in England. He flourished about the year 1000. 5
You can listen to audio versions of these lines through Peter Baker’s online edition of the text: http://faculty.virginia.edu/OldEnglish/Guide.Readings/Colloquy.html. This version is adapted from Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson’s A Guide to Old English. Below each word, you will see a "gloss" (a definition) and at the end of the passage you will find an idiomatic translation of the whole passage. I have left space below where you can transcribe the words into the IPA so that you can see how the words are pronounced. We will also use this selection to talk about grammar. The Monk Hwelċne cræft canst þū?
Which occupation know you Iċ eom munuc.
I am monk Hwæt cunnon þās þīne ġefēran?
What know that your companions Sume sind ierþlingas, sume scēaphierdas, sume oxanhierdas, sume huntan, sume fisceras, sume fugleras, certain are ploughmen certain shepherds certain ox-herders certain hunters certain fishermen certain fowlers sume cīepmenn, sume scōwyrhtan, sume sealteras, sume bæceras. certain merchants certain shoe-makers certain salt-makers certain bakers The Ploughman Hwæt seġst þū ierþling? Hū begǣst þū þīnne cræft?
What say you ploughman How practice you your occupation Lā lēof, þearle iċ swince! Ælċe dæġe iċ sceal on dæġrǣd ūtgān. Þonne sceal iċ þā oxan tō felda drīfan and tō
Oh dear, severely I labor Each day I must in dawn go out Then must I the oxen to field drive and to þǣre sylh ġeocian. Nis nān winter swā stearc þæt iċ dyrre æt hām lūtian: ne dearr iċ for mines hlāfordes eġe. the plow yoke (There is not no) winter so severe that I dare at home lurk nor dare I for of my lord terror Ac þonne iċ þā oxan ġeġeocod hæbbe, and þæt scear and þone culter on þǣre sylh ġefæstnod hæbbe, þonne
But when I the oxen yoked have and the ploughshare and the coulter on the plow fastened have then sceal iċ fulne æcer erian oþþe māre. must I full acre plough or more 6
Hæfst þū ǣniġne ġefēran?
Have you any companions Ġiese, iċ hæbbe cnapan: sē sceal þā oxan mid gāde þȳwan. Sē is nū hās for ċiele and hrēame.
Yes I have servant he must the oxen with prod urge He is now hoarse for cold and shouting Hwæt māre dēst þū? Hæfst þū ġīet māre tō dōnne?
What more do you Have you yet more to do Ġiese lēof, miċel iċ hæbbe tō dōnne! Iċ sceal þāra oxena binne mid hīeġe āfyllan, and hīe wæterian, and
Yes dear much I have to do I must (of) the oxen manger with hay to fill up and them water and hira steal feormian.
their stall clean Ēala, þæt is miċel ġedeorf!
Oh that is much hardship Ġiese lēof, hit is miċel ġedeorf, for þǣm þe iċ neom frēo.
Yes dear, it is much hardship on account which I am never free The Shepherd Hwæt seġst þū, scēaphierde? Hæfst þū ǣniġ ġedeorf?
What say you shepherd Have you any hardship Ġiese lēof, iċ hæbbe miċel ġedeorf! On ǣrnemerġen iċ drīfe mīn scēap tō lǣswe. Siþþan stande iċ ofer hīe
Yes dear I have much hardship in early morning I drive my sheep to pasture Afterwards stand I over them mid hundum, þȳ lǣs þe wulfas hīe forswelgen. Þonne lǣde iċ hīe on ǣfen onġēan tō hira locum. Iċ hīe
with dogs lest wolves them devour Then lead I them in evening back to their enclosures I them melce tuwa on dæġe. Iċ macie buteran and ċīese. And iċ eom mīnum hlāforde ġetrīewe.
milk twice a day I make butter and cheese And I am to my lord faithful ...... The Shoemaker Þū scōwyrhta, hwæt wyrċst þū ūs tō nytte?
You shoemaker what work you us to use 7
Mīn cræft is ēow swīþe nytt and swīþe nīedbehēfe. Iċ bycge hȳda and fell, and hīe ġearcie mid mīnum cræfte,
My occupation is to you very useful and very necessary I buy hides and skins and them prepare with my skill and wyrċe þǣrof missenliċes cynnes ġescȳ, leþerhosa, þwangas, ġerǣdu, flascan, and fǣtelsas; and ne mæġ
and work from that various kinds shoes, leather-leggings straps harnesses flasks and pouches and not may ēower nān ofer winter wunian būtan mīnum cræfte
none you none over winter survive except by my occupation. ... The Cook Hwæt secge wē be þǣm cōce? Beþurfon wē his cræftes tō āwihte?
what say we about the cook Need we his occupation for anything Gif ġē mē of ēowrum ġefērscipe ūtādrīfaþ, ġē etaþ ēowre wyrta grēne and ēowre flǣscmettas hrēawe;
If you me of your company drive away you eat your vegetables green and your meat raw ne magon ġē furþum fǣtt broþ habban būtan mīnum cræfte.
nor may you even fat broth have except my occupation Ne reċċe wē be þīnum cræfte: nis hē ūs nā nīedbehēfe, for þǣm wē magon selfe sēþan þā þing þe tō sēoþanne
Not care we by your occupation not is it to us not necessary because we may ourselves boil those things which to boil sind, and brǣdan þā þing þe tō brǣdanne sind.
are and roast those things which to roast are Gif ġē mē ūtādrīfaþ and þūs dōþ, þonne bēo ġē ealle þēowas, and nān ēower ne biþ hlāford; and þēah hwæþre
If you me drive out and thus do then are you all servants and none of you not be lord and nonetheless ġē magon etan būtan mīnum cræfte.
You may eat without my occupation
Idiomatic Translation: What occupation do you know? I am a monk? What do your companions know how to do? Certain (of them) are ploughmen, certain (of them) shepherds, certain (of them) ox-herders, certain (of them) hunters, certain (of them) fishermen, certain (of them) fowlers, certain (of them) merchants, certain (of them) shoe-makers, certain (of them) salt-makers, certain (of them) bakers. What say you, ploughman? How do you practice your occupation? 8
Oh dear, I labor severely! Each day I must go out at dawn. Then I must drive the oxen to the field and yoke them to the plow. There is no winter so severe that I dare to lurk at home, nor dare I for terror of my lord. But when I have yoked the oxen, and have fastened the ploughshare and the coulter on the plow, then I must plough a full acre or more. Do you have any companions? Yes, I have a servant; he must urge the oxen with a goad. He is now hoarse because of the cold and shouting. What more do you do? Have you yet more to do? Yes dear, I have much to do! I must fill the mangers of the oxen with hay and water them and clean out their stall. Oh, that is a lot of hardship! Yes, dear, it is a lot of hardship, on account of which I am never free! What do you say, shepherd? Do you have any hardship? Yes dear, I have much hardship! In the early morning, I drive my sheep to pasture. Afterwards, I stand over them with dogs, lest the wolves devour them. Then in the evening I lead them back again to their enclosures. I milk them twice a day. I make butter and cheese. And I am faithful to my lord. You, shoemaker, what work do you do that is useful to us? My occupation is very useful to you and very necessary. I buy hides and skins, and prepare them with my skill and work from them various kinds of shoes, leather-leggings, straps, harnesses, flasks, and pouches, and none of you would survive over winter except by my occupation. What do we say about the cook? Do we need his occupation for anything? If you drive me away from your company, you eat your vegetables green and your meat raw, nor may you have even fat broth without my skill. We don't care about your occupation. It is not necessary for us, because we may ourselves boil those things that are boiled and roast those things that are roasted. If you drive me away and do thus, then you are all servants none of you will be lord, and nonetheless you may eat only by my occupation.
Works Cited Looijenga, Tineke. Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions. Brill, 2003. Mitchell, Bruce and Fred C. Robinson. A Guide to Old English, 8th ed. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.