THE ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TRANSLATION TECHNOLOGY The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Technology provides a state-of-the art survey of the field of computer-assisted translation. It is the first definitive reference to provide a comprehensive overview of the general, regional and topical aspects of this increasingly significant area of study. The Encyclopedia is divided into three parts: • Part One presents general issues in translation technology, such as its history and development, translator training and various aspects of machine translation, including a valuable case study of its teaching at a major university. • Part Two discusses national and regional developments in translation technology, offering contributions covering the crucial territories of China, Canada, France, Hong Kong, Japan, South Africa, Taiwan, the Netherlands and Belgium, the United Kingdom and the United States. • Part Three evaluates specific matters in translation technology, with entries focused on subjects such as alignment, bitext, computational lexicography, corpus, editing, online translation, subtitling and technology and translation management systems. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Technology draws on the expertise of over 50 contributors from around the world and an international panel of consultant editors to provide a selection of articles on the most pertinent topics in the discipline. All the articles are self-contained, extensively cross-referenced, and include useful and up-to-date references and information for further reading. It will be an invaluable reference work for anyone with a professional or academic interest in the subject. Chan Sin-wai is Professor in the Department of Translation at The Chinese University of Hong Kong. His research interests include computer translation, translation studies and lexicography. Praise for this edition: “It is unique in that it provides both a truly encyclopedic overview of the field of computer- assisted translation and an in-depth discussion of the various aspects of this young discipline by some of the best-known experts in each of the disciplines this book covers. I was particularly pleased by the fact that so much emphasis was placed on teaching translation technology, which clearly is an area that deserves this type of attention.” Uawe Muegge, Monterey Institute of International Studies, USA “This is an immensely useful compendium of information about the history, techniques and world-wide distribution of translation technologies over the last 70 years. The articles are authored by international specialists whose wide-ranging expertise is brought together here for the first time. The individual articles are almost without exception at the cutting edge of knowledge, so will be of value to researchers and other specialists as well as students … Part Two (on national and regional developments) is particularly innovative and valuable in setting translation technology in its social and political context in different societies around the world.” Andrew Rothwell, Swansea University, UK THE ROUTLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TRANSLATION TECHNOLOGY Edited by Chan Sin-wai First published 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2015 Chan Sin-wai The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Routledge encyclopedia of translation technology / edited by Sin-Wai Chan. pages cm 1. Translating and interpreting--Technological innovations--Encyclopedias. 2. Translating and interpreting--Encyclopedias. I. Chan, Sin-wai, editor. II. Title: Encyclopedia of translation technology. P306.97.T73R68 2015 418’.020285--dc23 2014018223 ISBN: 978-0-415-52484-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-74912-9 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby CONTENTS List of figures ix List of tables xii List of consultant editors xiii List of contributors xiv Preface chan sin-wai xxvii Acknowledgements xxxv PART I General issues of translation technology 1 1 The development of translation technology: 1967–2013 3 Chan Sin-wai 2 Computer-aided translation: major concepts 32 Chan Sin-wai 3 Computer-aided translation: systems 68 Ignacio Garcia 4 Computer-aided translation: translator training 88 Lynne Bowker 5 Machine translation: general 105 Liu Qun and Zhang Xiaojun 6 Machine translation: history of research and applications 120 W. John Hutchins v Contents 7 Example-based machine translation 137 Billy Wong Tak-ming and Jonathan J. Webster 8 Open-source machine translation technology 152 Mikel L. Forcada 9 Pragmatics-based machine translation 167 David Farwell and Stephen Helmreich 10 Rule-based machine translation 186 Yu Shiwen and Bai Xiaojing 11 Statistical machine translation 201 Liu Yang and Zhang Min 12 Evaluation in machine translation and computer-aided translation 213 Kit Chunyu and Billy Wong Tak-ming 13 The teaching of machine translation: The Chinese University of Hong Kong as a case study 237 Cecilia Wong Shuk Man PART II National/regional developments of translation technology 253 14 Translation technology in China 255 Qian Duoxiu 15 Translation technology in Canada 267 Elliott Macklovitch 16 Translation technology in France 279 Sylviane Cardey 17 Translation technology in Hong Kong 292 Chan Sin-wai, Ian Castor Chow and Billy Wong Tak-ming 18 Translation technology in Japan 315 Hitoshi Isahara 19 Translation technology in South Africa 327 Gerhard B. van Huyssteen and Marissa Griesel vi Contents 20 Translation technology in Taiwan: track and trend 337 Shih Chung-ling 21 Translation technology in the Netherlands and Belgium 352 Leonoor van der Beek and Antal van den Bosch 22 Translation technology in the United Kingdom 364 Christophe Declercq 23 A history of translation technology in the United States 375 Jennifer DeCamp and Jost Zetzsche PART III Specific topics in translation technology 393 24 Alignment 395 Lars Ahrenberg 25 Bitext 409 Alan K. Melby, Arle Lommel and Lucía Morado Vázquez 26 Computational lexicography 425 Zhang Yihua 27 Concordancing 437 Federico Zanettin 28 Controlled language 450 Rolf Schwitter 29 Corpus 465 Li Lan 30 Editing in translation technology 480 Christophe Declercq 31 Information retrieval and text mining 494 Kit Chunyu and Nie Jian-Yun 32 Language codes and language tags 536 Sue Ellen Wright 33 Localization 550 Keiran J. Dunne vii Contents 34 Natural language processing 563 Olivia Kwong Oi Yee 35 Online translation 578 Federico Gaspari 36 Part-of-speech tagging 594 Felipe Sánchez-Martínez 37 Segmentation 605 Freddy Y. Y. Choi 38 Speech translation 619 Lee Tan 39 Technological strides in subtitling 632 Jorge Díaz Cintas 40 Terminology management 644 Kara Warburton 41 Translation memory 662 Alan K. Melby and Sue Ellen Wright 42 Translation management systems 678 Mark Shuttleworth Index 692 viii FIGURES 2.1 A two-stage model for human translation 33 2.2 A two-stage dictionary-based language-pair-specific model 33 2.3 A two-stage terminology-based CAT system 34 2.4 Three-stage model by Nida and Taber (1964) 35 2.5 Three-stage model by Wolfram Wilss (1982) 35 2.6 Model of Roger Bell 36 2.7 A three-stage model by Basil Hatim and Ian Mason 36 2.8 A three-stage model of Jean Delisle 37 2.9 Three-stage example-based computer-aided translation model 37 2.10 Model of George Steiner (1975) 38 2.11 Yaxin’s four-stage procedure 38 2.12 Model of Omar Sheikh Al-Shabab 39 2.13 Five-stage technology-oriented translation procedure model 39 2.14 Model by Robert Bly (1983) 40 2.15 Seven-stage computer-aided translation procedure 40 2.16 Controlled language 57 2.17 Dashboard of SDL-Trados 2014 61 2.18 List of current projects 61 2.19 Project details 62 2.20 Workflow of a translation project: the first stage 62 2.21 Workflow of a translation project: the second stage 63 5.1 Vauquois’ Triangle 110 10.1 The direct model 187 10.2 The interlingual model 187 10.3 The transfer model 187 10.4 The syntactic tree for S1: 他隨手寫了個字 189 10.5 The syntactic tree for S2: He roughly wrote a word 189 10.6 The syntactic tree for S3: He scribbled a word 190 10.7 Syntactic transfer from S1 to S3 191 10.8 The syntactic tree for S4 and S5 192 10.9 The functional structure in LFG 198 ix Figures 11.1 Word alignment 203 11.2 Phrase-based SMT 205 11.3 A phrase-structure parse tree 207 16.1 Common and specific systems between languages 284 16.2 Illustration of the potential for extraction from ข้อต่อรอง (Thai) 284 18.1 Quality improvement during translation procedure 316 18.2 System overview 320 18.3 Example of a Japanese−Chinese test set by AAMT 326 20.1 A survey of TT and HT courses before and after 2000 339 20.2 A subject-oriented