DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE Subject Editors

Astronomy Michael A. Hoskin, Churchill College, Cambridge.

Biology Richard W. Burkhardt, Jr, Department of History, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Chemistry William H. Brock, Victorian Studies Centre, University of Leicester.

Earth sciences Roy Porter, W ellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.

Historiography Steven Shapin, & sociology Science Studies Unit, of science University of Edinburgh.

Human Roger Smith, sciences Department of History, University of Lancaster.

Mathematics Eric J. Aiton, Mathematics Faculty, Manchester Polytechnic.

Medicine William F. Bynum, W ellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London.

Philosophy Roy Bhaskar, of science School of Social Sciences, University of Sussex.

Physics John L. Heilbron, Office for History of Science & Technology, University of California, Berkeley. DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

edited by W.EBynum E.J.Browne Roy Porter

M © The Macmillan Press Ltd 1981 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1981 978-0-333-29316-4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission.

First published 1981 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD

London and Basingstoke

Associated Companies throughout the world.

ISBN 978-1-349-05551-7 ISBN 978-1-349-05549-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-05549-4

Typeset by Computacomp (UK) Ltd, Fort William, Scotland

Macmillan Consultant Editor Klaus Boehm Contents

Introduction vii

Acknowledgements viii

Contributors X

Analytical table of contents xiii

Bibliography xxiii

Abbreviations xxxiv

Dictionary

Bibliographical index 452 Introduction

How is the historical dimension of science relevant to understanding its place in our lives? It is widely agreed that our present attitudes and ideas about religion, art, or morals are oriented the way they are, and thus related to other beliefs, because of their history. And this history needs careful study because the processes by which ideas themselves come and go are complicated. Some would argue that ideas have evolved in competition, by a kind of intellectual natural selection, favoured ones finding social niches; others, for instance, hold that the succession of ideas reflects the succession of groups dominant in society. All this also applies to science. Not only are the key doctrines of science - such as quantum theory, genetics, psychoanalysis- central to the modern world, and daily applied in ways ever more closely affecting our lives, but we live within a world in which the outlooks of science- the stress on facts, on experiment, on objectivity - dominate our consciousness and actions. Yet science is changing faster than other parts of culture, and every day becomes more technical, complex and obscure. We have planned this Dictionary in the hope of explaining - to lay people as well as the scientifically trained- core features of recent Western science within the context of its development. We have organized it thematically around the key ideas of science. This seemed to us the most useful approach. Biographically-organized reference works on science and its history already exist, from one volume books to the monumental 16-volume Dictionary of Scientific Biography, and most brief histories of science concentrate on the contributions and discoveries of individual scientists. But science is far more than heroic individuals; it is a highly complex river of thought that swells, sometimes changes course, stagnating here, going through rapids there, with many tributaries and junctions. Hence we have judged it more useful to have articles on the Atom, the Unconscious, or Mendelism, than on Dalton, Freud or Mendel. Sometimes reference works, aiming for encyclopaedic completeness, give all too brief accounts of a very wide sample of topics. We have believed it more important to grant our contributors more generous allowance of space for the really substantial scientific concepts, so that the foundation ideas of Western science can be explained in a single extended article (as in, for example, Evolution, Light, or Nature). Shorter entries have been written on more specialized sub-areas clustering around these large fields (for example on Neo-Darwinism and Neo-Lamarckism), cross referenced back and forth to the major ones. At the foot of many entries the reader is further referred to additional pieces on cognate subjects. For readers wishing to follow up concepts in greater depth, the longer articles have short bibliographies appended, and, at the end of this Introduction, a list of general books in the history of science, and short subject bibliographies for the major sciences may be found. We have tried to make this volume as comprehensive as a handy single-volume reference work can be, but have obviously had to be highly selective. Most articles focus chiefly on the leading ideas of Western science over the past five centuries, with discussion of the roots of such theories in Antiquity and the Middle Ages where relevant. But there are also articles dealing with the central scientific ideas of Classical Antiquity and Mediaeval times, and also survey essays examining science in Chinese, Hindu and Islamic cultures. Also, because this is primarily a dictionary of concepts, coverage of areas such as the development of technology or clinical medicine is necessarily slight. We have, however, included articles on aspects of these (such as the development of scientific instruments like the thermometer) which were closely involved in conceptual developments in scientific theory. Coverage of the social sciences is also only partial: adequate treatment of them all would at least have doubled the length of this work. Our policy has been to give most space to those parts of the social and human sciences historically most closely linked with the natural sciences. Generously represented in this Dictionary, however, is discussion of the historiography of science, of the philosophical and metaphysical principles underpinning science, and of philosophical accounts of the scientific process. A key development in our understanding of science and its history over the past generation has been the fuller recognition that science does not simply proceed, gradually and inevitably, through the successful application of 'scientific method' (observation, experiment, induction, etc.) to Nature, revealing its 'truth'. Historians and philosophers have shown how far science has been and continues to be built upon foundations of words, ideas and theories not empirically derived from Nature, but brought to scientific inquiry from a variety of sources - from theology, from metaphysics, from social and political experience. For much of the history of science the attempt to drive hard-and-fast wedges between science and philosophy and theology, between the scientist, the philosopher and the general thinker, is anachronistic- as is recognized by the fact that in many teaching programmes the history of science and the philosophy of science are taught alongside one another. Furthermore, recent scholarship has also shown how controversial is our understanding of the processes of scientific discovery and change. (Whatever else it may be, the history of science is not scientific in the traditional sense!) Historians view the development of science in many different ways, according as they see its development as relatively evolutionary or revolutionary, relatively autonomous from general culture or totally bound up within it. Hence, in addition to articles on the history of philosophy and the philosophy of science, we have included numerous pieces dealing with the methods and viewpoints of historians of science.

Janet Browne William Bynum Roy Porter

Acknowledgements

We have incurred many debts since this volume was first planned in July 1979. Our advisory editors have been exemplary, suggesting entries and contributors within their field, and overseeing the manuscripts as they appeared. Roy Bhaskar took over the philosophy of science section at short notice when Rom Harre fell ill. Our contributors and editors have produced copy promptly and efficiently, often at short notice and with good humour, even when asked to condense several years' research into a 200-word entry! The staff at Macmillan- particularly Klaus Boehm and Rosemary Foster- have also encouraged us with their enthusiasm and cooperation. Many friends and colleagues have answered specific queries, suggested additional entries and cross references, and helped us in numerous ways. In the later stages, Alwyn Arkle, Jerry Donat, Charlotte Mackenzie and Lawrence Pedersen have all been willing helpers. On the personal level the editors would like to thank Dr Trevor Turner and Nicholas Browne for invaluable psychological support, and all the advisory editors for their constant interest in the project, good humour and expertise. Towards the end we were saddened to hear of the death of Dov Ospovat, one of the contributors to this volume. Finally, it would have been difficult to complete this work without the support of the Wellcome Trustees and the staff of the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine. Our secretaries, Heather Edwards and Frieda Houser, have aided immensely. Frieda Houser has administered the whole project, coordinating the vast correspondence and paper work generated by a book with almost I 00 contributors on three continents and was always able to tell us where we stood. How to use this Dictionary

The main body of this Dictionary consists of700 articles dealing with leading fields of science, and ideas and topics within them, each cross-referenced to others by an asterisk, for example: *atom. The word asterisked is not always in exactly the same form as the key word of the article. Thus *atomic, *atomism, *atomist in the text all refer to the article Atom, and so forth. Interspersed in this alphabetical ordering are some short definitions, and many single-line entries, indicating where articles on a topic can be found (for example: Palaeontology see Fossils). Readers not finding a topic they are searching for, or wanting a wider coverage of adjacent topics, should consult the Analytical Table of Contents (pp. xiii-xxii), where they will find a list of all the articles under the umbrella of the main classes of science (Biology, Chemistry, etc.). In the main body of the text, names of scientists are given with their dates. Further information on them can be found in the biographical index at the end, where are listed their nationality, their main fields of scientific achievement and a full list of the articles in which they figure (thus indicating the range of their interests). Contributors

EJA Eric J. Aiton, Mathematics Faculty, Manchester Polytechnic. HA Hans Agren, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden. JLA Jerrold L. Aronson, SUNY, Binghampton, New York. JRA James R. Alexander, Department of Psychology, University of Tasmania. KA Kirsti Andersen, Institut for de Eksakte Videnskabers Historie, Aarhus Universitet, Denmark. BB Barry Barnes, Science Studies Unit, University of Edinburgh. DB David Bostock, Merton College, Oxford. DBI David Bloor, Science Studies Unit, University of Edinburgh. EB E. Benton, DepartmentofSociology, UniversityofEssex. EJB E. J. Browne, Unit of the History of Medicine, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, University College, London. JAB J. A. Bennett, Whipple Science Museum, Cambridge. JHB John H. Brooke, Department of History, University of Lancaster. RB Roy Bhaskar, School of Social Sciences, University of Sussex. RWB Richard W. Burkhardt, Jr, Department of History, University of Illinois at Urbana­ Champaign. SB Simon Blackburn, Pembroke College, Oxford. WFB W. F. Bynum, Unit of the History of Medicine, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, University College, London and Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. WHB W. H. Brock, Victorian Studies Centre, University of Leicester. HMC H. M. Collins, Sociology Group, University of Bath. uc L. J. Cohen, The Queen's College, Oxford. AMD Alistair M. Duncan, Loughborough University of Technology, Leicestershire. DO Deborah Dwork, Well come Institute for the History of Medicine, London. JWD Joseph W. Dauben, Department of History, Herbert H. Lehman College, The City University of New York. DOE David 0. Edge, Science Studies Unit, University of Edinburgh. PAE Paul A. Erikson, Saint Mary's University, Nova Scotia. EJF Eric J. Freeman, W ellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. JF John Forrester, King's College, Cambridge. JFa John Farley, Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. JVF J. V. Field, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. NWF Nicholas W. Fisher, Department of History and Philosophy of Science, King's College, Aberdeen. TSF Theodore S. Feldman, Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. HG Horst Gundlach, Psychologisches lnstitut der Universitiit Heidelberg, Heidelberg, West Germany. IGG lvor Grattan-Guinness, Middlesex Polytechnic, Enfield. AVG Alexander von Gontard, Institut fiir Geschichte der Medizin, Freiburg, West Germany. ARH A. Rupert Hall, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. JLH John L. Heilbron, Center for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. MAH Michael A. Hoskin, Churchill College, Cambridge. MBH M. B. Hall, 14 Ball Lane, Tack.ley, Oxford. RAH Richard A. Healey, Darwin College, Cambridge. WAH W. A. Hodges, Department of Mathematics, Bedford College, London. DMJ Dale M. Johnson, Mathematics, Hatfield Polytechnic, Hertfordshire. JJ Julian Jaynes, Department of Psychology, Princeton University. RAJ Richard A. Jarrell, Department of Natural Science, Atkinson College, York University, Ontario. AGK Alexander G. Keller, Department of Astronomy and History of Science, University of Leicester. DMK David M. Knight, Department of Philosophy, University of Durham. GBK George B. Kauffman, Department of Chemistry, California State University, Fresno. HK Henrika Kuklick, Department of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. REK Robert E. Kohler, Department of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. CJL Christopher J. Lawrence, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. JDL Joshua D. Lipton, H. P. Kraus, 16 East 46th St., New York. JL John Law, Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology, University of Keele, Staffordshire. PL Philip Lowe, Bartlett School of Architecture and Planning, University College, London. BDM Brian D. Mackenzie, Department of Psychology, University of Tasmania. DM Donald MacKenzie, Department of Sociology, University of Edinburgh. DPM David P. Miller, School of History and Philosophy of Science, University of New South Wales. DWM David W. Miller, Department of Philosophy, University of Warwick. EHM Edward H. Madden, State University of New York, Buffalo. JM Jane Maienschein, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania. JBM J. B. Morrell, School of Studies in Social Sciences, University of Bradford. JGM J. G. May, Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. MM Maurice Mandelbaum, formerly Johns Hopkins University, now Dartmouth College, Hannover, New Hampshire. NM Neil Morgan, Well come Institute for the History of Medicine, London. SLM S. Lynne Mackenzie, Department of Psychology, University of Tasmania. BJN Bernard J. Norton, Department of Astronomy and History of Science, University of Leicester. GN Graham Nerlich, University of Adelaide, South Australia. MN Michael Neve, Unit of the History of Medicine, Department of Anatomy and Embryology, University College, London. VN Vivian Nutton, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. DO Dov Ospovat, formerly University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. RO Robert Olby, Division of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds. RWO R. W. Outhwaite, School of European Studies, University of Sussex. JVP John V. Pickstone, Department of History of Science and Technology, UMIST, Manchester. RSP Roy S. Porter, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. CAR C. A. Russell, Unit of History of Science, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. GAR G. A. Russell, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. JRR Janet Radcliffe Richards, Department of Philosophy, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. RJR Robert J. Richards, Department of History of Science, University of Chicago. cos Claus-OlofSelenius, Matematiska Institutionen, Thunbergsvagen 3, Uppsala, Sweden. ES Elinor Shaffer, School of Modern Languages and European History, University of East Anglia, Norwich. GWS George W. Stocking, Jr, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago. HJS H. J. Sheppard, The Lodge, Blackdown, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire. IHS lvo H. Schneider, lnstitut fiir Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften der Universitiit Munchen, West Germany JS John Shotter, Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham. JSt Jeffrey Sturchio, Museum of History and Technology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC. MAS Michael A. Sutton, Faculty of Humanities, Newcastle upon Tyne Polytechnic. PRS Phillip R. Sloan, The General Program of Liberal Studies, Program in the History and Philosophy of Science, University of Notre Dame, Indiana. RS Roger Smith, Department of History, University of Lancaster. RWS Robert W. Smith, Merseyside County Museums, Liverpool. ss Steven Shapin, Science Studies Unit, University of Edinburgh. SJS Simon J. Schaffer, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. WNS W. Newton-Smith, Balliol College, Oxford. AW Andrew Woodfield, Department of Philosophy, University of Bristol. BRW Bruce R. Wheaton, Office for the History of Science and Technology, University of California, Berkeley. CBW C. B. Wilde, Department of History and Philosophy of Science, King's College, University of Aberdeen. DW Dominik Wujastyk, Brasenose College, Oxford. DWW D. W. Waters, National Maritime Museum, London. RW Robert W okler, Department of Government, University of Manchester. Analytical table of contents

A dagger (t) indicates the entry contains a bibliography

ASTRONOMY Period-luminosity relation Aberration of light Photometry Absolute space and time Plurality of worlds t Aether Pluto Aristotle's cosmology Pre-telescopic instruments Astrolabe t Ptolemaic astronomy t Astrology Relative space and time Astronomical photography Saturn's rings Astronomy t Scientific Revolution t Astrophysics Space-time Attraction t Spectroscopy t Babylonian and Egyptian astronomy Steady -state theory Bode's Law Stellar distances t Calendars Stellar populations t Celestial mechanics Subtle matter Celestial spheres Telescopes Chamberlin-Moulton hypothesis t Tides Chinese astronomy Tychonic systems t Copernican revolution Variable stars Cosmogony White dwarfs Cosmologies after Newton World line Double stars Earth BIOLOGY (see also Human Sciences and t Expanding Universe Medicine) Galactic rotation Adaptation t Galaxy Affinities God's relation to the Universe Alternation of generations t Gravity Analogy I homology Gravity among the stars t Anatomy Hertzsprung-Russell diagram t Animal heat Interstellar absorption t Animal I vegetable Invisible astronomy Archetype t Kepler's Laws Bacteria/ virus t Light Bacterial transformation Mayan astronomy Biochemistry t Microcosm/ macrocosm Biogeography Motion of the Solar System Biology t Navigation Biometrics Nebulae Blending inheritance Nebular hypothesis Blood Newtonian cosmology (post 19 30) Botany Novae Carbon fixation Olbers's paradox Catalysis Biology continued t Homeostasis t Hormone Catenation Hybridization Cell lineage Imitation Cell nucleus Imprinting t Cell theory Individual differences Central dogma Induction (biology) t Chain of being Inheritance of acquired characters Chromosome t Instinct t Classification t Internal environment Combustion t Irritability I sensibility Community Isolation Convergent evolution Life Coral reefs Liver Correlation of parts Lymphatics Cycle Man-machine Cytoblastema Meiosis Degeneration t Mendelism t Development t Metabolism Developmental mechanics Metamorphosis Digestion t Mind-body relation Diploid Missing link Dissection Mitosis DNA t Molecular biology Ecology Monsters Economy of nature t Morphology Egg Mosaic theory of development Encapsulation Mutation Entelechy Natural history Environment t Natural order Enzyme Natural selection Epigenesis I preformation Natural system Ethology Natural theology t Evolution t Nature Extinction t Naturphilosophie Fermentation Neo-Darwinism Fertilization Neo-Lamarckism Form and function Nerve t Fossils t Nervous system Gastraea theory Neurone t Gene Nitrogen cycle t Generation-reproduction t One gene-one enzyme hypothesis t Genetic code Ontogeny t Genetics Organic Genotype I phenotype Organization Geographic distribution Organizer Germ Orthogenesis Germ layer theory Osmosis Germ plasm Ovisml animalculism Habit Parasite Haploid Parthenogenesis Hardy-Weinberg formula Photosynthesis t Heart Phylogeny t Herbal t Physiology t Heredity and variation Pollination Polymorphism Carbon fixation Population genetics Catalysis t Protoplasm Catenation t Pure line experiments t Charge Rational soul Chemistry t Recapitulation Chemotherapy Recombination Combustion t Reductionism Compound Regeneration Concentration Reflexes Coordination compound Respiration t Corpuscular philosophy Seeds t Cryogenics Sensation Crystals t Sex Cycle Sexual selection Dielectric t Sociobiology Diffusion Soul Digestion Special creation Dipole Speciation Displacement current t Species Dissociation Sperm Distillation t Spontaneous generation Dualism Subordination of characters Electrochemistry Symbiosis t Electron Synapse t Element Synthesis t Elementary particle t Taxonomy t Energy Teleology Enzyme Territory Equivalent t Tetranucleotide hypothesis Etherification Tissue Fermentation Transpiration t Formula Tropism Gas t Type (biology) Group (chemistry) t Vitalism Halogen t Vivisection t Heat and thermodynamics Zoology Homology Iatrochemistry CHEMISTRY Imponderable fluids t Acid Ion Affinity t Isomerism t Alchemy Isotope Allotropy Kinetic theory of gases Anaesthesia Leyden jar Analysis (chemistry) t Mass t Animal heat Mechanism Aromaticity t Metabolism t Atom Metal t Atomic structure Mineralogy Atomicity Mole Atomic volume Molecule Atomic weight t Molecular biology Attraction Nitrogen cycle Avogadro's hypothesis t Nucleus Biochemistry t One gene-one enzyme hypothesis Chemistry continued Geology Geographic distribution Organic Geophysics Osmosis Glaciers t Periodic Law God's relation to the Universe Phase rule t Lightning Photosynthesis t Magnetic needle Pile (Voltaic) Maps Pneumatics Metal t Potential t Meteorology Property t Microcosm/macrocosm Prout's hypothesis Mineralogy Purity Mountains t Quality Natural history Radical Natural theology t Radioactivity t Nature t Reaction t Navigation Reagent Nebular hypothesis Respiration Neptunism Salt Oceanography Saturation Plurality of worlds Solution Plutonism t Spectroscopy Pre-telescopic instruments Structure Rivers Substitution Stratigraphy Synthesis Tectonics Temperature Temperature t Tetranucleotide hypothesis t Thermometer t Thermometer t Tides Type (chemistry) Time t Valence I valency Uniformitarianism Volcanoes EARTH SCIENCES Vulcanism Actualism t Aristotelian physics HISTORIOGRAPHY AND SOCIOWGY t Barometer OF SCIENCE Biogeography Anomaly Catastrophism t Anthropomorphism in science Continental drift t Dialectic Coral reefs t Discipline history Cosmogony Ethnomethodology and interpretive Crystals sociology Cycle Externalism t Declination and dip Geisteswissenschaften and t Denudation/ decay N aturwissenschaften Diluvialism t Grid-group analysis Earth t Hermeneutics Earthquakes t Hessen thesis Ecology Historical materialism Economy of Nature Historicism t Electricity and magnetism t Institution (social) t Environment Internalism t Exploration t Merton thesis Extinction t Metaphor in science t Fossils t Models Natural philosopher Ethnomethodology and interpretive t Needham thesis sociology Paradigm Eugenics Priority disputes t Evolution t Professionalization t Evolutionism in mind and society t Prosopography t Experimental psychology Rational reconstruction t Exploration Relations between the sciences Faculty Relativism (methodology) Form and function t Research programmes Geisteswissenschaften and t Revolutionary science N aturwissenschaften t Science and religion t Generation-reproduction t Science indicators Gestalt t Scientific institutions Habit t Scientist t Heredity and variation t Social sciences t Hermeticism t Sociology t Homeostasis t Sociology of (scientific) knowledge Hypnotism Structuralism Imitation Synchronic/ diachronic Imprinting Technological determinism Individual differences Theory-laden terms Inheritance of acquired characters Verstehen t Instinct t Whig history Intelligence t Zilsel thesis Introspection t Irritability IQ HUMAN SCIENCES Life Adam t Magic Adaptation Male-female differences Affinities Man-machine Animism t Materialism t Anthropology t Melancholia t Anthropomorphism in science Memory Archetype Mental atomism Association of ideas t Mental disease t Astrology Mental faculty Attention t Mind-body relation Behaviourism Missing link Biometrics t Molecular biology Brain Moral therapy Cerebral localization t Nature Chain of being t Naturphilosophie Classification t Nervous system Cognitive psychology Organization Cranial capacity Passions Culture Perception Degeneration t Perfectibility of man Development t Phrenology Dietetics Pleasure-pain principle Digestion Psychic phenomena Dissection t Psychoanalysis Emotion Psychology t Environment Psycho-physics t Environmental-heredity controversy t Psychotherapy Human sciences continued t Probability (philosophy) Projective geometry t Race Propensity theory of probability Rational soul Range theory of probability t Reductionism Topology Reflexes Statistical generalizations Regimen t Statistical mechanics Sensation Statistics t Sex Vectors and quaternions t Sexuality Sleep and dreams MEDICINE (see also Human Sciences, Social Darwinism Biology, Chemistry) t Social science Aetiology t Sociobiology Anaesthesia t Sociology t Anatomy Soul t Animal heat Space and time perception Animism t Statistics (vital) Antibiotics Statistics Antisepsis/ asepsis t Technology Antitoxin Unconscious Archeus t Vitalism Bacteria/ virus t Wild men Bacterial transformation t Witchcraft Blending inheritance Blood MATHEMATICS Blood cells t Algebra Bloodletting t Analysis Brain Analytic geometry Brunonianism Calculating machines t Cancer I tumour t Calculus t Cell theory t Chinese science t Cellular pathology Continuity Cerebral localization Differential geometry Chemotherapy Erlangen programme t Chinese science Fluxions Chlorosis Frequency theory of probability Cholera t Function Coction t Geometry t Contagion Groups (mathematical) Cranial capacity t Hindu science Degeneration lndivisibles t Diagnosis Infinity (mathematical) Dietetics Logarithms Digestion Mathematics Dissection MPhilosophies of mathematics Form and function t Probability (mathematics) t Galenism t Gene t Prevention of disease t Genetic code Prognosis t Genetics t Psychoanalysis Healing by first and second intention Psychosis t Healing power of Nature t Psychotherapy t Health and disease Rational Soul t Heart t Reductionism t Herbal Reflex t Heredity and variation Regeneration t Hindu science Regimen t Hippocratism Respiration Homeopathy /allopathy Scurvy t Homeostasis Sensation t Hormone Sensorium commune t Hospital Serum therapy t Humours Sign t Hygiene Smallpox t Hysteria Soul Iatrochemistry Specific Iatromathematics t Statistics (vi tall Immunology Sympathy t Inflammation Symptom Inoculation I vaccination Synapse t Internal environment Syphilis t Irritability I sensibility t Surgery t Islamic science Temperament Laudable pus t Therapeutics Liver t Thermometer Lymphatics Trephining Malaria t Typhus Male-female differences Unconscious Medicine Vision t Melancholia t Vitalism t Mental disease Vitamin Mental faculty t Vivisection t Metabolism t X-rays t Microcosm I macrocosm Monsters MISCELLANEOUS Moral therapy t Chinese science Nerve t Hermeticism t Nervous system t Hindu science Neurone theory t Islamic science Neurosis t Magic Non-naturals t Microcosm I macrocosm t Nosology t Nature Parasite t Science and religion Pathology t Scientific Revolution t Pharmacology t Technology t Phrenology t Witchcraft Phthisis/ consumption/ tuberculosis Physic PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE t Physiology Abduction Pineal gland Absolute space and time t Plague Ad hoc hypotheses Pneuma Analytic statement Philosophy qfscience continued t Materialism Matter/form t Aristotelian logic Metalanguage v. object language t Aristotle's theory of cause t Metaphor in science Basic statements t Metaphysics Bayes's theorem t Methodological individualism Causal powers Methodology t Causality (in quantum physics) Mill's canons Complementarity t Models Conjecture I refutation t Modern logic Consilience Multiplication of species Content t Naturalism Continuity t Natural sciences Conventionalism t Nature Correspondence principle t Naturphilosophie Correspondence rules New riddle of induction Counterfactuals Nicod's criterion Counter induction Nominalism Crucial experiment Observation language and theory language Demarcation Ontology Denotation I connotation t Open texture Determinism Operationism t Dialectic Ostensive definition Dispositions Paradox of the ravens Eliminative induction Personalist theory of probability Emergent properties Phenomenalism Empiricism Phenomenology Entelechy Philosophies of mathematics Entrenchment t Philosophy Enumerative induction Plato's theory of forms Epiphenomenalism t Positivism Epistemology Pragmatism t Experiment Prediction t Explanation t Probability (philosophy) Extension/ intension Propensity theory of probability t Falsificationism Psychologism Frequency theory of probability t Quality Functionalism Range theory of probability t Hermeneutics Rationalism Hidden variables Rational reconstruction Historicism t Realism Hypothetico-deductive method t Reduction Idealism Reduction-sentence Ideology Reification Idiographic v. nomothetic methods Relations between the sciences Incommensurability Relative space and time Indeterminism Relativism (methodology) t Induction t Relativism (philosophy) Infinity (philosophy) Research programmes Instrumentalism Scientism t Kant's theory of knowledge t Simplicity t Law t Social sciences Leibniz law Space-time Mach's principle Square of opposition Material implications Statistical generalizations Straight rule t Electron Structuralism t Element Subjective/ objective t Elementary particle Synchronic I diachronic t Energy t Tacit knowledge t Extremum principles Tarski's theory of truth t Field Tautology t Force Teleological explanation Geophysics t Teleology t Gravity Theory-laden terms Gravity among the stars Truth as coherence t Heat and thermodynamics Truth as correspondence t Hydrodynamics and hydrostatics Utilitarianism Iatromathematics Value judgements Imponderable fluids Verification theory of meaning t Indeterminacy principle Verisimilitude Ion Verstehen Isotope Vindication of induction Kinetic theory of gases World-line t Laplacian School t Latitude of forms PHYSICS (see also Astronomy, Chemistry, Leyden jar Mathematics, Philosophy) t Light Absolute space and time t Lightning t Accelerator t Light pressure t Acoustics t Lightquantum t Aether t Light velocity t Aristotelian physics t Lines of force Aristotle's cosmology t Magnetic needle t Astrophysics t Magneto-optics t Atom t Mass t Atomic structure Mathematization of physics Attraction t Matrix mechanics t Bacon ian Mechanical reduction t Barometer t Mechanics t Black-body law t Meteorology t Cambridge School t Michelson-Morley experiment t Capillarity t Multiplication of species Cartesian Newtonian t Causality (in quantum physics) t Nucleus t Charge Phase rule t Corpuscular philosophy t Photo-electric effect t Cosmic rays Photometry Cosmogony Physics t Cryogenics t Pile (nuclear) Crystals Pile (Voltaic) t Declination and dip Pneumatics Dielectric t Potential Dipole t Quality Displacement current t Quantum Dissociation t Quantum electrodynamics Earth t Radioactivity Effluvium Relative space and time t Elasticity t Relativity t Electricity and magnetism t Scientific Revolution Electrochemistry Space-time Physics continued t Vacuum t Valence I valency t Spectroscopy t Vis viva t Statistical mechanics t Wave equation t Subtle matter t Wave mechanics Temperature t Wave particle duality t Thermometer World line t Tides t X-rays t Unified field theory Bibliography

The following is a brief annotated list of: (a) works of reference useful as guides to further information on the areas covered by this book; (b) general histories of science. It is followed by short subject bibliographies.

(a) Works of reference C. C. Gillispie (editor-in-chieO, The Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 15 vols + index volume (New York: Charles Scribner, 1970-80). Easily the most authoritative and comprehensive reference work on the history of science. Entries are biographical, by scientist, but the index volume provides a most helpful thematic and conceptual tool for the use of the work. In many instances, entries on major scientists (for example Newton, Boyle, Galileo, Harvey) are the best starting point for special themes or periods. T. I. Williams (ed.), A Biographical Dictionary of Scientists, 2nd edn (London: A & C. Black, 1974). A useful single-volume biographical guide to the history of science. I. Asimov, Asimov 's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1972). A similar work, concentrating chiefly on the last two centuries. A. G. Debus (ed.), World Who's Who in Science (Chicago: A. W. Marquis, 1968). Contains brief entries on 30,000 scientists, many still living. P. Wiener (ed.), The Dictionary of the History of Ideas, 4 vols +index volume (New York: Charles Scribner, 1973-74). Excellent comprehensive and considered accounts of the leading ideas in Western thought. Coverage of scientific subjects is somewhat patchy. A. Flew (ed.), A Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Macmillan, 1979). The best single-volume reference work on the history of philosophic concepts. P. T. Durbin (ed.), A Guide to the Culture of Science, Technology and Medicine (New York: The Free Press, 1980). I. Spiegel-Rasing and D. de Solla Price (eds), Science, Technology and Society: A Cross-DiscipliiUlry Perspective (London: Sage Publications, 1977). A valuable guide and bibliography to scholarship in science policy, and the sociology and social history of science and technology. M. Whitrow (ed.), The Isis Cumulative Bibliography, 1913-65, 3 vols (London: Mansell, 1971-76). idem, The Isis Cumulative Bibliography, 1966-1975, I vol. to date (London: Mansell, 1980). The most comprehensive listings of books and articles on the history of science, arranged by persons, institutions and subjects. Well come Institute for the History of Medicine, London: Subject Catalogue of the History ofMedicine and Related Sciences, 18 vols (Miinchen: Kraus International Publications, 1979-80). Invaluable guide to secondary literature in the biomedical and related sciences.

(b) General histories of science J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971). The most ambitious attempt yet to provide a sociological account of the emergence of the scientist. J.D. Bernal, Science in History, 4 vols (London: 1954; 2nd edn, 1957). The most comprehensive Marxist attempt to relate the growth of science to social conditions. E. A. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science. A Historical and Critical Essay (New York: 1925; reprinted Humanities Press, 1967). An important analysis of the metaphysical underpinnings of modern science. H. Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science 130G-1800 (London: 1949; reprinted G. Bell, 1970). Still an important digest of conceptual change in the period of the Scientific Revolution. A. C. Crombie, From Augustine to Galileo (reprinted Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1979). Still probably the best survey of Mediaeval science and its role in the formation of modern science. T. K. Derry and T. I. Williams, A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A .D. 1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961). E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961 ). Technically well-informed history of the Scientific Revolution. P. Duhem, Le Systeme du Monde. Histoire des Doctrines Cosmologiques de Platon a Copernic, 2nd edn, I 0 vols (Paris: Hermann, 1913-1 7). Still unsurpassed as a detailed history of early cosmology. C. C. Gillispie, The Edge of Objectivity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1960). A brilliantly written account of the development of science seen as the triumph of objective over subjective ways of thought. A. R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution 150G-1800, 2nd edn (London: Longmans, 1962). Remains a standard account. G. Holton, Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973). idem, The Scientific Imagination: Case studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978). Two useful collections of case studies focusing mainly upon the recent physical sciences. R. Hooykaas, Religion and the Rise ofModern Science (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1972). The most persuasively argued case for the positive role of Christianity as an intellectual foundation of modern science. T. S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension. Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977). An important collection of essays, looking particularly at the changing configurations of scientific disciplines. D. Lindberg (ed.), Science in the Middle Ages (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1978). An important series of survey essays. A. 0. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being. A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1936; reprinted 1964). A classic study of the metaphysical basis of much of Western science at least up to the early nineteenth century. G. E. R. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle (London: Chatto and Windus, 1970). idem, Greek Science after Aristotle (London: Chatto and Windus, 1973). Two of the most accessible and up-to-date accounts of Greek science. S. F. Mason, A History of the Sciences: Main Currents of Scientific Thought (New York: Collier, 1962). Still the best single-volume, socially-oriented survey of the development of science. J. T. Merz, A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, 4 vols (London: I 904-12; reprinted New York: Dover, 1965). A classic interpretation of nineteenth-century science and philosophy. S. H. Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968). The best short survey of Islamic science. J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China. 7 vols to date (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 19 54-). The fundamental modern survey of Chinese science, emphasizing how Chinese science and technology in many respects ante-dated the European. 0. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (Providence: Brown University Press, 1957). The best survey of early physical, mathematical and astronomical science. D. de Solla Price, Science since Babylon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961). idem, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963). Ambitious attempt to view the development of science as an intellectual endeavour, especially in quantitative terms. G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter (eds), The Ferment ofKnowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). Historiographical essays surveying developments in scholarship in the history of eighteenth­ century science. G. Sarton, An Introduction to the History of Science, 3 vols (Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1927-48). Pioneering volumes on the nature of the history of science by one of its founding fathers. C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall and T. I. Williams (eds), A History of Technology, 6 vols (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955-79). Standard history of technology. R. Taton (ed.), A General History of the Sciences, 4 vols (English translation, London: Thames and Hudson, 1963-66). A useful compilation by many hands. L. Thorndike, A History of Magic and Experimental Science, 8 vols (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923-58). Magnificently detailed, though interpretatively outdated, accounts especially of Ancient and Mediaeval science. W. Whewell, History of the Inductive Sciences, 3 vols (London: 1837; reprinted London: Frank Cass, 1967). Still a readable and illuminating source. A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (Cambridge: 1926; reprinted New York: New American Library, 1958). Still a valuable attempt to put the development of science in its philosophical and cultural context. A. Wolf, A History ofScience, Technology and Philosophy in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London: Allen & Unwin, 1935). idem, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century (London: Allen & Unwin, 1938). Useful for its factual information rather than its interpretations. ASTRONOMY R. Berendzen, R. Hart and D. Seeley, Man Discovers the Galaxies (New York, 1976). M. Kaspar, Kepler (New York, 1959). M. A. Hoskin (ed.), General History of Astronomy, 4 vols (Cambridge, in prep.). M. A. Hoskin, Stellar Astronomy: Historical Studies (Chalfont St Giles, 1981 ). H. C. King, The History of the Telescope (London, 1955). 0. Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences in Antiquity, 2nd edn (Providence, R.I., 1957). 0. Neugebauer, A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy, 3 vols (Berlin, 1975). A. Pannekoek, A History of Astronomy (London, 1961). 0. Pedersen and M. Pihl, Early Physics and Astronomy (London, 1974). 0. Pedersen, A Survey of the 'Almagest' (Odense, 1974). R. W. Smith, A History of Modern Astronomy (Cambridge, 1982). 0. Struve and V. Zebergs, Astronomy of the Twentieth Century (New York, 1962). R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, 1981).

The best modern studies of individual astronomers such as Copernicus are to be found in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography.

BIOLOGY G. Allen, L({e Science in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, 1978). P. J. Bowler, Fossils and Progress: Paleontology and the Idea of Progressive Evolution in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1976). W. Coleman, Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation (Cambridge, 1977). H. Daudin, Cuvier et Lamarck; les Classes zoologiques et /'Idee de Serie animale (/790-1830) (Paris, 1926). F. Delaporte, Le Second Regne de Ia Nature. Essai sur les Questions de Ia Vegetalite au XVIIf Siecle (Paris, 1979). J. Farley, The Spontaneous Generation Controversy. From Descartes to Oparin (Baltimore, 1977). E. Gasking, The Rise of Experimental Biology (New York, 1970). G. J. Goodfield, The Growth of Scientific Physiology (London, 1960). S. J. Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). J. C. Greene, The Death qf Adam; Evolution and Its Impact on Western Thought(Ames, Iowa, 1959). T. S. Hall, Ideas qf L({e and Matter, 2 vols (Chicago, 1969). F. Jacob, The Logic of Life; A History qf Heredity (New York, 197 3). E. Mendelsohn, Heat and Life; The Development qfthe Theory of Animal Heat (Cambridge, Mass., 1964). E. Nordenskjold, The History of Biology (New York, 1935). R. C. Olby, Origins of Mendelism (New York, 1966). R. C. Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London, 1974). F. H. Portugal and J. S. Cohen, A Century of DNA (Cambridge, Mass., 1977). W. B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago, 1971). J. Roger, Les Sciences de Ia Vie dans Ia Pensee Fran~aise du XVIIf Siecle (Paris, 1963). E. S. Russell, Form and Function: A Contribution to the History of Animal Morphology (London, 1916). J. von Sachs, History of Botany (1530-1860)(reprinted New York, 1967). C. Singer, A Short History of Biology (Oxford, 1931). C. U. M. Smith, The Problem of Life (London, 1976).

CHEMISTRY N. G. Coley, From Animal Chemistry to Biochemistry (Amersham, Bucks, 1973). M. P. Crosland, Historical Studies in the Language of Chemistry (London, 1962). M.P. Crosland, Gay-Lussac, Scientist and Bourgeois (Cambridge, 1978). A. G. Debus, The English Paracelsians (London, 1965). A. Findlay and T. Williams, A Hundred Years o.f Chemistry, 3rd edn (London, 1965). F. Greenaway, John Dalton and the Atom (London, 1967). H. Guerlac, Lavoisier, the Crucial Year. The Background and Origin of the First Experiments in Combustion (Ithaca, New York, 1961). 0. Hannaway, The Chemist and the Word. The Didactic Origins of Chemistry (Baltimore and London, 1975). A. lhde, The Development of Chemistry (New York, 1964). D. M. Knight, Atoms and Elements (London, 1967; 2nd edn, 1970). D. M. Knight, The Transcendental Part of Chemistry (Folkestone, Kent, 1978). T. H. Levere, Affinity and Matter. Elements o.f Chemical Philosophy 1800-1865 (Oxford, 1971 ). R. P. Multhauf, The Origins o.f Chemistry (London, 1966). J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry, 4 vols (London, 1961-70). C. A. Russell, The History of Valency (Leicester, 1971). A. Thackray, Atoms and Powers. An Essay on Newtonian Matter-Theory and the Development of Chemistry (London, 1970). J. W. van Spronsen, The Periodic System of Chemical Elements. The First One Hundred Years (Amsterdam, London and New York, 1969). M. Elvira Weeks, Discovery of the Elements, 7th edn, revised by Henry M. Leicester (Easton, Pa, 1968). L. P. Williams, Michael Faraday (London, 1965).

EARTH SCIENCES F. D. Adams, The Birth and Development o.f the Geological Sciences (New York, 1954). C. C. Beringer, Geschichte der Geologie und des geologisches Weltbildes (Stuttgart, 1954). C. Blacker and M. Loewe (eds), Ancient Cosmologies (London, 197 5). K. B. Collier, Cosmogonies of our Fathers (New York, 1934). G. L. Davies, The Earth in Decay (London, 1969). A. Geikie, The Founders of Geology (London, 1897). C. C. Gillispie, Genesis and Geology. A Study in the Relations ofScientific Thought, Natural Theology and Social Opinion in Great Britain, I790-I850 (Cambridge, Mass., 1951). C. J. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore (Berkeley, 1967). J. C. Greene, The Death of Adam (Ames, Iowa, 1959). F. C. Haber, The Age of the World. Moses to Darwin (Baltimore, 1959). A. Hallam, A Revolution in the Earth Sciences. From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics (London, 1973). H. Holder, Geologie und Paliionto/ogie in Texten und Ihrer Geschichte (Freiburg, 1960). R. Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle. A Historical-Critical Study qf the Principle of Un({ormity in Geology, Biology and Theology (Leiden, 1959). A. von Humboldt, Cosmos, trans. A. Pritchard, 3 vols (London 1845-8). L. J. Jordanova and R. Porter (eds), Images of the Earth (Chalfont St Giles, 1979). K. F. Mather and S. L. Mason, A Source Book in Geology (New York, 1939). R. Porter, The Making of Geology: Earth Science in Britain I66G-I8I5 (Cambridge, 1977). M. J. S. Rudwick, The Meaning of Fossils (London, 197 2). C. J. Schneer (ed.), Toward a History of Geology (Cambridge, Mass., 1969). S. Toulmin and J. Goodfield, The Discovery of Time (London, 1965). Yi-fu Tuan, The Hydrologic Cycle and the Wisdom of God (Toronto, 1968). Yi-fu Tuan, Topophi/ia (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974). Yi-fu Tuan, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience (London, 1977). K. A. von Zittel, History o/Geo/ogy and Palaeontology, trans. M. M. Ogilvie Gordon (London, 1901).

HISTORIOGRAPHY AND SOCIOWGY OF SCIENCE J. Agassi, Towards an Historiography qf Science, Monograph no. 2, History and Theory (1963). B. Barber and W. Hirsch (eds), The Sociology of Science (New York, 1962). B. Barnes, Sociology of Science: Selected Readings (Harmondsworth, 1972). B. Barnes, Scientific Knowledge and Sociological Theory (London, 1974). B. Barnes, Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (London, 1977). B. Barnes and S. Shapin (eds), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture (London and Beverly Hills, 1979). J. Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1971 ). J. D. Bernal, Science in History (London, 1954). D. Bloor, Knowledge and Socia/ Imagery (London, 1976). S. G. Brush, 'Should the history of science be rated X?', Science, 183 0974) 1164-72. Y. Elkana eta/. (eds), Toward a Metric of Science: The Advent of Science Indicators (New York, 1978). L. Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, T. J. Trenn and R. K. Merton (eds), trans. F. Bradley and T. J. Trenn (Chicago, 1979). B. Hessen, 'The social and economic roots of Newton's "Principia"', in Science at the Cross Roads, P. G. Werskey (ed.) (London, 1971; orig. pub!. 1931), pp. 147-212. T. S. Kuhn, 'The history of science', in International Encyclopedia qf the Social Sciences, D. L. Sills (ed.) (New York, 1968; reprinted in Kuhn, The Essential Tension (Chicago, 1977), pp. I 05-126). T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scient(fic Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1970). G. Lemaine eta/. (eds), Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines (The Hague, 1976). S. Lilley (ed.), 'Essays on the social history of science', Centaurus, 3, Nos. I and 2 (1953). R. K. Merton, Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth-century England (New York, 1970). R. K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, N. W. Storer (ed.) (Chicago, 1973). J. Needham, The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West (London, 1969). G. S. Rousseau and R. S. Porter (eds), The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth-Century Science (Cambridge, 1980). I. Spiegel-Rosing and D. de Solla Price (eds), Science, Technology and Society: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective (London and Beverly Hills, 1977). M. Teich and R. Young (eds), Changing Perspectives in the History of Science (London, 197 3). A. Thackray, 'Science: Has its present past a future?', in Historical and Philosophical Perspectives of Science, Roger Stuewer (ed.) (Minneapolis, 1970), pp. 112-27. R. Wallis (ed.), On the margins ofscience: the social construction of rejected knowledge, Sociological Review Monographs, 27 (Keele, 1979). E. Zilsel, Die sozialen Urspriinge der neuzeitlichen Wissenschaft, Wolfgang Krohn (ed.) (Frankfurt­ am-Main, 1976).

HUMAN SCIENCES J. M. Baldwin (ed.l, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 vols in 4 (190 1-5 ; reprinted Gloucester, Mass., '1960). M. D. Biddiss, The Age of the Masses: Ideas and Society in Europe since 18 70 (Hassocks, 1977). E. G. Boring, A History of Experimental Psychology, 2nd edn (New York, 1950). G. S. Brett, Brett's History of Psychology, R. S. Peters (ed.) (London, 1962). J. Brozek and L. Pongratz, Historiography of Modern Psychology (Toronto and Gottingen, 1980). 0. Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, 1975). P. Edwards eta/. (eds), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 vols (New York, 1967). H. F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (New York and London, 1970). M. Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, trans. (London, 1970). P. Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, 2 vols (New York, 1966, 1969; London, 1967-70). H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of European Social Thought 1890-1930 (1958; reprinted London, 1974). F. A. Lange, The History of Materialism and Criticism of its Present Importance, trans. E. C. Thomas, 3rd edn in one vol. (London, 1925). M. Mandelbaum, History, Man, & Reason: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Thought (Baltimore, 1971). J. T. Merz, A History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, 4 vols 0904-12; reprinted New York, 1965). J. H. Randall, The Career of Philosophy, 2 vols (1962, 1965; reprinted New York, 1970). C. E. Russett, Darwinism in America: The Intellectual Response 1865-1912 (Reading, 1976). D. L. Sills (ed.), International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, I 7 vols + I vol. biographical supplement (New York, 1968-79). R.I. Watson (ed.), Eminent Contributors to Psychology, 2 vols (New York, 1974, 1976). A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (1926; reprinted Cambridge, 1953). P. P. Wiener (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, 4 vols + I of index (New York, 1973-74). R. M. Young, 'Scholarship and the history of the behavioral sciences', History of Science, 5 (1966) 1-51.

MATHEMATICS R. Bonola, Non-Euclidean Geometry (London, 1955). C. B. Boyer, The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development (New York, 1959). C. B. Boyer, A History of Mathematics (New York, 1968). H. Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics (New York, 1964). R. J. Gillings, Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs (Cambridge, Mass., 1972). I. Grattan-Guinness, The Development of the Foundations of Analysis from Euler to Riemann (Cambridge, Mass., 1970). I. Grattan-Guinness (ed.), From the Calculus to Set Theory 163D-1910 (London, 1980). T. L. Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics (Oxford, 192 D. J. van Heijenoort, From Frege to Godel (Cambridge, 1967). A. Hirayama eta/., Reader's Guide to Takakazu Seki's Collected Works, trans. J. Sudo (Osaka, 1974). J. E. Hofmann, The History of Mathematics (New York, 1957). J. Itard and P. Dedron, Mathematics and Mathematicians (London, 1974). M. Kline, Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times (New York, 1972). Lam Lay Jong, A Critical Study of the Yang hui suan fa (Singapore, 1977). C. Lanczos, Space through the Ages (London, 1970). K. Menninger, Number Words and Number Symbols (Cambridge, Mass., 1969). N. Metropolis eta/., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century (New York, 1980). H. 0. Midonick, The Treasury of Mathematics (New York, 1965). J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China, vol. 3 (Cambridge, 1959). L. Novy, Origins of Modern Algebra (Leiden, 1973). B. Randell (ed.), The Origins of Digital Computers (New York, 1973). D. J. Struik, A Source Book in Mathematics (Cambridge, Mass., 1969). A. Szabo, The Beginnings of Greek Mathematics (Dordrecht, 1978). B. L. van der Waerden, Science Awakening (Groningen, 1954). A. P. Youschkevitch, Les Matlu?matiques Arabes (Paris, 1976).

MEDICINE E. H. Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794-1848 (Baltimore, 1967). E. H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Psychiatry (New York, 1968). E. H. Ackerknecht, Therapeutics From the Primitives to the 20th Century (New York, 197 3). F. F. Cartwright, A Social History of Medicine (London, 1977). E. Clarke, Modern Methods in the History of Medicine (London, 1971 ). J. Duffy, The Healers: The Rise of the Medical Establishment (Urbana, 1979). L. Edelstein, Ancient Medicine (Baltimore, 1967). H. F. Ellenberger, The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry (New York, 1970). M. Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason (London, 1965). F. H. Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia, 1929). F. L. Holmes, Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: The Emergence of a Scientist (Cambridge, Mass., 1974). R. Hunter and I. Macalpine (eds), Three Hundred Years of Psychiatry I 535-/860 (London, 1963). L. S. King, The Medical World of the Eighteenth Century (Chicago, 1958). E. R. Long, A History of Pathology (New York, 1965). E. V. McCollum, A History of Nutrition (Boston, 1957). T. McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population (London, 1976). W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, N.Y., 1976). S. J. Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978). G. Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York, 1958). R. H. Shryock, The Development qf Modern Medicine (New York, 194 7, reprinted Madison, Wise., 1979). H. E. Sigerist, Civilization and Disease Othaca, 1943, reprinted Chicago, 1962). H. E. Sigerist, A History ofMedicine(New York, 1951-61). C. Singer and E. Ashworth Underwood, A Short History of Medicine (London, 1962). 0. Temkin, The Double Face ofJanus and Other Essays in the History ofMedicine (Baltimore, 1977). 0. H. Wangensteen and S.D. Wangensteen, The Rise of Surgery: From Empiric Craft to Scientific Discipline (Minneapolis, 1978).

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Introductory A. Chalmers, What is this Thing called Science? (Milton Keynes, 1978). R. Harre, Philosophies qf Science (Oxford, 1972). T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn (Chicago, 1970). J. Losee, An Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1980). K. R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, 3rd edn (London, 1969). General R. Bhaskar, A Realist Theory of Science, 2nd edn (Sussex, 1978). G. Buchdahl, Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Science (Oxford, 1969). L. J. Cohen, The Implications of Induction (London, 1970). P. Duhem, The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, trans. P. Weiner (New York, 1962). P. K. Feyerabend, Against Method (London, 1975). N. R. Hanson, Patterns of Discovery (Cambridge, 1958). R. Harre and E. H. Madden, Causal Powers (Oxford, 1975). C. G. Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Explanation (New York, 1965). M. B. Hesse, The Structure of Scientific Inference (London, 1974). A. Koyre, Metaphysics and Measurement (London, 1968). I. Lakatos, 'The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes', Philosophical Papers, vol. I, J. Worrall and G. Currie (eds) (Cambridge, 1978). E. Nagel, The Structure of Science (London, 1961). M. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge (London, 1958). K. R. Popper, Objective Knowledge (Oxford, 1972). S. Toulmin, Human Understanding, vol. I (Oxford, 1972). Philosophy of social science R. Bhaskar, The Possibility of Naturalism (Sussex, 1979). J. Habermas, Knowledge and Human Interests (London, 1972). R. Harre and P. Secord, The Explanation of Social Behaviour (Oxford, 1972). K. R. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, 2nd edn (London, 1960). A. Ryan (ed.), The Philosophy of Social Explanation (Oxford, 1973). C. Taylor, The Explanation of Behaviour (London, 1964). P. Winch, The Idea of a Social Science (London, 1958). G. H. von Wright, Explanation and Understanding (London, 1971).

PHYSICS S. Brush, The Kind o.f Motion we call Heat: A History qf the Kinetic Theory of Gases in the 19th Century, 2 vols (Amsterdam, 1976). E. A. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations qf Modern Physical Science, 2nd edn (London, 1950). F. Cajori, A History of Physics, 2nd edn (New York, 1929). D. S. L. Cardwell, From Watt to Clausius. The Rise of Thermodynamics in the Early Industrial Age Othaca, N.Y., 1971). M. Clagett, The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages (Madison, 1959). E. J. Dijksterhuis, The Mechanization of the World Picture (Oxford, 1961). R. Fox, The Caloric Theory of Gases from Lavoisier to Regnault (Oxford, 1971 ). T. L. Hankins, Jean d'Alembert: Science in the Enlightenment (Oxford, 1970). J. L. Heilbron, Elements of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley, 1981). P. Heimann, Physics in the 19th Century (Cambridge, forthcoming). M. B. Hesse, Forces and Fields: A Study qf Action at a Distance in the History qf Physics (London, 1961). M. Jammer, The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics (New York, 1966). D. J. Kevles, The Physicists (New York, 1978). A. Koyn!, From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe (Baltimore, 1957). A. Koyn!, Galilean Studies (Hassocks, Sussex, 1978). D. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler (Chicago, 1976). W. McGucken, Nineteenth-century Spectroscopy (Baltimore, 1969). 0. Pedersen and M. Pihl, Early Physics and Astronomy (London and New York, 1974). V. Ronchi, The Nature of Light: An Historical Survey (London, 1970). S. Sambursky, The Physical World of the Greeks (New York, 1956). R. E. Schofield, Mechanism and Materialism (Princeton, 1970). A. Thackray, Atoms and Powers (Cambridge, Mass., 1970). C. Weiner (ed.), History of 20th Century Physics (New York, 1977). R. S. Westfall, Force in Newton's Physics (London and New York, 1971). E. T. Whittaker, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, 2 vols (London, 1910-53). W. Wilson, A Hundred Years of Physics 0850-1950) (London, 1950). Abbreviations

c circa e.m.f. electromotive force e.s.u. electrostatic unit fl flourished g gram g factor standard acceleration of gravity GeV giga electron volts k constant kg kilogram kW kilowatt MeV mega electron volts mm millimetre °C, °F, K degrees Celsius (Centigrade), degrees Fahrenheit, Kelvin (Absolute) a,{J,Y alpha-, beta-, gamma-radiation degrees, minutes of latitude identically equal approximately equal c is a subset of > is greater than t:.. finite difference or increment J integral :t the sum of the terms square root r reversible reaction 9 function of 8 derivative y for all values of e is member of set