Expression of Language Etiquette in Russian Folktales Ildiko Csajbok-Twerefou, Department of Modern Languages, University of Ghana Yuriy Dzyadyk, Department of Modern Languages, University of Ghana Abstract Using different methods of analysis, this paper examines maxims of language etiquette, such as request, address forms and greetings in selected Russian folktales. Though language etiquette as a segment of politeness has its standards, it is dynamic, so it varies due to political, social, economic or cultural factors. Yet, folktales as a source of customs and beliefs, constitute an integral part of cultural heritage, serve as a means of upbringing, and play an important role in the linguistic development of a person. In Russia, expressions of politeness found in folktales are applied in accordance with the current requirements of Russian society. Keywords: Politeness, folklore, culture, language. Introduction Culture, traditions, language, and folklore are strongly related to each other and vary from nation to nation. Knowing the culture of a society, one may be acquainted with the traditions, language and folklore of that particular society, since culture encompasses all of them. The word folklore can be translated as “knowledge of people”. When referring to folklore in general, one may think about different genres, such as music, dance, tales, arts, crafts, etc. Usually, folklore is characterized by its collectiveness, since it is made on the earlier established traditions and standards of a society, taking into consideration its requirements and perceptions (Keszeg 2008). On the other hand, folklore is a piece of art, which exists not only by means of verbal units, but it often includes gestures, theatrical elements, dancing and singing. As such, folklore is a sophisticated multi-component and collective art, which is developed over a long period of time. Once created, it is passed to other generations and sometimes to other nations. One of the common elements of different genres of folklore is anonymity, since their authors are unknown. Folklore is an integrated part of each society, so are language etiquette and folktales. The discussion of expression of language etiquette in folktales is based on the importance of polite speech in everyday life. Folktales, as a source of customs and beliefs well known to generations of a society, contain many elements of politeness. This paper demonstrates that folktales not only entertain, but also teach different aspects of behaviour, for example, the use of polite speech. After a short introduction, this article discusses folktales and politeness in general. It is followed by the overview of the methodology of the paper and the analysis of maxims of language etiquette, such as request, address forms and greetings in selected folktales. Some challenges during the translation of Russian folktales into English are examined. The paper concludes that although most of the phrases used to express politeness in the folktales could be considered as archaic, native speakers follow a similar pattern in their communication today. 31 Folktales Folktales could be considered as one of the most popular genres of folklore. They derive their stories from real-life phenomenon, unlike fairytales, which are made up of fiction and always involve magical and/or mythical creatures such as dragons, witches, mermaids, or dwarfs. A folktale is a wonderful masterpiece of mankind, which brings humans to an upper level, makes them rejoice, attracts and entertains, encourages them to struggle for their aim, and helps them achieve unbelievable things. A folktale is an obviously impossible (oral) story about magic, adventure or domestic nature that may contain elements of fantasy. It can often be a speaking animal or a miraculously moving object, which helps the hero to succeed. Though some researchers do not differentiate between folktales and fairytales, apart from the already mentioned real-life phenomenon versus fiction, there are other differences between them. While fairytales are written forms of literature, folktales were orally transferred from one generation to another. However, in recent times, folktales have taken a written form, and are available for the public. They often have different versions. It is also important to notice that there is more active conflict resolution in folktales than in fairytales. In folktales the characters resolve conflict using their human capacities, and therefore, survive through planned strategies that reflect real situations. In fairytales, the major characters are often helpless and can survive only with the help of minor characters, i.e. mythical beings. Also, in fairytales the aristocracy in most cases is described in a brighter way than in folktales (Celine 2017). Finally, in a folktale the setting is in a familiar world, such as villages, homes, real forests, which can be placed in a magic environment, while in fairytales the setting is already mythical (Eckart 2018). According to Petrolay (1996: 7) folktales appeared many years ago and have become an integral part of the cultural heritage of different nations being the source of customs and beliefs of the societies. Irrespective of the type of folktale, they may have different versions, as they were born from history, and from time to time were shaped to correspond to new events. The feudal Middle Ages, for example, enriched the treasury of tales with many new elements such as castles, kings, princesses, or with new instruments of torture. The New Age brought new venues, where the miraculous stories were happening; instead of ‘Far, Far Away’ the characters were living in villages or towns, they went to markets, shops, pubs. Indeed, history and social order are truly represented in folktales. Petrolay (1996) argues that characters like stepmothers and old women refer to matriarchal systems of some earlier societies. Based on the above, folktales can be compared to feature films, since both provide a message of the socio-cultural background of people, information about the reality of appearance, about the language and speech, and about the characters (Csajbok-Twerefou 2010). Looking at the types of folktales, one may agree with Keszeg (2008), who connects them with their initial appearance: those folktales which earlier were part of the ritual practices later became magic tales; while those which in the past portrayed totem animals are today the folktales about animals impersonating morals. This opinion, however, may also be challenged, since there are folktales about animals which do not teach morals. One of them is the Hungarian Cat and Mouse, which can rather be considered as morbid (Arany 2017). 32 Therefore, it is no wonder that previously, folktales were not really meant for (only) children, but rather for adults. It can be easily proved, just by having a look, for example, at some Hungarian folktales collected by Laszlo Arany1, which contain words, phrases and other elements which are not ‘written’ for children. The same could be said about the tales of the famous Grimm brothers, where in some cases the tales are loaded with a number of dreadful scenes2. Indeed, in most cases, folktales were used to entertain adults. They were often told in the evenings, after working on the farms far from peoples’ homes. As they entertain, they also connect with history, with other people giving hope and desire. Nevertheless, in many parts of the world one may find folktales as an inseparable element of upbringing: various (folk)tales were and are used to teach children moral lessons, and this is not by accident. Basically, in most folktales there are good and bad characters, and in the end, the good one wins, while the bad one is punished. Apart from that, folktales play an instructive role: they teach moral cleanness, honesty, kindness, mercy, and wisdom. Children can absorb these features while listening to the folktales told by their parents and grandparents. As soon as a child is old enough to be interested in other people's destiny, tales can teach them different feelings, such as concern about others, compassion, justice, courage, loyalty; they also teach listeners and readers to hate the repressive violence and acquire the optimism which they will need in the future in the fight against evil powers (Petrolay 1996: 6). In some countries (Russia, Ukraine, Hungary), childhood would be incomplete without folktales. In some families, there is a tradition to include a (folk)tale in the child’s daily activities. Before going to bed, children look forward to hearing a new story about heroic actions of brave warriors, about kings and princes, or about episodes when the good takes over the bad. Some of these bedtime-stories are read from books, while others are told by heart, since the teller (father, mother, grandparents or siblings, etc.) knows those stories from his/her own childhood. Furthermore, in most countries, folktales are part of the school curricula, as they are part of the cultural heritage. Personalities of folktales are famous; therefore, they can be used to demonstrate culturally accepted behaviour. In most cases, the same folktale character has the same behaviour, nature and virtue in most of the other folktales the character appears. Based on this, the authorities of Moscow came out with a beautiful idea; they created a prospectus for foreigners to demonstrate the expected behaviour in Moscow in particular, and in Russia in general (Moscow Municipality 2017). As discussed above, the same folktale may have many interpretations, and therefore, the same story can be told by different authors. But all of those tales are meant to be introduced to readers. Consequently, a folktale teller is not a mere performer, but rather an actor who adds something new in order to enrich the folktale. Hence, in recent days, there are several collections of folktales where the same stories are gathered by different authors. Interestingly, sometimes similar characters and their stories are claimed to belong to different cultures. It is not by chance.