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MARIUM SOOMRO MARIUM THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION’S PAKISTAN POLICY BEFORE AND AFTER THE SOVIET INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN BEFORE AND AFTER THE SOVIET OFINVASION AFGHANISTAN The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences THE CARTER ADMINISTRATIO of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by Marium Soomro N S PAKISTAN POLICY S PAKISTAN ’ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BILKENT UNIVERSITY 2020 İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BILKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA OCTOBER 2020 To my family Daddy, Ana, Sahar, Michelle, Aqib, Zainab and Umer THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION’S PAKISTAN POLICY BEFORE AND AFTER THE SOVIET INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by Marium Soomro In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BILKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA OCTOBER 2020 ABSTRACT THE CARTER ADMINISTRATION’S PAKISTAN POLICY BEFORE AND AFTER THE SOVIET INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN Soomro, Marium M.A., Department of History Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Owen Miller October 2020 The United States and Pakistan’s bilateral relationship has seen complex periods of converging and diverging interests that have been shaped by security concerns. The first two years of the Carter administration’s relations with Pakistan saw a divergence of interests primarily due to the United States’ pursuit of its nuclear non-proliferation foreign policy. This study uses archival material to analyze the diplomatic and political discourse which unfolded in Washington D.C. and Islamabad during the enforcement of this policy. The study underlines that policymakers are at times divorced from the experiences of diplomats on ground and highlights the complexity behind state craft, the art of diplomacy and the geopolitical and the geostrategic contours of the United States and Pakistan’s bilateral relationship. The Carter administration’s Pakistan policy vis-à-vis nuclear non- proliferation was only side stepped after a number of external factors in the form of regional events took place. These included, the Iranian revolution, the siege of i Mecca, the rise in politicized Islam, the impact these events had on the domestic public opinions of both nations and last but not least, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The multiple security implications of all these events led President Carter to build the foundation for the alliance with Pakistan which would succeed in driving the Soviet Union out of Afghanistan. Key words: Nuclear Non-proliferation, Soviet Invasion, The Government of Pakistan, The United States of America ii ÖZET AFGANİSTAN’IN SOVYETLER TARAFINDAN İŞGALİ ÖNCESİ VE SONRASI CARTER YÖNETİMİNİN PAKİSTAN POLİTİKALARI Soomro, Marium M.A., Tarih Bölümü Danışman: Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Owen Miller Ekim 2020 A.B.D. ve Pakistan’ın ikili ilişkileri birbirlerine yaklaşılıp daha sonra uzaklaşılan fakat temel olarak güvenlik kaygılarıyla şekillenen karmaşık dönemlerden geçmiştir. Carter yönetiminin ilk iki yılında Pakistan’la olan ilişkiler temel olarak A.B.D’nin nükleer silahların yaygınlaşmasını önlemeyi amaçlayan dış politikası yüzünden çıkarların farklılaşmasıyla sonuçlanan birbirinden uzaklaşmaya sahne olmuştur. Bu tez, Washington ve İslamabad’da bu minvalde gelişen dış politikaların uygulanması sonucu oluşan diplomatik ve siyasi söylemleri arşiv kaynaklarına dayanarak tahlil etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu tez, politika üreticilerinin bazı zamanlarda olay yerinde bulunan diplomatlardan farklı düşündüğünün altını çizip devlet yönetiminin ardındaki karmaşıklık, iii diplomasi sanatı ve A.B.D.- Pakistan ilişkilerinin jeopolitik-jeostratejik temel hatlarını vurgular. Carter yönetiminin Pakistan politikasında önemli bir yer işgal eden nükleer yaygınlaşmayı önleme planı ancak bölgede oluşan harici birkaç olayın sonucu olarak bir kenara bırakılmıştır. Bu gelişmeler sırasıyla: İran devrimi, Mekke’nin kuşatılması, siyasal İslam’ın yükselişi ve yukarıda bahsi edilen olayların iki ülkenin kamuoyu görüşlerine etkisi ve en önemlisi Sovyetlerin Afganistan’ı işgalidir. Bütün bu olayların güvenlik alanındaki çeşitli sonuçları Başkan Carter’ı Pakistan’la müttefikliğin temellerini inşa etmeye yöneltmiş ve bu da Sovyetleri Afganistan’dan dışarı atmaya yetmiştir. Anahtar kelimeler: Nükleer Silahların Yaygınlaşması, Sovyet İşgali, Pakistan Hükümeti, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people, without whose support I would not have been able to succeed in writing this study. To Assist. Prof. Dr. Kenneth Weisbrode, thank you for believing in me from the very first day of my interview at Bilkent University’s History Department. It was your expertise as a diplomatic historian which inspired me to choose this topic. I will always be grateful to you for your invaluable guidance and support. To Assist. Prof. Dr. Owen Miller, thank you for your enthusiastic support and encouragement throughout my time at Bilkent. I will always be grateful to you for motivating me whenever this study seemed impossible. To my examining committee member, Assist. Prof. Dr. Bahar Gürsel, thank you for your time and kind participation. To my other professors from Bilkent University’s Department of History, thank you for enriching my experience as a Master’s student and for teaching me the indispensable lessons of history which I will keep with me throughout both my personal and professional life. To my peers and colleagues at Bilkent University, without you my academic experience in Ankara would not have been the same. Thank you to Cihad Kubat and Widy Susanto for taking the time to read my thesis, guiding me v and literally running around campus with me to complete the formalities of this process. To Dilara, Hamdi, Ogun, Yagmur, Burak, Hazal, Umer, Mert, Gizem, Egeman, Dilan and Harun thank you all for being my Bilkent family, without you I would have been lost. To my friends now like family in Ankara who have not only supported me in my academic journey at Bilkent but who have also helped me navigate my life here in Turkey: Dilara Hamit, without you and Alvin, Turkey would not be the home it has become for me. Rehab Sohail, I am so grateful we completed our journey at Bilkent together. Thank you for helping me balance my diplomatic and academic life. To Ifrah and her family, thank you for opening your hearts and doors for me. To my siblings, Sahar, Michelle, Aqib and Zainab, thank you for always being my pillars of strength. You are my source of constant support. If it wasn’t for our 24-hour Facetime sessions, I would not have been able to write this study during a pandemic. To my sister-in-law Javaria, thank you for taking the time to go through my thesis word by word with me to ensure it is up to par. To my sister-in-law Bia, thank you for always being a phone call away for me and for your supportive and encouraging words day and night. To my father Navaid and my mother Fahmida, thank you for your unconditional love and your unwavering support, motivation and encouragement. I am so lucky and grateful to have you as my parents. You have taught me how to dream and make my dreams come true. Your prayers are the reason I have and vi will achieve anything today and tomorrow. A lifetime of thank you’s will never be enough to express my gratitude for you. To my husband Umer, thank you for helping me achieve my dreams and standing steadfast by me despite the odds and naysayers. You have put me at the fore in every decision and for that I will always be grateful. Thank you for being you and being mine. None of this would have been possible without youmer. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT............................................................................................................i ÖZET....................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................................................................v TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………x CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................1 1.1. Background and Objectives………………………………………….1 1.2. Historiography.....................................................................................5 1.3. Methodology and Resources..............................................................19 CHAPTER II: BEFORE THE INVASION 1977-1978........................................26 2.1. Brief Overview of U.S. – Pakistan Relations.....................................26 2.2. Upholding Policy Objectives: The Nuclear Question……………….44 2.3. The Saur Revolution………………………………………………...59 2.4. Trilateral Diplomacy..................................................................................................70 2.5 U.S. Assistance Package for Pakistan…………………………….….74 viii CHAPTER III: THE DETERIORATION OF RELATIONS.......................................................................................................84 3.1. Invoking the Symington Amendment……………………………...84 3.2. The Non-Aligned Movement………………………………………92 CHAPTER IV: 1979: THE YEAR OF EVENTS...............................................................................................................97 4.1. Events in the Islamic World………………………………...……...97 4.2. Iranian Revolution……………………………………………...…...99 4.3. The Siege of Mecca...……………………………...………………100
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