Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousan year-long tradition

Scientific statement 2006 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

Contents Preface 4 8 Description of the character of the 1 Wild reindeer hunting as World area (status at the time of nomination) 48 Heritage; a ten-thousand-year-long 8.1 General description of the area 48 tradition Summary 5 8.2 Description of how the four sub-areas 2 Introduction 8 complement one another 52 2.1 Early history of the project 8 8.3 Description of the individual sub-areas 53 8.3.1 Eikesdalsfjella 53 2.2 Information for national and municipal authorities 8 8.3.2 Snøhetta 54 8.3.3 Rondane 56 2.3 Consolidation of the project 8 8.3.4 Reinheimen 60 2.4 Openness and information 9 8.3.5 Buffer zone between the Eikesdalsfjella and This report has been prepared by a team of specialists appointed for the project: ”Wild reindeer 2.5 Broad foundation 9 Snøhetta sub-areas 63 hunting as World Heritage”: 2.6 Revitalisation and regional involvement 9 8.3.6 Buffer zone between the Snøhetta and Rondane - Professor Reidar Andersen, Museum of Archaeology and Natural History, Norwegian sub-areas 63 University of Science and Technology 3 Wild reindeer – history, genetics and - Per Jordhøy, Adviser at the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research habitat use 11 9 History and development 64 - Jostein Bergstøl, Research archaeologist at the Museum of Cultural History, 10 Komparativ analyse 67 University of Oslo 3.1 History 11 - Anitra Fossum, County archaeologist, Vestfold County Council 3.2 Genetics 14 10.1 Comparative analysis linked with wild - The secretariat for the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project: John Olsen reindeer and wild reindeer hunting 68 (project manager and editor) 3.3 Habitat use 16 10.1.1 Sites on the World Heritage List 68 4 Description of types of cultural At the request of the managing committee of the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project: 10.1.2 Sites on tentative lists 69 - Chairman Børge Brende, first vice-chairman of the Standing Committee for Power and heritage sites 17 10.1.3 Places not connected with the World Heritage List the Environment, Norwegian Parliament 4.1 Stray finds, jumps, meat caches, shelters 69 - Vice-chairman Per Dag Hole, Mayor of the Borough of Lesja 10.2 Comparative analysis of trapping systems - Kristin Hille Valla, County Governor of Oppland and graves 17 - Egil Mikkelsen, Director, Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo 4.2 Pitfalls 21 for large mammals in general 73 - Dagfinn Claudius, County Curator, Oppland County Council 10.2.1 Europa 73 - Harald Jacobsen, Director, Museum of Archaeology in Stavanger 4.3 Funnel-shaped traps 26 4.4 Hides 30 10.2.2 Africa 74 The report was reviewed by the managing committee and approved on 6 July 2006. 5 The mountains as a cultural landscape 31 10.2.3 Asia 75 5.1 The cultural landscape as a “laboratory” 32 10.2.4 North America 76 5.2 Present-day people and the landscape 33 10.2.5 South America 77 6 Research potential and challenges 10.2.6 Oceania 77 linked with the hunting sites 34 11 Global strategy 79 6.1 Dating the hunting sites 34 6.2 Ethnicity 36 12 Statement of outstanding universal value 81 6.3 The immigration paths of the wild reindeer 39 13 Criteria under which nomination is 7 Delimitation of the area 40 proposed 85 7.1 Principal justification for the area selected 40 14 References 88 7.2 Delimitation of the sub-areas 40 7.2.1 Eikesdalsfjella 40 7.2.2 Snøhetta 40 7.2.3 Rondane 40 7.2.4 Reinheimen 41 7.2.5 Buffer zones 42

  Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

Preface 1. Wild reindeer hunting as world heritage; a ten-thousand- The first hunters came to what was to become Norway some 10 000 years ago. At that time, year-long tradition people had already been subsisting on reindeer in south-western Europe for close on 20 - 30 Summary 000 years. The oldest evidence in the area we are concerned with is around 8000 years old. This area, however, contains numerous physical remains of the hunting and trapping, which ”About 1600 years ago, a hunter with his bow and arrows crouched in concealment have disappeared in many other places. The area has cultural heritage sites that demonstrate behind some big rocks on the southeast slope. He knew that one of the most a virtually continuous tradition linked to the utilisation of wild reindeer. Coming here to hunt dependable reindeer migration routes went past there when the wind blew from reindeer is still a natural activity in the autumn. The people exploiting the resource and the the west. The reindeer came and he dispatched several arrows. Three missed social organisation of the communities have, interestingly enough, varied, but the resource (…). About 400 years later, another bowman crouched in the same spot. The – wild reindeer – has remained as a connecting thread throughout the period. reindeer came past once again, and the hunter loosed his arrows. One struck a rock, was deflected off course and swerved up onto a big boulder where it The topography in the area has made the reindeer migrations predictable, at the same time came to rest in a hollow. More than 1000 years after that yet another hunter was as it is so varied that the challenge of ”how to hunt” has been solved in many different ways. crouched by these big rocks on Storhøe. The reindeer came past, the hunter shot, These two aspects mean that within the limited geographical area embraced by ”Wild reindeer and a brass cartridge case marked with the year 1861 fell on the ground. Almost hunting as World Heritage”, there are both remains of a large number of trapping systems for one hundred years later, a hunter is once more crouched behind the rocks (…) reindeer and a greater variation in the types of systems than anywhere else. Every kind of Two empty cartridge cases marked Raufoss Ammunition Factory 1958 were left trapping means known to have been used for wild reindeer and that can be expected to have behind” (Mølmen 1986: 109). left behind recognisable remains has been documented in this area. In addition to the actual trapping systems, the area has many other cultural heritage sites associated with the utilisation The area is a “hunting landscape” of the mountains in general, and hunting and trapping in particular. Settlement sites, shelters, This is how Øystein Mølmen describes a small, but very thrilling bit of the area covered by where thousands of years of meat caches, pitfalls for elk and human graves are just a few examples. the “Wild reindeer hunting as world heritage” project. This little tale is not only interesting as a hunting wild reindeer and other creatures have left discreet, but curiosity, it also displays admirably the variation, time span and density of cultural heritage sites nevertheless obvious, traces All told, the natural assets, the wild reindeer and the cultural heritage sites constitute a in the area. (Photo: Per Jordhøy). cultural landscape or, more correctly, a hunting landscape, embracing values of international significance.

The committee has been alive to the ongoing national debate connected with the protection of large, continuous areas. There are two (soon three) national parks and several other kinds of protected area within the area covered by this project. The committee has compared the archaeological mapping of the trapping systems, the habitat of the wild reindeer and the boundaries of protected areas in Norway. This has given a positive concurrence which means (Photo: Per Jordhøy). that the committee has been able to propose a delimitation of the area that takes in the majority of the trapping systems, and all the most important ones, without having to extend existing protected areas.

That this district has many protected areas is a signal from the nation that it has outstanding value. That is to say, the district is not just valuable for its own inhabitants, but for the whole nation and even for the international community. The committee shares this opinion and I believe our effort here has provided justification for why the status afforded to the area in respect of its natural assets should also be followed up from the viewpoint of cultural heritage sites and the cultural landscape by being nominated for inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Børge Brende Committee chairman 6 July 2006

  Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

The committee has chosen to propose a serial nomination consisting of four sub-areas: Eikesdal in association with the hunting and trapping of wild reindeer. By studying the landscape and the mountains, Snøhetta, Rondane and Reinheim. These sub-areas complement one another in a migration pattern of the wild reindeer, we will acquire a good understanding of why the trapping thrilling and scientifically valuable manner. systems are located just where they are. The landscape is also of great importance for the present-day inhabitants of the area. Many have been accustomed to using the mountains since The area as a whole will provide an exceptionally good illustration of the traditions and cultural childhood, a deeply rooted tradition in this district. heritage sites linked with utilising wild reindeer as a resource, and not least of the wild reindeer’s own utilisation of the area. Trapping systems for both reindeer and other large mammals can also be found elsewhere in the world. The oldest documented traces of reindeer hunting are in southern Europe, but no Many kinds of sites exist that are directly linked with hunting and trapping. The best known are remains of trapping constructions have survived there. The use of pitfalls to trap wild reindeer the dry-stone wall pitfalls and bowmen’s hides, but the area also has pitfalls excavated in earth, has been documented in Siberia and northern Scandinavia. They were dug in earth. The use as well as funnel-shaped traps which may end in open water or in a corral made of stones or of pitfalls is also known in North America, but since they were excavated in snow and ice, they wood. The various types of funnel-shaped traps also display great variations in both size and no longer exist. Hides used by bowmen are known throughout the circumpolar region, as also design. The same applies to the pitfalls, which may be solitary or form systems comprised are various kinds of traps. of around 1000 individual pitfalls. Likewise, the hides may be solitary or form systems up to several score in number. Some of these also had interconnecting fences that led the reindeer Attempts have previously been made to synthesise the construction and use of hunting and along desired routes. Furthest west, another form of hunting was commonly practised; there the trapping facilities in general, but without notable success. Anthropologists have offered the animals were herded between fences towards a precipice or steep slope where they either fell topic more attention than archaeologists. Consequently, more tends to be known about the to their death or were at least seriously injured. This jump hunting is a little studied technique types of hunting and trapping, and less about the scale and its geographical extent. The project and experts have been strongly divided regarding it. The various means of trapping and hunting participants are, for instance, aware of trapping systems for gazelles in the Middle East, bison do not just occur in isolation, but also in combination. For instance, funnel-shaped traps occur jumps in North America and pitfalls for wild boar in Japan. However, it has proved difficult to along with hides and pitfalls, incorporated into single complexes. make a satisfactory analysis of this topic on the basis of the current state of research.

Many other cultural heritage features are associated with the hunting and trapping systems. Several features make the area embraced by the “Wild reindeer hunting as world heritage” Some of these are closely linked to hunting and trapping and help to generate the great time project stand out from other areas displaying evidence of the trapping of large mammals. span. This concerns in particular settlement sites, shelters and stray finds of arrows and First, there is the great variation in the types of construction within a limited area, and that occasionally spears. Finds made on the settlement sites show that the area has been exploited traditional hunting is still being practised here. Second, there is the cultural landscape with for a very long time. Stone-lined pits in screes are found in connection with several of the trapping constructions and a still viable strain of genetically pure wild reindeer. Finally, there is systems, and these are caches where meat was preserved. They were covered with stones to the ability of the constructions to demonstrate in an educational manner different stages in the prevent animals and birds taking the meat. development of mankind with regard to social complexity and various steps and degrees in the utilisation of a natural resource (hunting and trapping cultures, supplementary occupation in The area also contains many other traces of human activity. Valleys extending into the area addition to farming, an ”industry”). have long been used for transhumance summer dairy farming, and tracks and paths stem from many centuries of traffic and communication between the settlements, while elegantly The committee behind the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project believes that the constructed irrigation channels take us back to a time when corn growing was a great challenge nomination of this area will in several ways help to acquire a more balanced and trustworthy Stone-built pitfall in Lordalen in the Reindeer buck (Photo: Per Reinheimen sub-area (Photo: Per Jordhøy). in this district, one of the driest parts of the country. World Heritage List. By combining the five aspects, archaeological site, constructed cultural Jordhøy). heritage feature, living tradition, great time span, aesthetic beauty and cultural landscape, the The wild reindeer in the area have a long, enthralling history. They are among the last vestiges project will help to augment categories of World Heritage that UNESCO has recognised are of the species, European tundra (montane) reindeer, an umbrella species with regard to underrepresented, at the same time as the combination will represent something new in a biodiversity. The way it fares tells us whether the ecosystem is in balance and the landscape, UNESCO context. with its valuable qualities, is intact. Wild reindeer require very large areas and it is essential for their survival that the protected areas are adequately safeguarded. Traces left by reindeer The great variation in types of trapping constructions in the area and the fact that the hunting hunters are found in many places, but it is only in southern Norway that the wild reindeer traditions are still alive, together with the ability of the constructions to demonstrate various steps (European tundra reindeer) can still be found in its original habitat, where the animals regularly in the evolution of mankind, mean that the committee believes that the project should be able pass various types of trapping constructions from times long past. to fulfil UNESCOs criteria III and IV. The quality of the area as a cultural landscape or, more correctly, a hunting landscape, through the presence of trapping systems, the natural environment Together, the cultural heritage sites, the countryside and the wild reindeer make up an enthralling and wild reindeer mean that the committee believes that UNESCOs criterion V should be able to cultural landscape, or a ”hunting landscape”, which also gives meaning for people of today. The be fulfilled. All in all, the committee suggests that the area should be capable of nomination as a cultural landscape offers a unique understanding of the former utilisation of the area, not least cultural landscape, with wild reindeer and the natural environment as ”added values”.

  Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

2. Introduction 2.4 Openness and information Those involved in the project have always seen the need and value of having an open process. This is essential to ensure the scientific quality of the project (should we deviate from our course 2.1 Early history of the project other specialists would have a chance to provide constructive and corrective criticism) and a The “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project started in autumn 2004 when a reference strong feeling of ownership in the project locally and regionally. For this reason, we have taken group was chosen. This was composed of seven persons: Kristin Hille Valla, county governor part in a number of meetings, seminars and conferences in the 13 boroughs that are involved, of Oppland, Dagfinn Claudius, county curator, and Espen Finstad, county archaeologist (both and also on the national level. Information is also provided on a wider scale through a specially employed by Oppland County Council), Egil Mikkelsen, director of the Museum of Cultural designed home page (www.villreinfangsten.no), a newsletter service and a contact forum. History, University of Oslo, Harald Jacobsen, director of the Museum of Archaeology in Stavanger, Per Jordhøy, an adviser at the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, and Per The contact forum meetings have been, and will continue to be, a place where the project Dag Hole, head of the regional council and mayor of the Borough of Lesja, which also provided organisation, the local and regional management authorities and the landowners can meet. The the project manager (John Olsen, an archaeologist). In the months that followed, this group four county governors and representatives from the county councils have been invited, along drew up a pilot project report that formed the basis for the subsequent work. It was presented with borough council representatives, the municipal committees overseeing grazing, hunting and at a press conference in January 2005. fishing rights on state common land (and equivalent committees for privately owned common land), Statskog (the state-owned organisation managing all non-privately owned forests and 2.2 Information for national and municipal authorities mountainous tracts in Norway) and representatives from the two regional archaeological The people involved in the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project have all the museums. The first meeting was held in December 2005. time been aware that it is the governing party (the Ministry of the Environment - MD) which, in this case, delegates its investigative responsibility to the Directorate for Cultural Heritage 2.5 Broad foundation (RA) and the Directorate for Nature Management (DN), which can revise the tentative list and The committee has placed emphasis on the project having a broad foundation at several nominate areas to the UNESCO World Heritage List. The project group therefore considered levels. The composition of the committee itself is a good indicator of this. Regional authorities it correct to inform these bodies of the project before it was presented to the media. This took concerned with both the natural and cultural environments are represented there, along with place in January 2005. At the same time, the county councils, borough councils and municipal local authorities and representatives for archaeology on a national level. This has given the committees concerned with overseeing the grazing, hunting and fishing rights on common land project legitimacy both in archaeology and the region. The committee has considered it in the area were also informed. This was considered essential to ensure firm local anchorage important to obtain indications of how local authorities, county governors’ offices and county at an early stage. The project was initially concerned with areas in 12 boroughs. The proposed councils that are not represented on the committee, as well as other people in the region, view boundaries have now been adjusted somewhat so that 13 boroughs are now involved, 10 of such a project. which were among the original ones. The project has now been debated by politicians in 11 of the 13 local authorities involved, and 2.3 Consolidation of the project all of them have given their approval. Contact at the county administration level has been with The project organisers spent spring 2005 consolidating the project and putting together a the cultural heritage departments. Here, too, the project has been received positively and been committee, primarily based on the original reference group. In March 2006, the former Minister given support. In addition to the County Governor of Oppland, who is a committee member, of the Environment, Børge Brende, agreed to chair the project committee. The committee now the County Governors of Hedmark and Møre & Romsdal have indicated their support, whereas Arctic bearberry (Arctostaphylos consists of Børge Brende, a Member of the Norwegian Parliament (chairman), Per Dag Hole, Sør-Trøndelag has still not dealt with the matter. As regards landowners, Statskog, several alpina) (Photo: Per Jordhøy). Mayor of Lesja (acting vice-chairman), Kristin Hille Valla, county governor of Oppland, Egil municipal committees overseeing grazing, hunting and fishing rights on state common land and Stone Age arrowheads (Photo: Per Mikkelsen, director of the Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo, Harald Jacobsen, equivalent committees for privately owned common land have given their approval. The same Jordhøy). director of the Museum of Archaeology in Stavanger, and Dagfinn Claudius, county curator, applies to the Dovrefjell Council, the management body for the Snøhetta area. Oppland County Council. John Olsen, an archaeologist, has been employed as project manager since November 2005. The committee views this broad support as both an assurance for the work on the project and a precondition. There would have been no incentive or value in carrying through such a project In spring 2005, the committee saw the need to suggest an adjustment of the delimitation of the if there was significant doubt or opposition locally. The majority of the above-mentioned bodies proposed area and achieve better scientific justification of the project. It therefore appointed a are also helping to fund the project. group of four experts, two with biological background, Professor Reidar Andersen, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, and Per Jordhøy, an adviser at the Norwegian Institute 2.6 Revitalisation and regional involvement for Nature Research, and two archaeologists, Anitra Fossum, a Vestfold County Council Traditions associated with hunting and trapping have always had a strong hold in this district. archaeologist, and Jostein Bergstøl, a research archaeologist at the Museum of Cultural History, Those involved in the project have nevertheless noted a steadily increasing interest for wild University of Oslo. reindeer and particularly for the old trapping techniques in the district concerned. This interest

  Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

and pride has its origin at the level of individual people, but has been reflected in priorities made 3. Wild reindeer – history, genetics and habitat use at both municipal and regional levels. We will not claim that this is solely a side effect of this The wild reindeer is the foremost carrier of culture in the montane landscape. Wild reindeer project, several projects linked with wild reindeer have gained a high profile in recent years, but and man have a common history stretching 40 000 years back in time. That we in Norway we nevertheless hope and believe that this project has played a significant role. We see obvious – as the only Europeans – are now able to carry this history forwards is Nature’s own stamp of signs of this in that many other projects refer to “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” as quality. By safeguarding the area the reindeer have required, we have had a hand in securing a stamp of quality for the tradition or the fields they are working on. We consider this most a montane landscape with diversity, where we have not only preserved the wild reindeer as a positive, first and foremost because it may help to raise awareness and thereby achieve better species, but also the broad range of ecological and cultural processes which we associate with Map showing the four sub-areas protection for both the wild reindeer and the cultural heritage sites associated with them as a wild reindeer. (illustration: NINA). resource. 3.1 History During the latter part of the Pleistocene, in the Weichsel Ice Age about 10 000 – 70 000 years ago, the distribution of reindeer was limited by the enormous ice sheets that, to varying degrees, covered parts of northern Eurasia and America. The ice reached its maximum extent approximately 18 000 years ago, and reindeer then roamed as far south as Mississippi (33ºN) in America (McDonald et al. 1996), and western Italy (43ºN), and northern Spain (42ºN) in Europe (Bedetti et al. 2001, Garcia & Arsuaga 2003). There was also a reindeer refugium in Beringia.

Whereas the reindeer in America and Beringia were not in contact with humans, those in southern parts of Europe were in contact with the Neanderthals for close on 500 000 years (Banfield 1961). It is believed that Cro Magnon (Homo sapiens) dispersed into south-western Europe only about 35 – 40 000 years ago. Following a period of about 5000 years when the Map showing the most important cultures and places where wild Neanderthals and Cro Magnons shared the same land area and exploited the same prey, reindeer were exploited in late- the Neanderthals disappeared and Homo sapiens reigned alone. In southern France, we now glacial times.

Key Funnel-shaped trap Bowmans hide Pitfalls Boundary Buffer zone

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observe the first signs of a rapid development in culture. In the Chauvet Cave, a limestone cave had to pass (White 1989). Regardless of this, the wild reindeer was their most important prey south of Lyon, we can see possibly 32 000 year-old cave paintings depicting the animal life at for long periods. In addition, most of the ornamented bone tools that are discovered are made the time. Among mammoths, cave bears, aurochs and lions, we also find images of the most of reindeer bone or antler. This bears witness to a hunting civilisation that to a great degree important terrestrial mammal in Europe, the wild reindeer. It does not, however, hold a prominent depended on the occurrence of wild reindeer. position in the scores of caves investigated in France and Spain. Cave art flourished in the Magdalenian period (about 19 000 – 11 000 BP), but it is the large (mammoths), dangerous Reindeer disappeared from southern France (Delpech 2003) and the Alps (Bridault et al. 2000) (aurochs and bisons) and fast (horses) animals that predominate. Cro Magnon’s most important at the end of the Pleistocene (about 12 000 BP). Corresponding changes in their range had source of energy, the wild reindeer, is comparatively little represented. French and Canadian also occurred during the Eemian interglacial, 130 000 – 116 000 years ago (Delpech 1989, Arrowhead impaled in the shoulder archaeologists believe this is because the reindeer was too common; you did not paint your Kukla 2000). Based on climate reconstructions performed for these periods (Guiot 1990), it of a reindeer, dated to 14 500 BP bread (Gordon 2003). is considered probable that changes in temperature, not precipitation, caused the reindeer to (Photo: Jørgen Holm). disappear from southern Europe at this time. There were also simultaneous changes in human Excavations of hundreds of settlement sites, however, show that wild reindeer played an culture; the art of cave painting seems to vanish. extremely prominent role in the diet of the first Europeans for long periods (Grayson & Delpech 1998, 2003). Analyses of the frequency of bone fragments from various animals show that We can trace the reindeer northwards. The Hamburg and Ahrensburg cultures show that they made up approximately 90 % of the diet. It is still a matter for debate whether the hunters humans followed the reindeer northwards over the tundra regions south of the retreating ice Migration routes for reindeer after followed the herds of reindeer on their seasonal migrations between winter and summer margin. At Stellmoor, a settlement site not far from Hamburg, the bones of more than 650 the last Ice Age (Illustration: Per Jordhøy). grazing (Gordon 1988), or had permanent settlements at strategic places which the animals reindeer have been unearthed. This shows the importance of this species for these hunters. Remains of these cultures, and of the Bromma culture, are found in many places in Denmark and near Malmø in Sweden. Entire or partial reindeer skeletons have been found in some The tundra (montane) reindeer is places, and arrowheads have been discovered still impaled in bones, showing that the bow a typical, medium-sized reindeer and arrow was an important item of hunting equipment. No remains of large trapping sites that often lives in large herds on the tundra. It may undertake have been found from this period. This suggests that the hunters were organised in small long, annual migrations between groups which largely followed the seasonal migrations of the reindeer between their summer summer and winter grazing areas. (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

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and winter grazing areas. Gradually, as the ice melted, the reindeer migrated northwards and America, whereas the genetic material in the present-day Scandinavian reindeer suggests that achieved the circumpolar distribution we see today. Substantial numbers of archaeological finds this had at least two different immigration routes, from Beringia and probably from areas south made in Canada, Russia and Scandinavia (Gordon 2001, Geist 2003) show that man followed of the ice margin in southern and/or central Europe. the reindeer throughout this period. Humans were so closely attached to the reindeer that work has shown that the human reproduction cycle was tied to their availability. Good access to The wild reindeer in the proposed World Heritage area have a distinctive genetic composition. reindeer in a good state of fitness in July and August was reflected in a large excess of births Genetic analyses suggest that they have been geographically separated from the Beringia in early spring, 9 months later. Gordon (1996) showed that 80 % of births among Canadian reindeer for tens of thousands of years, and it also seems clear that they have not inhabited hunters at that time took place in February-April. the same areas as the wild reindeer now present on Hardangervidda. This suggests that they may have immigrated to Norway during an interglacial and then lived in a refugium in central Archaeological studies show that the utilisation of wild reindeer in Scandinavia, Russia and North Europe during the last Ice Age. Some genetic analyses remain to be performed before this can America (Storli 1996, Gordon 2001, Hedman 2003) was based on groups of hunters following be completely confirmed. It is, nevertheless, already certain that the reindeer in three of the the reindeer herds migrating between geographically separate summer and winter pastures. In four proposed sub-areas have a unique genetic composition which shows that this reindeer all these areas, many archaeological finds are therefore made along these migration routes, strain has retained its distinctiveness down the ages. All the other reindeer in Norway, both which provide insight into how the animals were utilised. Nevertheless, it is still not clear when wild and (semi-) domesticated, are now a mixture of animals with a southern and an eastern the reindeer began to be domesticated and whether the techniques arose east of the Ural immigration history. Hence, all the (semi-)domesticated reindeer in Norway are a mixture of the It is not unusual for a reindeer to use an area of up to 500 km² in Mountains and spread west to Scandinavia (the diffusion theory (e.g. Aronsson 1991)) or at type of reindeer we find on Hardangervidda and reindeer with an easterly provenance. This the course of a year. This nomadic several places independently of one another (the evolution theory (e.g. Mulk 1994, Storli 1996)). suggests that reindeer that migrated to Norway from the south followed the coast right up to way of life is an adaptation to In any case, 15 ethnic groups that are entirely or partly dependent on the reindeer live within the northernmost parts of the country, where they mingled to some extent with reindeer that the marginal, unstable resource base in the mountains. View over its circumpolar range. For most of these, the utilisation of domesticated or semi-domesticated came from the east – the Beringia refugium. Meanwhile, the wild reindeer in the Snøhetta and Grimsdalen in Rondane (Photo: reindeer now forms the basis for their culture. Rondane districts have survived as a genetically distinct strain. Per Jordhøy).

Traces of the reindeer hunters are found in many places in Norway, but only in southern Norway can we still find wild reindeer in their original habitat, where they regularly pass various kinds of trapping constructions from olden days.

3.2 Genetics Reindeer are today divided into three main types (sub-species). The tundra (montane) reindeer is a typical, medium-sized reindeer that often lives in large herds on the tundra and may make annual migrations between summer and winter grazing. The wild reindeer in Norway belongs to this type and is a representative of the sub-species, the Euro-Asiatic tundra reindeer. The Svalbard reindeer, with its shorter legs and nozzle and an ability to build up substantial fat reserves as an adaptation to the hard winter, is a typical representative of the Arctic reindeer. The forest reindeer is a comparatively large reindeer that is adapted to life in forests, partly by having long legs and large, narrow antlers. The Finnish forest reindeer and the American forest Spring pasque-flower (Pulsatilla caribou are typical representatives of this third sub-species. vernalis) (Photo: Marit Aanestad). Analyses of sequential variations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) are used extensively as markers to determine the origin and migration routes of various species and sub-species (e.g. Flagstad & Røed 2003). In contrast to the remaining DNA in animals, which is inherited from both parents, only the mother contributes mtDNA. By studying the sequential order in mtDNA, it will be possible to trace the maternal line that has remained largely unchanged over several thousand years. The sequential variation in mtDNA in various types and sub-species shows that reindeer have an mtDNA variation that can be divided into three main groups (haplogroups). Each of these haplogroups originates in three populations which have been isolated from one another for many thousands of years. This implies that reindeer were isolated in at least three refugia during the last Ice Age. One of these, Beringia in the east, was by far the largest, and genetic material from there is found in all the present sub-species. The precursor of today’s forest caribou in North America mainly had its origin in refugia south of the ice margin in North

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3.3 Habitat use 4. Description of types of cultural heritage sites The reindeer is the nomad of the mountains. Reindeer require a far larger area to live in than Many cultural heritage sites of several kinds provide us with knowledge about how our forefathers all the other members of the deer family in Europe. It is not unusual for a single reindeer to exploited wild reindeer. Several hunting and trapping techniques were employed, in part during use up to 500 km² in the course of just one year. This nomadic way of life is an adaptation different periods. This chapter describes the types of sites, section 6.1 deals with their age, and to the marginal, unstable natural resources in the mountains. Great seasonal variations in Chapter 9 places them in a cultural-historical context. environmental conditions, the utilisation of lichens on their winter grazing and former predation by beasts of prey have also resulted in reindeer evolving a marked seasonal migration between The various sites have been grouped in three main categories, pitfalls, funnel-shaped traps different areas. Summer pastures are generally in the western parts of their range and winter and bowmen’s hides, each of which have many variants. In addition to these groups, there Hunting with a crossbow (after pastures further east where the climate is more continental, less snow accumulates and what are numerous stray finds, including arrowheads, spearheads, remains of bows and moveable Olaus Magnus). does fall readily blows off ridges where lichens grow. Moreover, there is often an alternation in stakes used to scare reindeer, and all these also provide important scientific evidence. They the use of grazing patches within these areas, some parts remaining unused for long periods have not, however, left a physical mark in the landscape, nor can they be experienced in their before they are grazed once more. One reason for this is that lichens that are grazed generally authentic context in the same way as the pitfalls, funnel-shaped traps and bowmen’s hides. require several decades to rejuvenate. We have therefore chosen to place emphasis on the sites which, in the future too, can be experienced, studied and preserved in their context in the landscape. Wild reindeer are now found in 23 demarcated areas in Norway, covering a total of approximately 40 000 km2. Only 20 % of this area is winter grazing, 50 % is snow-free grazing and 30 % lacks 4.1 Stray finds, jumps, meat caches, shelters and graves grazing value (impediment). These types of grazing are not equally distributed in the various parts of the areas, and this gave rise to the traditional migrations between summer and winter Most stray finds of hunting equipment made in the mountains are arrowheads of stone or iron. grazing areas. Modern land use in the mountains has led to fragmentation which, in most Owing to their location in areas where reindeer have lived and where reindeer hunting is known cases, has interrupted these migration routes between coastal and inland areas and resulted to have taken place in the past, these finds have been associated with reindeer hunting. There in great variations between the various areas with respect to the occurrence of summer and may be several reasons why the arrowheads have apparently been left lying around. They winter grazing. Today, it is primarily analyses of ancient trapping systems, their design, scale may have been impaled in injured animals that escaped from the hunter. They may have been Reindeer in the Snøhetta sub-area difficult to find in the snow when hunting took place on glaciers and snowfields. Some may (Photo: Per Jordhøy). and age that can tell us how the wild reindeer used to use their habitat. simply have been lost when a targeted animal was completely missed, but this is unlikely to account for more than a few, because they were too valuable to lose. Since considerable effort went into making a really good arrow or obtaining one by barter it must be assumed that the hunter spent some time trying to find it. Nor was the range of a shot longer than it was possible in practice to seek out the spot where an arrow landed. Sámi are, moreover, known to have shot a new arrow in the same direction to be able to recover one that was lost, a smart move that was probably also employed in this area.

A number of arrows complete with arrowheads have been found in the area. Earlier reviews Arrowheads and shafts found in have shown that such finds have been made throughout the area, but fewest in the west. They the Oppdal mountains (Photo: have been found in montane valleys and, in particular, high on the mountains in the central part Museum of Archaeology of the area (Fossum 1996: 26-27). Arrows have been found between 1800 and nearly 2300 and Natural History, NTNU, Trondheim). metres above sea level south of Aursjø Reservoir and on Snøhetta. There, and in the Oppdal mountains, they have been found close to snowfields and glaciers, in places where reindeer seek refuge from insects that trouble them in midsummer. However, it should be noted that the age of such finds varies according to changes in climate. Fewer finds are dated to periods when the climate was warm and snow and ice were melting than in colder periods when glaciers and snowfields were expanding. This explains why no finds of arrows dated to the Stone Age have been found in such places – the climate was too warm. The mountains were also used then, as other finds demonstrate, but hunting in summer close to and on glaciers and snowfields only took place in later periods (Farbregd 1972, 1983, 1991). Otherwise, there is a noticeable increase in the number of arrows dating from the Migration Period (400-600 AD). Since little information is available about life and habitation in the valleys in this period, this evidence from the mountains is important for understanding this period of prehistory.

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There is a close link between the arrowhead and the original bow and arrow weapon. The Few stray finds of spearheads have been made. Spears may have been used by hunters in weight and length of the arrowhead reveals a great deal about the appearance of the arrow bowmen’s hides. An account by Tornæus (1772) describes Sámi in the Torne and Kemi districts shaft; a heavy arrowhead requires a thick, preferably short shaft. Moreover, a relationship of northern Sweden using spears while hunting on skis in 1672. The hunting of reindeer on skis exists between the length of the arrow and the length of the bow. Based on the finds, it can be is also mentioned in Kongespeilet, and the technique must have been very efficient. A hunter concluded that bows as long as a man was tall were used in the Early Iron Age. Both long and could take up to 9 or more reindeer in a single run (Kongespeilet 1947: 21). Skis have also been short bows were used in the Late Iron Age. Farbregd (1991: 9) recorded that few arrows dating used when hunting reindeer more recently. Inhabitants in upland parts of Hardanger used to from the Early Middle Ages have been found, but they indicate a new, stronger kind of bow and spend periods in the mountains in winter hunting reindeer on skis (Opedal 1943: 14). Maybe the part of such a bow composed of two kinds of wood laminated, or glued, together, was found stray finds of spearheads made in the mountains derive from such hunting? close to a glacier (Storbreen) near Oppdal. The crossbow was introduced in the 13th and 14th centuries. Jumps have very occasionally been reported (Mølmen 1975: 127, 1988: 61-63, Barth 1986, Nicolaisen 1992). The animals were driven towards, and off, a high ledge, a cliff or a steep Snow fleabane (Erigeron humilis) slope. The technique has been little studied and there is very little evidence to examine. It (Photo: Per Jordhøy). is also doubtful whether such a hunting method was particularly widely used since it would Tarns 1014 m a.s.l. damage valuable parts of the animals, like hides, antlers and meat.

The sketch is not to scale Approximate distances In addition to the hunting and trapping techniques that have left evidence in the terrain, we must between hides: assume that others may have been used, such as the setting of snares. Map of the area with large pitfall Many meat caches have been found scattered on the mountainsides and plateaus in the area systems in Lordalen in the Reinheimen sub-area. The map covered by this project. They are often stone-lined hollows formed by removing stones from illustrates the many other cultural screes. The meat was then placed in the cavity and covered with stones to conceal it from heritage features linked with the beasts and birds of prey and scavengers, to be fetched later. None of the meat caches have trapping sites. Øystein Mølmen has interpreted several of the been dated, but caches were probably used through most of prehistoric and historic time. The unspecified features as meat practice still takes place today. caches (Illustration: NINA).

Protective walls hindering reindeer from falling into the hides on the cliff top, thus injuring the bowmen

Cliff

Large boulders Right: Sketch map of a possible jump at Litlejordshornet (after Rocks removed to Øystein Mølmen). build the wall

Below: Iron Age spearhead found at Dovrefjell (Photo: John Olsen).

Wall, ca. 300 m long and 0.4 to 1.6 m high

Key Cliff Hide Shelter Unspecified feature

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There are also numerous simple shelters in the mountains and they vary greatly in form, from show that resources in the mountains have been valuable. Arrowheads suggestive of big-game a small space beneath an overhanging boulder, via simple stone walls abutting against cliffs, to hunting have also been found in some graves (Fossum 1996: 57-59). small stone huts. Norman Heitkøtter (1966: 60), a mountain ranger, knew of 40 in the Rondane Mountains alone, while Mølmen (1978) mentioned 90 in the Snøhetta district. It must therefore When the summer is at its warmest, the reindeer are troubled by the heat and insects, and be assumed that many hundreds of shelters exist in the entire area. They have probably been therefore go up onto snowfields high in the mountains to avoid their tormenters. The prehistoric used over a long period, and many may have been used repeatedly. Edvard Barth (1991: 15) hunters were aware of this. Consequently, over the years numerous finds of arrows, arrowheads dated humus from two layers of humus in a rock shelter 50-75 m from the slaughtering enclosure and other objects related to wild reindeer hunting have been found in connection with such at the trap in Verkilsdalsbotn in the Rondane Mountains. The sample yielded a Migration Period snowfields (Farbregd 1972, 1991). date, but unfortunately the context is uncertain. A combination of dry winters and warm summers in recent years has meant that the snowfields are now very small. This, in turn, means that objects that have lain under snow and ice for more than 1000 years are now being uncovered. In the past couple of years, many such finds have been made in the mountains all the way from Trollheimen to Hardangervidda in south Norway. In 2006 alone, almost 50 finds from melting snowfields in Oppland were handed in. They include remains of textiles, leather footwear, horseshoes, arrowheads, entire arrows complete with the shaft and arrowhead, and parts of poles and sticks that have stood in the snowfields. Some very special sticks have been found on Lomseggen in Skjåk, which have been placed in the snow to scare reindeer towards archers kneeling in concealment behind stone hides. A few sticks have been handed in to the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo. They are 70-100 cm long and have had pieces of birch bark, twigs or wood shavings fastened to their tops that have wafted in the wind. Some years ago, one such stick used to scare reindeer was dated to the Migration Period.

Poles used to frighten reindeer, and thin wood shavings that were fastened to their tops. The poles Shelter in Svabotten in the were found at a funnel-shaped Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: Per trap in the Reinheimen sub-area Jordhøy). The area we are concerned with contains some 40 barrows, burial cairns and finds related to (Photo: John Olsen). burials, in addition to 8 uncertain ones. The graves have been discovered in a variety of ways, ranging from Gerhard Schøning’s journey through the district in 1775, via investigations prior to possible hydroelectric schemes, mapping for the Land Use map series, research on graves 4.2 Pitfalls in mountain regions performed by two archaeologists, Arne Skjølsvold and Bjørn Hougen, to Pitfalls are probably the best known of all the remains in the mountains that show how people the meticulous fieldwork undertaken by Øystein Mølmen and Edvard and Sonja Barth. The have exploited reindeer down the ages. The stone-built pitfalls are particularly obvious, since barrows and cairns are located in association with upland valleys and lakes, and stand alone they form conspicuous hollows in the ground very close to paths. When Gerhard Schøning or in groups. Concentrations are found in the valleys of Grimsdalen, Finndalen, Lordalen and travelled through the Gudbrandsdal district in 1775 he noted with surprise the large number of Vuludalen. Most of the burials are undated, but dateable finds from the Bronze Age, Early Iron pitfalls he saw: Age and Late Iron Age have been made in Vuludalen and Grimsdalen. It remains undecided whether the graves should be viewed in the context of groups of people who were settled in Both on Dovrefjell and the other mountains surrounding and above Gudbrandsdalen, can be the mountains, or are related to farms in the valleys. Irrespective of the interpretation, they seen, here and there, large numbers of graves made to trap elk and reindeer, located close

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to one another and remarkable both for their number and the great care taken in constructing The central element in the pitfall construction is a chamber into which the animal fell and from them… Large stretches on these mountains are therefore almost completely covered by them which it was unable to escape, either because it was too deep, flagstones formed an overhang (Schøning 1980:4f). at the top, or it was perhaps equipped with one or more horizontal poles (Barth 1984: 203-217, Mathiesen 2005) which separated the legs of the animal. The chamber, or pit, itself may be Norwegian literature (e.g. Vorren 1969, Bakke 1984, Mølmen 1988, Mikkelsen 1994, Barth entirely or partly constructed of stones, flagstones, or both, or in some cases there is no sign at 1996, Fossum 1996, Bang-Andersen 2004, Jordhøy et al. 2005) refers to this cultural heritage all of such materials. In that case, there may have been a wooden construction that has decayed feature by a variety of names including (directly translated) hunting pit or trapping pit, reindeer long ago. The chamber of a stone-built pitfall whose original dimensions can be determined is grave and fall grave, and there is at present no agreement regarding an appropriate Norwegian 1.5-2 m long, 50-90 cm wide and up to 2 m deep. The pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits term. Pitfall is the term generally used in English, and a distinction is made here between are nowadays generally 2-3 m broad and 3-4 m long at the top, and comparatively shallow. stone-built and excavated pitfalls. Some of the above authors use different terms to attempt Many are surrounded by a low bank. These excavated pitfalls were originally more steep-sided to distinguish different kinds of traps. In this region, it is the stone-built pitfalls that are most and deeper, but erosion has altered them more than the stone-built pitfalls whose construction frequently, but confusingly, referred to as ‘graves’, whereas those that have been dug out using stones and flagstones delays the breakdown processes. Moreover, it is not unusual to are called ‘fangstgroper’ (hunting or trapping pits). Although a broad distinction is made here find flagstones in the end walls of the excavated pitfalls and upright planks of wood have also between such pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits and the stone-built pitfalls, it is important been found in the end walls (Jordhøy et al. 2005: 52). If the earth was insufficiently deep to dig to note that a great deal of variation exists within these two groups, and many intermediate out the chamber to its full depth below the surface, stone walls were partly or entirely added on forms can be found. the surface. There are also instances of stone ramps leading from the natural surface of the surrounding terrain up to the edge of the pit. There may just be a single pitfall, small groups of Construction pitfalls, and even long systems comprising about 1000 individual pitfalls (Jordhøy et al. 2005), The pitfalls show a remarkable variation in their mode of construction and appearance. The and they may also occur as a supplement to a funnel-shaped trap. The full range of types of remains that are preserved indicate how they looked when they were in use. Fortunately, the construction is represented in long systems (Hole & Hage 2005). construction has occasionally survived almost intact, despite centuries of winters and spring Stone-built pitfall. Note the thaws, and the obligation to destroy them when legislation was introduced in 1899 banning their While the pitfalls were in use they were covered with branches, sticks, twigs and leaves so that remains of low walls leading to the corners of the pitfall (Photo: Per use. the animals would not be aware of their presence. This covering naturally had to be replaced Jordhøy).

Right: Stone-built pitfalls could be constructed in various ways. Uppermost is one that is entirely under ground level. The middle one is partly below, partly above ground level. The lowermost one is entirely above ground level and stone ramps lead up to the actual pitfall. All three types have been found in this area (Illustration after Øystein Mølmen).

Purple saxifrage (Saxifrage oppositifolia) (Photo: Marit Aanestad).

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each time an animal fell into the pit, or when it was blown away. Remains of this material were left in the pit. Some of this was regularly removed (Løken 1982: 110), but studies have shown that much was left there (Bang-Andersen 2004).

Barth (1984: 200-208) suggested that an impaling stake was placed in the bottom of the pitfall. However, the context of assumed finds of such stakes is poorly documented and the theory itself Below: The map shows the is problematical. Barth conceived that the animal fell onto an upright stake and was mortally location of pitfalls in Stor- Right: A pitfall excavated in wounded. However, it would be impossible to foresee where the stake would enter the animal; Svartdalen, a valley in the superficial deposits, showing Snøhetta sub-area. (Illustration: the internal wooden construction the stomach could just as easily be punctured, thereby spoiling the meat, as a vital organ be NINA). still preserved. This pitfall was struck cleanly and precisely. We assume that the finds described instead represented remains Lowermost: Pitfall systems studied in connection with the of the covering material or stem from a secondary use of the pit to trap beasts of prey (Fossum archaeological investigations in Lordalen (a valley in the undertaken at Aursjø, a large 1996: 46-47; see also Jacobsen & Andersen (1992: 192) on impaling stakes in pitfalls designed Reinheimen sub-area). Both lake straddling Lesja and Nesset, for elk). stone-built and excavated pitfalls are found here (Illustration: NINA). in summer 2006 (Photo: John Low stone walls can often be seen leading towards the corners, or sometimes the long sides, Olsen). of stone-built pitfalls. The ground in front of the pitfall may also be cleared of stones. Both the Below: A pitfall excavated in stone walls and the stone-free surface led the grazing animal towards the pitfall. In many cases, superficial deposits. Here, the internal wooden construction no walls can be seen, but they are unlikely to have been like this when the pitfalls were in use has decayed and the pitfall because the risk of the quarry going past the pitfall was too high. Such pitfalls may have had now remains as an elongated fences of poles and branches. Hole (2004: 35) reported stakeholes beside an excavated pitfall depression. The photograph shows Endre Hage recording and in Storsvartdalen), and remains of such stakes may fortuitously be preserved concealed in bogs measuring up the pitfall for NINA between pitfalls. So far, no bogs near reindeer pitfalls have been searched, but searches near (Photo: Per Jordhøy). pitfalls designed for elk in Dokkfløy and Snertingdal, southeast Norway, have revealed remains of wooden fences (Jacobsen & Larsen 1992: 118-122, Gustafson in press). Perhaps corridors where the vegetation was cut down guided the animals to the pitfalls.

Location The pitfalls are constructed along the reindeer migration routes and are inseparably linked to the surrounding terrain and topography. When they stand alone or in systems, they are evidence of passive hunting aimed at local grazing movements and regional seasonal migrations, respectively. Single pitfalls and small groups of pitfalls are placed in valleys, on isthmuses and

Key Stone-built pitfall

Pitfall excavated in superficial deposits

Excavated pitfall with stones added

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strips of land bordering lakes, between screes and streams, beside cliffs or close to boulders. found, but all them have two features in common; they exploit the flight instinct of the animals The really long systems are located along passes used by the herds during the spring and and they presuppose that people actively drive and control the animals once they have entered autumn migrations. the funnel. Below: Map of the funnel-shaped In many places, the pitfalls have been used in combination with hides. A strip of land beside a The guiding fences in the largest systems are more than 4 km long (Blehr 1972, Barth 1977, trap at Gravhø (Rondane ) showing mountain lake, a pitfall with guiding fences leading to it from four directions, a hide a few metres Jordhøy et al. 2005). They originally consisted of upright poles held up by a stone packing, guiding stone walls and migration paths (after Barth 1996: 30). from the old animal track that still goes past the pit, such small trapping systems tell a complete upright stones and small cairns. The tops of the poles and cairns may have had story of encounters between animals and human beings. bird’s wings, clusters of twigs, sticks, rope, turf or strips of hide attached to them that fluttered threateningly in the wind. At their opening, the fences are several hundred 4.3 Funnel-shaped traps metres apart. When the reindeer herd has entered the space between the fences, The funnel-shaped traps are less well known than the pitfalls, probably because they are the fences form a threatening silhouette against the sky, and the animals do not move simply less easy to find. If you lack prior experience of them, you fail to give a thought to small towards them. People may have set the herd in motion inwards and forwards through piles of stones and the occasional upstanding stone on a ridge that may be part of a several the funnel. Gradually, as the slaughtering site is approached the funnel narrows, the Next page, lowermost: Storgrava kilometre-long trapping system. In south Norway, they have been referred to as mass-trapping fences become more substantial and are generally supplemented with hides. The in Haverdalen (the Gravhø trap), systems (Barth 1977) and in north Norway as reindeer fences (Vorren 1998). We have chosen herd is in a full state of panic and the hunting must be well organised to give a good Rondane, was originally part of result. The enclosure and the slaughtering site are generally located where the terrain a large funnel-shaped system. to call them funnel-shaped traps, which alludes to their form and the controlling principle of the Today, it is mainly this stone-built technique. It also distinguishes this type of cultural heritage object from other constructions for flattens out following a rise. The animals were driven by their natural flight instinct enclosure that is most obvious in mass trapping, like pitfall systems and large groups of hides. and maintained a high speed up the slope. They did not see the enclosure and the the terrain (Photo: John Olsen). slaughtering site before they were inside them. Slaughtering sites differ. Perhaps they Below: Computer-modelled Construction were enclosed by close-set stakes or stone walls, consisted of a timber pen, or were illustration of the funnel-shaped located in water (Vorren 1944, Blehr 1972, Barth 1977, Jordhøy et al. 2005). When they trap at Slådalen, Reinheimen sub- These trapping systems consist of four main elements: long, guiding fences, enclosures, a area (Illustration: NINA). slaughtering site and people. The slaughtering site is on land or water. A number of variants are were in water, people in boats were able to direct and control the animals. A legend

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Right: Sketch map of the entire from Hardangervidda also relates that lines were laid on the water when the trapping was taking There is a relatively modern account that gives funnel-shaped trap at Fellingvatn, a lake in the Reinheimen sub-area. place. Remains of rope and stone sinkers found at Sumtangen on Hardangervidda have been an impression of how the slaughtering may have The pitfalls at Fellingkroken are interpreted as relicts of such lines (Blehr 1971: 93-94). taken place on water. In 1877, a man named furthest north (Illustration: NINA). Gudbrand Skattebu, in the middle of a church Remains of Below: Standing stone and cairn at service, noticed a reindeer buck starting to swim buildings Fellingvatn (Photo: Per Jordhøy). over the lake at Tyin. He got a man to row him, and set off in pursuit: Lowermost: View across Fellingvatn, with the fallen cairn in the foreground used to guide the The boat was soon moving so fast the water was reindeer (Photo: John Olsen). foaming at the bow, but when the buck became aware of us, he turned right round and swam Old track towards Øyno again, and the boat was going so fast we only just managed to slip between the land and the buck, and drive him further out into the lake again. When we’d run him so long that he Rows of poles tired, we rowed close up to him and gave a hard Reindeer pursued blow on the top of his head with the birch pole. I always had this pole with me in the boat for this use. The reindeer was stunned by one such blow and his head dropped beneath the surface. So all Contour interval ca. 5 m we had to do was drag him to the side of the boat and cut his throat so the blood ran (Hermundstad 1972:57).

As funnel-shaped traps could capture up to several hundred animals, many people must have worked together using a pre-organised division of labour. Some drove the animals forward, some shot those that managed to escape through the fences, others stood for the slaughtering and butchery. Remains of buildings and mounds of bones and antlers have been found close to several of the trapping systems. The location of the house sites, and finds made during archaeological investigations, link them to the use of the trapping systems both as shelters and workshops (Blehr 1972, Mikkelsen 1994: 13, Fossum 1996: 52, Indrelid 2004).

The smaller trapping systems have one or two guiding fences which are up to 300 m long. Sketch map of the funnel-shaped A stone-wall enclosure, generally 15-20 m long and about 3 m wide, is located where the trap at Einsethø, Rondane (after Barth 1996: 12). fences converge. It is encircled by robust, up to 2 m high, stone walls. In some cases, a cliff or a huge boulder forms part of the enclosure. These trapping systems naturally have much smaller capacity than the largest ones, perhaps 20-50 reindeer, but a number of people were nevertheless required to operate them (Barth 1977: 34, 49-66).

Location The funnel-shaped traps are located at natural passages in the topography, like isthmuses and valleys. They intercepted herds moving naturally from one area to another during the spring and

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autumn migrations. No examples of such systems have been recorded in many mountainous 5. The mountains as a cultural landscape areas in Norway. Since this type of site is far less well known than pitfalls, it is feasible that the Man and wild reindeer have a common, 40 000 year-long history. Changes in the range of sites known today are not representative. Searches performed by skilled people will probably the reindeer at the end of the Pleistocene probably greatly influenced the way man, himself, reveal more systems. dispersed. It can therefore be expected that human colonisation of Arctic and sub-Arctic regions reflects that of the reindeer. People and reindeer have evolved together here, and the reindeer 4.4 Hides is undoubtedly the resource that has had the greatest significance for mankind’s physical and In common with pitfalls, hides have been given a variety of designations in Norwegian. This cultural development (Kofinas et al. 2000). No other species has so much human culture partly reflects dialects, which is not surprising since hides are known in many mountainous associated with it as the reindeer. districts throughout Norway, from the Varanger Peninsula in the far northeast to the Ryfylke plateaus in the southwest. Hides are used in connection with practically all hunting and trapping The great variety of ecological and cultural processes linked to wild reindeer and the mountains techniques; they occur alone, in groups, in large aggregations, together with pitfalls, and as a they inhabit combine to shape a landscape that embraces both culture and nature. This means of fortifying fences in funnel-shaped traps. landscape is personal and including, because we create our own experience of it on the basis of memories, associations and knowledge. It is these personal experiences that give the Construction landscape its cultural and social values, in addition to the environmental and economic ones. A typical hide is a low, circular or semi-circular stone wall. One to three courses of stones are By taking care of the relicts and the living culture in the montane landscape, we can understand generally preserved and they stand on rock, up against boulders or rock faces, or in screes. and actively preserve history, culture and identity.

Location The wild reindeer are ”harbingers of quality” in this landscape. That a species like the wild The designation, ”hide”, clearly shows how this kind of site was used; the hunter has lain there reindeer, with its extensive use of land, is still to be found in viable stocks, means that the in hiding. The distance to the nearest animal path was generally 5-10 m, that is, an appropriate ecosystem is still intact. This is an ecological stamp of quality for the mountains. All the potential distance for a marksman with a bow and arrow, or a hunter with a spear. In many places, hides Hide at Fellingvatn in the World Heritage sub-areas are situated within what the Norwegian Parliament has defined as Reinheimen sub-area (Photo: Per form an integral part of a larger trapping site where the other element may be pitfalls or funnel- the European Wild Reindeer Region. Jordhøy). shaped traps. They are often found at the approaches to the slaughtering area in a funnel- shaped trap, and both bowmen and drivers may have found concealment in these hides.

Hides in the Eikesdal mountains. They are in scree and are linked by walls to prevent reindeer escaping (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

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5.1 The cultural landscape as a ”laboratory” existing in the mountains today can practically be used as a ”laboratory” for studying hunting The mountains in this area are unique because they contain weak, but nevertheless significant sites for large mammals. You can still experience reindeer migrating through or past 1000 year- evidence of the mutual influence of man and nature. The human traces are nevertheless old trapping systems. The sites are also located such that a visitor, be he or she a scientist or discreet, not necessarily because human awareness for nature protection has been greater a layman, can study the landscape and understand why the pitfall or the side of a funnel trap is here than elsewhere, but because these mountainous areas have been so marginal that they placed just where it is. This gives the landscape greater depth and a feeling of familiarity with have not been exposed to the same development press as other parts of the country, or for that the people who constructed and used these sites. matter other parts of the world. In addition, management authorities and Norwegian legislation, through bans on motorised traffic on marginal land, have contributed to more considerate 5.2 Present-day people and the cultural landscape utilisation of these areas. This means that remains from 200, 1000 and 8000 years ago are still In many contexts, hunting is controversial; some will certainly consider it so in this context, too. preserved in the area. Those responsible for the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project, on the contrary, believe it to be one of the great values in the landscape. Modern hunting is practised in the On the coast, the landscape can be read from the sea upwards, because of land uplift, and most humane and reliable manner possible. It, nevertheless, has great similarities with, for finds are often older the higher you come. Such a stratigraphy is lacking in inland areas. On instance, hunting with bows and arrows in former times. Wild reindeer hunting is a central part the contrary, it is fascinating how people, time after time, have chosen the same places to set of the identity of many inhabitants. They feel just as attached to the mountains in this area, and up camp, hunt or fish. On more than one occasion, modern hikers have put up their tent just to the annual open season, as the Inuits in Canada are to their whaling or people in the Faeroe where Stone Age people had their settlement. Shelter from bad weather and strong wind was Islands are to the hunting of pilot whales. In addition to the landscape as a hunting ground, just as important in the Stone Age and the Viking Period as it is today. The same applies to many people have a great attachment to, and strong feelings for, the landscape as an area for concealment when hunting. recreation. It is to here they journey to gather strength and relax. Many have happy recollections and feelings linked with the use of the area in their childhood, sentiments associated with Climatic conditions have changed down the ages, since the ice sheet disappeared up to the the area having been used by earlier generations. This means that the landscape creates a present day. There have been both warmer and colder periods. The present-day landscape in subjective sense of belonging. Pitfall at Vesltverråbotten in the Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: Per this area, nevertheless, has much in common with that at the time the hunting sites were in Small reindeer calf (Photo: Per Jordhøy). use. In addition, the same reindeer inhabit the area. This means that the cultural landscape Jordhøy).

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6. Research potential and challenges linked with the hunting sites Just south of Reinheim, a number of 1-2 m long stakes have been found close to groups of hides at Moldurhø in Skjåk and on Kvitingskjølen in Lom (Mølmen 1977: 176, 1988: 290- Development projects, including reservoirs for generating hydroelectric power and 291, Espen Finstad, Oppland County Council archaeologist, 26.5.2006, pers. comm.). Many of agglomerations of weekend homes, have already come into conflict with cultural heritage sites these stakes are pointed. These hides are directly associated with glaciers and snowfields at linked with wild reindeer trapping. They have also reduced wild reindeer migration routes and an altitude of 1800-2000 metres. One stake at Kvitingskjølen still had pieces of birch bark fixed habitats. A possible future World Heritage area will safeguard the great research potential in to its upper end. This, together with the proximity to the hides, supports the interpretation that these areas in general and in the trapping sites in particular. these stakes belonged to a moveable fence. Using such a fence, the hunters could adapt to the wind direction on the day they were hunting and thus increase their hunting success. The Even though knowledge of ancient reindeer trapping practices has grown substantially by stakes from both localities have been dated to the Migration Period and thus document one of degrees, there are still many challenges and research tasks that require further focus in the probably several phases when these hides were in use. years to come. Light was shed on some of these questions in 2006 during the investigations at Aursjø, a large lake straddling the boroughs of Nesset and Lesja. The following sections will Reliable dating of pitfalls is made difficult by the pits generally having been cleaned out prior to take up the problems related to the dating of the trapping sites, the ethnic affiliation of those being set up for a new trapping session. Where there have been several long phases of use, using the sites, and the possibilities of finding out more about the immigration paths of the evidence of the earliest ones will therefore be destroyed. In such cases, material beneath the reindeer using DNA analyses. bank will therefore be the only available dating evidence. This can give a maximum age; in other words, the pitfall cannot be older than the material lying on the ground surface that was covered 6.1 Dating the hunting sites when the pit was first dug out. The oldest reindeer hunting took place with bows and arrows. Many groups of hides used by bowmen are found scattered around the mountains. Whether these can be dated right back Rows of pitfalls for wild reindeer occur in mountainous areas all the way from the Varanger to the Stone Age is still not clarified. Jordhøy et al. (2005) put forward the theory that some of Peninsula in northeast Norway (Vorren 1998) to the plateaus of Setesdal and Ryfylke in the large agglomerations of hides in the far west, in the mountains adjacent to the valleys of southwest Norway (Bang-Andersen 2004). Only very few of the large number of pitfall sites Romsdal and Sunndal, were used during the later part of the last Ice Age, and were located on have been dated. The dates that exist can give an impression of the development of this form nunataks that rose above the Scandinavian ice sheet. As these hides have not yet been dated, of trapping and the periods when it was most intensively practised, but whether the oldest sites this is still just a hypothesis. are in the south or the north of the country is still not known. Archaeologists have rarely been fortunate enough to find details of the mode of construction preserved in the actual pitfall. Most pitfalls are therefore dated through material found on the former ground surface, or using wood found in the bottom of the pit, and there are many potential sources of error here. Pitfalls for reindeer have been dated to the Stone Age at Kautokeino (on the Finnmark plateau in north Norway) (Furset 1995, 1996) and the Bronze Age at Ryfylke (Bang-Andersen 2004). There are also Stone Age and Bronze Age dates from this area, too, but the context of the samples is somewhat uncertain (Jordhøy et al. 2005). Substantial research is required to clarify where the oldest pitfalls are found in Scandinavia. Determining how many phases of use the pitfall sites have had will also be an intricate problem. Fossum (1996) and Jordhøy et al. (2005), among others, review the dating evidence available from northern Gudbrandsdal.

Pitfalls have simultaneously been used to trap elk in both Norway and Sweden. A comparatively Glacier buttercup (Ranunculus larger number have been investigated, since they are situated at lower altitudes, where they glacialis) (Photo: Marit Aanestad). are more frequently affected by development projects. Edward Barth (1994) dated the ground surface beneath the bank of a number of elk pitfalls in the Femund district in eastern Norway, and claimed that they were in use as long ago as the Stone Age. Correspondingly old dates are available from Sweden (Svensson 1998, Mulk 2005: 49). As the technology used to trap reindeer and elk in such pitfalls is identical, the old dates linked to the elk pitfalls make it likely that reindeer trapping using pitfalls is also an ancient technique in this area.

Archaeological excavation of a Some dates from pitfalls are older than any from funnel-shaped traps. It is not clear how far pitfall in the Snøhetta sub-area to obtain material for dating (Photo: back such systems can be traced, but no dates of reliable construction details are older than John Olsen). the Viking Period. The finds from Sumtangen on Hardangervidda, however, indicate that mass

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trapping of reindeer also took place in the Early Iron Age. Whether the Stone Age house sites Both the Sámi and the southern Scandinavian societies evolved from societies in the region that at the same locality are related to such mass trapping is more uncertain (Indrelid 1994). A rock were based on hunting, and there is no longer talk of late Sámi immigration, but rather evolution carving at Alta, in north Norway, depicts an enclosure that can be interpreted as a reindeer corral from an existing hunting society (Hansen & Olsen 2004). The proto-Sámi hunting societies (Helskog 1988). It was carved sometime between 4200 and 3600 BC. The long, funnel-shaped furthest north had extensive contact with groups in what is now Russian territory. This contact traps (Sámi: voubman) in Finnmark have not been dated, but an occupation site comprised of was less significant in the south, and interaction with southern Scandinavian agrarian societies 16 turf huts adjacent to a large trapping system was investigated in the 1960s (Munch & Munch probably played a greater role (Bergstøl 2004b). An investigation of a settlement site within the 1998). There were large quantities of reindeer bones and antlers at the locality, which was dated inundated part of a regulated lake in Lesja, Gautsjøen, revealed interesting finds from 5000- to the period from AD 1200-1600 (Hansen & Olsen 2004: 186-187). It is therefore still not known 1000 BC which demonstrate contact both northwards and southwards (Hofseth 2001). The whether the oldest funnel-shaped traps are to be found in southern or northern Norway. finds (C38937-8), which are displayed at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo, include schist tools that are typical for areas further north and flint tools of southern Scandinavian type.

Many workers now believe that the Sámi area extended further south in Prehistoric time than the present settlement area (Hansen & Olsen 2004, Zachrisson 1997). The Harald Hårfargre (Fairhair) Saga describes the King meeting a Sámi, named Svåse, and his daughter Snøfrid at Tofte, near Dombås in Gudbrandsdalen (Harald Hårfargre’s Saga pp. 25-26). Many finds were made in summer 2006 in connection with archaeological investigations undertaken while the water level was drastically lowered in a regulated lake, Aursjø, just south of the Snøhetta sub- area. A particularly notable discovery was four rectangular hearths. These are distinctive for Sámi culture and probably date from the Viking Period or the Middle Ages. Similar hearths have previously been found at Saltfjellet in northern Nordland and further north (Storli 1994). These hearths, called aernie in Southern Sámi, have a stone placed outside one short end to mark a specially designated place in the tent or turf hut where the magic drum was kept. Since there was no sign of a bank surrounding these rectangular hearths, which would typify a turf hut, the Øystein Mølmen is the one who implication is that this site was occupied in summer. The four hearths probably do not mark has done most to record cultural heritage sites in the Snøhetta and Reinheimen sub-areas. Here he is pictured holding the remains of planks found in a pitfall excavated in superficial deposits (Photo: unknown).

6.2 Ethnicity Until the 1970s, it was usual to think that cultures evolved their ethnic peculiarities in isolation from one another. This was turned upside down by Frederik Barth’s revolutionary ”Ethnic Groups and Boundaries”; now we know that it is precisely in contact with other groups that ethnic expressions are evolved and accentuated (Barth 1969, Hodder 1982, Jones 1997).

The view held by this project is that ethnicity is a process that arises in a society that is in contact with other societies. This process does not only function as a categorising mechanism towards others, but also initiates processes within the society. This may concern the building up of legends regarding origin, changes in the internal balance of power, more trade, changes in religious practices, etc. When ethnicity is viewed as a constantly ongoing process, it is easier to understand that ethnic identities shift. Being a Norwegian today is not the same as being a Norwegian a century ago. Far less if we go back a thousand years. The same applies to the Sámi. Sámi identities are changing just as much. Most of the specialist literature has had a tendency to portray Norwegian history as dynamic and constantly changing, whereas the Sámi have been looked upon as a static people showing little development (Schanche & Olsen 1983, Arrowheads of schist and quartzite Olsen 1998). The changes in the Sámi communities have been great and far-reaching, but have found near Gautsjø, a lake in the Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: John taken a different course than in their Norse neighbours. Olsen).

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four simultaneously standing tents, but indicate repeated seasonal visits to the location. This Reindeer hunting can therefore not be said to belong to either Norwegian or Sámi culture, indicates that groups of Sámi were in this area in the Viking Period (Zachrisson 1997, Bergstøl but has traditions reaching back to a hunting society that subsequently evolved into what is 2004a, Amundsen in prep.). It is therefore also opportune to ask whether the trapping systems recognisable as the Norse and Sámi identities. were used by Sámi or Norwegians. However, this is too wide-reaching to discuss exhaustively here. Several phases of use can be traced in many trapping systems for elk and reindeer (e.g. Jacobsen 1989, Barth 1996). Since many hundreds of years may separate the different phases, In Scandinavia, reindeer are traditionally more strongly linked to the Sámi than to Norwegians it is possible that a single site has been used by Sámi in the older phase and Norse farmers in and Swedes. Nowadays, Sámi culture is strongly bound up with semi-domesticated reindeer the younger phase, or perhaps the opposite, as Lil Gustafson (1988) suggested in Innerdalen, husbandry, but this has not always been the case. Fully developed nomadic herding did not northeast of this area. Another feasible scenario is that Sámi were hired as trapping specialists become properly established before the 17th to 18th centuries (Odner 1992, Fjellheim 1999, by wealthy Norwegians (Mikkelsen 1994: 137). The Sámi also paid tax to Norwegian chieftains Hansen & Olsen 2004), but some believe that the development began in the Viking Period or in the form of reindeer. This is known from Ottar’s account from north Norway in the 9th century still earlier (Andersen 2005, Aronsson 1991, Mulk 1994, 2005, Storli 1994). (Sandved 1995).

The elk is called sarve in Southern Sámi, whereas sarva means reindeer buck. This similarity With the present state of knowledge, it is thus not possible to definitely say whether a trapping in the names, together with finds of sacrificed elk antlers on graves, may suggest that the elk site belongs to the Sámi or the Norwegian culture. Nor is this the principal question in the present played a greater role in the economy in the southern Sámi region than it did among Sámi further context. The dispersion of the sites from the north to the south of the country shows that both north (Zachrisson 1997: 223). Sámi and Norwegians have used funnel-shaped traps, bowmen’s hides and pitfalls. There is therefore no question of any exclusive ”cultural right of ownership” to all reindeer hunting. The Another theory is that southern Sámi reindeer husbandry developed differently from that in discussion concerning who did the trapping in the various sites must be based locally in each the north. Kjell-Åke Aronsson (2005) suggested that the southern Sámi had a mixed economy individual area and each period, and must be justified on the basis of all available finds. based on hunting and livestock breeding until greater specialisation on reindeer husbandry evolved when Norse expansion entered the areas settled by the Sámi at the end of the Late 6.3 The immigration paths of the wild reindeer Iron Age, resulting in greater competition for territories and resources. To trace the distribution of different versions of the same genes (allels) within the range of the reindeer, we can start by unravelling the history behind the distribution. Since trapping of elk and reindeer in pitfalls is based on the same technology, it is natural to view it in the same context. It seems clear that trapping sites existed in the Bronze Age from A ”kinship tree” made up of different haplotypes has been drawn up using phylogenetic Ryfylke and Setesdal to Varanger, so early that it is difficult to speak of either Germanic or techniques. By comparing such phylogenetic trees with the geographical distribution we have Sámi ethnicity. There is no doubt whatsoever that the Iron Age and medieval sites in Finnmark now begun to understand the underlying cultural and evolutionary history. Genetic analyses of are associated with the Sámi culture, but how far south does this apply, and in which periods? palaeobiological material have revealed that the wild reindeer entered Norway via at least two migratory paths. The original wild reindeer in the Hardangervidda area in southern Norway probably came from ice-age refugia in south-western Europe. They then followed the coast northwards through Norway and their genes are now found in all the semi-domesticated reindeer in both north and south Norway. The reindeer now found in Rondane and Dovre had a different immigration path. We still do not know where these reindeer had their refugia during the last Ice Age. Consequently, we do not know what human exploitation they were exposed to, or which people may have followed them on their migration to this country after the Ice Age. However, we do know that this reindeer strain has never been domesticated, even though its range has at times been surrounded by areas used for semi-domesticated reindeer husbandry.

There seems little doubt that the use of increasingly refined genetic and archaeological techniques will be able to uncover more about the earliest history of Norway and who ”wrote” it. This applies not only to how the resources in the mountains have been exploited, but also the various activities of Norse and non-Norse hunters and trappers in time and space. The areas covered by the planned World Heritage Area will therefore be a natural laboratory for many decades to come.

One of the four Sámi rectangular hearths found at Aursjø in 2006 (Photo: John Olsen).

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7. Delimitation of the area 7.2.4 Reinheimen The eastern part of the Reinheimen National Park is included in this sub-area. Its western boundary follows the axes of Synstålkyrkja (1325 m a.s.l.), Gråhø (2014 m a.s.l.), Søre Skarvhøe 7.1 Main justifi cation for the area selected The UNESCO criteria state that areas that are to be nominated as World Heritage Sites must be the best areas for illustrating and documenting a theme, a technique, a stage in development or something similar. In its evaluations, the committee has placed particular emphasis on two aspects, the great diversity in the types of site and the link between nature and culture. It believes that the main reason why Snøhetta, Eikesdalsfjella, Rondane and Reinheimen should be given priority is that, in these mountains, Norway has the last remnants of a European wild montane reindeer strain. Since we are placing emphasis on a combination of nature and The four sub-areas: culture, it is natural that areas that have both wild reindeer and trapping systems should be Eikesdalsfjella, Snøhetta, Rondane and Reinheimen, given priority. In addition, there is great diversity in the types of sites in this area. showing the hunting site remains (Illustration: NINA). 7.2 Delimitation of the sub-areas In its efforts to propose delimitations of the area, the committee has considered three aspects, cultural heritage sites, the habitats of the wild reindeer and the boundaries of existing protected areas, relative to one another to clarify any concurrence. On this basis, it has found it expedient to follow the boundaries of the protected areas (national parks, areas of protected landscape, etc.) as far as possible because the area within these boundaries is protected under terms that meet UNESCO’s requirements for the protection of World Heritage sites. At the same time, most of the trapping systems fall within these areas. The following sections describe the delimitation of the individual sub-areas.

7.2.1 Eikesdalsfjella The whole of the Eikesdalsvatn Protected Landscape Area falls into this sub-area which stretches north-westwards from the dam at the outlet of the Aursjø reservoir and includes the mountainous area between a long lake, Eikesdalsvatn, and the valley of Litledalen. Numerous distinctive trapping systems have been found in this mountainous area, which is near the heads of deep fjords and belongs to the north-western part of the Snøhetta wild reindeer area.

7.2.2 Snøhetta This sub-area embraces the whole of the Dovrefjell – Sunndalsfjella National Park as well as four protected landscape areas, Jora, Fokstugu, Åmotsdalen and Åmotan-Grøvudalen. The military training area at Hjerkinn is to be closed and as far as possible returned to its original state. Since it has a number of important trapping systems within its boundaries, it will also be included in the World Heritage area, whose eastern boundary will follow a line linking Buaranden (1135 m a.s.l.), Geitberget (1231 m a.s.l.), Tverrfjellet (1248 m a.s.l.) and the north- eastern corner of the training area at Svånå.

7.2.3 Rondane This sub-area includes the whole of the Rondane National Park as well as three areas of protected landscape, Grimsdalen, Frydalen and Dørålen. Two small areas, the fl agstone quarries and Dørålen summer dairy farm, are omitted from the sub-area as it is thus defi ned, because they include major, modern, irreversible disturbances.

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(1637 m a.s.l.), Kampen (1369 m a.s.l.) and in the same direction to where it meets the boundary of the national park in the north. Three areas of protected landscape, Ottadalen, Lordalen and Finndalen, are also included in this sub-area.

7.2.5 Buffer zones The committee is aware of UNESCO’s strict demands on integrity, also as regards visual pollution. At the same time, it also recognises the importance of the sub-areas being connected, particularly because, since the wild reindeer are a vital “added value”, it is desirable to be able to demonstrate the original interregional characteristics. Bearing this in mind, the committee wishes to propose two buffer zones. According to UNESCO terminology, buffer zones are areas that are ensured a form of protection, but one which is not as strict as the core areas enjoy. In this particular case, these areas are in fact already protected (see the map).

The Torbudalen Protected Biotope is situated between the Eikesdalsfjella and Snøhetta sub- areas. It is omitted from the core area because of major modern disturbances, but is included in a buffer zone to secure the contact between the two sub-areas for the sake of continuity through the wild reindeer.

A large, open area separates the Snøhetta and Rondane sub-areas. It has large trapping systems in its north-western part (see below). However, the area is visually dominated by the E6 trunk road and the Dovre railway line and is therefore proposed as a buffer zone between these two sub-areas.

Key

Funnel-shaped trap Hides

Pitfalls Boundary

Buffer zone Protected areas

National Park

Protected Landscape The proposed World Heritage Area showing protected areas. Protected Biotope Dark green denotes protected areas that are proposed as the The Rondane sub-area showing World Heritage Area, and light protected areas, cultural heritage sites green denotes other protected and the proposed World Heritage areas in the district (Illustration: boundaries (core area and buffer zone) NINA). (Illustration NINA).

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Key

Funnel-shaped trap

Hides

Pitfalls Boundary

Buffer zone

Protected areas

National Park

Protected Landscape

Protected Biotope

The Eikesdalsfjella and Snøhetta sub- areas showing protected areas, cultural heritage sites and the proposed World Heritage boundaries (core area and buffer zone) (Illustration NINA).

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Key Funnel-shaped trap Hides Pitfalls

Boundary

Protected areas National Park Protected Landscape Protected Biotope

The Rondane sub-area showing protected areas, cultural heritage sites and the proposed World Heritage boundaries (core area and buffer zone) (Illustration NINA).

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8. Description of the character of the area (status at the time ages. In addition, they display typical kinds of mountainous landscape as regards both alpine of nomination) qualities and various species of flora and fauna. The area has great educational value in that it provides an understanding of how trapping systems were once used, interactions between Nature and mankind, and former interregional reindeer migrations. The area also has high 8.1 General description of the area aesthetic value.

Introduction The four sub-areas covered by the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project straddle Mountains and mountainous landscapes are among the most interesting and thrilling landscapes thirteen boroughs and four counties, and extend almost from the coast in the west to the on the Earth. In a global context, they are often linked to the identity of peoples and, frequently, watershed between the valleys of Gudbrandsdalen and Østerdalen in the east. also their myths. Likewise, mountainous areas formerly, and to some extent today, have been highly valued and essential sources of food for people living in their vicinity. Three large national parks and several areas of protected landscape comprise the area. The designation of an area as a national park indicates that the national state, Norway, views Mountains and mountainous landscapes are shaped by a continuous cycle of land uplift and the area concerned as having a natural environment, and in part cultural values, of national mountain-building events succeeded by tremendous abrasion during ice ages and continuous importance. Norwegian government ministers and bureaucrats in ministries and directorates erosion. Natural processes have shaped the present landscape over millions of years. have emphasised this many times by pointing out the international significance of the area, not least in relation to the preservation of the wild reindeer. The Norwegian mountains have been utilised by animals and people since the ice melted and it became possible for animals to live here and people to move around here. This activity has left The national parks, which mainly consist of mountainous areas higher than 900 m a.s.l., are behind more or less obvious evidence. The present landscape is a result of interaction between separated by fairly deep valleys where most of the settlements are located. These are scattered Man and Nature over thousands of years. The wild reindeer and their exploitation as a resource farms and hamlets which have a limited range of services available. The area is relatively Reindeer are a natural part of the run as a continuous thread through history. sparsely populated. landscape, and a topic that rouses emotions among people living, Together, the sub-areas selected for the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project or having their roots, in the area The inhabitants in the area have traditionally lived on farming and activities related to agriculture. (Photo: Per Jordhøy). provide full coverage of the various means of hunting and trapping wild reindeer down the Many are employed in the public service sector. Tourism is playing an increasingly important role, but apart from two major skiing centres, Bjorli and Oppdal, the tourist season is limited to two hectic summer months. Tourism concerns in the area are mostly small or medium-sized family-run businesses. Only a few are owned by major chains, and these are mostly hotels and winter sports facilities.

The area has a well-developed infrastructure as regards roads and railways. The main south- north trunk road, E6, passes through the area, which is also traversed by three main east-west trunk roads, E136, Rv 15 and Rv 70. The Dovre railway line runs parallel to E6, and has several passenger trains each way daily between Oslo and Trondheim. A branch line, the Rauma line, runs from Dombås, just outside the proposed World Heritage area, to Åndalsnes on the west coast. Most of the roads and both railway lines follow the valleys, but E6 and the Dovre line cross the high ground over Dovrefjell. Other roads which climb onto the mountains are mostly associated with summer dairy farming activities, which are now largely defunct, and are little more than tracks.

Natural conditions The area from the Sunndal and Eikesdal mountains in the west to Rondane in the east offers a virtual cross-section of typical Norwegian countryside. The area furthest west is characterised by a moist, coastal climate with a great deal of snow in winter. The mountains here are wild, with jagged peaks. Further east, the climate and natural conditions are marked by more typical inland conditions with cold winters, warm summers and comparatively little precipitation. Parts of the area (Lom, Skjåk and part of Lesja) are among the driest in the country. In the east, the mountains are more gently sloping and rounded before the Rondane massif rises as a typical mountainous bastion.

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The bedrock in the western part of the area is predominantly acid gneisses that are poor in population. Ruffs and reeves breed on wetlands, and there are strong populations of willow nutrients and support correspondingly poor vegetation. Further east, much calcareous bedrock grouse, ptarmigan, gyr falcons, golden eagles, rough-legged buzzards and numerous other supports a lush flora with numerous species before another shift occurs still further east when birds. The Reinheimen National Park, alone, has 155 breeding species of birds. Rondane is reached. There, the bedrock again has few nutrients, and heather and lichens predominate. The variation is also great from the lowlands to high altitudes. The lowlands have The musk ox died out in this area towards the end of the last Ice Age, but was re-introduced for wetlands and deciduous woodlands, and these gradually give way to heather-clad slopes and the last time between 1947 and 1953. Even though it once lived naturally in this area, it must be finally to barren mountains. The flora includes some rare plants that may have survived the last considered an introduced (alien) species in the present fauna. Ice Age on nunataks. Cultural heritage traces The sub-areas have a rich animal life. Both Rondane and Snøhetta are key habitats for part The four sub-areas contain a wide range of cultural heritage sites from different periods. The of the last remnants of the European wild reindeer. The area also has a viable wolverine oldest remains are linked to hunting and trapping cultures. These have left behind evidence in the form of arrows that have gone astray and remains of settlements. The most numerous remains left by people are linked with the trapping of reindeer. They include various kinds of pitfalls that make up systems numbering from two to more than 730 individual pitfalls. In addition, there are Ptarmigan (Photo: Per Jordhøy). various kinds of funnel-shaped traps and bowmen’s hides. Every type of prehistoric trapping device intended for reindeer that can be expected to have left physical traces for archaeologists to recognise can be found here. Stone-built huts and other huts connected with hunting show that the traditions linked with hunting have lived on through historic times and are, indeed, still important for the local inhabitants. The area is rich in stories and legends related to hunting and trapping, particularly reindeer hunting. There are many cultural heritage The mountains do not, however, only have traces left from the hunting of reindeer. There are relics in the area. These stones also remains of the former large-scale trapping of elk, of hunting of fur-bearing small game, and show where a tent stood many centuries ago (Photo: Per of gyr falcons. The gyr falcons were sold to noblemen on the Continent. Farming has been an Jordhøy).

The Lesja valley viewed from the east (Photo: Marit Aanestad).

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Sub-area Parameter Special qualities linked to the Main sites linked to the parameters qualities Snøhetta Various types of Evidence of small, flexible teams of Sjongshø economy hunters in summer Evidence of exploitation of the same Storsvartdalen reindeer migrations in the Stone Age and the Migration Period Eikesdalsfjella Various types of Possible evidence of hunting near Jønstadnebba culture and diversity nunataks at the end of the last Ice Age Rondane Various types of Evidence of growth of market economy Einsethø economy and early formation of the nation Bløyvangen Density and diversity All the main categories represented Entire sub-area

Various types of Evidence of societies mainly associated Vuludalen culture with the mountains Quality Very well-preserved pitfalls and “Storgrava” and the nearby row slaughtering enclosure in a funnel-shaped of pitfalls trap Reinheimen Various types of Evidence of growth of market economy Fellingvatnet economy and early formation of the nation Verket Density and diversity All the main categories represented Entire sub-area

Svånåtind from the east (Photo: important livelihood ever since the Viking Period, and has left traces in the mountains in the Diversity Funnel-shaped traps with slaughtering Fellingvatnet Per Jordhøy). form of transhumance summer dairy farms, irrigation channels that brought water from the sites on lakes Leirungsvatnet mountains down to the settlements in the valleys and numerous names linked with tracks and Diversity Displays all types of pitfalls Sjogrove places where animal fodder was obtained. Some summer dairy farms are still in use and the Døkte local inhabitants are keen on maintaining the traditions and the use of names in the mountains. Liaoksle It is, nevertheless, the traditions and the cultural landscape linked with wild reindeer hunting Diversity Shows small teams of hunters operating in Skaihø/Søre Rundhaugen and trapping that have international importance. These provide evidence of a tradition that is of summer Sterringhø international significance for people over a large region. 8.3 Description of the individual sub-areas The table shows how the four sub- areas can illustrate different steps in the history of mankind (different 8.2 Description of how the four sub-areas complement one 8.3.1 Eikesdalsfjella approaches to economy) and how another the various sub-areas complement one another as regards variations In a serial nomination, the sub-areas that are nominated must, together, fulfil the criterion or Hunting systems in the types of trapping systems. criteria under which the project applies. There is, thus, no need for each individual sub-area The Eikesdal mountains have a unique group of bowmen’s hides on Jønstadnebba. It is situated alone to meet the requirements. As Chapter 15 shows, the committee is suggesting that the 1200-1400 m a.s.l. in a block field. The occurrence of a block field combined with certain alpine area should seek inscription in accordance with criteria III, IV and V. The following parameters, plants is used as evidence for certain mountainous areas having been nunataks during the last which are closely connected with the application of these criteria, have guided the work of the Ice Age. This group of hides has therefore been attributed to hunting in the latter part of the committee when it has been choosing the individual sub-areas: density, diversity, quality and the last Ice Age (Jordhøy 2001: 27, 40). Sufficient studies have still not been carried out to claim need for the cultural heritage sites to provide evidence of various types of culture and economy. this categorically, but it should be noted that these particular hides are situated in a distinctly Based on these premises, the committee has chosen and demarcated the following sub-areas: different topographical location than other groups of hides. It also known that the oldest Stone Snøhetta, Eikesdalsfjella, Rondane and Reinheimen. For the sake of clarity, a table has been Age localities demonstrate that reindeer were one of the most important resources of Stone compiled showing the main ways in which these sub-areas complement one another. The Age man. Chapter 9 takes up the dating question in more detail. table links together the parameters with the special qualities held by each individual sub-area. Selected sites are also mentioned which we think are particularly well suited for documenting these.

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Gautsjøen, also exploited it, thus demonstrating that this terrain has been used for a substantial period in prehistory.

Natural conditions and the reindeer The eastern and south-eastern parts of the Dovre plateau consist predominantly of fairly gently undulating terrain. Rich, calcareous bedrock and extensive areas of superficial deposits provide good growing conditions for plants. The climate has a continental character, with moderate precipitation, although a significant increase has been recorded in the area in the past 30 years. The January temperature is between -6 and -9ºC, and the July temperature is about 10ºC.

Only about 20 % of the Snøhetta sub-area can be utilised as winter grazing. Some 40 % offers good grazing when the ground is not snow covered, and the remainder is unproductive,

Model showing the location Natural conditions and the reindeer of bowmen’s hides relative to assumed reindeer migration A characteristic feature of the landscape here is the multitude of cirques and ridges separating routes in the Eikesdal mountains a network of larger and smaller rivers. The bedrock is mainly dominated by gneiss, which gives (Illustration: NINA). acid soil. The area is characterised by its proximity to the coast, and the annual precipitation exceeds 1500 mm in many places. The mean temperature is significantly higher than further east. With its varied topography, the area can offer reindeer high-quality grazing throughout the period when the ground is not snow covered. The reindeer inhabiting the western parts of the Snøhetta sub-area usually have their calves east and southeast of Aursjøen.

A small, stone-built trap in a funnel- 8.3.2 Snøhetta shaped trap at Kvennhusfossen, Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: Per Jordhøy; Hunting systems sketch after Øystein Mølmen). The Snøhetta sub-area is characterised by having a large number of small hunting sites, often one or more pitfalls combined with one or more hides, located at high altitudes. As this area is chiefly grazed in summer, these sites must have been used by small, flexible groups of hunters at this time of the year. The traps have taken grazing reindeer. No large rows of pitfalls or groups of hides are known in the central part of this mountainous area.

The main system here is a row of 55 pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits in Storsvartdalen, a valley separating Sørhella from a lake named Svartdalsvatnet (Hole 2004, Jordhøy et al. 2005: 50-52). A plank that may have been part of the end wall of one of the pitfalls has been dated to the Migration Period (Mølmen 1986), when a well-organised group of hunters exploited a migration route that crosses the valley here. Stone Age hunters living beside a nearby lake,

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consisting of screes, block fields and glaciers. Winter grazing is predominant in the eastern part and the Middle Ages. The system is situated at about 1200 m a.s.l. and is just over 2 km long. of the Snøhetta sub-area, although it is not of the highest quality. In winters with a great deal The fences only survive as stakeholes. Osteological studies show that the trapping took place of snow, a large part of the reindeer stock has crossed E6 and the railway line to utilise the far in autumn (Barth 1977: 9-29, Mikkelsen 1994, Barth 1996: 11-16). The site has just been re- better winter grazing in the Knutshø area. The calving grounds are generally west of the summit mapped (Jordhøy et al. 2005: 39-43). of Snøhetta itself. In Grimsdalen, it is the row of 30 pitfalls near Bjørnsgardssætre that stands out. This row, 8.3.3 Rondane excavated in superficial deposits, shows that major seasonal migrations took place in the valley. Barth (1996: 20) assumed that more pitfalls are to be found in this area. One pitfall near these Hunting systems summer dairy farms has been dated to the Viking Period or Middle Ages. Five barrows can be Rondane has all the main categories of cultural heritage sites described in Chapter 6, but they seen in the same area, and there used to be a sixth. Viking grave goods are known from both are unevenly distributed. This unevenness is particularly obvious when the central Rondane Bjørnsgardssætre and another transhumance farm, Mesætri, further east (Mikkelsen 1994: 80- massif is compared with the rest of the sub-area (Barth 1996). Relatively few pitfalls, and no 83, Barth 1996: 17-19). long rows, have been found in the central area which has high peaks and deep cirques, but Stakehole in the funnel-shaped Many cultural heritage sites are found in the area referred to as Gravhø west – Haverdalen. trap at Einsethø (Photo: Per instead there are remarkable numbers of localities with bowmen’s hides. On the other hand, Jordhøy). many localities with pitfalls have been recorded in the valleys that connect the high mountains One of these is the funnel-shaped trap, Storgrava, which has guiding fences stretching for 300 with lower-lying areas, and in valleys within the mountains themselves. This distribution reflects m, composed of small cairns, standing stone slabs and scree. Where these fences converge, the pattern of movement of the reindeer and their use of the various zones in different parts there are four bowmen’s hides and just outside the fences, five pitfalls and two hides. The of the year. It also shows how much detailed knowledge the people had of their quarry and slaughtering enclosure is particularly well preserved. Just northeast of Storgrava is a system demonstrates their ability to accommodate themselves as well as possible to the exploitation composed of 16 pitfalls. These are not arranged in rows, but have been excavated here and of this resource. It is assumed that the sites in the central massif were associated with hunting there in grassy areas between stretches of scree. In the 1960s and ’70s, pitfall no. 380 was practised in summer by individual hunters or small, flexible teams of hunters. Several of the sufficiently intact for Barth (1996: 30) to judge it ”a standard for a pitfall, as they wanted to make long rows of pitfalls must have been used during the seasonal migrations of the reindeer in them”. A group of house sites (the “Stone Houses”) is also found in this area. In cooperation spring and/or autumn. These and the funnel-shaped traps at Bløyvangen, Einsethø, Gravhø with Arne Skjølsvold, Barth dated a hearth here to the Late Middle Ages-Recent Period. There and Verkilsdalsbotn required a great deal of effort while they were being constructed and used. is also a group of 15 hides in the north-western part of Gravhø (Barth 1996: 21-33). No funnel-shaped traps that end on lakes have been recorded in Rondane. Vuludalen has a row of 150 pitfalls along The funnel-shaped trap at Einsethø and the group of house sites at Tøftom in Grimsdalen are a 7 km long stretch down the valley from a small lake, Søndre Vulutjern, in Left: Stakehole in the funnel- especially suitable for demonstrating the relationship between cultural heritage sites and the shaped trap at Bløyvangen (after growth of market economy structures and the early formation of a nation in the Viking Period the northwest. This row blocks a north- Barth 1996: 87). south reindeer migration route across Below: The entire funnel-shaped the valley. It includes both excavated trap at Bløyvangen, showing the and stone-built pitfalls, and some of 56 hides (after Barth 1996: 88).

Pitfall in Grimsdalen, Rondane (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

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valley of Dørålen. The trap was intended for reindeer migrating from Gråhø and Bråkdalen in the west, across the good pastures at Slettløyftet down into the cirque south of the trap. The guiding fences are about 240 m long and the slaughtering enclosure is bordered on one side by a huge boulder. Mostly outside the fences, but also between them, there are 21 hides. A charcoal sample taken from beneath the slabs on the floor of the slaughtering enclosure gave a date from the Late Middle Ages to Recent (Barth 1996: 37-38).

A large funnel-shaped trap has been recorded at approximately 1400 m a.s.l. on Bløyvangen, east of Furusjøen. The main fences are 700 and 1250 m long and consist of large and small cairns. There are 56 bowmen’s hides close to and beyond the fences. Where there are gaps in a fence, there are groups of hides on the outside. The trap is intended for a reindeer migration route across Bløyvangen. Charcoal from the slaughtering enclosure gave a Roman Iron Age date (Barth 1977: 29-44, 1989: 343-345, 1996: 87-91).

Natural conditions and the reindeer The area has very varied topography, ranging from high peaks in the Rondane massif to a more undulating highland landscape in the southeast and northwest. Rondane has good winter grazing for wild reindeer. Types of vegetation rich in lichens (Cetraria nivalis and Cladonia Top: Excavating one of the “stone the former are stone-lined. Four pitfalls here have given dates between Early Iron Age and sp.) cover nearly 40 % of the area. As lichens are on the whole most readily available in the houses” in Haverdalen, Rondane medieval. Only two or three hides have been found. Five localities with graves have been (after Barth 1996: 23). eastern, continental, parts of the wild reindeer habitats, Rondane, in common with Knutshø and found in the area, and objects dating from the Bronze Age, pre-Roman Iron Age and Migration The Rondane massif looking east Forolhogna, can potentially house the densest herds. Top right: Sticks in the bottom of Period are associated with these. A hearth in a hut shelter has been dated to Recent time, while (Photo: Per Jordhøy). a pitfall in Haverdalen, Rondane (after Barth 1996: 25). cooking pits near the graves have given Early Bronze Age and Early Iron Age dates (Skjølsvold 1984, Barth 1996: 91-104). These remains are likely to be associated with hunters who had their permanent settlement in this area.

At Spranget, a row of pitfalls is closely associated with a burial cairn that has been investigated. The row comprises 43 pitfalls spread along a 1600 m long stretch on the east side of the river (the Ula) and the cairn stands 150 m from the river. Charcoal from the grave has been dated to the pre-Roman Iron Age (Skjølsvold 1984: 107).

The second small funnel-shaped trap in the area is situated 1240 m a.s.l. in Verkilsdalsbotn, a cirque in the heart of the Rondane massif. This cirque opens out northwards towards the

Key

Bowmen’s hides

Pitfall excavated in superficial deposits Map of the pitfalls in Vuludalen, Stone-built pitfall Rondane (Illustration: NINA).

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8.3.4 Reinheimen Reinheimen also has the largest group of bowmen’s hides known in Norway. It is located about 1500 metres above sea level in a depression between the summits of Skaihø and Søre Hunting systems Rundhaugen, south of the valley of Finndalen. Approximately 160 hides have been mapped, Reinheimen boasts an extraordinary variation in types of trapping systems, and an unusually and at the time they were mapped 110 of them were associated with glaciers. They were large number have been recorded. All the main categories are well represented, and many clearly used when hunting reindeer which retreated up to the glaciers to escape insects. As variants of them. The only variety lacking here is a large trap with a stone-built slaughtering the glaciers have varied in extent over time, these hides can reasonably be expected to date enclosure. This is the only one of the four sub-areas that has large funnel-shaped traps that from different periods (Mølmen 1988: 253-258). About 3.5 km further west is another group of end on water, at Fellingvatn (a lake at 1269 m a.s.l.) and Leirungsvatn (a lake at 1370 m a.s.l.). hides at Sterringhø (ca. 1420 m a.s.l.), all of which face west. Mølmen (1988: 259-260) pointed The trap at Fellingvatn was originally described by Mølmen (1986: 128-130, 1988: 155-161) out that since the area lacks terrain forms that serve to guide the reindeer, the hunters must and Fossum (1996: 36-37), but was re-mapped in the summer of 2005 by some of the group have depended upon moveable fences to drive their quarry towards this locality, which thus of experts, along with Runar Hole and Endre Hage. It was constructed to take animals coming distinguishes it from that between Skaihø and Søre Rundhaugen, where this form of communal from the north and northeast. The recent mapping found three ‘fences’ guiding animals towards hunting does not seem to have taken place. Fellingvatn from different directions. The longest extends all of 3 km. The ‘fences’ consist of standing stones, stone rings and low walls. Hides are found both inside and outside the There is a large funnel-shaped trap at Verket in Slådalen, approximately 1200 m a.s.l. The ‘fences’. The ‘fences’ guided the animals across the inlet in the eastern part of the lake out guiding fences are up to 4 km long and are recognisable as stakeholes. Remains of wood from onto the headland where they again occur, along with a number of hides, and then out into the a stakehole in the slaughtering enclosure were dated to the Migration Period or Viking Period. inlet in the west. Final confirmation is still lacking, but finds suggest that there are points for This area is not known as a primary migration route in recent times, but the location of the trap fastening lines on both sides of this latter inlet. Remains of house sites have been found at three in the topography shows that it must have been intended for a westward migration in spring localities, and these can best be explained as having something to do with the trap. One is on (Jordhøy et al. 2005: 34-42). the headland, and overlooks the trap. The other two are on the crest of the ridge west of the lake, and command a wide view over the entire hunting area. On its west side, concealed by The place name, ”Verket” (Works), is also interesting. It may allude to an industrial construction, the ridge itself, are four or five house sites and associated middens with antlers and bones that in the same way as an iron works or a copper works. The large dimensions of the site may have given dates from the Viking Period. The site at Fellingvatn displays an unusually complex support such a theory. Another interpretation is that the name is associated with the medieval and complete cultural heritage environment with substantial potential for scientific study and term, ”virke”, a simple palisade construction placed directly on the surface (Nordeide 2003: 83). presentation to the public. This may imply that there used to be a trapping enclosure or fence of wood in the innermost part of the trap. This interpretation also agrees with Sverre Fjellheim’s theory that the system in The trap at Leirungsvatn is only known from Øystein Mølmen’s private archive, which has now Slådalen was constructed in the same way as Sámi reindeer fences (Fjellheim 2005: 25-26). been donated to Oppland County Council. The information there suggests that there is a 400 m long fence partly comprised of standing stones. Three small funnel-shaped traps are also known in Reinheimen, at Trihø, Hattremsåe and Gravdalen, and these were described, respectively, by Mølmen (1986: 161-163, 180-181, 1998: 218-224).

In autumn 2006, a new funnel-shaped trap was found in the eastern part of Reinheimen. This has the form of a natural canyon with cliffs on three sides. The animals were driven into the canyon with the help of moveable fences consisting of sticks equipped to scare the reindeer (see the photo on p. 64)

There are also long rows of pitfalls along the boundaries of this sub-area. Furthest north at Sjogrove and Nordstøl in Lordalen, are two rows, the first comprised of at least 96 pitfalls as well as 19 hides, and the second of at least 26 pitfalls. They block both local movements along the mountainside and major north-south migrations across the valley. Re-mapping of the system at Sjogrove revealed the presence of all the main and intermediate forms of pitfalls (Mølmen 1986, Hole 2004). The system therefore has both great scientific value and a substantial potential for presentation to the public. Burial cairns have also been recorded in this part of Lordalen, but their age is unfortunately not known. Furthest east, a row of 64 pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits blocks an east-west migration route at Vangsvadet in Slådalen. They have collapsed a A row of cairns forming part of the funnel-shaped trap at Fellingvatn good deal, but as a whole the system demonstrates the former movements of the wild reindeer (Photo: Espen Finstad). between the central parts of Reinheimen and the area east of Slådalen. Rows of pitfalls are also

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In autumn 2006, a new funnel- and there are belts of lush vegetation in valleys and cirques. Unlike the reindeer in the other shaped trap was discovered in the Reinheimen sub-area. It had sub-areas, those inhabiting this one are mostly descendants of semi-domesticated reindeer consisted of guiding fences of that have become wild. About 20 % of the Reinheimen sub-area can be used by the reindeer wood (narrow poles equipped to for winter grazing and 40 % for grazing when the area is free of snow. scare the reindeer) and ends in a canyon (Photo: Per Jordhøy). 8.3.5 Buffer zone between the Eikesdalsfjella and Snøhetta sub-areas This area has no special cultural heritage remains or assets, but is included as a buffer zone to link the two sub-areas, Eikesdalsfjella and Snøhetta, together. This is important to be able to document, present and preserve the use of the area by the reindeer.

8.3.6 Buffer zone between the Snøhetta and Rondane sub- areas The longest row of pitfalls in northern Europe is located in the buffer zone between the found at Døkte and Liaoksle, furthest south in the sub-area. At the former site, located 1300 m Rondane and Snøhetta sub-areas. It straddles three boroughs and three counties (Dovre in a.s.l. south of Horrungen, there is one row of 49 pitfalls at Nørdre Døkte and another system Oppland, Oppdal in Sør-Trøndelag and Folldal in Hedmark). It is comprised of several rows at Søre Døkte where 28 pitfalls and 3 or 4 bowmen’s hides have been found. These systems forming a slightly discontinuous entity totalling 1002 pitfalls, 731 of which occupy a more or are located in good grazing areas and are intended to trap animals undertaking local grazing less continuous system. Only 11 are stone-built. Some 14C dates are available, ranging from movements (Mølmen 1988: 200-206). the Late Stone Age to the Viking Period or Middle Ages. No bowmen’s hides have been found here, but a number of shelters and meat caches are known. This discontinuous system must Natural conditions and the reindeer have been intended to tap a former, major migration pattern when large herds passed through This sub-area has an interesting east-west gradient in terms of both grazing and topography, the area en route from winter grazing in the east to summer grazing in the west (Mølmen 1978, and thus has a large range of areas covering the functions required by the reindeer. The Jordhøy et al. 2005: 45-50). On the basis of artefacts found there and their location in the terrain, eastern part of the sub-area is characterised by comparatively gently undulating mountainous house sites at Vesle Hjerkinn, which date from about AD 800, should be viewed in connection terrain with plateaus carrying abundant lichens, and it receives relatively little precipitation. The with the trapping system (Weber 1986). The landscape surrounding the pitfall system is now western part has an alpine landscape, its climate is more influenced by proximity to the coast strongly influenced by its vicinity to the railway and E6 trunk road, which seriously detract from its aesthetic value, but its scientific value nevertheless remains high.

The rows of pitfalls crossing Dovrefjell contain a total of 1002 pitfalls. Because of the disturbance caused by the road and the railway, it is proposed to place these in a buffer zone (Illustration: NINA). Stone-built pitfall in Lordalen, Reinheimen (Photo: John Olsen).

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9. History and development imply that reindeer were an important resource right from the Early Stone Age and that more organised trapping gradually expanded in the Bronze Age and Iron Age, with a particularly marked expansion throughout the country in the first centuries AD. At that time, settlements The distribution and dating of the trapping systems in the farming districts expanded, there was increasing activity in the mountains, and imported After the ice retreated and the country became inhabitable, reindeer were among the most grave goods demonstrate more international contact. Hunting and trapping products were important resources for the earliest hunters. No localities directly indicate fishing or the hunting probably among the most important wares for bartering which leading Norwegians could offer of mammals in the sea during the pioneer period (Fuglestvedt 2005: 60). Settlement sites in exchange for prestige goods from the Continent (Solberg 2000: 100-2). belonging to hunters who followed reindeer to the uplands are known from as early as Preboreal time, between 8500 and 9000 BC, on the heaths in Ryfylke, southwest Norway (Bang-Andersen The Migration Period is characterised by a decline in the abundance of finds made in the 2003). The same kind of settlements from this period can probably be found in the area we are central agricultural districts, at the same time as a few large barrows in central locations imply concerned with. In the succeeding millennia, both mountainous and forested inland areas seem that power was collected in a few hands (Myhre 1992). However, the situation differed in the to have been used for parts of the year by groups who mainly lived on the coast. This situation forested and mountainous areas of the interior. During the late Iron Age, isolated farms and seems to have changed from about 6000 BC, or perhaps somewhat earlier. Groups seem to groups of houses were established in inland districts that had not previously been inhabited have evolved then who remained in inland areas throughout the year (cf. Larsson 1994, Boaz (Hofseth 2001, Bergstøl 2004b). The use of the trapping systems seems to have been replaced 1999). Even after the interior of Scandinavia gradually became inhabited all the year round, by hunting with bows and arrows in this period. people from the coast continued to exploit the resources in the mountains. Reindeer bones dated to the Late Stone Age and Bronze Age have been found in a rock shelter on the island The settlements in these upland and forested districts expanded during the Viking Period and of Tustna on the outer coast of Nord-Møre (Lie 2004). The distance is short from the coast to the Middle Ages, and transhumance dairy farming and iron production began on a significant the mountains in western Norway. A decorated pick made from reindeer antler and dated to scale. The trading centre of Kaupang in Vestfold grew up in the 9th century, and was followed 6500-6000 BC was found near Aggeröd in Skåne, showing that reindeer have entered into by the establishment of towns and places with trading charters around the year 1000. This wide-ranging bartering systems far back in time (Larsson 1976). Perhaps flint from the coastal period when Norway was being amalgamated under a single king is characterised by a general areas was the medium of exchange? economic boom, which more marginal areas also enjoyed.

Many Stone Age localities containing material dating back to at least 5000 BC have been found The large trapping systems began to be used again in the Viking Period, and increasingly so beside Gautsjøen, which is now part of the regulated lake, Aursjøen, in Lesja (Hofseth 2001). during the Middle Ages. Ottar, the chieftain from north Norway who journeyed to England at These localities are in an area containing many pitfalls and through which large, seasonal the end of the 9th century, had with him such commodities as reindeer pelts. He reported to reindeer migrations pass (Jordhøy et al. 2005). It seems obvious that reindeer trapping has King Alfred that he had 600 unsold reindeer at home (Hansen & Olsen 2004: 60-69). Reindeer been a prime reason for the location of these occupation sites. became an important resource of great economic value. Pelts and antlers were important trading commodities. Even though archaeologists do not find remains of reindeer bones in the As was shown above, the use of pitfalls may go back as far as the Stone Age, even though towns, it is assumed that meat also found its way there, perhaps dried, salted or smoked. Right: Measuring up a pitfall excavated in superficial deposits in concrete proof of this is lacking. Nevertheless, the many settlement sites in the mountains Lordalen, Reinheimen (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

Below: Stone Age flint knife (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

View across Torbudalen, the buffer zone between the Eikesdalsfjella and Snøhetta sub-areas (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

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Few trapping systems have dates from the late Middle Ages. There may be several 10. Comparative analysis reasons for this. For instance, the Black Death may have caused the market to At an early date, the committee appreciated the need to undertake a comparative analysis collapse, Novgorod seems to have taken over control of the pelt trade at this time, because of the UNESCO definition of outstanding universal value, and that only one, or at and the reindeer herds in these areas may have become so decimated after a long any rate very few, site(s) can be chosen to represent a tradition, a type of cultural heritage or period of excessive hunting that it was no longer profitable to operate the large a natural phenomenon on behalf of all humanity. When performing this work, we have based systems. our evaluation on published and known literature that is available through national research institutions, as well as through personal professional networks. The impression outlined below Iron Age arrowheads from the Following the great amount of trapping undertaken in the Viking Period and Early Middle Ages, will be representative as regards diversity because it must be assumed that the majority of Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: John hunting seems to have continued on a much smaller scale. Reindeer were probably more Olsen). the most marked and central systems are well known by experts, even if they have not been important locally. After firearms were introduced, it seems far more difficult to find traces of mapped in detail. hunters in the mountains, but hunting lived on nevertheless. Folkloristic sources and tales handed down by word of mouth tell of renowned hunters who lived more or less outside society The comparative analysis has been undertaken on two levels, in relation to various kinds of and had reindeer hunting as their great interest and passion. Johan Alnæs was one such man, sites related to reindeer hunting, and in relation to sites connected with various forms of hunting and he is reported to have killed 37 reindeer, mostly large males, in the course of a short period of large mammals in general. The first of these is associated with the Northern Hemisphere. in Lordalen (in the Reinheimen sub-area) (Berg 1977). However, the best-known reindeer Scientific circles have offered these traditions a certain amount of interest, but there has hunter was no doubt Jo Gjende (1794 – 1884). He came from Vågå, but lived most of his life at been much less awareness than in the case of other groups of cultural heritage sites. The Gjende in the Jotunheim Mountains. Gjende also hunted only male reindeer. By degrees, such Scandinavian countries have shown the greatest awareness for these traditions and cultural an unbalanced bag would seriously damage the reindeer stock in the area (Hohle 1973). heritage sites, and the best documentation is therefore found in this area. Archaeologists have mostly offered hunting sites in general little attention. To the extent that this type of tradition Most hunters from the end of the Middle Ages up to today have, nevertheless, been ordinary has been described at all, it is mainly in connection with ethnographical or anthropological people who had hunting as a necessary means of obtaining extra food. Even though farming investigations. There, the type of hunting is described, but little is said about its scope, when it was the principal livelihood of most of these men, the resources offered by the mountains Ranges of various sub-species of was practised, or with what other forms of hunting and trapping it was combined. The present reindeer (Illustration: NINA). played a significant role, not least the reindeer.

Nowadays, hunting has shifted from being a means of acquiring extra food to offering recreation, but hunting is still a natural autumn pastime for many inhabitants in the area. The income from the sale of hunting licences is also an important source of revenue for municipal committees overseeing hunting, fishing and grazing rights and for private landowners of common land. The revenues are now fed back into the mountains in the shape of measures for the common good and payment for rangers. An example of this continuous tradition may be the finds made at Storhøe in Lesjaskog, where, in a space of 15 metres, four arrows from the Early and Late Iron Age and two cartridge cases dated 1861 and 1958 were found (Mølmen 1986: 109). This demonstrates continuity in the migration routes of the reindeer and the living traditions of hunting down the centuries.

Right: A hammer stone used to fashion stone implements in the Stone Age, Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: John Olsen).

Far right: Decorated powder horn (Photo: John Olsen).

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state of research therefore does not permit a detailed global analysis of trapping systems in husbandry. In addition to the cultural historical remains, emphasis is placed on the presence of general. Such an analysis would have been based on too little information and could justifiably the Sámi in the area today. have been criticised by scientists with specialised knowledge of given parts of hunting traditions in other countries, but based on unpublished material. Laponia distinguishes itself quite clearly from the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project in several ways. It has a very strong Sámi focus and emphasises the breadth in the 10.1 Comparative analysis linked with wild reindeer and wild utilisation of the landscape. There, it is the gradient from the mountains to the sea that is reindeer hunting stressed and how man can adapt to a changing landscape. In the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project, it is the wild reindeer and their utilisation that is the recurrent theme. The committee has undertaken a comparative analysis of areas that may be assumed to The committee recognises that trapping systems have been used by many different cultures, potentially have types of cultural heritage objects and wild reindeer occurrences resembling but it focuses on the importance of the tradition for humanity, independent of cultural affinity. those in our project. These have concerned areas that are already inscribed on the World Heritage List, areas which other countries have proposed on their tentative lists and areas that, to date, are not linked with UNESCO and the World Heritage List. 10.1.2 Sites on tentative lists The committee for the “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project has tried to review tentative lists that have been publicly available (first and foremost on the Internet) to try to find Svalbard reindeer – similar to the 10.1.1 Sites on the World Heritage List sub-species found on the Wrangler out whether other countries are planning to present an application associated with wild reindeer The current World Heritage List (2006) has been reviewed to seek relevant sites that are linked Islands in Russia (Photo: Per or trapping systems. Jordhøy). with wild reindeer hunting or wild reindeer as animals. Two such sites were found.

The Wrangler Islands – Russia It seems that no Cultural Heritage Sites linked with hunting are being proposed on the available The Wrangler Islands in Russia is a purely Natural World Heritage Site. It was nominated under tentative lists. However, two Natural Heritage Sites connected with wild reindeer are on the criteria VIII and X. In the description of the site, it is the biodiversity and, not least, the number tentative list from Canada. These are Antikaki and Ivvavik, Vuntut and the Herschel Islands. of endemic species considering that the islands were ice free during the last Ice Age, that are Both areas are being proposed as pure Natural Heritage Sites. Wild reindeer are mentioned as emphasised as being particularly valuable. The wild reindeer also enter into the description. one of several values. The two wild reindeer species concerned are, however, different from However, it is pointed out that this is a sub-species of wild reindeer that has evolved in isolation that found in Eurasia (different sub-species, not haplogroups). The text linked to these two and has adapted especially to life on these islands. It differs clearly from all the reindeer on the areas has been reviewed to see whether trapping systems or utilisation of wild reindeer as a Scandinavian mainland, but has some features in common with the reindeer in Svalbard (a type resource are mentioned as added values. They are not (www.UNESCO.org). of polar reindeer) (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1023). 10.1.3 Places not connected with the World Heritage List Laponia – Sweden It is known through the literature and other documentation that wild reindeer have been hunted Laponia was inscribed on the World Heritage List as a Mixed Site in 1996. It was inscribed in other parts of the world. These are not currently on the World Heritage List. The analysis under several criteria, which, converted to the current system, were criteria III, VII, VIII and IX. below is incomplete as regards the scale and regional geographical spread, but it provides a With respect to natural values, it is the ability of the site to demonstrate different steps in the good impression of the occurrence of types of area and the degree of diversity in the various geological evolution of the Earth, as regards both historical and ongoing processes, that are areas. Laponia, Sweden, is a mixed site mentioned. Otherwise, it is the outstanding beauty and aesthetic qualities of the area that are focusing on Sámi traditions and, in pointed out. Finally, emphasis is placed on the large number of endangered species, particularly Southern and central Europe part, reindeer hunting (after: www. in the fauna (IUCN/WCMC evaluation report, 1996: 97). A tremendous amount of information on the diet of people in Late Palaeolithic time (33 000 UNESCO.org). – 11 000 BP) is available from south-western and central Europe (e.g. Delpech 1983, West With respect to the cultural heritage values, particular emphasis is 1997). Despite an occasionally great breadth in the diet, wild reindeer predominate in the great given to the history and presence of the Sámi. In its evaluation of majority of cases. Burch (1972: 339) stated that the wild reindeer ”…may well be the species the area, ICOMOS wrote that it shows abundant evidence of the of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting”. Even so, no presence of Sámi from the time the ice vanished up to the present trapping systems have been found such as we know from more northern parts of Europe. day. It is the Sámi perception of the landscape as a mythical and Based on analyses of the age structure in bones found on human settlement sites, it is clear ‘whole’ landscape that is emphasised. The area has traces of that various different hunting techniques were used. In some cases, the finds are dominated by settlements, sacred mountains, sacrificial sites and graves. There large numbers of very young or very old animals, implying that it was the most easily available are also two types of hunting systems for reindeer. These are rows individuals in a herd that were killed. In other cases, the age structure reflects what is found of pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits and formerly linked by in a wild reindeer herd, a majority of young animals and then a gradually declining proportion guiding fences, and funnel-shaped traps with both guiding fences of older animals. This suggests a ”mass hunting” situation, where large numbers of animals and trapping enclosures of stone (voubat). These have also been have been trapped. This type of hunting has most probably taken place when large herds have used in recent times in connection with semi-domesticated reindeer been migrating through a limited area. The use of permanent trapping systems has not been

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Drawing of a reindeer in a cave wood and stone for the fences and enclosures seems to have varied. Here, too, different ethnic in Dordogne, France (Photo: Per Jordhøy). groups appear to have used the traps in different periods (Blehr 1982, Vorren 1998).

North America In Canada and Alaska, there are many detailed accounts of the hunting and trapping of wild reindeer (caribou). Several Indian peoples have been more or less dependent on caribou for their survival. The way this resource was utilised has varied. Some Indian peoples followed the caribou throughout the year, while others waited at natural passages in the landscape (Brian Gordon, pers. comm.), where they hunted them with bows and arrows, or spears, on land or from canoes and kayaks. None of these hunting techniques have left lasting traces. However, the use of funnel-shaped trapping systems employing guiding fences and trapping enclosures A funnel-shaped trap ending in water, used by the Inuit in northern of either wood or stone is known. There are also accounts of pitfalls, but these were excavated Quebec, Canada (after Gordon in glaciers or snowfields and have therefore disappeared. 2003: 20).

documented in the case of red deer, either, even though large quantities of remains are found in prehistoric settlements (Pike-Tray 1991, Burke 1995).

Based on analyses and interpretations of cave paintings from Altamira in Spain and Lascaux in France, Kehoe (1990) proposed Siberia the theory that wild reindeer, red Funnel-shapedSiberia traps and pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits are known from Siberia. deer, horses and aurochs were TheFunnel-shaped traps employed traps guiding and pitfalls fences excavated of both stonein superficial and wood. deposits However, are theknown use from of more Siberia. mobile The hunted using guiding walls of trappingtraps employed devices of guiding this type fences is also of known both stone where and the system wood. However,was set up the after use the of herd more had mobile been stone. Kehoe believed that these locatedtrapping and devices removed of this for type re-use is also elsewhere known where after the the system trapping was session set up afterended. the Suchherd hadsystems been devices could be seen in many havelocated consequently and removed not forleft re-useany traces elsewhere either (Gordonafter the 2003). trapping session ended. Such systems of the cave paintings. However, have consequently not left any traces either (Gordon 2003). it has not proved possible to find The pitfalls in Siberia have mostly been excavated in forested areas. No actual guiding fences any remains of such walls in these wereThe pitfalls used, inbut Siberia instead have corridors mostly were been felled excavated where in the forested pitfalls areas. were excavated.No actual guiding The standing fences areas. treeswere thusused, functioned but instead as corridorsguiding ’fences’ were felled (Vorren where 1998). the pitfalls were excavated. The standing trees thus functioned as guiding ’fences’ (Vorren 1998). Greenland Funnel-shaped traps for wild Central Sweden – an area equivalent to “Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” reindeer, with long guiding ItCentral is not naturalSweden to –view an areaNorway equivalent and Sweden to “Wild in isolation, reindeer separately. hunting asThe World traditions Heritage” and types fences leading the animals to ofIt istrapping not natural systems to view used Norway seem andto have Sweden been in largely isolation, identical separately. on either The side traditions of the andrelatively types modern,of trapping constructed systems usedborder. seem Pitfalls to haveexcavated been inlargely superficial identical deposits on either have side been of found the relatively in many Right: A Norse driving hunting slaughtering enclosures, are system or jump at Nuajat kuat, known in Greenland. The use of places.modern, Stone-built constructed pitfalls border. occur Pitfalls in areas excavated bordering in superficial to Norway deposits (Barth 1975). have been found in many West Greenland (after Blehr 1982). places. Stone-built pitfalls occur in areas bordering to Norway (Barth 1975).

70 71 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

North Norway, North Sweden and North Finland Northern Fennoscandia is another area with numerous relics from the hunting and trapping of reindeer. There are mainly three categories of devices for trapping reindeer, pitfalls excavated in superficial deposits, bowmen’s hides and funnel-shaped traps. The first-mentioned may also occur in large systems involving several hundred pitfalls. The hides occasionally occur together with pitfalls and funnel-shaped traps.

The funnel-shaped traps are comparatively homogeneous in design, and most have rounded trapping enclosures with guiding fences of stone. These are generally built so as to pass round a small hilltop or knoll. In this area, no traps have been found to end in water, or to have a pen without having used stone guiding walls (Vorren 1958, 1998).

In addition to the trapping systems, this northern region also has other cultural heritage sites associated with reindeer trapping, such as meat caches, slaughtering sites, settlements and sacred sites.

Stone-built pitfall Curved wall Cairn Straight stone wall Row of cairns Stone-built pitfall on Continuous stone wall Hardangervidda (Photo: Per Jordhøy). The explanation for this is no doubt that the area is distinguished by having comparatively short and predictable reindeer migrations. This makes it worthwhile to set up permanent systems requiring a large input of resources.

10.2 Comparative analysis of trapping systems for large mammals in general A precondition for establishing large, permanent trapping systems for mammals is that the yield must be predictable and so voluminous that the energy acquired exceeds that consumed when building and maintaining the systems. This requires that the quarry occurs in locally high densities and/or undertakes permanent, predictable migrations through certain localities. It is most reasonable to assume that permanent trapping systems are intended to trap mammals that aggregate in large groups. This means that most species of antelopes and gazelles are likely to be relevant, likewise horses, aurochs and bison (buffalo). “Voubat”, a funnel-shaped trap at Noaidetjerro, Syltefjord, Finnmark (after Vorren 1957: 163). Scientists and archaeologists have not offered this much attention. It has proved possible to trace some examples from various parts of the world, but the limited amount of information Hardangervidda has not enabled anything to be said about the geographical distribution on a regional level, the Several systems of pitfalls are found furthest east on the highland plateau in southern Norway scale or the length of time the systems have been in use. called Hardangervidda. These mainly comprise stone-built pitfalls, but some were excavated in superficial deposits. Perhaps the best-known hunting area is that around Sumtangen, 10.2.1 Europe Elk (Photo: Marit Aanestad). somewhat further west. Based on available sources, both the number of trapping sites and the size of individual sites seem to be smaller than in the area covered by the “Wild reindeer hunting Elk as World Heritage” project (Blehr 1972b, NOU 1974: Hardangervidda. Natur - kulturhistorie Most members of the deer family are so-called solitary species, and only a few aggregate – samfunnsliv, Bakke 1984, Jordhøy 2003). in large herds. The wild reindeer is thus an exception. As far as we are aware, the trapping systems for elk, which are almost exclusively found in Fennoscandia, are the only ones intended To sum up, it may be said that the northern part of the southern Norwegian mountains seems to take what is basically a solitary species. The reasons why elk can be exploited in this way are to have a greater density and greater variation within a limited area than are found elsewhere. that in some areas the animals undertake permanent seasonal migrations through the same

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whether he knows of trapping systems for mammals in Africa. His reply, cited below, supports our original assumptions:

”You raise an interesting topic. There were various traditional hunting methods in Africa that entailed (for example) driving ungulates into nets and then spearing them, setting noose snares, using traps with weighted spears that would drop down onto passing elephants, etc. The large drive systems I am aware of used to occur mainly with reduncine antelopes in floodplains, such as the Kafue Flats in Zambia, where lechwe (Kobus leche) were herded in an annual event into nets erected in the water and then speared. This system, called “chila” in the Kafue Flats, was strictly controlled by the chief and was a sustainable harvesting system. Something similar used to occur with kob in Uganda and southern Sudan. However, there were no permanent earth or stone structures associated with any of this, so there are no archaeological sites of the type you have in Norway. These hunting practices were stopped by colonial game department officials and now they are pretty much lost from traditional knowledge because it’s much easier to use the ubiquitous AK-47 assault rifle. So, there’s nothing left of these traditional mass-harvesting systems, although some conservation practitioners have argued for the return of the chila in Zambia in the hope that this will give local people some incentive to conserve the dwindling lechwe populations. I’m afraid the sources I have used on this are my own personal discussions with local people in Zambia, and some publications from the colonial days that we had at the University of Zimbabwe. I’m not aware of any modern references. I have heard that people living on the northwestern boundary of the Serengeti dig trenches for migrating wildebeest to fall into, where they are then killed with all sorts of Pitfall for elk, Lesja – just outside areas year after year, and that these migrations take place at predictable times of the year. No the Snøhetta sub-area. All four weapons including machetes and rocks. Again, however, there are no large and proposed sub-areas have pitfalls compilation of the existing data has been undertaken, but tens of thousands of pitfalls (generally permanent structures”. designed for elk (Photo: Per excavated in earth or sand) are known to be found in forested and wooded parts of Norway and Jordhøy). Sweden (Selinge 1974, Jacobsen & Follum 1997). Even though some of these systems have been supplemented with positions for marksmen, it is the pitfall trapping that predominates. The use of snares, spring-guns and occasionally iron spikes in the bottom of the pits is known from 10.2.3 Asia relatively recent times (Barth 1981, Mølmen 1982). Midde East Fences intended to guide the animals into the pitfalls have been placed between the pitfalls. Around 1920, British aviators noticed some curious stone formations in desert areas in the Middle In a few places, remains of such fences have been found in bogs, and they have been 14C East. They were shaped like a kite with tails up to 2 km long. They christened these structures dated right back to the Bronze Age (data in process of publication, Lil Gustafson, pers. comm. “desert kites”, and more than 700 are now known (Meshel 1974, Pervolotsky & Baharev 1991). Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo). These were trapping systems for gazelles, and were built using the same principles as the funnel-shaped traps we have described for wild reindeer. The animals were actively driven together in large aggregations, and the fences led them into the gathering enclosure, which 10.2.2 Africa was sometimes as much as 300 metres in diameter. Hides had been constructed around this Even though Africa has numerous species that occur in large herds in predictable places and to conceal hunters equipped with spears or bows and arrows. Rock carvings can be found all undertake permanent seasonal migrations, no written descriptions of large trapping systems the way from the Caucasus to Sinai showing these systems, animals and hunters. This implies are available. While absence of proof is not the same as proof of absence, it may be assumed that the technique was in use over a large area. It has been suggested that these systems were that if traditions for the use of permanent trapping systems had existed they would have been in use from 4000 BC to AD 300 (http://www.espasoc.org/khi_1acc.html), but other authorities known. (Helms & Betts 1987) have claimed that their use may have started already 7000 BC. Whereas most studies conclude that these trapping systems were constructed to catch wild gazelles, The project committee has had contact with Professor Johan du Toit, who is himself from South Eshallier & Braemer (1995) suggested that ”desert kites” were employed by farmers to build up Africa and who has studied large mammals in several African countries, and has asked him stocks of semi-domesticated animals. Most scientists, however, believe that the social structure

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and general behaviour of gazelles are incompatible with such ”domestication” (Clutton-Brock some places to keep the bison together, and enclosures constructed of wooden poles driven 1978, Martin 2000). into the ground are thought to have been employed in a few places (Reeves 1990). At higher altitudes, such as in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, there are remains of rows of stones that Wild stocks of gazelles no longer inhabit the areas where these ”desert kites” occur, but their led the animals towards a trap. These stone walls were not solid or high, and have nowadays extinction here is assumed to have nothing to do with the use of ”desert kites”, since they collapsed so much that it is difficult to identify them (Morris 1990). became extinct here in the 20th century, long after these trapping systems ceased to be used (Helms & Betts 1987). The “Head-smashed-in” buffalo jump is located in south-western Alberta. It is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Many fences stretch up to 10 km from the cliff over which Crimea the animals were driven (Brink & Rollans 1990). These are composed of small piles of stones, generally numbering 10-12 stones (10-25 cm large). Today, it is usual for these cairns to stand Saiga antelope no more than 10 cm above the surface (Brink & Rollans 1990). Many such sites to trap buffalo Periodically during the last Ice Age, the Saiga antelope was widely distributed from France are known in North America (McCartney 1990 and Reeves 1990 provide an overview), and it is in the southwest to Beringia in the northeast. It lives in large herds that undertake permanent thought that they were in use from about 10 000 BC (Reeves 1990). seasonal migrations between summer and winter territories, and is thus a potential species “Head-smashed-in” buffalo for mass trapping. Even though large quantities of bones have been found showing that this In a few places, there seems to be evidence that the American pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra jump in south-western Alberta, species was heavily taxed by hunters on the Crimean Peninsula (Barychnikov et al. 1994), no americana) was trapped using the same kind of driving technique as has been described for Canada (Photo: www.unesco. permanent trapping systems have been found. the bison (Davis & Fisher 1990), but here, too, obvious relics marking this form of hunting are lacking. org). 10.2.4 North America Mammoth Fewer than 30 hunting localities for the North American mammoth are known. Many hypotheses Bighorn sheep have been put forward regarding the kinds of hunting technique used (Hannus 1990), but no The Mountain Shoshone Indians, or Sheep Eater Indians, lived in north-western Wyoming, permanent trapping systems are known to have been employed. where they specialised in trapping Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). It is still possible to find formations that show how they employed V-shaped fences leading towards a 10.2.5 South America slaughtering site, often made of wood. 14C dates show that some of these were in use until AD 1800 (Frison et al. 1990). It is not known how many trapping systems of this kind exist, but A review of relevant archaeological data from Argentina (Borrero 1990, Politis & Salemme Frison et al. (1990) described eight within a study area of 25 x 35 km. Bighorn sheep could also 1990) has revealed no evidence of any kind of trapping system. Finds made at settlement sites be caught using a net made of juniper bark. Such a net, found in the Absaroka Mountains in indicate that the llama was the most important quarry for prehistoric hunting societies, but no Wyoming, is thought to have been 50-65 m long and 1.5-2 m high. It was dated to 8860 ± 170 finds of bones indicate the use of jumps or other means of mass trapping (Politis & Salemme BP (Frison et al. 1990). 1990).

Elk 10.2.6 Oceania Archaeological investigations from various parts of the western sub-Arctic show that prehistoric hunters took very few elk (Yesner 1989). Archaeological finds on settlement sites reveal few New Zealand elk bones and they generally date from recent times. This supports earlier hypotheses that the Even though it used to be believed that the up to 200 kg, flightless moa was exposed to elk did not become an important quarry in the western boreal forests before the 20th century. communal hunting, no archaeological evidence of this has been found (Kooyman 1990). As far as we know, no aggregations of pitfalls for elk have been found, such as we know from Fennoscandia. Summary When we can now find cultural heritage sites dating from the former trapping of large mammals, Bison and Pronghorn antelope it seems obvious that this hunting must have been performed communally. Individual hunters Archaeological investigations show that the bison’s (Bison bison) use of its territory was could scarcely have been able to build permanent structures in materials that can still be predictable in both time and space, and that prehistoric hunters were aware of this (Arthur 1975). recognised as trapping devices. Such communal hunting is characterised by i) the participation Based on eyewitness accounts of hunting performed by the Indians, it seems that the hunting of more than two hunters, ii) active cooperation between the hunters, and iii) a system of techniques can be divided into two types: luring the animals into restricted areas (pounds) hunting that presupposes that all the hunters follow an agreed plan. Communal hunting is not where they were slaughtered, and driving groups over cliffs (buffalo jumps, jump hunting) just confined to specific types of environment. It is generally most widespread where the diet (Morgan 1978). In lower-lying areas, it is not usual to find physical constructions that were is mostly based on meat and the diversity in the resources is low (Hayden 1981: 368). This is employed for the first technique. Natural obstructions It in the terrain were generally employed typical of Arctic and sub-Arctic regions. as trapping and slaughtering sites, but it has been suggested that snow structures were built in

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Communal hunting has been performed in many different ways. The quarry has been driven 11. Global strategy towards hunters concealed in hides, towards pitfalls, snares, traps formed naturally, nets, water The UNESCO global strategy is intended to promote a representative, balanced and credible and cliffs, and it has been surrounded by ”clappers”, horsemen and flames (Driver 1990). World Heritage List (Operational Guidelines § 54). It has been prepared to identify and fill gaps in the current World Heritage List. The project committee has studied the reports which UNESCO, In addition to those mentioned previously in this chapter, it is known that the following species in part through IUCN and ICOMOS, has prepared to be able to find out how a nomination of have been exposed to communal hunting: bears in North America (Swanton 1942), wild boar in this area will be able to help to fulfil the objectives of the UNESCO global strategy (WHC-04/28. Asia (Mills 1973), kangaroo (Serpenti 1965) and wallaby (Holmes 1924) in Oceania. However, it com/13; WHC-04/28.com/inf.13A; WHC-04/28.com/inf.13B). The theme and the area covered by seems clear that Burch’s (1972: 339) claim that the wild reindeer ”…may well be the species of the ”Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project demonstrate in a good and educational single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting”, remains valid. As manner how mankind and nature have functioned together and mutually influenced each other. far as we are aware today, the hunting of, first and foremost, wild reindeer and thereafter elk, is Likewise, the project shows a special, yet also in a global context, a key form of the utilisation of a the form of hunting that can leave the clearest evidence in the shape of cultural heritage relics. natural resource (the wild reindeer) in the area. The technology used to utilise this resource has The diversity of hunting techniques and the fact that the cultural heritage relics are still found in undergone a huge evolution, and most of the steps in this evolution are represented in the area. intact natural environments with natural, wild stocks of the quarry is special for wild reindeer. In view of this, the committee believes that a nomination of this theme and this area will provide a positive contribution within three of UNESCO’s areas of focus (WHC-04/28.COM/INF.13A, p.10): Large buck (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

• Human coexistence with the land • Modes of subsistence • Technological evolution

In its analysis, ICOMOS has divided cultural heritage sites into various categories, and then reviewed the World Heritage List to find out which sites fit into which category. Based on a comparison with other localities that are already on the World Heritage List, the ”Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project will fall into the following categories:

• Archaeological world heritage combined with a living tradition • Technological localities • Cultural landscapes

These are categories that are now moderately to under-represented on the World Heritage List. In its review, the committee has also observed that even if a category as a whole is strongly over-represented on the World Heritage List, it may have great internal imbalance. The ”Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project committee claims that the trapping systems are exceptional expressions of man’s creativity and ability to solve technological challenges. This Stone-built pitfall in the Snøhetta is really an over-represented category. Most sites where this is cited as a value are, however, sub-area (Photo: Per Jordhøy). buildings and monuments, not structures linked with the utilisation of a natural resource. UNESCO, too, recognises this imbalance (WHC-04/28.COM/13, §12c).

As mentioned earlier, the committee is proposing that the area be nominated as a cultural landscape. The analysis performed by UNESCO has also examined this comparatively new category. It recommends that a study be performed to ensure that all ”important cultural [traditions] in the world are represented on the World Heritage List by at least one cultural landscape” (Fowler 1992; WHC-04/28.COM/13 §27). The traditions linked with wild reindeer hunting are not on the World Heritage List now, even though they form a key element in the evolution of humanity. Indeed, the traditions associated with hunting large mammals in general are not adequately represented on the List either.

The most obvious imbalance in the current World Heritage List is that between Europe and the rest of the world. UNESCO, itself, has pointed out the significant imbalance existing in the

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various regions: ”The second chronological-regional analysis that classifies cultural heritage in 12. Statement of outstanding universal value relation to time and space has revealed that different cultures and traditions are clearly under- represented on the World Heritage List. (…) This also applies to Europe where the northern The area that is proposed for nomination and eastern regions have only a limited number of localities compared with the southern and western regions” (WHC-04/28.com/13, §12b). This project will serve to improve the balance 1. documents in a unique way the close relationship that has existed between Homo within the region. sapiens and wild reindeer The wild reindeer trapping is a final vestige of a formerly much more widely dispersed tradition. 2. documents in a unique way the evolution in the human utilisation of the wild reindeer It is now so reduced that Norway has the last remains of this tradition in Europe. This particular as a resource from the end of the Ice Age to the present day area is able to demonstrate remains of this tradition from far back in time right up to the present day, even to the extent that wild reindeer are still being hunted here. Within this area, it is therefore 3. documents a unique density and breadth of variation of trapping systems for wild possible to document and demonstrate several important steps in the evolution of humanity right reindeer up to the present day. These steps have taken place in many places, but concrete evidence is found here. This means that the project will fit well into the UNESCO/ICOMOS category: 4. documents in a unique way the integration of alpine nature and culture into a ”early evolution of humans” (WHC-04/28.COM/INF.13A, p. 24 ff). This is a category that ranges landscape where a lasting, 10 000-year-long tradition has left clear traces throughout over a very long timeframe and is not tied to what, from an archaeological viewpoint, is termed the circumpolar region “early development”. The definition is far broader than that, and the category is considered by UNESCO to be under-represented. 5. has a population of wild reindeer with a unique genetic character that has remained unchanged for more than 10 000 years When we have been examining the ICOMOS, IUCN and UNESCO reports we have felt that very much of what is written is directed at ”traditional” World Heritage sites like buildings and monuments. Our understanding is that UNESCO also recognises this and encourages countries Two scrapers used to prepare to seek non-acknowledged gaps in the List: ”to understand better the cultural qualities of potential pelts, found at Gautsjøen, World Heritage sites related to the very particular cultural responses to the environment found in Re 1 and 2 Snøhetta sub-area (Photo: John Olsen). under-represented areas” (WHC-04/28.COM/INF.13A, p. 52). The committee believes that the area and the theme covered by the ”Wild reindeer hunting as World Heritage” project will help 1. documents in a unique way the close relationship that has existed between Homo to fill such a gap because it combines the five aspects, archaeological locality, technological sapiens and wild reindeer cultural heritage site, living tradition with great time depth, aesthetic beauty and cultural landscape, in a way that has not been achieved earlier. 2. documents in a unique way the evolution in the human utilisation of the wild reindeer as a resource from the end of the Ice Age to the present day The area documents in a very good manner the utilisation of the natural resource, the wild reindeer, and the ability of people to evolve technology under marginal conditions. These are Humanity and the wild reindeer have been inextricably tied to each other for the past two categories which both ICOMOS in its report to UNESCO (WHC-04/28.com/inf.13A) and approximately 35 000 years. During the last Ice Age, reindeer were found in Europe as far the Directorate for Cultural Heritage in its work with the tentative list (letter to the committee south as western parts of Italy (43ºN) and northern parts of Spain (42ºN). In these areas, all dated 20 April 2006) have pointed out. The development of technology is under-represented in archaeological studies show that wild reindeer were man’s most important resource. In south- general, and particularly as regards such early periods as is the case here. western France, huge quantities of archaeological finds at human settlements demonstrate the great importance of this species. The Vézère valley, which is inscribed on the UNESCO To sum up, the committee believes that, in several aspects and at several levels, this initiative World Heritage List, has 147 prehistoric settlements and 25 decorated caves. Analyses of the will be able to help to achieve a more balanced World Heritage List. settlements show that, during the Magdalenian Period (19 000 – 11 000 BC), wild reindeer composed up to 90 % of the diet. During the subsequent climatic amelioration, the reindeer left their ice-age refugia to extend their range, and were divided into various sub-populations. The people followed them, and investigations in Canada, Eurasia and Europe show that wild reindeer continued to be the main food item and, hence, an important factor in the evolution and distribution of human cultures in the circumpolar region. We can now trace a continuous line of prehistoric remains from the areas in southern France to the mountains of southern Norway. Whereas settlements have been found in the south that reveal the diet and everyday life of the first Europeans, it is only in the northern areas that we still find remains recording the actual trapping of wild reindeer. Within the area proposed for nomination, there is a wide range of such

80 81 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

trapping sites that demonstrate both an evolution in scale and changes in hunting methods. Re 4 With its circumpolar distribution, the wild reindeer is today directly associated with about 15 indigenous peoples, and in many areas we find remains of the same types of trapping systems 4. documents in a unique way the integration of alpine nature and culture into a as are found in the area proposed for nomination, but nowhere else is the breadth of variation landscape where a lasting, 10 000-year-long tradition has left clear traces throughout that has been mapped so great within a geographically limited area. the circumpolar region

Within the area that is proposed for nomination, the great breadth of variation in ecological and cultural processes associated with the wild reindeer and the mountains they inhabit together constitute a landscape that includes both culture and nature. This landscape is personal and including because we create our own experience on the basis of memories, associations and knowledge. It is this personal experience that gives the landscape its cultural and social values, in addition to the environmental and financial ones. If we take care of the remains and the living culture in the mountainous landscape, we can understand and actively preserve its history, culture and identity. The wild reindeer is a harbinger of quality in this landscape. That a species like the wild reindeer, with its extensive use of the land, is still found in viable populations shows that the ecosystem remains intact. This is a stamp of the ecological authenticity of the mountainous areas. All the four sub-areas proposed for nomination as a World Heritage Site are located within the area which the Norwegian Parliament has defined as the European Wild Reindeer Region.

Re 5

Flint arrowhead in a reindeer 5. has a population of wild reindeer with a unique genetic character that has remained bone, dated to 14 500 BP. Found unchanged for more than 10 000 years in Denmark (Photo: Jørgen Holm). Genetic analyses have to a certain degree enabled us to trace the postglacial recolonisation of the Holarctic regions by the wild reindeer. All the reindeer in Norway belong to three haplotypes, Re 3 which indicates that these reindeer originate from different areas. All the (semi-)domesticated

3. documents a unique density and breadth of variation of trapping systems for wild reindeer

The great variation in climatic conditions within a limited area is the main factor that has led to the unique density and breadth of variation of trapping systems. It has given the wild reindeer the opportunity to find summer and winter grazing, and calving areas, within a limited area, at the same time as it has provided locations for human settlements in the mountains.

In the tundra regions of Eurasia and North America, the reindeer undertake seasonal migrations between winter pastures in the south and calving areas and summer pastures in the north. These migrations are often more than 1000 km long and mostly follow natural routes in the terrain. These long seasonal migrations have made it difficult to establish many stable settlements. Evidence of nomadic hunting cultures are therefore mainly found in the form of guiding ’fences’ of stone, often placed where the reindeer have had to cross rivers and lakes. The mountainous areas in Norway are characterised by great variations in climate between coastal areas in the west with good summer grazing for the wild reindeer and easterly areas with a continental climate where the winter pastures are best. These areas are often close to each other and are surrounded by fertile valleys well suited for permanent settlement. Female reindeer and buck (Photo: Per Jordhøy).

82 83 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

reindeer in Fennoscandia, along with the wild reindeer on Hardangervidda, stem from reindeer 13. Criteria under which nomination is proposed that emigrated from ice-age refugia in central or western parts of Europe. The wild reindeer in the area proposed for nomination (apart from those in the Reinheimen sub-area) originate In the light of the material presented in the foregoing chapters, the committee provisionally The distribution of reindeer in the from a population that emigrated from the east. More detailed genetic studies have, however, suggests that the area may be nominated as fulfilling three criteria, even though it is aware that Barents Region. The last remnants shown that these reindeer have been isolated from their maternal population for a long time one criterion suffices for a World Heritage nomination. The reason for this view is that it is now of genetically pure wild reindeer are found in this area (Illustration: (roughly 70 000 years). This indicates that the wild reindeer that now roam the area proposed usual to place emphasis on the total breadth of an area or a theme and, consequently several NINA). for nomination survived the last Ice Age in one or more so far unidentified ice-age refugia. criteria will often be applied.

Criterion III Bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which has disappeared. (Operational Guidelines §77 (iii))

The committee believes that Criterion III is fulfilled because the area is able to display the greatest variation in types of trapping sites and can demonstrate a practically unbroken utilisation of wild reindeer as a resource from the time the first people entered the area up to the present day. The landscape has formed the basis for shifting cultures, all of which utilised the same resource. The tradition also has roots further back in time in areas that were then ice free, but no hunting sites have been found there and the traditions associated with reindeer hunting are lost. This means that the traditions and cultural heritage sites in this area acquire an outstanding universal value – a value that is over and above a regional and national one. The traditions are attached to both the present-day society and to cultures that have disappeared or are changed.

Criterion IV

Be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history. (Operational Guidelines §77 (iv))

Wild reindeer (Semi-)domesticated and wild reindeer The development in the trapping sites shows how man, in an exceptional manner, has adapted Arctic wild reindeer (Svalbard reindeer) Wild forest reindeer to changing economies under what are, for humanity, marginal conditions. The sites have an (Semi-)domesticated reindeer exceptional authenticity and bear witness to an enormous work effort in an inhospitable and extreme part of the world. The landscape containing the cultural heritage sites will also be very well suited for demonstrating the transition to market economy or to use a modern concept, an early form of industry. These aspects will, in our opinion, qualify the area for criterion IV.

Criterion V

Be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea- use which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change. (Operational Guidelines §77 (v))

84 85 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

The interaction between man and nature is particularly well covered by Criterion V. The link opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and between the natural landscape and the cultural heritage sites forms a cultural landscape that cultural forces, both external and internal. (Operational Guidelines, Annex 3, §6). is essential for understanding the trapping sites. With respect to this project, the authenticity concept will be partly associated with the cultural heritage sites themselves, partly with the The trapping sites represent a special technology evolved to utilise a resource and an area landscape of which they are a part, where the wild reindeer are the foremost single aspect. It within the limitations and possibilities permitted by nature. The preservation of this landscape is the connection between these that gives the cultural landscape meaning for modern people. will help to ensure continued sustainable utilisation of the environment in the area and help to The knowledge that reindeer are game that can be hunted and the knowledge associated with preserve the existing biodiversity. This means that the project should comply with the UNESCO being able to read the landscape in such a context has existed in many places, but has mostly definition of a cultural landscape (Operational Guidelines, Annex 3, §9). been lost, whereas this is one place where it is still preserved. The cultural landscape in the sub-areas comprising the area that is being proposed for nomination The area is experiencing pressure from non-reversible changes, not least through ongoing to the UNESCO World Heritage List has developed as a natural process accompanying the use climate change, first and foremost global warming. This is also a central theme in UNESCO’s of the area by people. This activity has left physical remains in the landscape and it is these World Heritage work. that are essential in this context. This corresponds well with UNESCO’s category two of cultural landscape (Operational Guidelines, Annex 3, §10 (II)).

Special criterion connected with the cultural landscape The comparative analysis has shown that this entire area probably has a higher density and a greater diversity of types of trapping sites than any other area of limited size in the world. The UNESCO has defined cultural landscape as a cultural locality, but a locality which demonstrates sites and the area as a whole are thus representative for this tradition, and can in a good way the interaction between nature and man: demonstrate differing degrees of, and technologies linked to, the utilisation of wild reindeer as a resource. The technologies and degree of utilisation are representative in a global context. Cultural landscapes are cultural properties and represent the “combined works of nature and The committee therefore believes that the area meets the requirements of the Operational Guidelines, Annex 3, §11 for a cultural landscape which may be inscribed on the UNESCO A pitfall excavated in superficial of man” designated in Article 1 of the Convention. They are illustrative of the evolution of deposits, Storsvartdalen, Snøhetta Skreahøin in Snøhetta sub-area World Heritage List. (Photo Per Jordhøy). human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or sub-area (Photo: Per Jordhøy)

86 87 Reindeer hunting as World Heritage Reindeer hunting as World Heritage A ten thousand year-long tradition A ten thousand year-long tradition

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