Villanova University College of Engineering Villanova Engineering Service Learning

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative Madagascar Project Report - 2017

V I L L A N O V A U N I V E R S I T Y College of Engineering

J. Ermilio Tel: 610-519-6859 Villanova University Fax: 610-519-7312 800 Lancaster Avenue E-mail: [email protected] Villanova, PA 19085

August 1, 2017

Subject: Sustainable WASH Research Initiative

Dear WASH Sector Professionals,

On behalf of the Villanova College of Engineering and our program partners in Madagascar, Catholic Relief Services, we are pleased to present the results of a two-year study on the sustainability of PPP Managed Water Supply in Madagascar. This study is a part of an ongoing multi-year initiative that includes the continuously monitoring of water supply infrastructure. The primary objective of this research initiative is to develop tools to improve system performance by providing local management teams with the information needed to improve operation and maintenance. In addition to this, the long-term objective of this study is to better understand how external factors influence the sustainability of water infrastructure in developing communities and how local management mitigates external threats to long-term performance.

Whereas, this study is being presented here in a graduate thesis, it is important to note that the research is ongoing and includes a multi-country initiative with multiple program partners and research teams. Anyone who would like to collaborate on this effort is encouraged to contact us directly, as would sincerely welcome the opportunity to explore ways to improve this work and to better serve the needs of the international development water and sanitation sector. Having personally been involved with international development for over fifteen years, I would like to recognize all of the water and sanitation professionals that are currently in the field working to improve the lives of people living in low-income communities. Thank you for all of your efforts and please keep up the excellent work.

Kindly,

Jordan Ermilio; PE, RPVC Director, VESL Principal Investigator Sustainable WASH Research Initiative College of Engineering, Villanova University VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

SUSTAINABLE WASH RESEARCH INITIATIVE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Introduction This series of technical briefs presents results from an on-going study that is aimed at developing continuous, objective tools for evaluating the reliability of water supply infrastructure in developing communities. An additional goal of this study is to explore external factors that influence sustainability in order to improve local water utility management. Pressure transducers were installed in water system storage tanks to continuously monitor water levels as a measurement of system reliability based on an analysis of supply and demand as well as tank empty condition using the PE25 method. Water quality analysis was used to determine percent compliance with international water quality standards and household customer satisfaction surveys were conducted to validate performance characteristics. Surveys and stakeholder interviews were implemented to better understand water utility management and the external factors that influence long-term sustainability. Whereas, this study is ongoing, the results presented here suggest that PPP managed water systems in Madagascar have been largely successful in terms of providing reliable water services. At the same time, a number of economic indicators suggest that PPP operators need further assistance to improve management, profitability and sustainability.

Contextual Background This research includes ten project sites in Madagascar, which have been implemented during the USAID Rano HP and Ranon’ala program. The Island nation of Madagascar has roughly 24 million people with only 52% of the population having access to improved water supply and only 7% with access to piped water supply (JMP, 2015). In addition to this, an estimated 92% of the population live on less than USD $2 per day and 60% of the population is less than 25 years old (World Bank, 2013). The Rano HP and Ranon’ala programs were aimed at improving access to piped water supply with the ultimate goal of improving health and economic conditions throughout the country. Whereas community management has been the predominant model for implementing water supply infrastructure, it is largely recognized that community management has not been successful in Madagascar for multiple reason including limited legal framework, a lack of external support, limited access to spare parts and challenges with respect to affordability and cost recovery. As a result, two other management models have emerged in Madagascar; self- supply and public-private partnerships. In 1999, the PPP model was ratified by the national water code which allocated ownership of infrastructure to local governments with the authority to delegate management to a private operator.

Summary of Findings The findings from this study suggest that the implementation of water supply infrastructure using the PPP model has been an improvement from previous models however, there are still some significant challenges that need to be addressed. The reliability of water delivery services based on the PE25 method along with customer satisfaction surveys have shown that system performance characteristics range significantly. In Ikongo, fifteen months of data collection has revealed that this system is functioning at a high level 96.2% under the current PPP management. In Tolongonia with six months of data that was collected prior to PPP management, the system was functioning at 38.6% and with two months of data after PPP management it was functioning at 100% in terms of reliability. Water quality results suggest that microbial contamination is the primary concern in that physical and chemical constituents largely comply with international standards. Sanitary inspections and surveys with local water managers has revealed that additional external support is needed for quality assurance and oversight during construction and to increase the capacity of the local management teams.

Table 1: Summary of System Performance Characteristics System Reliability Per-Capita Customer (1-PE25) Consumption Satisfaction Site Location (%) (l/p/d) (%) Mananara 70.8 21.5 60 Manompana 63.3 NT 47.2 Tolongonia 100 13.5 66.3 Ikongo 96.2 18.9 63.5 Anivorano 88.2 22.7 NT Ademaka 89.5 5.8 NT

One of the primary challenges being faced by the water sector in Madagascar is the profitability of the water utility operations. Whereas metering and billing of water services are slowly being accepted by the household customers, it appears that access to secondary water resources is keeping per-capita water consumption low (15 to 25 liters/person/day) which is ultimately impacting revenue. In addition to this, the projected growth of the systems as outlined in the original business plans have not been realized. As a result, the financial sustainability of the PPPs is being threatened and ultimately, the long-term sustainability of water delivery services may be compromised.

Please contact [email protected] if you would like additional information about any of the details provided in this study. This work has included a collaboration with multiple research teams at Villanova University in the US, with Catholic Relief Services in Madagascar and as a part of an independent PhD study at Loughborough University. The principal investigators for this work include Jordan Ermilio and Dr. Gerard Jones from Villanova with major contributions provided by Joshua Poole, James Hazen and HeryLanto Rosaonina from CRS, Madagascar as well as Benjamin Bogardus, the Graduate Research Assistant during this study from Villanova University. Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Tolongoina Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Tolongoina is a town of ~9,000 people in the Ikongo district of Madagascar's Vatovavy Fitovinany region. The gravity-fed piped water system in Tolongoina was rehabilitated in 2014 by the CRS Rano HP team using the public-private partnership approach. The design study and construction were done by the BushProof® company and included a break-pressure tank, a 50m3 storage tank, and 107 private, 13 social and 76 CRS-subsidized connections. BushProof® was also selected as manager but did not officially begin until mid-2015.

Water Delivery Reported monthly water consumption increased gradually from ~800m3 in April 2015 to >1,000 m3 at the start of 2016 (Fig.1) but was still much less than the >3,000m3 predicted for this time in the design study. Other sites with similar characteristics appeared to level out at between 1,400 and 1,600m3 average consumption per month. Based on results of a household survey in June 2016, 54% of users reported using at least one other water source and only an estimated 27% of the population of the zone served use water from the system as their main source of drinking water. The storage tank was overflowing during a visit in June 2015 and a pressure transducer installed to continuously monitor water levels showed that the tank was overflowing continuously from Apr. 10 - June 7, 2016. However, local management reported water shortages at higher connections during the drier season from Oct. - Dec. 2015. Installing more durable taps was a local management priority since those currently installed are reportedly too fragile and break easily. 32% of connections in the household survey had leaks in the tap or supply pipe, higher than any other site studied. At the same time, 32% of taps were protected from animals, higher than any other site studied. This implies that the cause of breakdowns may be due to high pressure in the system instead of issues at the connection level.

Water Quality The 0.54km2 watershed is entirely covered by old-growth forest. During two testing rounds in April and June 2016, system water was confirmed with physical and chemical parameters. However, the system water was not chlorinated and microbial water quality was consistently at an intermediate to high risk level in the distribution system (Table 1). Initial analysis indicates that this is similar to the microbial water quality of a local unimproved source, an unprotected spring. Despite this, many clients consider the water potable and average customer satisfaction with water quality was the highest among all sites studied.

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Sustainability Assessment The main priority of the local management in Tolongoina was encouraging payment especially among users of CRS connections. Payment rates were initially low likely due to the free use of water during the 6-month delay before management began, an additional 2,000Ar/month charge for users of private/social connections to pay off the cost of the water meters paid for by BushProof, and reluctance to pay of people who were content with the water supplied for free by the previous system. The first local manager also was not from the town and did not have a skill set adapted to getting people to pay. The hiring of a new local manager, a microfinance employee who previously did loan repayment work with many of the water system clients, appeared critical to resolve conflict and increase payment rates. The research team concluded that non-payment and decreased consumption was often due to connection-level management issues rather than to willingness or capacity to pay. Some clients responsible for social and CRS connections reported a dissolution of responsibility and difficulty motivating the other users of the connections to pay, especially for broken taps. Just as there are different ways to manage a water system, there are different connection management schemes. For example: • Households using one connection all collect the same amount of water each day and then split the bill evenly at the end of the month. • An even price facilitates payment. With a price of 1,000Ar/m3 neighbors can collect 5 jerrycans of 20L daily to pay 3,000Ar at the end of the month. • The smaller indices on meters can be used for selling water. Raising awareness of these and other schemes expands the service options available to households and could increase payment and consumption. Many households expressed interest in learning how to read water meters. People in the zone served were reportedly trained on this during the project but in a group setting. Training was thought to be more effective at the household level, which the local manager is well-placed to do.

Future Work BushProof's management of the water system in Tolongoina is very professional: bills and receipts are issued, posters are put up in each quarter to inform clients when meters will be read, and the town crier announces repairs such that 100% of households surveyed reported that the management informs them if the water will be cut. However, the management might increase consumption and improve payment rates by raising awareness at the household level of different connection-level management schemes. Future work could involve creating a portfolio of tapstand management options for the local management to present to users. Engineers could also explore cost-effective ways to design more durable taps to handle the pressure in the system. Alternatively, only the valve in the taps appeared to wear down/break. Replacing only this part would reduce the cost of repair, and making a more durable replacement only for this section of the tap might also improve outcomes.

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Figure 1. Total Monthly Consumption 1400 ) 3

1200

1000

800 Monthly Consumption (m Consumption Monthly

600

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Table 1: Microbial water quality testing results April 4-7, 2016 June 2-9, 2016

Tank Tank Filter Filter Source Source Improved Duplicate Improved Duplicate Treatment Treatment Field Blank Field Blank Field Unimproved Unimproved Distribution Distribution >100 48.3 48.3 13.6D 13.6 13.6 13.6D NP NP 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7

0.0 0.0

E. coli MPN / Health Risk Category 100mL >100 Unsafe 32.6 and 48.3 High Risk / Probably Unsafe 13.6 and 17.1 High Risk / Possibly Unsafe 3.1 to 9.6 Intermediate Risk / Possibly Safe 1 to 3.7 Intermediate Risk / Probably Safe <1 Low Risk / Safe Please note: • The AquagenxTM Compartment Bag Test was used for microbial testing • Samples may have been taking on separate days for both rounds of testing • No testing was done during periods of heavy rain • 'NP' denotes 'not present', 'D' denotes duplicated samples, 'MPN denotes 'Most Probable Number' method

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Ikongo Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Ikongo is a district capital of ~7,500 people in the mountains of Madagascar's Vatovavy Fitovinany region. The town is 90km from the nearest paved road along a route passable with a 4x4 except in very rainy periods. The gravity-fed piped water system was rehabilitated in 2013 through the Rano HP project. Sandandrano® conducted the design study and ECGTiana® rehabilitated the system. SERTRano®, a department of the larger SERT company based in Antananarivo, was selected to manage the system and invested ~$25,000 in the rehabilitation amounting to ~17% of the total cost. There were 99 private and 55 social connections as of June 2016.

Water Delivery The source and filter (Fig.1) from a previous system were reused in the rehabilitation. The 0.25km2 watershed for this source is highly developed, with 84% of the land used for raising cassava and other field crops, 10% for rice culture, and only 5% is forest. Erosion causes the water to be highly turbid, especially when it rains and when farmers work with cows to turn over the soil in the rice paddies. The local management has dealt with this by working with the commune to create arrangements with people living/working in the watershed. On days when the farmers work with cows, they inform the management who proceeds to fill the storage tank and shut off the valve between the source and filter. The farmers work through the morning and in the afternoon the valve is reopened after the source water becomes less turbid. People living in the watershed are also expected to use latrines, dispose properly of refuse, etc. Following rehabilitation, the flow rate of water from the filter was not sufficient to satisfy water demand. The local manager increased flow rate by inserting larger perforated tubes at the bottom and inverting layers so that rocks with larger grain sizes are on the bottom. Records from a transducer installed in the storage tank indicate that from June 2014 - Nov. 2015 tank water levels dropped below 10% tankfull at some point on only 13 days, perhaps a result of intervention in the watershed and retrofitting of the filter. The filter must be cleaned at least once per month during drier periods and up to once per week in the rainy season.

Water Quality The supply pipe runs in a large U shape 2.5km from the filter to the 90m3 storage tank. Before entering the tank, water is treated with chlorine via a dosing pump and collects in a 5m3 plastic tank before running down into the storage tank. The dosing pump has malfunctioned several times in the past but each time the local manager has been able to fix it. Ikongo was the only site studied where residual chlorine was detected in the distribution system. While the electrochlorinator functions, the central command box is broken so that the device is currently attached directly to batteries. This means the device does not shut off after the salt has been turned into chlorine and must be manually shut off.

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Sustainability Assessment Monthly consumption in Ikongo has remained almost unchanged for the past four years (Fig.2) and only six new connections were added during that period. According to the SERTRano direction, the site is not profitable and their large initial investment now seems a loss. The local manager is very technically skilled after working for many years in the design and construction of infrastructure. However, the financial and human resource management of the system might be improved. At the time of the last visit, potential customers were required to pay the entire price of a connection up front (~$67 on average). This is very difficult for people who are poorer or only have money available after the harvest. SERTRano might consider encouraging the local manager to allow connections to be paid for in at least two installments, one at the end of each rice season. This might increase the rate of new connections. While a contract has been signed, the local manager refused to hold an inauguration citing that ECGTiana did not uphold their responsibilities in rehabilitating the system. Specifically, the filter and tank were reportedly only glossed over with cement instead of receiving the expected structural support. The research team noted that both have several leaks. ECGTiana reportedly received its commission before the work was finished and decided not to continue.

Future Work The local manager is very interested in conducting regular on-site water quality testing to improve management of the raw water filter and chlorine dosing pump. In particular, measurement of turbidity levels before and after the filter might allow management to improve the timing of opening/shutting the valve. This could decrease the turbidity of water entering the filter. The research team helped the local manager create a secchi disk to measure the visible depth from which turbidity in NTU can be calculated (Fig.3). Such measurement could enable quantification of the filter's capacity to remove suspended solids. The local manager is also very interested in regular monitoring of total and residual chlorine to test whether the dosing pump is working properly, and the research team could help him to create a monitoring plan. Lastly, while the local manager in Ikongo has a technical background, the local manager of the nearby water system managed by BushProof® in Tolongoina comes from a more human resource and financial background, having worked for many years to issue and encourage payment of microloans for the system's current customers. An exchange between these local managers would be relatively cheap and mutually beneficial since the local manager in Tolongoina is interested in learning more about the technical aspects of water system management.

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Figure 1. Raw water filter being cleaned

Figure 2. Monthly consumption 2013-2016 2200 ) 3 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200

Monthly Consumption (m 1000 May-13 Nov-13 Jun-14 Dec-14 Jul-15 Jan-16 Aug-16

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Figure 3. Secchi disk to measure water turbidity

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Mananara Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Mananara is a district capital of ~16,500 people in Madagascar's Analanjirofo region. The town is 119km from the nearest paved road along a route that is impassable in the rainy season. The town is on the coast and many goods and people travel by boat. The gravity-fed piped water system in Mananara was rehabilitated in 2012 by the CRS Ranon'ala project using the public-private partnership approach. The design study and rehabilitation were done by Sandandrano® and included a 200m3 storage tank in town and a new supply pipe running ~9km from source to tank. The supply pipe from the previous system supplies connections between the source and the town and before entering the tank. The construction company EGC3S, which has projects throughout Madagascar, was selected to manage the system. Vanilla production and transformation in the area has greatly increased incomes in the district over the past decade, and the number of connections has doubled each year over the past two years up to 1,069 private and 89 social connections in May 2016.

Water Delivery There is a need in Mananara to improve water delivery in the dry season and water quality in the rainy season. While the number of connections is rapidly increasing, the system experiences water shortages particularly from Sep. - Nov. This may be aggravated by several factors. First, average consumption grew to ~300m3/day in the first half of 2016 as estimated using transducer data (Fig.1) and noted by the enterprise director, which while less than the 634m3/day predicted in the design study is greater than all other sites included in this research study. Leaks in the distribution piping could be causing water loss. A representative household survey (all N=31, system N=25) conducted in May 2016 showed that secondary piping was exposed at 16% of connections, the highest for all sites studied. EGC3S reportedly uses low-quality materials for the piping and meter to bring down the cost of connecting, and often these are not well protected. Primary distribution pipes are reportedly exposed throughout the town. Staff are incentivized with a 10.000 Ar (~$3) reward for each new connection installed. This may lead to an emphasis on the number of connections installed rather than quality. Staff are also required to provide their own tools for installation, potentially limiting the quality of their work. Incidents of vandalism also impact water delivery. On Dec. 19, 2015 a rock was found to have been inserted in the supply pipe at the source. The storage tank had repeatedly gone empty in the days before this, and after the rock was removed water levels and flow increased (Fig.2).

Water Quality The 0.83km2 watershed had the worst sanitary inspection score of any in the study and included human habitation, farm animals, and crop production. While there is a filter below the intake, the water changes color and grows turbid when there are heavy rains. The filter is reportedly only cleaned once per month, while for many other systems they are cleaned at least every 1-2 weeks

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and more often if the rains are bad. A functioning electrochlorinator is present on-site and water is reportedly batch chlorinated at the primary storage tank between 7:00 and 8:00h each morning. However, no total or residual chlorine was ever detected in the distribution system during field work. Microbial water quality was consistently at a high or unsafe risk level in the distribution system (Tab.1). A turbidity level of <1NTU is suggested for effective chlorine disinfection, meaning the chlorination in Mananara may be ineffective.

Sustainability Assessment As of May 2016, there was no evidence of a public-private partnership (PPP) and no contract had yet been signed. EGC3S has reportedly never paid taxes to the commune even though taxes are included in bills and paid by customers. EGC3S reportedly disagrees with the local/regional government classification of Mananara as an urban area, which would mean higher taxes. System construction and the beginning of management took place during the political crisis from 2010- 2013, potentially disrupting the PPP process, and Ministry approval of any decision can also take a long time due to Mananara's isolation. The EGC3S director also ran for mayor in 2015 using his involvement in water system implementation as a major platform point, potentially increasing tensions with the current mayor. EGC3S also has internal issues. Local staff complained of a lack of personnel and no official work contracts.

Future Work Mananara is the largest and most profitable system studied, and might be even more profitable with longer-term investments in infrastructure and relationships. EGC3S' existing capital and assets could likely support this investment and absorb risk. The use of higher quality materials in connections and better protection for currently exposed pipes could reduce non-revenue water and improve water quality. While filter maintenance may be difficult since the source is so far away, chlorination is not effective if the filter is not properly removing suspended solids and if contamination occurs through leaks in the supply/distribution lines. Management should prioritize finding a solution to clean the filter more often. Close collaboration between the management and commune has yielded benefits at the other sites studied in terms of reducing social and political tensions including improved watershed practices and increased ability to resolve disagreements with clients. A formal contract and improved relationship with the commune could discourage vandalism via regulation enforcement. EGC3S would like to manage more systems in the future, and entering into a PPP in Mananara may be a good precedent.

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Figure 1. Monthly average, minimum, and maximum daily consumption estimates using two models

600 35 Demand Flows 500 30 Mass Balance Consumption (L/p/d) 400 25 /day) 3 20 300 15 200 10

Consumption (m Consumption 100 5

0 0

Figure 2. Tank water levels Mananara, December 2015 100%

75% 3.0 Depth (m) 50% 2.0 % Full 25% 1.0

0% 0.0

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Table 1: Microbial water quality testing results March 19-27, 2016 May 20-30, 2016

Tank Tank Filter Filter

Source Source Improved Duplicate Improved Duplicate Treatment Treatment Field Blank Field Blank Field Unimproved Unimproved Distribution Distribution >100 >100 >100

48.3

13.6 13.6 13.6 13.6

0.0

E. coli MPN / Health Risk Category 100mL >100 Unsafe 32.6 and 48.3 High Risk / Probably Unsafe 13.6 and 17.1 High Risk / Possibly Unsafe 3.1 to 9.6 Intermediate Risk / Possibly Safe 1 to 3.7 Intermediate Risk / Probably Safe <1 Low Risk / Safe Please note: • The AquagenxTM Compartment Bag Test was used for microbial testing • Samples may have been taking on separate days for both rounds of testing • No testing was done during periods of heavy rain • 'D' denotes duplicated samples, 'MPN denotes 'Most Probable Number' method

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Anivorano Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Anivorano is a town of ~7,000 people in Madagascar's Antsinana region. The town is 13km from the paved road running from Antananarivo to Tamatave and 17km from the large district capital Brickaville. Anivorano was the first site where CRS implemented a water system using the public-private partnership approach. The system was rehabilitated through the Rano HP project over five years ago included the use of an existing 75m3 underground tank (R1) from the previous system to serve most connections, a new 50m3 tank (R2) to serve connections at higher elevations or on the outskirts, and a rarely used 25m3 water tower. Sandandrano® did the design study and construction, and the small construction company Velo® was recruited to manage. The system had 81 private and 83 social connections as of May 2016, and many people without connections reportedly purchases system water from neighbors.

Water Delivery Consumption has averaged ~1,300m3/month (Fig.1) and only ~30 new connections have been added since management began. These are much lower than the design study predictions of 3900m3/month consumption and 537 connections by the end of 2015. The design study predicted constant growth in consumption and connections but this has not happened. R2 was initially meant to serve the higher connections in the town. There is a valve in the system that when open joins the networks of R1 and R2 and when closed allows them to serve separate networks. Management opens the valve when there is not enough source flow to supply connections served by R1. The valve has been open since August 2015 as determined from inspection of water level data from transducers installed in the two tanks.

Water Quality The raw water filter for the source supplying R1 is cleaned at least once per week and more often if there are heavy rains. An electrochlorinator is present on-site and water at R1 is chlorinated daily. R1 often overflows at night and chlorination is done in a way to prevent the loss of chlorinated water. Water in the tank is batch chlorinated with one 20L jerrycan of chlorine solution in the morning and a second is applied drop-by-drop over the rest of the day. Overflow often decreases or stops in the morning when people begin using water. The research team observed that there were no rocks in the raw water filter for the source supplying R2 (Fig.2) meaning that the source water flows directly into the tank. In addition, the water at this tank is only chlorinated when Velo staff make a trip up to the tank since it is ~4.2km from the town, and even then the drip chlorination method means that much of the chlorine volatizes before reaching water at the bottom of the empty tank. This water enters the system and, when the valve mentioned above is open, treated water from R1 and untreated water from R2 mix in the distribution system. Microbial water quality testing in the distribution system reveals that the water can range from low to high risk (Tab.1).

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Sustainability Assessment The priorities of Velo's director are to extend the network and to explore alternative payment options for increasing the number of connections. He has used reports of where households frequently buy water from neighbors to determine where he would like to expand the system to. Velo has demonstrated willingness to invest in the system in the past through the purchase of a motopump, which was later stolen. However, extending the network would cost significantly more while perhaps not significantly increasing consumption. Several strategies exist at other sites for increasing the number of connections. Some enterprises give a bonus to the plumber for each connection installed. Others offer payment plans ranging from payment in 2-3 installments to small payments included in the monthly bill paid over a period of ten years. The quality of materials also plays a role in the cost to connect and cheaper materials could cost less initially but lead to more leaks and the need for more repairs in the future. Households further away from the primary pipe would need to pay more for a longer secondary pipe.

Future Work Velo has two options: expand the network to increase the number of connections or increase the number of connections in the existing network. However, before doing either the fundamental question is: will this increase consumption and revenue? How much? For other systems, doubling the number of connections does not necessarily mean doubling the consumption. Just because water is closer does not necessarily mean users will proportionally increase their consumption. Velo might also consider if there are ways to increase water consumption among existing clients, such as raising awareness with households of different connection-level management options enabling them to sell water. Perhaps the most effective way to improve water quality would be to install a drainage valve and begin using the raw water filter for R2. Lack of treatment at this stage could re-contaminate the treated water in the network coming from R1. The distance to R2 makes treatment at that stage with chlorine impractical. However, decreasing the turbidity as much as possible may make this water more likely to be treated to some degree by the residual chlorine in the water coming from R1.

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Figure 1. Consumption 2011-2015

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000

Monthly Consumption (m3) 800 Oct-11 Apr-12 Nov-12 May-13 Dec-13 Jun-14 Jan-15 Aug-15

Figure 2. Raw water filter for R2 source

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Table 1. Microbial water quality testing results

13.6 4.7 1.1 1.2 1.5 0.0 0.0

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Andemaka Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Andemaka is a town of ~5,000 people near the coast in Madagascar's Vatovavy Fitovinany region. The town is 3km along a paved road followed by 16km along a secondary dirt road from the district capital Vohipeno. The landscape is very flat and Andemaka is on the banks of a large river. Flooding occurs regularly and in Feb. 2015 the population had to be evacuated after the town was inundated. An extensive design study was conducted and a solar-pumped water system constructed by BushProof® through the Rano HP project in 2014. SEROM®, a small company that does design studies for construction projects and runs a print shop in Farafangana, was selected to manage this as well as three other Rano HP solar pumped systems further south. The system had 132 private and eight institutional connections as of Dec. 2015.

Water Delivery Monitoring of water levels via a pressure transducer in the 69m3 storage tank reveals that the pump and system began delivering water in July 2014. Management records indicate this continued up to Nov. 2015 when several transistors in the control panel regulating current between the solar panels and the pump burned out. At this point, SEROM's director found that the local manager had been charging electronics by attaching them to the control panel. Despite coming from the town, this former local manager also neglected to have meter readings signed off on by clients, noted elevated readings and kept the difference when bills were paid, and faked breakdowns in the system to embezzle money SEROM sent for repairs. This local manager fled when the system broke and the system was still not functional during a visit in April 2016. SEROM's technician was working to have the control board repaired in Antananarivo at that time. The director sent an email to the research team in August 2016 noting that the control board had been repaired and a test run was being conducted so the system may be functional at the time of this writing. Prior to the breakdown, average consumption was ~17m3/day, well below the ~80m3/day predicted in the design study. Because pumping only occurs during the day, all the change in water levels late at night can be attributed to leaks in the distribution system. Water loss from leaks was estimated at ~0.8m3/hour (~19m3/day) using transducer data (Fig.1).

Water Quality Iron levels in borehole water during the design study were found to be above the World Health Organization and national guideline values of 0.3mg/L and 0.5mg/L, respectively. Iron treatment works were installed next to the storage tank (Fig.2) and water was reportedly treated for iron and disinfected with chlorine before entering the distribution system. SEROM mentioned that iron is also an issue at the other sites and expressed interest in regular monitoring of iron levels to ensure that treatment is effective.

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Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Sustainability Assessment Solar pumps are more difficult and costly to repair than gravity-fed systems. The director and technical staff working the research team often referred to the burnout of the control board as the main issue with the system. However, it can reasonably be assumed that a lack of accountability that allowed the corrupt technician to abuse his role was the root cause of the system breakdown. If the technician had not opened the control panel in the first place, the breakdown could likely have been avoided. Accountability might be improved at several levels. First, SEROM could have taken steps to verify meter readings by randomly reading meters during site visits and seeing if they matched with submitted records (meter notebook shown in Fig.3). The use of the 'Meter Reader' smartphone app developed by South African company SeeSaw® promoted during the Rano HP project may have helped avoid falsified readings by automatically transmitting meter photos from the site to headquarters. Next, the commune may have helped prevent the breakdown by creating and enforcing regulations to protect the system. A contact involved in the Rano HP project suggested that the technician could not have gotten away with these destructive activities without people knowing about it. Andemaka is a small town and the frequent contact between neighbors and deep community networks mean that people must have known there was an issue but not reported it or taken action. Finally, at the beginning of management there could be a more rigorous selection process to exclude bad actors likely to take advantage of their position.

Future Work Andemaka was the only site with a solar-pumped system included in this research study. Solar- pumped piped water systems may be well adapted for larger towns in southern Madagascar where surface water sources are less common. In addition, an on-going humanitarian crisis in that area due to prolonged drought makes it more likely that there will be significant investment there in the coming years. Any research methodology developed for the system in Andemaka could be applicable to these other systems. Andemaka could also serve as a case study for how to improve accountability and transparency in a public-private partnership. While the risk of corruption can never be completely eliminated, steps can be taken at the local government, management, and household levels to reduce that risk. These steps may also improve professionalism and increase revenues.

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Figure 1. Night time water levels (Oct. 25-26, 2015). Loss to leaks outlined in orange.

100% 2.2 90% 2.0 Depth (m) 80% 1.8 % Full

70% 1.6

60% 1.4

Figure 2. Iron treatment works

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Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Figure 3. Example of a signed meter reading book

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Ilaka Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Ilaka is a town of ~11,000 people in the Vatomandry district of Madagascar's Atsinanana region. The town is on a paved road running along the coast from Tamatave to Mahanoro. Numerous guest houses and eateries are spread along the road as well as a bus station with taxi company kiosks. The existing gravity-fed water system was rehabilitated in 2013 through the Rano HP project, with BushProof® doing the design study and rehabilitation. This included reuse of three existing 20m3 cylindrical tanks and installation of three sanitary blocks.

Water Delivery The landscape in Ilaka is very flat and the source selected was considered the only viable option for a gravity-fed system. The watershed is next to the road ~3km north and is only ~0.01km2. Two infiltration basins / buried dams were installed in an attempt to increase supply flow. Collected water flows down into the tanks which reportedly overflow in the rainy season from Feb.-Apr. but get low during the dry season from Aug.-Oct. The tanks have many leaks as seen in a May 2016 visit (Fig.1). The primary pipe runs along the roadside into town. While the design study included social connections and estimated that half of the population would be served by 2016, only the three sanitary blocks are functioning as water points and most of the water is sold to guesthouses along the road (Fig.2). Men and boys manning push carts fill jerrycans at the sanitary blocks to transport to the guesthouses as an income-generating activity. Water is sold at 25Ar/20L jerrycan (~$0.40/m3) and total consumption is ~300m3/month.

Water Quality Water delivered by the system is tainted a brown yellow color likely due either to the well- drained rocky soil in the watershed or tannins in the roots of vegetation growing in that soil. Users reported that the water could not be used to wash clothes. Repeated testing proved this coloring was not caused by iron, and the color proved to be treatable using the coagulating agent aluminum sulfate. The coloring reportedly does not affect smell or taste. No raw water filter or chlorination was used to treat water and microbial water quality of samples taken in the distribution system revealed a high or unsafe risk of fecal contamination (Tab.3). Two local improved sources, a canzee pump and a pitcher pump, yielded better microbial water quality than system water. The intake and area around the source has reportedly only been cleaned once since the system was rehabilitated.

Sustainability Assessment SERTRano® was originally selected to manage the system and began in June 2013, right at the start of the dry season. The commune reported that there was a long line to get water at the sanitary

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

blocks at the start likely because many people thought the water was potable after WASH awareness-raising done through the Rano HP project, but shortages led to low sales. The venture was not profitable from the start and SERTRano closed their local office at the beginning of 2014. The company 'delegated' management to a local plumber / technician who now oversees the three sanitary blocks and the attendants running them. Maximum revenue is ~450,000Ar(~$141)/month. 30% goes to the attendants and the rest to the delegated manager. While the commune had a signed copy of a public-private partnership contract, no taxes have ever been paid and there is no reported cooperation with the delegated manager. The mayor died during the construction/rehabilitation of the system and the state appointed an interim to take his place. This interim issued a official complaint three months after SERTRano and never received a response. After three more months, SERTRano was officially no longer considered the managing enterprise for the system.

Future Work Ilaka is a large, densely populated town with many commercial activities that should be a good candidate for a modern utility-managed piped water system. However, the amount and quality of water provided by the current system are not sufficient to satisfy demand. A pumped system was considered during the design study but was determined to be too expensive. The cost would have been over twice as much as the rehabilitation of the existing gravity-fed system and the pumped system would have required treatment for iron, which was found to be three times the World Health Organization guideline value in borehole water. The NGO Ranontsika® completed a pumped system in Ilaka as of Dec. 2016. Water is pumped from a borehole using solar power and then treated using modern filtration technology. Ranontsika's approach is to produce high quality drinking water to sell on-site for 600Ar (~$0.20)/20L jerrycan, or 30,000Ar(~$9.40)/m3. The water is treated with modern filtration technology so as to be on-par with local bottled water that sells for 2,000Ar(~$0.63)/1.5L or ~1.3MAr(~$420)/m3. Ranontsika's director expressed interest in a complementary approach to satisfying water demand. While customers may buy water from Ranontsika for drinking they could use other water sources such as the gravity-fed system to accomplish tasks for which high water quality is not needed. This is a unique multiple use scheme in which customers seek water delivery, quality, and access service levels that correspond with their means and demands. Ilaka could be a good site to study which water sources people use and what affects that decision-making.

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Figure 1. Storage tank showing multiple leaks

Figure 2. Sanitary block (left) and boys filling jerry cans for sale (right)

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Figure 3. Microbial water quality testing results May 7-9, 2016

Tank Filter Source Improved Duplicate Treatment Field Blank Field Unimproved Distribution >100 >100D 48.3 13.6

1.2 1.5 0.0 0.0

Please note: • The AquagenxTM Compartment Bag Test was used for microbial testing • Samples may have been taking on separate days for both rounds of testing • No testing was done during periods of heavy rain • 'D' denotes duplicated samples, 'MPN denotes 'Most Probable Number' method

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Manompana Executive Brief CRS/VU Water System Sustainability Research Partnership

Site Background Manompana is a coastal town of ~4,000 people in the Soanierana Ivongo district of Madagascar's Analanjirofo region. The gravity-fed piped water system in Manompana was constructed in 2012 through the Ranon'ala project using the public-private partnership approach. The Sandandrano® company did the design study and the Enterprise Mickael did the rehabilitation. While the design study included a water tower in the town center, instead a 60m3 cylindrical storage tank was installed 6km to the west at 300m below the source. The local NGO Fandriaka reportedly was selected to manage. However, the commune now manages the system and Fandriaka is in an advisory role. The system served 20 public and 23 privately-installed household connections as of June 2016. The connections are not metered. While households paid a flat fee at the start, payment rates quickly dwindled until no one was paying.

Water Delivery There are regular water shortages in the Manompana system. In a representative household survey conducted in June 2016 (all N=34, system N=24), 79% reported discontinuity in the water supply in the last 10 days and 88% reported using another source, both the highest among the sites studied. These shortages can be attributed to clogging of a small filter at the source intake and to the washing away of the supply pipe at a river crossing during heavy floods (see example tank water levels in Fig.1, river crossing in Fig.2). The intake filter reportedly clogs on average twice per week, sometimes up to four times per week when there are heavy rains. The public connections in Manompana had the worst average sanitary inspection score of all connection types at the sites studied (Fig.2). These connections resemble the borne fontaines typical of unpaid community-managed systems in Madagascar: all were unprotected from animals, many lacked a concrete supporting structure, and the taps were broken on most. The household connections were in better shape: taps were mounted and functioning. Many alternative unpaid water sources are available in Manompana including a second partially functional gravity-fed system, several large handpumps built by the Association Malgache-British in 2010, shallow pitcher pumps, hand-dug wells, rainwater, and surface water sources. People may turn to these other sources when they are asked to pay for water.

Water Quality Rapid deforestation is taking place in the large 7km2 watershed. The design study noted that the watershed was covered with vegetation, eliminating the issues with 'washload', and the area is apparently under the protection of a French association. However, approximately 60% of the original forest has been cut down as determined using polygon analysis in Google Earth® imagery and on two trips to the source the research team observed many men walking back with wood planks on their shoulders to sell in town.

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

The raw water filter, which is different from the small filter at the source intake, is not used. The site has a functioning electrochlorinator, but the storage tank is too far away to enable batch chlorine treatment. At the same time, 76.5 % of households surveyed reported boiling water to make the local burned rice water ranonapanko, the highest of any site studied. Household or connection-level water treatment either through this traditional practice or by chlorine treatment could be an effective disinfection solution. Use and regular maintenance of the raw water filter could improve water quality, potentially reducing turbidity to make chlorine treatment more effective. Microbial water quality was high risk for all samples in the distribution system, equivalent to or worse than local improved and unimproved sources (Tab.1).

Sustainability Assessment Perhaps the greatest challenge for the management is getting users to pay. While households using the public connections were initially supposed to pay a flat fee of 1,000Ar/month (~$0.30) this quickly fell off. Records obtained from the commune show that users with household connections paid a flat monthly fee of 3,000Ar (~$1) 85% of the time in 2015 but stopped in 2016 after finding out that others were not paying and were not being penalized. The commune tried to get people to pay by sending community security agents with the pay collectors to ensure payment, but this reportedly did not succeed. In September 2016, the mayor reported that the commune succeeded in organizing a water committee of 10 members composed of two representatives from each of the five villages in the Manompana fokontany. They are planning to install meters now in the commune's possession on all connections, and the committee would be responsible for reading meters, issuing bills, and collecting money. The mayor would also like to train water committee members on how to properly apply chlorine at the household level.

Future Work Steps that might be taken to reduce the water shortages include preventing clogging of the water filter at the source intake and structural changes to prevent the supply pipe from being washed out where it crosses the river. The small filter at the source intake is a key point in improving water delivery. Piling larger rocks around the intake to keep out larger debris or a new screen may be a solution. Where the pipe crosses over the river, a structure to allow the pipe to pass over the river rather than through it might prevent it from washing out. Activities to encourage transparency and accountability could increase payment rates. Having clients sign off when meters are read and verification that recorded readings match the meters could ensure honest reporting by committee members. Community meetings to demonstrate how collected maintenance is spent on maintenance/repairs could increase confidence.

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership

Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Figure 1. Water levels in Manompana tank, May 2016 100% 3.0

75% Depth (m) 2.0 50% % Full 25% 1.0

0% 0.0

Fig. 2. Supply pipe river crossing (left) and examples of public connections (middle and right)

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Villanova University VESL – CRS Madagascar

Table 1: Microbial water quality testing results March 19-21, 2016 June 2-7, 2016

Tank Tank Filter Filter Source Source Improved Duplicate Improved Duplicate Treatment Treatment Field Blank Field Blank Field Unimproved Unimproved Distribution Distribution >100

48.3 48.3 48.3 48.3 48.3 32.6

NP NP 8.4 4.7

0.0

Sustainable WASH Research Initiative VU-CRS Partnership