HUMA 2440 term 1 exam review

Week 1 Section 1: India – An Overview

* „Local‟ name: Bharat * Gained independence in 1947 * Capital is New Delhi * Official languages Hindi and English

Section 2: Chronology and Maps

* Gangetic Valley 1000-500 BC Maurya Empire under Ashoka 268-233 BC India 0-300 AD Gupta Empire 320-500 Early Middle Ages 900-1200 Late Middle Ages 1206-1526 Mughal Empire British Penetration of India 1750-1860 Republic of India 1947

Powerpoint notes Varna – caste (colour). Primarily Hindu societal concept

Class /= caste. Is a set of social relations within a system of production (financial). Caste, conversely, is something you‟re born into. * as caste barriers are breaking down in modern India, class barriers are becoming more prominent. * first mention of caste differences are in the Rig Veda, which may have referred to main divisions of ancient Aryan society * the Rig Veda mentions a creation myth “Hymn of the Primeval Man” which refers to the creation of the universe and the division of man into four groups of body parts (below under section 3) * outsiders consider caste to the be the defining aspect of indian society. Megasthenes and Alberuni both focus on that when they analyze the culture.

Jati or jat – subcaste. these have distinct names like “Gaud Saraswat Brahmins”.

Dalit – untouchable

Dvija – twice-born: part-way through a non-sudra person‟s life, they go through a „spiritual birth‟ which is their „second birth‟, called the upanayana, where the initiated then wear a sacred thread

Hierarchy – different types of ordered ranks systems. i.e. gender hierarchy is male > female, sexual hierarchy is heterosexual > homosexual * rank can be inherited at birth (from father) * one‟s birth/rebirth is based on one‟s deeds in a past life

Endogamy – marriage within own caste

Commensality – can only eat with jati members

Jatidharma and varna-dharma – one‟s duty in a caste or subcaste (lower castes must serve higher castes)

Jajmani system – patron-client system of land owning and service/artisan castes. No longer prominent in modern India

Karma – a sum of all an individual has done in the past and is currently doing and will do in the future: affects one‟s rebirth (what caste you‟re born into)

Purity and pollution – concepts relating to different castes, which justifies one‟s caste. A Brahmin is more „pure‟ than a Sudra. Sudras are more „polluted‟ than other castes

“Important themes in lecture”: relationships b/n fundamental values like hierarchial ranking and Indian social structures like caste, family, community * what role do these social structures and hierarchial constructs play in ancient, medieval and modern indian culture? * contrast outsider/insider view of indian society

* consider the implications of caste on modern Indian society. political equality vs. social inequality?

* last 10 slides should be studied: points of detailed inquiry and speculation – good for exam preparation.

Week 2: Hierarchy and Social Structure Section 3: Religions on File

* Main castes/varnas/colours: Brahmins (priests) – the mouth – white Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) – the arms – red Vaishyas (merchants, husbandmen, craftsmen) – the thighs – gold Sudras (unskilled workers) – the feet – black Untouchables (labor)

* Vishnu has 10 incarnations, and holds a conch shell, disc, mace and lotus

* Shruti (revealed scriptures) - Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, Atharva Veda

* Smriti (traditional scriptures): Laws of Manu, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas

Section 4: Stories from Buddhist Birth-Stories (Jataka Tales) * All of the tales are told in a frame narrative * Is Buddhist (religious) in nature * It‟s believed that the Buddha explained/commented on events happening around him by telling of similar events that had occurred in his previous births – and he used these stories to communicate * Western stories were borrowed from Buddhist stories * Have stanzas in the middle of stories to explicitly communicate a lesson

Section 5: More Jataka Tales * Shakuntala Jataka Tale is in here.

Powerpoint notes (look at week 3‟s powerpoint notes)

Week 3: Folk Tales & Social Values Sections 6 & 7: Panchatantra – Social Values, Folk Tales * Panchatantra. Secular. Written by Vishnu Sharma. Overlaying narrative is that a wise scholar agrees to teach a king‟s stupid boys all aspects of life in a short period by telling them lots of stories. The teachings are broken up into 5 parts: 1 – estrangement of friends 2 – winning of friends 3 – of crows and owls 4 – loss of gains 5 – rash deeds These stories have further stories in them (the bull and lion …) and are filled with lessons. * Inherently sexist against women (reflective of patriarchal values of the time)

Powerpoint notes (applies to week 2 as well)

Katha(taka) – stories/narrative fiction

Jataka tales – stories that convey religious teachings of the Buddha to his disciplies, later used to spread teachings of Buddhist from 500 BCE. * Buddha lived from ca.563-480 BCE

Pali – sacred language of Buddhism (like Hindu‟s sacred language, Sanskrit)

Panchatantra – see above.

Nitishastra – instructional text that contains rules/lessons for leading a good life

Frame narrative – story within story

Champu – literary form that includes both verse and prose (like Jataka tales or Panchatantra)

Vetalapanchavinsati – five and twenty tales of the genie written by Sivadasa in Sanskrit. King Vikramaditya (vikra = valour, aditya = name of the sun) encounters an evil monk (frame story)

Major themes of these stories: * rules for good conduct * ideal of just and brave king * deceit and ruse (for good and bad ends) * weak characters outsmart stronger ones * humans trick gods *importance of practical wisdom *role of women (patriarchal values) *importance of order in society *concepts of honor among kings, warriors, husbands, women

* The importance of folktales is that they are telling of values/society at the time. * Jataka tales have been represented in architecture carvings * Buddhism is more egalitarian (absence of caste system) * Panchatantra influenced a lot of western literature. Uses animals as characters a lot * (a lot of the powerpoint summarizes the events/preamble/premise of each book)

Week 4: ..? notes/readings covered maybe combined with week 3?

…

Week 5: Representation of Women in Early Indian Literature powerpoint notes: * heterodox sects Buddhism and Jainism emerged in Northern India in the 6th-5th century BCE. * heterodoxy – not agreeing w/accepted or orthodox beliefs * collective authority (elders and chiefs) was surfacing as an alternative to the orthodox model of hereditary authority * oligarchy – a small group of people having control over a country * gana-sanghas – same as above. Assemblies of people of equal status (chiefs/leaders) that reach agreement through consensus and voting

* an increase of wealth and agriculture in the 5th-6th century BCE led to a bigger gap in wealth between the rulers and the ruled. This led to more people questioning the validity of orthodox rule, further paving the way for the emergence of heterodox sects * hegemony – leadership/dominance of one group (e.g. Brahmin hegemony)

* Buddha and Mahavira founded new religious traditions. Both were Kshatriyas and from regions that had “republican” chiefdoms (more egalitarian) * Buddha founded Buddhism and Mahavira founded Jainism

* samsara – transmigration of the soul, rebirths * karma – the result of actions or deeds that influences rebirths * right conduct – doing good deeds released the soul from rebirth… * nirvana(Buddhism), moksha, mukti(hindu) – all meaning the release of the soul from rebirth, ending suffering * the new heterodox sects introduced the idea of reaching enlightenment without the need for intermediaries such as Brahmin priests or rituals * ahmisa – non-injury to all living things. especially challenged animal sacrifices brought out by Vedic and Brahmin tradition

* 4 noble truths – Buddhist concept: life is full of suffering (dukkha), this suffering is caused by desire and greed, overcoming desire is the path to enlightenment * eightfold path – Buddhist concept: a path to reach nirvana. Right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, awareness, concentration * 3 principles of Samadhi (concentration), panna (wisdom) and sila (morality) * 3 jewels/authorities of Buddhism: * acceptance of the Buddha * acceptance of the Dhamma (rules and teaching) * acceptance of the Sangha (ascetic community of monks, nuns)

* Buddhism was antagonistic towards women: nuns were not allowed to be part of the Sangha (ascetic community) * Patriarchal ideologies still took over Buddhism in the 6th century BCE

* importance of the Therigatha * earliest known anthology of women‟s literature * carried over as oral literature over 400 years * first written down about 80 BCE * theri – respected, revered females; senior nuns. gatha – song/poems * was a compilation of rarely recorded expressions of women‟s experiences and feelings in their own words (not portrayed by men) * nuns come from many backgrounds (lowest caste or highest cast, young or old) * Therigatha contains religious material * revealed domestic suffering and patriarchal chokehold on daily life of women * a lot of songs emphasized “freedom” from hardship, suffering, inferiority – as well as from rebirth

* changes from Buddhism * improvement of status of women (allowed to become nuns) * more egalitarian * use of local languages * incorporated heterodox concepts (like ahmisa: good deeds)

* Jainism * founded by Vardhamana Mahavira (Great Hero) 540-468 BCE, a contemporary of the Buddha * 5 basic vows: no sex, no killing, no materialism, no lies, no greed * vegetarianism – cannot even have crops that were harvested by machines that could have killed insects. * threefold path to salvation: right belief, knowledge, conduct * accepting of women * digambaras – “sky clad” or naked monks. renounces materialism and even clothing – the process involves violence * shvetambaras – “white clad” monks who wear white robes. * never spread outside India * was a popular religion among merchants because their trade was not affected by strict dietary/non-violence rules

* Jain Literature * Kathakoshas – collection of Jain stories compiled in 12th century CE * “Tale of the Faithful Wife Rohini” – Rohini gets advanced on by a king. She stands up for herself and betters the king‟s morals. * themes: faithfulness of the ideal wife in Rohini refusing the king * women are to protect their own chastity, diplomacy, emphasizes Jain values of truthfulness, rejection of materialism, ahmisa

* Representation of Women in Hinduism * belief that women were powerful but dangerous and therefore should be under the control of men so that women‟s power (Shakti) could be used for „good‟ * more restrictions on higher caste women to preserve honor * In Hindu law (dharmashatras), punishment for wrongdoings for higher caste women was as bad as the punishment for lower caste women. conversely, higher caste men were exempt from punishments for lower caste men. * the “Law of Manu” (Manu Smriti) states that a woman is to be a dutiful wife and caring mother, totally dependent on a man.

* Sangam Poetry * very early writings by women in India * written in Old Tamil * secular * women were glad for their sons to die in battle for it was honorable * poetry and literary achievement were important in Tamil society * poems incorporate theory of the nature of beauty and highly stylized personal emotions and ideal types in this poetry * Akam(aham) type of sangam poetry reflects inner or interior landscapes of mind: emotions. Mostly love poems involving stock characters like He, She, the Courtesan, Her Friend * Puram type of sangam poetry focused on the outer or exterior world: the court, the battlefield, honor * extremely succinct writing style (one symbol can mean many things) often connecting landscapes and seasons to emotions * landscapes in Akam poetry were associated with different stages of love: mountains, forests, barren land, river valleys and sea coasts * akam poems emphasized physical beauty * akam poems contrasted the limited/domestic experience of the woman with the broad experience of the man * women in Tamil society were educated and had more freedom * women were associated with Shakti or their creative power. men were considered to be purusha or static form. women were deified and had new importance

* The Kural aka Tirukkural * book of practical advice; a nitishastra – written by Tiruvalluvar * from ancient Tamil culture, written in Old Tamil * influenced by spiritual values of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism * emphasis on how to lead a good and honorable life, how to execute practical affairs of state as a just leader, proper conduct for men and women, emphasis on values of love and friendship and ahmisa * composed of 3 parts * book 1: virtue (dharma or aram) * book 2: wealth/politics (artha or porul) * book 3: love (kama or inpam) * emphasis on good, realistic action. not overly spiritual; written by a realistic, cultured man * 4 stages of life: 1 – brahmacarin or student stage. 2 – grihastha or householder stage. 3 – vanaprastha or retirement stage. 4 – sannyasin or ascetic stage.

Week 6: Reinterpreting Ancient Myths in Alternative Art Forms – Sanskrit Drama powerpoint notes: * Kalidasa wrote Shakuntala and the Ring of Recollection * his name means „the servant of time and creative power‟ * was a courtly poet who wrote dramas for a noble audience * his legend goes that he was stupid, but he married a princess and she prayed for his intelligence. Then Kalidasa got wicked awesome at poetry and whatnot * 3 surviving plays: Malavika & Agnimitra, where a king falls in love with a picture of exiled servant girl. Vikramorvashe, where a king falls in love w/a celestial nympth. And Shakuntala. * his works evoke Siva‟s presence through the blending of the erotic and the spiritual

* with the Gupta dynasty came the Golden Age: the revival of Hindu culture and religion (decline of Buddhism and resurgence of classical Hinduism) * areas of science, math, astronomy and philosophy all progressed

* origins of Sanskrit drama * sources: the vedas, divine origins, enactment of stories in dance * earliest forms related to dramatic religious performances/ceremonies * meant to entertain and to provide advice * secular but with a religious dimension (invocation of deities) * Sanskrit drama developed independently of foreign influences and is rooted in myths, legends and rituals of ancient India

* Drama theory * Bharata was the 1st great commentator on Sanskrit drama who lived around the 1st century BCE. He defined dramatic nature and wrote Natyashastra (Art of the Play) * Drama‟s purpose: entertain and give good advice. Drama‟s goal: produce rasa or a full emotion of closure evoked by art. * Sanskrit drama composed of verse/prose, dance, music/spectacle. Real blockbusters.

* these terms are derived from nat – to act or represent * natya – dramatic art or dancing * nata/nati – actor or actress * nayaka – hero * nayika – heroine * vidusaka – buffoon/comic relief dude * rupa – the play * rupaka – major drama * upa-rupaka – minor drama * nataka – most common type of rupaka drama or play. plot adapted from myth or legend that includes a 5-10act long heroic romance

* ancient literary and legal texts prove that women‟s status decreased as kingdoms became larger/society became more complex * this is reflected in dramas written around the time

* 5 stages of plot development in Shakuntala 1. desire to attain something (arambha) – King and Shakuntala want each other 2. organized effort to achieve goal (prayatna) – They marry under king‟s promise to make their son his heir 3. possibility of success/obstacles to success (prapti-sambhava) – the old a scetic places a curse on king‟s memory 4. certainty of success (niyatapti) – king regains memory 5. attainment of goal – king reunites w/family and son

* aesthetics of Sanskrit drama * rasa: flavour or essence of the play. similar to catharsis. ultimate closure from the drama and its emotions evoked * only drama produces rasa, according to drama theory * bhavas: nine emotions that characters express which make up pretty much the whole spectrum of human emotion: desire, laughter, anger, love, pride, fear, aversion, wonder, and rasa * absence of tragedy (unlike Shakespeare, other western drama) * death forbidden onstage. law of karma guarantees justice * Brahmins and noble characters in dramas speak in Sanskrit and commoners/women speak in vernacular languages (Prakrit) * also, men speak in lyrical stanzas and alternate w/prose narrative to show that they‟re boss. women and lower caste characters don‟t do the same * characters tend to be stock types instead of realistic humans

* political changes evident in dramas. Bharat, son of Shakuntala, was reputed to be first leader to consolidate some Aryan clans through complex alliances into beginning of small kingdom. they went from smaller civilizations to bigger, more autocratic ones * economic changes: importance of control over pasture lands changed to the importance of clearing land for agriculture * social changes: distinctions b/n caste and jati were more evident in Kalidasa‟s time compared to earlier stories (myth and jataka tales) * women had a lot of power, independence, deification still. however, this led also to their growing exclusion from public affairs.

Week 7: India Through Foreign Eyes: (Mis)perceptions – accounts of travellers, scholars, rogues and migrants powerpoint notes * emic – perspective of someone who is born in a culture and participates in a culture; familiar assumptions about a culture come from this perspective * etic – perspective of someone from another culture; extrinsic/scientific/sociological assumptions about a culture. * ethnocentrism – evaluating a culture based on the standards and values of one‟s own society

* neither an emic nor etic perspective is better/more authentic than the other: they just provide different interpretations. Either perspective can be equally ethnocentric!

* Megasthenes, c.350-290 BCE * was a Greek traveller, geographer, historian and ambassador to the new Mauryan kingdom c.302 BCE * overall paints a very positive picture of Indians and geography * was sent by Seleucus Nicator, a Greek general, as his ambassador to report on Pataliputra and its court * had 4 volumes of writings that reported on culture, history, geography and religion of India – most complete account of India at the time and the basis of western knowledge about India- including first western description of caste system * his writings contain beautiful descriptions of geography and administrative structure of Pataliputra and fantastical descriptions of mythical peoples/deities/ascetics and agriculture/economy * „gold-digging ants‟ referred to probably Tibetan gold miners, told to Megasthenes as stories by Brahmins * described 7 divisions of caste, placing philosophers at top * emphasis on Indian storytelling

* Abu Raihan Muhammad Alberuni ca. 973-1048 CE * his “India” writing became one of the most important accounts of India from etic viewpoint of a foreigner * was a great thinker, contributing to Islamic science, math, art medicine and philosophy * sent by Mahmud of Ghazni to India to scout its wealth and resources for a later raid as well as for info on India‟s culture, science, etc. * these effects on Hindus of these raids were noted by Alberuni in his writings: that Hindus feared foreigners and Muslims * Hindus considered Mahmud of Ghazni as a destroyer, whereas Mahmud has also been perceived as a cultured aristocrat. He used the loot from the India raids to build libraries, museums and mosques. He‟s a patron of arts and sciences * Alberuni likely was told what to write about: this affects the validity of his report * critical of many aspects of Hindu society: difficulty of learning Sanskrit, the split image of Indian nationality (Buddhists and Hindus), claiming that Indians are close-minded and ethnocentric whereas Muslims are more worldly/less prejudiced * especially critical of apparent Hindu ethnocentrism * and critical of Hindu patriarchal values/caste system * tried to „slip in‟ some praise for Hindus despite the need to please Mahmud of Ghazni

* Marco Polo 1254-1324 * merchant/adventurer. Made a lot of claims, a lot of stories, but not so much proof * wrote “The Travels of Marco Polo” as a collection of his stories about his travels * most interested in India‟s goods and trade items, as well as production methods (seeing how he is a merchant) * tended to evaluate towns in terms of their productivity * very inaccurate in his geography * exoticizes India – making everything into a spectacle/marvel * talks accurately about customs and superstitions .. business-related stuff * his writings create a tremendous influence on europe‟s perception of India, becoming its primary source of Indian knowledge

* Lonely Planet guides * started in 1970s * popular travel books advertising places to go for westerners. written by westerners appealing to a western perception of “other” places * provides some helpful advice like where to eat or rest, as well as cultural cues/customs. * generalizes.

Week 8: Sacred and Profane in Bhakti Religious Tradition Section 20: Selections from Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva’s Gitagovinda

* In this reading, there are poems about Krishna‟s (Vishnu Avatar) love for Radha, a human chief milkmaid * Written by Jayadeva in Sanskrit

Section 21: Selections from Bhakti Poets

* Janabai is a bhakti poet who is „perhaps one of the best known and best loved of Maharashtra‟s Varkari saint-poets‟ * The hardships of being a woman and the burden of domestic labor are present in her writing * It is in the love she has for God that Janabai can imagine and reach out toward a freedom and a power her normal life could hardly have provided for her * She imagines the God Vithoba as an everyday helpmate and companion in one poem, and in another poem Janabai speaks of herself as a wandering singer (I will be a slut: I will forego materiality and pride to be in your love)

* Mirabai is another bhakti poet. Her struggles with her husband and his family – it is legend that her husband‟s family tried to kill her several times but Mirabai somehow survived. * In Mirabai‟s poetry it is not the devotee who pursues God, but Krishna who pursues the devotee as her pursued the milkmaids (Radha) and the ensuing relationship is intense and erotic * Mirabai has had a rebellious life, having hung out with holy men and strayed from the natural „order‟ of being in a woman‟s place, but this contrasts a lot with the poetry she writes, where she plays this womanly role that she avoids in real life * Poem “The Bhil woman tasted them, plum after plum” is about anti-caste love shared b/n gods and humans

* Atukuri Molla is another bhakti poet who wrote a new version of the epic Ramayana in five days (on a bet). * Molla and her father were both Virasaivas, a movement that was more egalitarian in ethos than traditional Hinduism. * Molla grew unwomanly and bold in her ways * Molla dedicated her poems to gods instead of to kings

Section 22: Selected poems of Surdas

* Has poems of sakhya, the bhakti love of friendship b/n gods and humans. * Surdas was a blind Brahmin who wrote about Krishna and Radha. * Surdas was most famous for writing about Krishna as a mischievous child * His poetry shows how Krishna stresses the freedom and spontaneity of the divine * Baby Krishna doesn‟t care for rules/social norms: he is free to express his every impulse and his true nature in every action – he is pure and true * Baby Krishna is approachable: parental and devotional love come easy * Baby Krishna‟s aloofness shows a transcendence (lack of attachment) from the world we know: shows the divine‟s detachment from our world

Powerpoint notes Bhakti originated in South India. Grew out of Sangam poetic tradition in Tamil region. Reactionary to orthodox Hinduism.

Bhakti resisted Sanskritization or Aryanization from the North. Resisted caste and gender roles of the North.

There was a Sufism influence on Hindu bhakti worship.

Major characteristics of bhakti movement: Devotional theism – personal devotion to God Personal worship rather than sacrificial ritual Direct relationship b/n Gods and humans Relationships based on love and spiritual grace Emphasis not on the object of worship (idol) but on the relationship b/n humans and deities Presence of a compassionate god Reconciliation b/n humans and deities Bhakti movement is a reaction to Brahmanism and overly ritualistic Hinduism Social as well as religious movement: anti-caste, more egalitarian, inclusive to women Rejection of the ideal of asceticism Worship of god with deep emotional expression Bhakti poets write in vernaculars (elite languages such as Sanskrit are not used) In art, bhakti devotees/poets used a personal name or ankita for the form of god they worshipped, which identified a particular characteristic. Further personalized human/deity relationship

Three major bhakti religious traditions 1 – devotion to Shiva (worshippers known as Shaivites; Shaivism. aka Virashaivism or Lingayats) 2 – devotion to Vishnu – esp in Vishnu‟s popular avatars of Krishna and Ram(a), worshippers known as Vaishnavas; Vaishnavism. 3 – Kali Devism

3 main paths to seek God and Salvation 1 – Karma-yoga, path of action/work (perform rituals) 2 – Jnana-yoga, path of knowledge/contemplation (ascetic) 3 – Bhakti-yoga, path of devotion: surrender of self within God – total union and devotion

4 Worshipful attitudes or religious emotions (bhavas) 1 – Dasya, servile emotion; devotee like a servant to master 2 – Vatsalya, parental affection towards a child; devotee gives all to god like a parent would for child 3 – Sakhya, mutual love b/n friends (Surdas‟ poems) 4 – Madhurya, erotic love b/n lovers. Highest form of bhakti love where devoted worships god as husband or lover, such as Mirabai for Krishna.

Attributes or Characteristics of God Guna – attributes or qualities Saguna – Imagining the divine with physical and emotional attributes or form (Krishna) Nirguna – God without human attributes; formless

9 characteristics of path of devotion 1 – hearing god‟s praises, chanting his names 2 – singing god‟s praises 3 – thinking constantly about god 4 – attending the lord‟s feet 5 – worshipping through rituals and ceremonies 6 – paying obeisance to god (making offerings) 7 – serving as god‟s slave 8 – establishing friendship 9 – offering yourself in complete surrender to god

Jayadeva‟s Gitagovinda – theme of separation and finally reunion of lovers

Bhakta devotee – feelings of intense sorrow and pain in separation from God

Week 9: Challenges to Hindu Orthodoxy – Kabir, Sikhism, Sufism Powerpoint notes – sections 23-26:

* History of the coming of Islam and Sufism to Indian subcontinent + Hindu- Islamic amalgamation (the combining) * Early Islamic Period in India is 7-11th century * 1st Islamic political control – Sind in 712 AD (earliest Islamic state on subcontinent of India) * Arab traders settle and trade in coastal cities of India from 8th ct.

* There Turkish and Afghan raids/invasions from 11th century * India = hub of integrated Indian Ocean economy and culture at 11th ct.

* Ghaznavid Raids (997-1030 AD): Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan) conducted raids on northern and western India because of India‟s great wealth. * Mahmud of Ghazni hired scholar Alberuni to study Indian language, culture, society (read week 7)

* Muhammad of Ghuri was a Turk who successfully invaded India in 1192 AD, successfully paving the way for the establishment of the first Muslim sultanate of Delhi in 1206 by Qutubuddin Aibak (who is famous for erecting the Qutab Minar, architecture)

* Delhi Sultanate lasted from 1206-1526 * Four major dynasties in Delhi: Mamluks (Turkish – slave sultans) Khaljis (Afghan) Tughluqs (Afghan) Lodi (Afghan) * Northern and central India developed distinctive Indo-Islamic culture * Many conversions of Indian population to Islam, especially from lower caste Hindus * The Sultanate period promoted a religious and social transformation of Indian society through synthesis of hindu and Islamic religious ideas and cultural traditions dharmashastras – shari‟a & Hindu customary law

* Islam and bhakti movements resisted caste system * Sufism and bhakti devotion transcended caste and social status

* Major social divisions in Islam Ashraf – honorable or noble peoples esp. those descended from Mohammed Ajlaf – commoners

* In India, Islam is influenced by caste-like divisions… Descendents of Mohammed‟s lineage (like Brahmins) Kings and Nobility + Turkish/Afghan/Persian immigrants or invaders (Kshatriyas) Muslim traders and merchants (vaishyas) Artisans and peasants.. mainly converts from Hinduism (sudras)

* Sufism is an evolution of Islam in the „mystic direction‟ that began in the 8th century * Sufism represented the interiorization of Islam – a major contribution of Islam in South Asia * Sufism renounced patriarchal laws and authority of orthodox Islam: a lot of people were into Sufism to escape these things * Spiritual salvation through discovering god within oneself * Rejects orthodox rituals and conservative clergy * Emphasizes spiritual discovery and cultural evolution * Developed unique qawali style of singing

* Sufi mystics came with the Muslim conquerers * Pirs are muslim saints, who were worshipped through devotional song * Sufi mystical poets and saints represented more liberal interpretation of Islam, which many turned to. Sufi women also spread Islam this way

* 4 major sufi orders were used to adapt Sufism to traditions India chishti order – one of most famous, founded in India naqshbandi order – founded by Turkish saint suharawardy order – founded in Baghdad and brought to India qadiri order

* Chishti Order: founded in India by Moinuddin Chishti who settled in Ajmer in the late 12th century. Came to India from Afghanistan. One of most famous Sufi saints/pirs * stresses unity of being and renunciation of material goods * generosity to others, sharing wealth * independent of muslim state rulers * his shrine (dargah) is a place of pilgrimage for Hindus and Muslims

* Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia‟s shrine was established in Delhi. 2nd most famous Sufi Chishti saint before Moinuddin Chishti

* Major literacy contribution of Sufism: * poems that deal with the psychology of romantic love * expression of deep erotic feelings and union with god (bhakti love) * expression of same sex love (implicit in poetry)

* 2 significant sufi poets Amir Khusro Shah Hussayn

* Amir Khusro * mystic poet/musician * court poet to delhi sultans * wrote in Persian most famous Hindu mystical poems, songs, riddles * created new system of musicology: Indianization of Islamic musical tradition

* Shah Hussayn, 1539-1599 CE * born into a Muslim weaver family in Lahore, Punjab * of the Qadiri Sufi mystic order * loved a Brahmin boy, Madho. spurred Sufi belief of sharing mystic insight through bodily contact: guise for homosexuality‟s acceptance

* The socio-political and religious setting in 15-16th century North India * This time saw a lot of intermingling between peoples and religious traditions: including bhakti and Sufi Islam + tensions

* Kabir and Guru Nanak were proponents of bhakti nirguna tradition. They made songs and hymns – their ideas represented a synthesis of Hinduism and Islam through social and religious fusion

* Influence of bhakti on Islam * intense personal and loving rel‟nship with god * critical of orthodoxy (bhakti vs. Brahmin-focused Hinduism, Sufi vs. orthodox Islam) * emphasis on mystical/emotional/intangible experience * egalitarian * tradition shared by common people rather than the elite

* Similarities b/n Sufi and Bhakti devotional expression * belief in one supreme formless God – Allah, the Guru, Brahma * arts like poems/songs in vernacular (non-elite) language * presence of the ankita or special/personal name or quality of one‟s personal god * signature name of poet found in stanzas * teaching relationship of saint/poet and disciplie * saint tradition: sant (bhakti) and pir (sufism) * murshid or sheikh (teacher) – murid (student of a sufi pir) * guru (Hindu teacher) – shishya (disciple, pupil) * concept of „divine love play‟ (erotic love) * relations b/n god or pir and devotee portrayed as bride-groom * mirabai sees herself as bride to Krishna * hussayn – “I spread my bed in this niche, to enjoy the night with my bridegroom”

* Kabir and Guru Nanak critical towards humanization of the divine (nirguna)

* Kabir, 1440-1518 (or 1398-1448) * known as the Saint of Benares * name means “Most High” in Arabic * his life is known only through oral tradition: more myth than fact * one of world‟s most well known mystics * likely born into lower Muslim caste (weaver family; Julaha caste) * challenged Brahmin orthodoxy and hypocrisy in his songs and poems * parents: Niru and Nima * birth story: was born from a Brahmin widow who abandoned her baby at the Lahartala Tank in Benares, adopted into Muslim family * illiterate but very intelligent * wife: Loi. + two children who became his followers and successors: son: Kamal, daughter: Kamali * in death he acted against Brahmin orthodoxy. the Brahmins go to Benares, a holy city, to die – but he was born in Benares and went to Magahar (unholy, condemned place) to die. * very unique voice. songs combined crudeness and potency. radical thoughts but simple, direct language. * very unique style. talks to the audience in poems directly! in vernacular voice * incorporated irony and satire (low caste weavers make brahmins‟ sacred thread) * 4 distinct religious traditions respect Kabir: * Muslims honor the pir Kabir, the Sufi saint * Hindus honor Kabir through Vaishnava Hindu tradition * Kabirpanth (sect of Kabir followers that were Hindu) * Sikhs (Kabir‟s songs are in the Guru Granth Sahib) * 3 major collections of his poems/songs known as sabdas, padas, ramaini and sakhis (couplets): * Guru or Adi Granth (from Punjab) – part of w.Indian tradition * Panchvani (Rajasthan) – part of western Indian tradition * Bijak – scripture of the Kabirpanth – eastern tradition

* Kabir‟s ideas * did not directly preach that Hinduism and Islam fuse – but he taught unity or brotherhood b/n all religious and social groups! * refers to God as Allah-Ram or Rahim-Ram * believed that differences b/n individuals were not created by God (skin color or otherwise) but were created by humans themselves * his thought transcends the limits of other religious teachings 1. God is one being and God is formless 2. Path to the divine is realization of God within oneself 3. Religion devoid of love is heresy 4. Criticized mindless ritualism of other religions (there has to be love) 5. Emphasized egalitarianism 6. Exposed hypocrisy and bigotry (greed and pride of Brahmins and mullahs) 7. Anti-killing any living creature 8. Against rigidity and orthodoxy in both religious communities 9. Emphasized simple ways of living with few material goods 10. Stresses honesty and integrity 11. Make a living, don‟t beg (anti-asceticism)

* Guru Nanak, 1469-1539 * born into Hindu family in w.Punjab. gifted child * meditated a lot and had religious revelation in river around age 30 * founder of Sikhism („sikh‟ comes from Sanskrit word „shishya‟, meaning disciple of the universe)

* Ideas of Guru Nanak * God is one being and is formless * Stresses prayer through singing at particular times/occasions * Stresses social responsibility and work for betterment of society * Egalitarianism * 3 golden rules: * remember god, the name and word of god * live life of honest work * share with others (10% of income to charity)

Week 10: The Mughal Empire – Baburnama “The Untouchables” Powerpoint notes sections 27-28: * Babur founded the Mughal Empire, also called the Timurid State. Was founded from 1526-1530 * Babur claimed descent on his father‟s side from the great Conqueror Timur, who conquered most of Central Asia/e.Europe in late 14th century & claimed descent from Genghis Khan on his mother‟s side * Babur‟s descendents called themselves Timurids or Moghuls/Mughals (from “Mongol” – Mongolia)

* Babur, full name Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. 1483-1530 * from central Asian region Turkestan * Sunni Muslim * Babur‟s dad died when Babur was 12, he laid siege to Samarkand at age 13. Gained and lost the city many times. Ultimately lost * founded basis of the Mughal Empire in India * introduced step wells, gardens, efficient army, good administration and alliances w/Rajput Hindus to Delhi/Agra region

* Babur‟s military leadership * adopted Uzbek cavalry tactics * combined muskets and mobile field artillery * Kabul was his headquarters from 1504-1505 * conquered Hindustan and the Delhi Sultanate in 1526

* Babur‟s personality * great charisma * artistic * educated in language * genius, statesman, scholar * his personal memoir of his conquests were a contribution to literature

* Baburnama: Babur‟s Memoir of History * Babur is the only Islamic ruler to write a memoir of his life+conquests * written in his own dialiect, Chaghatai Turkish, spoken language of Timurids/Mughals… * contains etic perspective of India + what he (dis)likes „bout Hindustan * compared Hindustan to Kabul * attributes all success to God, not to himself * doesn‟t believe in reincarnation

* Khushwant Singh‟s Story, “The Untouchables” & later Mughal emperors * this story is about an untouchable Sikh named Jaita Rangreta. he worked in the execution grounds where he saved Guru Tegh Bahadur‟s body and was able to cremate it. His low casteness saved a high caste person * there was a Guru named Tegh Bahadur, who was the 9th Guru of the Sikhs. He was martyred by Aurangzeb in 1675 for not converting to Islam (via decapitation) * Jaita brings the Guru‟s head to Guru‟s son. Guru‟s son tells Jaita that Jaita is “the Guru‟s own son” * why the hell were low caste Sikhs a threat to the Mughal empire? did they counter Guru Nanak‟s ideal of a casteless society?

Week 11: Francois Bernier, European in the Mughal Court powerpoint notes sections 29-30: * Review of Main Lecture Points: 1. The coming of the European traders – the Portuguese successful navigation around coast of Africa and across the Arabian sea to land on coast of Kerala (Calicut) in 1498 – occurred just 30 years before the founding of the Mughal empire by Babur. * Portuguese established factories on the coasts of India, „factories‟ meaning places where people can trade 2. Two major foreign influences (British and Portuguese) in India at the beginning of the 16th century – had major consequences on the subsequent history and culture of Indian subcontinent. 3. Bernier‟s description of the Mughal empire at the height of its wealth and power under Aurangzeb, but also recognition of great poverty of most Indian peasants and artisans, as well as weaknesses in its martial and administrative structures * describes enormous expenditures of army to maintain empire 4. Differences in Bernier‟s descriptions of India, implying the superiority of the west and a kind of “otherness” of the east – implies a change in European attitudes towards India from being exotic and fabulous and wealthy to India being a land of irrationality, injustice, superstition, poverty 5. The beginnings of an „orientalist‟ perspective in his criticism of India and Indians. 6. Possible subversive text in his writings that implies a warning and criticism of the French monarchy in comparison with the Great Mughal emperors like Aurangzeb 7. Two main views of Aurangzeb‟s rule in India: * Bernier‟s: Aurangzeb was a cruel despot * K. Singh‟s short story which emphasizes the emperor‟s own justifications for his heinous deeds of usurping the throne and murder and execution of Guru Tegh Banadur * those „justifications‟ being to save the empire from heresy that would supposedly be brought out by Aurangzeb‟s brothers or father 8. Did Aurangzeb‟s more austere (strict) Islamic beliefs, his discrimination against his Hindu subjects, his curbing of spending on non-essentials like art/architecture + excessive spending on his armies weaken or strengthen Mughal empire?

* Rulers of the Mughal empire 1. Babur, 1483-1530. Conquerer of the Delhi Sultanate and Founder of the Mughal Dynasty. 2. Humayan, 1508-1556. Son of Babur. Buried in a tomb in Delhi. 3. Akbar the Great, 1542-1605. Greatest of the Mughal emperors. * was a political realist: unified people of his kingdom * established strong administrative structure and strong system of revenue collection * established intermediate levels of political authority and jagirs (non-hereditary land grants) to admins and generals * established system of alliances, often sealed with marriages * interested in exchange of different religious and philosophical ideas. Embodied peace and stability and openness * ended the jizya tax – tax on Hindus 4. Jahangir, 1569-1627. Son of Akbar. 5. Shah Jahan, 1592-1666. Architect of the Taj Mahal, tomb of his wife. * advanced Mughal art and architecture * sons fought for succession. Imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in Agra Red Fort. 6. Aurangzeb, 1618-1707. Third son of Shah Jahan. Imprisoned his father and killed his three brothers to take the throne. Last of the Great Mughal Emperors. * reintroduced the jizya tax, reasserting state commitment to Islam. this alienated Rajput Hindus and broke alliances. * expanded Mughal territories greatly, developed agriculture * spent a lot of money and resources maintaining armies and invasions * built the Bibi-Ka-Maqbara as a mausoleum for his wife, Rabia-ud-Durrani 7. Muazzam, son of Aurangzeb. Died 5 years after succession.

* Orientalism (east) vs. Occidentalism (west) * perceived to be oppositional terms. * Bernier changed European views of India to more superiority-based ones: “the west is better than the east” – the west looked down on east

* Who the hell was Francois Bernier? 1625-1688 * French physician and traveler. Inexperienced doctor. * Poses as a smart guy in his writings. Tries to emphasize the factualness of his accounts in his writings… is he to be believed? * Bernier was ethnocentric – believed his culture to be best * thus constructing a sense of the other * One of the first to write about the poverty in India – about the huge gap b/n the elite and the peasants. * Bernier attributes poverty and lack of land development to the lack of private property (which France has but India does not) * Bernier didn‟t understand the system of multiple rights in land in many parts of India * Bernier wrote that laws weren‟t enforced * A lot of Bernier‟s criticisms had to do with land * Largely critical of hypocrisy of Brahmins and of the sati ritual (burning the widow to death) * Calls out superstitions and outrageous practices, according to him

Week 12: Reversing Gender Roles – A challenge to social norms and values or “An Indian Princess Runs Wild” powerpoint notes section 31: * MainPoints of Lecture: 1. 1752-1753 – Vidya-Sundara – transition to a more modern form of literature (novel-like in its plot) 2. One of last major works in Sanskrit but also uses Bengalized Sanskrit and vernacular Bengali and Braj Hindi 3. Combines classical Sanskrit literary style of the court w/intro. of Bengali folk themes 4. Transition from sacred to more secular literary themes 5. Focus on human, erotic love story (not bhakti love this time!) 6. Conventional language w/unconventional plot – illicit(forbidden) love 7. Amusing satire of courtly life and intrigues

* Vidya-Sundara * Kali, a deity, had to intervene in the love b/n Sundar and Vidya to move plot forward * Reversal of „normal‟ qualities of male/female (wisdom/beauty) * Vidya, the woman. “Vidya” means “knowledge” – she defeats all her suitors in a debate. * Sundar, the man. “Sundar” means “beautiful” – he is erotic.

* Bharatchandra Ray, 1712-1760. * from Burdwan area of Bengal * a poet. one of the last major Sanskrit writers * was sent by French agent to court of Raja Krishnachandra Ray of Krishnagar, where Bharatchandra became court poet for him. * most famous work: the trilogy Annada-mangal (Eulogy of the Food-giving Goddess) which is in honor of the goddess Kali * of the trilogy‟s 3 parts, its 2nd part: Vidya-Sundara is his best work 1. Annada-mangal: story of Shiva and Parvati 2. Vidya-Sundara: most famous; erotic romance of Vidya/Sundar 3. Mansimha: historical romance about Mughal emperor Jahangir with Raja Pratapaditya of Jessore