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The Effects of Yoga on Body Dissatisfaction, Self

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The Effects of Yoga on Body Dissatisfaction, Self THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BODY DISSATISFACTION, SELF- OBJECTIFICATION, AND MINDFULNESS OF THE BODY IN COLLEGE WOMEN BY SARA ELYSIA CLANCY A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY Department of Education Leadership and Counseling Psychology AUGUST 2010 © Copyright by SARA ELYSIA CLANCY, 2010 All Rights Reserved © Copyright by SARA ELYSIA CLANCY, 2010 All Rights Reserved ii To the Faculty of Washington State University: The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of SARA ELYSIA CLANCY find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted. ___________________________________ Laurie D. McCubbin, Ph.D ___________________________________ Austin T. Church, Ph.D ___________________________________ Phyllis Erdman, Ph.D ___________________________________ Jane L. Barga, Ph.D iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to profusely thank each of my committee members, Dr. Laurie “Lali” McCubbin, Dr. Jane Barga, Dr. Phyllis Erdman, and Dr. Tim Church, for their time, care, and great patience in helping me accomplish this immense project. I would like to extend a special thanks to my chair and mentor, Dr. Lali McCubbin, for truly guiding me along this journey and for her relentless belief in me as a professional in my field as well as a person in this world. I would like to thank Dr. Marianne Barabasz, for her support and encouragement as well as the many important skills she taught me through these years. I would also like to extend a giant thank you to Joanne Greene of Washington State University Recreation for her unbelievable contributions to my project. Without her, this project would be no more than an idea. Last, but most definitely not least, I would like to thank my parents, brother, and my husband for their constant hugs and love, and provision of chocolate during the late nights I spent working at my computer and reading literature. You are all appreciated. iv THE EFFECTS OF YOGA ON BODY DISSATISFACTION, SELF- OBJECTIFICATION, AND MINDFULNESS OF THE BODY IN COLLEGE WOMEN Abstract by Sara Elysia Clancy, Ph.D. Washington State University August 2010 Chair: Laurie Dawn McCubbin Previous research on the Objectification Theory suggests that woman may experience self-objectification and body dissatisfaction. Research has demonstrated that yoga is associated with lower self-objectification and lower body dissatisfaction (Daubenmeir, 2005; Impett, Daubenmeir, & Hirschman, 2006) and thus may be a key intervention toward increasing body satisfaction among woman. The purpose of this between and within groups repeated measures experimental study is to determine whether or not a yoga program has positive effects on decreasing body dissatisfaction, increasing body satisfaction, decreasing self-objectification, and increasing mindfulness of the body in college women. Volunteers experiencing dissatisfaction with their bodies and who have zero to limited yoga experience based on their self-report were recruited for the study. Participants were comprised of 32 college students. Participants completed a survey packet consisting of the following measures: (a) A demographics questionnaire (Clancy, unpublished dissertation, 2008); (b) The Self-Objectification Questionnaire (SOQ; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998); (c) The Surveillance subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness (OBC) v Scale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996); (d) The Body Areas Satisfaction subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ-BAS; Brown, Cash, & Mikulka, 1990; (e) The CBBSM (Clancy, unpublished dissertation); (f) The Eating Disorder Inventory- Body Dissatisfaction subscale (EDI-BD; Garner et al., 1983); and (g) a modified version of the Frieburg Mindfulness Inventory (Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmuller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006). Participants were randomly assigned to either yoga treatment (Group 1a) or the waitlist control group (Group 2a). Following ten weeks of participation in the waitlist control group, participants from Group 2a then self-selected for a yoga intervention (Group 2b). Additionally, a follow-up interview was conducted with 12 participants. Most measures were found to be strongly correlated. A repeated measures analysis was conducted combining data from Group 1a and 2b, revealing that participants demonstrated significantly lower within group body dissatisfaction scores and significantly higher body satisfaction scores at post test than at pre test. Participants in Group 1a alone demonstrated significantly higher within group body satisfaction scores at post test than at pre test. Six main qualitative themes emerged for participants after 10 weeks of yoga treatment: Acceptance, Awareness and Spirituality, Mind- Body Connection, Body Compassion, Mindfulness of the Self, and Physical and Functional Body. Qualitative and quantitative findings lend support for the utilization of yoga treatment for women with body image issues in a non-clinical setting. vi Table of Contents Abstract……....……………………….…………………………………………………………. v List of Figures…………………………………………………………………............................. ix List of Appendices……………………………………………………………………………….. x Chapter I 1. Statement of Problem ………………….………………………………………………… 1 a. Body Satisfaction and the Objectification Theory ………………………......................1 b. Yoga and Mindfulness……………………………………………................................ 4 c. Yoga and Objectification……………………………………………………………… 5 2. Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………………. 8 a. Self-Objectification……………………………………………………………………. 8 b. Body Dissatisfaction/Satisfaction……………………………………………………... 8 c. Mindfulness of the Body ……………………………….……………………………... 8 Chapter II: Review of Literature 1. Exercise, Self-objectification, and Body Dissatisfaction………………………………… 17 2. Yoga……………………………………………………………………………………… 21 3. Mindfulness……………………………………………………………………………… 24 4. Mindfulness of the Body…………………………………………………………………. 27 5. Cultivation of Mindfulness of the Body through Yoga ……………………………..….. 29 6. Yoga, Objectification, and Body Dissatisfaction……………………................................ 34 7. Additional Physiological Advantages of Yoga………………………............................... 42 vii Hypotheses 1. Correlations………………………………………………………………………….…… 47 2. Between Groups…………………………………....……………….................................. 48 3. Within Groups………………………………………….……………………………….... 48 Chapter III. Method 1. Participant Characteristics……………………………………..……………………….... 50 2. Summary of Total Sample……………………………………………………………….. 50 3. Instruments……………………………………………………………............................. 55 a. Demographics…………………………………………………………………………. 55 b. Self-Objectification ……………………..…………………………………………….. 55 c. Body Dissatisfaction/Satisfaction……………………………….…………………….. 57 d. Mindfulness of the Body……………………………………........................................ 59 4. Procedure………………………………………………………..………………….......... 61 Chapter IV. Results 1. Summary of Participant Characteristics……………………….………………………… 67 2. Quantitative Analysis…………………………………………………………………….. 67 a. Correlations……………………………………………………………………………. 67 b. Between Groups………………………………………….………................................. 69 c. Within Groups…………………………………………….…………….……………... 70 3. Qualitative Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 74 Chapter V. Discussion 1. Correlation of Measures………………………………………..………………………… 79 2. Between Group Analyses …………………………………….………………………….. 81 viii 3. Within Group Analyses………………………………………………………………….. 82 4. Strengths and Limitations………………………………………………………………... 88 5. Clinical Implications and Future Directions………………………………………………. 89 References………………………………………………………………………………………... 93 ix List of Figures Figure 1. Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) Objectification Theory………………………. 4 2. Potential treatment model based on Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) Objectification Theory…………………………………………………………. 6 3. Procedural Timeline…………………………………………………………….. 66 x List of Appendices A. Demographics pre-test…………………………………………………………. 102 B. Demographics post-test………………………………………………................ 106 C. The Clancy Body Satisfaction Measure………………………………………... 108 D. Yoga Script…………………………………………………………………….. 110 E. Instructor Qualifications……………………………………………………….. 144 F. Consent Form ………………………………………………………………….. 146 G. Risk and Release Form ……………………………………………………….. 151 xi Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my grandfathers, Lynn R. Clancy, Ph.D. and Samuel J. Yosim, Ph.D for paving the way and believing in me. Their diligent work, overcoming of tremendous barriers and passion for their art will never be lost. 1 Chapter I Statement of Problem The purpose of the current study is to determine whether or not a yoga program has benefits in decreasing body dissatisfaction, increasing body satisfaction, decreasing self- objectification, and increasing mindfulness of the body. Body Dissatisfaction/Satisfaction and the Objectification Theory Body satisfaction and dissatisfaction are at opposite ends of a continuum. How one perceives aspects of his or her body, or overall appearance, can be defined as body image. Some researchers agree that body image refers to the “internal representation of your own outer experience- your own unique perception of your body” (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn 2002, p. 4). Body satisfaction then, can refer to the negative feelings, beliefs, evaluations, and judgments one has about aspects of his or her body, overall appearance (Brown, Cash, & Mikulka, 1990), or degree of satisfaction with a personal and unique body image. Though
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