Cultural Landscape and Vernacular Architecture in Historic Town of Keng Tung, Shan State, Myanmar
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN HISTORIC TOWN OF KENG TUNG, SHAN STATE, MYANMAR
By Kreangkrai Kirdsiri
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY Program of Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism (International Program) Graduate School SILPAKORN UNIVERSITY 2008 CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN HISTORIC TOWN OF KENG TUNG, SHAN STATE, MYANMAR
By Kreangkrai Kirdsiri
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILISOPHY Program of Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism (International Program) Graduate School SILPAKORN UNIVERSITY 2008 The Graduate School, Silpakorn University has approved and accredited the Thesis title of “Cultural Landscape and Vernacular Architecture in Historic Town of Keng Tung, Shan State, Myanmar.” submitted by Mr.Kreangkrai Kirdsiri as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philisophy in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism
……...... (Associate Professor Sirichai Chinatangkul,Ph.D.) Dean of Graduate School …………/…………../……………
The Thesis Advisor Professor Emeritus Ken Taylor
The Thesis Examination Committee
………………………………………. Chairman
(Professor Emeritus Trungjai Buranasomphob, Ph.D.) ………./…………./…………….
………………………………………. Member (Professor Emeritus Ornsiri Panin) ………./…………./…………….
………………………………………. Member (Assistance Professor Chotima Chaturavong, Ph.D.) ………./…………./…………….
………………………………………. Member (Professor Emeritus Ken Taylor) ………./…………./……………. 47056962 : MAJOR : ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT AND TOURISM KEY WORD : CULTURAL LANDSCAPE/VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE/HISTORIC TOWN OF KENG TUNG KREANGKRAI KIRDSIRI : CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN HISTORIC TOWN OF KENG TUNG, SHAN STATE, MYANMAR. THESIS ADVISOR : PROF. EMERITUS KEN TAYLOR. 282 pp.
The study on cultural landscape and vernacular architecture in the historic town of Keng Tung, Shan State, Myanmar, that cultural landscape of historic town of Keng Tung can be categorized in to three types comprising relic cultural landscape which is the archeological evidence of the settlement in Keng Tung town, cultural landscape in rural context which is the cultural landscape made by the Dai Khoen who have lived their life compatibly with the area around Keng Tung, and cultural landscape in urban context which reflects the development of Dai Khoen people, from communities in rural context to urban context. Historical context and changes to Keng Tung make this town become a living heritage town.
Factors for the happenstance and existence of vernacular architecture in historic town of Keng Tung directly and closely relate to the surroundings. Hence vernacular architecture is a significant component of Keng Tung’s cultural landscape.
It was found that cultural landscape and vernacular architecture are valuable cultural heritage due to their tangible value caused by local people’s understanding in hoe to live their life properly, but happily. However, cultural heritage of Keng Tung town is declining due to development which exceeds their local and social contexts. In addition, there is another invisible to this historic town. That is, local people devalue their own cultural heritage by considering it out of date, and, moreover, value their culture unequally due to the belief that culture on Shan State belong to the minority of the country.
Program of Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism Graduate School, Silpakorn University Academic Year 2008. Student's signature ...... Thesis Advisor's signature ......
c Acknowledgement
The success of this research project can be attributed to the extensive support and assistance from my advisor, Emeritus Professor Ken Taylor, Humanities Research Centre, The Australian National University, Canberra who always gave me a lot of valuable knowledge and supervised me by his sincerity, as well as my co-advisor, Emeritus Professor Trungjai Buranasomphob, Emeritus Professor Ornsiri Panin, and Assistance Professor Dr. Chotima Chaturawongsa who always advised me for my work, my life and the great opportunities for study, Without them, my research project would not be completed. I would like to thank Ms. Nandawan Muangyai (Air) and Jittima Kiatrasmee who spent their time to help me in this work. Mr. Tawan Weerakul (Keng), Mr. Boonyakorn Vajiratienchai (Boon), Mr. Tulachai Bosup (Tul), Mr. Kuekkong Suedee (Kong) friends in the family of faculty of Architecture. All of you make my life become more colorful and fantastic. I would like to thank my survey research team. They are: Mr. Pakkavee Wongsuwan (P’
Tong), Mr. Patipol Yodsurang (Tan), Mr. Tanapon Thongtaneesakul (Nu), Mr. Kuernun Khamhan (Nun), Mr. Vanlop Rungkamjad (Um), Mr. Chinoros Pantawee (F), Mr Tananukit Jadcholabot (Buab) and Etc. With out them my research will not finish. I am grateful to all lecturers, overseas professors and staff of the International Program in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism for their valuable knowledge, the staff of Faculty of Architecture and the Graduated School for administration support. Finally, I am grateful to my family and relatives, particularly my father, Mr. Thavajjai Kirdsiri, my mother, Mrs. U-naporn Kirdsiri, and my sister, Ms. Keerati Kirdsiri for all support, care and love. Without you all, I would not be here.
D Table of Contents
Page Abstract C Acknowledgement D List of figures Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 1 Origin of the dissertation…………………………………………………… 1 Significance of the problem………………………………………………... 1 Statement of Objectives……………………………………………………. 2 Conceptual Frame work…………………………………………………. 2 Scope of study………………………………………………………………. 2 Research Question……………………………………………………….. 3 Research Methodology………………………………………………….. 4
Dissertation Overview………………………………………………………. 5 2 The idea for cultural landscape and vernacular architecture…………… 6 Historical background of cultural landscape’s concept ………………… 6 Definition of cultural landscape……………………………………………. 8
the united state national park service……………………………….. 10 The cultural landscape foundation…………………………………… 10
The Australia heritage commission………………………………….. 11
Heritage Victoria………………………………………………………... 11 The world heritage convention……………………………………….. 12 Cultural landscape’s categories…………………………………………… 12 The united states national park service……………………………. 12 The Australian heritage commission………………………………… 13 The world heritage committee of UNESCO………………………… 13 The concept of cultural landscape as world heritage sites……….. 15 The study of cultural landscape in Thailand……………………………... 16 Definition of vernacular architecture………………………………………. 18 The study of vernacular architecture in Thailand……………………….. 20 3 Introduction to historic town of Keng Tung………………………………... 23 Introduction to Myanmar……………………………………………………. 23 Geography and location……………………………………………….. 23 Burmese administration……………………………………………….. 25
E Administrative organization…………………………………………… 26 Introduction to Shan state…………………………………………….. 27 Demography…………………………………………………………….. 29 People on the land of Keng Tung……………………………………. 30 Tai-Dai group………………………………………………………. 30 Dai Khoun…………………………………………………….. 31 Dai Yai………………………………………………………… 31 Dai Lue……………………………………………………….. 32 History of Keng Tung……………………………………………………….. 35 Myth oforigin……………………………………………………………. 35 The history of Keng Tung during the period the period of traditional state…………………………………………………………. 37 Keng Tung history: colonialism period to present…………………. 43 Introduction to Historic town of Keng Tung……………………………… 48 The name of Keng Tung……………………………………………… 63 The setting of the city…………………………………………………. 64
4 Cultural landscape in the historic town of Keng Tung…………………… 66 Relic cultural landscape…………………………………………………….. 70 Historic cultural landscape: the evidence of the relationship between Keng Tung and Lanna……………………………………… 70
Cultural landscape of Keng Tung town’s historic area……………. 70 Strategic area for the city stability…………………………………… 72
City rampart, moat and wall……………………………………… 72 City gate……………………………………………………………. 75 Spiritual and sacred area……………………………………………... 79 From the sacred mountain to the sacred place……………….. 79 Viang Kaew Hoe Kham: the royal residence………………….. 81 Cultural Landscape in rural context………………………………………. 88 Village location…………………………………………………………. 90 The village settled down on the plain area……………………. 90 The village settled down on the hill…………………………….. 90 Traditional village planning……………………………………………. 92 For example 1: Wan Mao village……………………………….. 93 For example 2: Wan Den Chang Village………………………. 94 New village planning in grid pattern…………………………………. 96 For example 3: Wan Lao village………………………………... 98
F For example 2: Wan Nong Or Village………………………….. 98 Village elements………………………………………………………... 101 Sacred places and sacred spaces……………………………… 101 Village’s temple: the heart of community…………………. 101 Ho Tevala ( ) and Sao Jai Wan ( )…….. 105 The public space in rural context…………………………………….. 108 Circulation………………………………………………………….. 108 Khong ( ): public open space occupied by people in community………………………………………………………….. 109 Nam Bo ( ): well……………………………………………... 112 Vernacular house and its layout plan……………………………….. 114 Low fence surrounding a house………………………………… 114 Khong Huen ( ): the private open space……………….. 117 Yea Kaw ( ): the rice barn…………………………………. 121
Suan Krua ( ): the kitchen garden……………………… 124 Agricultural cultural landscape...... 126 Plantation or horticulture…………………………………………. 126 Slop area and terrace plantation…………………………… 126 Cultivation on plain area…………………………………….. 129 Muang Fai ( ): the traditional knowledge and
wisdom on water Management system………………………… 133 Nong Nam ( ): the water body in landscape………….. 137 Architecture in rice culture……………………………………...... 141 Hang Na ( ): the shelter in agricultural landscape… 141 Gang Fueng ( > ): the straw barn…………...……… 143 Seasonal and agricultural landscape…………..…………..…… 144 Cultural landscape in urban context………………………………………. 147 Sacred Place……………………………………………………………. 148 Temples and monasteries……………………………………….. 148 The temples in historic town of Keng Tung at present….. 149 Location and boundary of temple………………………….. 158 Layout planning…………………………………………….… 158 Direction and orientation of the temple layout……………. 161 Architectural components in temple layout ……….……… 161 Khoang Wat ( 3): the temple’s open space…….. 162 Ho Wat ( 3): Temple’s Fence……………………… 165
G Pak Tu (: ):X gate way……………………………… 165 Vihara ( )……………………………………………. 167 Architectural style of Vihara in historical town of 167 Keng Tung………………………………………….. Church and the other religious places...... 172 “Hor Sua ( )”: the spiritual shrine, “Mai Long (a )”: the sacred tree, and “Mai Mhay Moung (a )”: the auspicious tree of the city……………………………………….. 177 Ku Chao Fa ( X > ): Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum………. 181 Open space………………………………………………………... 183 “Nong Nam ( )”...... …………………………… 185 “Sala (G )”: open air pavilion……………………………….… 190 “Kad ( 3)”: market………….…………………………………… 191 Village in historic town of Keng Tung……………………………….. 194 Village planning 194
Historic village represent the traditional village planning context: A case study of Wan Jom Kham Village ( )…………………………………………………………………... 196 New village represent the traditional planning context: A 198
case study of Wan Jom Mai Village ( )...... New settle down village represent new village planning
context (Grid pattern): case study of Wan Klang Na Long
( ) ...... 200 New settle down village represent new village planning context (grid pattern): case study of Wan Chiang Lek Mai ( )T = )...... 202 Business district of Keng Tung...... 204 Streetscape………….………….………….………….………….…… 207 Landmark and important vista……….……….……….……….…… 223 The characteristic of vernacular architecture in historic town of Keng Tung………………………………………………………………………….. 227 Type of vernacular building…………………………………………… 227 The relationship between vernacular building and environment… 229 Architectural form……………………………………………………..... 236 Vernacular house in Keng Tung: the building on the topography.. 239 Adaptation of vernacular building through times…………………… 240
H Threats to the existence of vernacular buildings in Keng Tung….. 241 5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….. 242 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………... 248 Autobiography…………………………………………………………………... 251
I List of Figures Figures Page 2-1 Adrian Phillips, 2002, Management Guidelines for IUCN Category V Protected Areas Protected Landscapes / Seascapes, Cardiff: IUCN – The World Conservation Union. p.5………………………………………………………………… 8 2-2 Cover page of two books. Left hand is the “Management Guideline for cultural landscape ( )”, right hand is the “community and their cultural landscape ( )”…………………………. 18 3-1 The map showing the topography of Myanmar and its relative location……….. 24 3-2 The photo shows Taunggyi, the capital city of western Shan State. The city is located in the valley. On every mountain peak located the temples. This photo was taken from the Sulamuni Pagoda, the sacred temple of the city…...... 28 3-3 The photo shows the cultural landscape, unique architecture and the way of life in floating villages of Inta people………………………………………………………. 28
3-4 The photo shows the cultural landscape, unique architecture and the way of life in floating villages of Inta people…………………………………………………...... 28 3-5 Figure show the costume of the ladies of the Dai Khoun Court in Keng Tung. The left is Princess Tipseela taken by Maurice Collis, the Irish Government
official form England in 1937. The right figure taken when she was old………… 32 3-6 The costume of the ladies of the Dai Khoen Court in Keng Tung. She is
Princess Tipseela, left: taken when she was young…………………….………….. 32 3-7 People of Me Kong Valley and Tribe folk in Myanmar Laos and Yunnan……..... 33 3-8 Ethnic groups in Burmese territories…………………………………………………. 34 3-9 The village of Lawa known as Tai Loi ethnic group, Settled down on the high land in Keng Tung and Mong La…………………………………………………...... 34 3-10 The Palaung people who visit the Dai Lue Village during the temple ceremony. This photo was taken from Mong Ma, Shan State, Myanmar in 2007………………………………………………………………….….………...... 35 3-11 A Yunnan packsaddle pony……………………………………………………………. 50 3-12 Mule packsaddle…………………………………………………………...... 50 3-13 Convoy with merchandise on the trade route to Yunnan………………………...... 51 3-14 The map shows the historic town of Keng Tung and other historic cities in the mainland of South East Asia………………………………………………...... 52 3-15 The map shows the trade route on the mainland Silk Road from Yunnan to historic towns in South East Asia, such as Jin hong, Keng Tung, Mandalay, Luang Phrabang, Chaing San and Chiang Mai……………………………………… 53 J 3-16 Camping bullock caravan in Shan State…………………………………………...... 53 3-17 The ancient map shows the location of Tai-Dai city in Shan State and Yunnan…………………………………………………………………………………..... 54 3-18 The ancient map shows the location of Tai-Dai city in Shan State and Yunnan.. 54 3-19 The ancient map shows the city and the main rive which was assumed to be is the Mekong River………………………………..……...... 55 3-20 The Map shows the route from Chiang Rai to Keng Tung………………………… 56 3-21 The map shows the location of the historic town of Keng Tung, the topography of Shan State, Keng Tung is located in the largest valley of Shan Plateau…….. 57 3-22 Map of Indo-China, with Keng Tung town indicated in red spot…………………... 58 3-23 The aerial photo from the satellite and mapping layers show the Nam Khoun watershed in the Keng Tung bowl surrounded by high mountain ranges……….. 59 3-24 The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded areas by the British government………………………………………………………………………………. 60 3-25 The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded areas by the British
government……………………………………………………………………………….. 61 3-26 The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded area by the British government………………………………………………………………………………. 62 3-27 Nong Tung is the most important lake of Keng Tung historic city. The highest
Chedi is the Pra tat Jom Tong, the landmark and the most important sacred place of the city………………………………………………………………………...... 64
4-1 The illustration shows the ancient village (Viang) of Chiang Tang. There is the
evidence of rampart and moat and slope to agricultural area………………...... 74 4-2 The illustration shows the moat and rampart of Vieng Chiang Tang……………... 74 4-3 The old photo showing the observation tower at Moung Sing………………...... 75 4-4 The wooden city wall……………………………………………………………...... 75 4-5 The illustration shows the 8 auspicious directions and the 12 gates of Keng 76 Tung….. 4-6 The illustration shows the 8 auspicious directions (Mahataksa) and the 4 gates 76 of Chiang Mai………………………………………………………...………………….. 4-7 Pa Dang Gate is the only remain of the city gate…………………………………… 77 4-8 Pa Man Gate is now destroyed by new development housing……………………. 77 4-9 The map is showing the 12 gates of historic town of Keng Tung……………...... 78 4-10 Phra That Jom Thong was built on the highest mountain in the town of Keng Tung……………………………………………………………………………………….. 80 4-11 Phra That Jom Kham is the landmark of the historic town of Keng Tung……..… 81
K 4-12 Hoe Kham of Moung Sing, roofing with natural roof………………………...... 82 4-13 The old photo of Hoe Kham of Lampang made by teak wood. It is the house on stilt like the house of Tai-Dai ethnic group………………………………...... 82 4-14 Isometric view of Hoe Kham of Keng Tung built with western style………...... 84 4-15 The front view of Hoe Kham of Keng Tung built with western style mixed with Indian Mugal style, there are three domes on the top of the roof………...... 84 4-16 The temporary building of Hoe Kham. During built the western style of Hoe Kham...... 85 4-17 Throne Hall of Keng Tung……………………………………………...... 86 4-18 The dome of the sacred building at Kajuraho, Mathya Phradesh India. Showing the relationship between Indian architecture and the architectural style of Hoe Kham……………………………………………………………………………………… 86 4-19 The condition of road to Keng Tung during the World War II………………...... 87 4-20 The illustration shows the ancient cities rampart and the present rural settlement area outside the historic town of Keng Tung…………………………… 89
4-21 The illustration shows the village is settled down on the plain area……….……... 90 4-22 The illustration showsthe village is settled down on the hill……………………...... 91 4-23 Village planning (left) Linear, (center) Star, (right) Grid……………………...... 91 4-24 Traditional village planning (left) Wan Mao Village (Right) Wan Den Chang
Village……………………………………………………………………………………... 92 4-25 Traditional village planning of Wan Mao Village…………………………...... 95
4-26 Traditional village planning of Wan Den Chang Village……………………………. 96
4-27 New village planning (left) Wan Lao (Right) Wan Nong Or Village………..……… 97 4-28 New village planning of Wan Lao Village………………………...... 99 4-29 New village planning of Wan Nong Or……………………………………...... 100 4-30 Wat Kad Tai is located far away form the center of Keng Tung. The location of the temple is setting on the top of the hill, surrounded by community and the agriculture cultivation area. The photo taken during the grand festival of new Vihara call “Poi Luang Vihara ( )” Festival…………………………… 102 4-31 Wat Kad Tai is located on the highest point of the village. Form the temple compound can see the lower step using for the settlement and paddy field……. 103 4-32 The Vihara of wat Chiang Tang is for example of the original Dai Khoun style in Keng Tung. Right now is the heritage in danger because the community would like to build the new temple located at the highest point of the community following their tradition and believe……………………………………. 103
L 4-33 Wan Jai and village’s temple” Wan Jai is the Dai Khoun village is located on the flood plain and the hill is located quite far from the village location. According to believe of community that have to built the temple on the higher site, but here is cannot. Therefore, The community was built the temple a little far form the community to disconnected the relationship form the village……….. 104 4-34 Passageway, connecting the Van Jai village and its temple………………………. 104 4-35 Sao Sakang ( ) is the sacred pillar of the Lawa Community. The post means the leader of the community. When changed the new leader of the community have to build the new pillar. The photo was taken from Lawa village, Ban Mued Long ( ), Mae Jam District, Chiang Mai………… 106 4-36 Sao Jai Ban located in the middle of community occupied open space. the shape of the pillar look like the roof of the sacred building showing the influence from the concept of sacred mount in the Buddhist literature and also showing the development of form to be the form of sacred house. The photo is taken from the Van Pa Ka Village. Located north of Keng Tung in the special
autonomous region of Mong La………………………………………………..……… 107 4-37 The spirit house of Ho Tevala Ban of Van Chiang San is located in the community forest near the village. Built by brick and cement coated…………… 107 4-38 The spirit house of Van Jai is located under the jujube tree. The house is made
by the recycle materials………………………………………………………………… 107 4-39 Local vehicle harness a cart with cow or buffalo……………………………………. 108
4-40 The crossing of circulations and paths in the village cause of origin of open 110
space……………………………………………………………………………………… 4-41 Celebration is also held at Khong Wan as it is a large area belong to member 110 of community. From the figure, people celebrated for “Krua Tan ( )”, that is, they brought food and other necessary things to temple when religious buildings of their temple were complete as it is the community centre…………... 4-42 Khong as the playground for the children in the community………………………. 111 4-43 Khong as the small business area in the community………………………………. 111 4-44 “Khong Wan ( )” is a public space belong to people in community. A lot 111 of activities are done here, leading to interaction and relationship of local people, especially after working or farming. It can be seen from the figure that a noviced monk is talking to his mother. Khong Wan is the space for all groups of people despite differences in social status………………………...……………… 4-45 “Ao Rang ( )” is the cooperation of people in community………………….. 112
M 4-46 “Ao Rang ( ^ )” is the cooperation of people in community. They participate in restoring their Nam Bo. That the volunteer were cleaning the well and that people in community were working altogether to construct the pavilion to cover the well………………………………………………………………………………….… 113 4-47 The construction to cover the well can be designed differently, but reflects the unique cultural landscapes of each village. From left figure, brick structure and coated cement are used along with tiger statue, signifying the year of construction based on belief in Chinese zodiac. From right figure, the gable roof is use to cover and prevent the well from dirt………………………………….. 113 4-48 The illustration showing the section of the house and its component……………. 114 4-49 It is the sketch of Ho Huen made of cane bamboo called “Mai Hear ( MT )” or “Mai Huak ( M )”. The formation of this type of fence can bring the sense of privacy to the residents inside the house…………………………………………. 115 4-50 It is the sketch of Ho Huen with other plants available in the area. As the fence is made of the remain from the construction, the added plants on the fence can
destroy the untidy fence behind……………………………………………………….. 115 4-51 “Ho Ta Sang ( )” is fence from bamboo where light can pass. This type of fence is just to identify the boundary, so it does not need a lot of materials… 115 4-52 Caladium and taro is on the fence where there is enough moisture. This
causes the depth to the fence, and, moreover, can be utilized and eaten………. 115 4-53 Ho Kaw ( ) is made of wood and bamboo to prevent cattle………………… 116
4-54 Ho Ta Sang ( ) is made of cleaved bamboo to prevent pigs…………….. 116
4-55 The fence is to identify the boundary between private and public area, and lead to clearer circulation routes in the village…………………………………………… 116 4-56 The bamboo fence to prevent chickens from scrabbling and destroying the kitchen garden…………………………………………………………………………… 116 4-57 The fence is not only to prevent invaders, but it can also be used to place clothes…………………………………………………………………………………….. 117 4-58 The illustration is showing the relationship between houses and its component. (Above) the lay out plan, (Below) the section showing the relationship between neighbor houses through the open space in front of the houses…………………. 118 4-59 Khoung Huen ( M ) is a multi–purpose area, usually found at the front of the house, adjacent to the circulation route………………………………………….. 119 4-60 Khoung Huen ( M ) and Yea Kaw ( ) are at the front of the house, facing the circulation route, in order to be more convenient when taking rice to the house. (The right construction is Yea Kaw)………………………………...... 119
N 4-61 Khong Huen ( M ) is also for informally receiving guests and being recreation area. It can be seen from the figure that the soil around the house is dug for rainwater drainage……………………………………………………………… 120 4-62 Khong Huen ( M ) is also to place agricultural products during daytime……. 120 4-63 Din Khoe Tiles ( ) are also made at Khong in Yang Goang Village…………………………………………………………………………………… 120 4-64 The rice barn is at the open space at the front. It is in huge wooden structure to bear loads of rice. Boarding wood and cleaved bamboo is foe the walls, coated by cow dung mixed with mud. Zinc plates are at the posts to prevent pets to go upstairs. The lower part is for cattle due to the eaves to protect cattle from sunlight at day time and dew at nighttime……………………………… 122 4-65 From the figure, the side view of the rice barn shows well the wooden 123 structure, with cleaved bamboo called “Mai Fag ( > )” as the well. The gable roof with some space under the gable is to prevent the rainwater while the projecting roof is added to keep equipments and tools used for agriculture
beneath. The lower situates the pig pen…………………………………………….. 4-66 From the figure, under the projecting roof is the flail called “Krog Mong ( 123 )”. Baked clay tiles called “Din Khoe ( )” are for the roof of the main building while straw called “Fueng ( > )” is for the newly added roof…………..
4-67 The rice barn and the open space are kept tidy and clean. The gable is for the 124 barn with small space under the gable to prevent rainwater. Baked clay tiles
are for the roof. The lower part is for storing equipments and tools for
agriculture………………………………………………………………………………… 4-68 Easily – built barn is called “Sa Vien Kaw ( T ) ”, a storage for rice 124 cylinder shape made of bamboo. It is a temporary building for new family whose members are not stable and ready to build the rice barn……………...….. 4-69 Fence around the kitchen garden means the activity of this house is not plan the kitchen garden only, but also feed the animal such as pigs and chickens…. 125 4-70 Mixed kitchen garden…………………………………………………………………… 125 4-71 Kitchen garden located near the well and the kitchen of the house because this area is very humid………………………………………………………………………. 125 4-72 The agricultural landscape of rice terrace……………………………………………. 127 4-73 The photo showing the different type of rice cultivation in Keng Tung…………… 128 4-74 The illustration showing the rice cultivation in Keng Tung…………………………. 128 4-75 The map showing the flood plain of Nam Khoen water shed. There are Nam Khoen Long ( ), Nam Khoen Noi ( ) and Nam Larb ( ). 130
O 4-76 The map showing the flood plain of Nam Khoen water shed. The villages are indicated in yellow. Water bodies are indicated in blue and the water management system in the cultivation area…………………………………………. 131 4-77 The map showing the water management system, call “Muang Fai ( 132 < )”. The location of the water dike call “Fai (< )” are indicated in red spot… 4-78 The map showing water management system, call “Muang Fai ( < )”. The location of the water dike call “Fai (< )” are indicated in red spot………… 134 4-79 The local community build and fixing the water dike yearly before agricultural season…………………………………………………………………………………… 135 4-80 The irrigation system flowing through the agricultural area and the village……… 135 4-81 Behind the dike is the higher level of water. Used for the produce electric for using in community……………………………………………………………………… 136 4-82 The alignment of vein having along the irrigation channel represents the ancient of irrigation system in this area………………………………………………. 136 4-83 The pond of Chiang San Village is the area for raising aquatic animals and
being consumed well house in the village……………………………………………. 137 4-84 The map showing the water bodies on the surface located on the track of ancient river………………………………………………………………………………. 138 4-85 The ponds for the aquaculture…………………………………………………………. 139
4-86 “Ho Sue Nong ( )” is built by bamboo…………………………………… 139 4-87 "Talaew ( )” the symbolic of protection woven by bamboo…………...…… 139
4-88 Draining out the pond in order to fishing held in the end of dry season every
year before dredging the pond for keep the water in rainy season...…………….. 140 4-89 Hang Na ( ) located in the paddy field……………….………………………… 141 4-90 Hang Na ( ) is built by temporary materials……………………..……………. 142 4-91 Gang Fueng ( > ) …………………………………………………...…………….. 143 4-92 The village in countryside community and the paddy field around the village vary in different season. One of important attribute of cultural landscape in agricultural are is alteration in various seasons……………………...……………… 144 4-93 Paddy field after harvested was plowed ground surface and weed the field for a change to different crop plantations, mostly corn, watermelon and vegetable, waiting for coming rainy season again………………………………………….……. 145 4-94 Paddy field around the village in harvest. The farmer will harvest crops and gather straws in the spots in the field. When straws have been dried. They will be conserved for cattle in dry season……………………………………………..…. 145
P 4-95 The village is surrounded by paddy field. When stated the rainy season………. 146 4-96 Crop rotation in the paddy field………………………………………………………... 146 4-97 The map showing the setting of the temples in historic town of Keng Tung, 151 classified by the age of the temple. The old temple indicated in red, the new temple indicated in blue……………………………………...…………………………. 4-98 The illustration showing the temple planning. (left) Keng Tung’s temple layout. 159 (center and right) Thailand’s temple layout…………………………………………... 4-99 The temple area of Wat Wan Saen ( ) is separated into Budhavas area ( = ) on the upper part and Sangavas area ( % ) at the lower part…………………………………………..…………………………………….. 159 4-100 The separation of space by the topography…………………………………………. 160 4-101 Wat Ratchthan Long Chiang Thoong ( / T ), follows the concept of auspicious direction, then the temple faces the east despite the cliff while the village is at the back of the temple, then another entrance at the back of the temple was done for people to go to temple for religious ritual…..… 161
4-102 Vihara faces the east which is the cliff, so Buddhists need to use the back gate 161 4-103 Vihara was expanded in the following period for the use of people in 162 community which has been bigger while the scale of Chedi is still the same..…. 4-104 The illustrate showing the layout plan of the village………………………………… 163
4-105 Animal balloon fill away is an activity in the temple ceremony……………………. 164 4-106 Gambling is an activity in the temple festival but located outside the temple 164
boundary………………………………………………………………………………..…
4-107 Fire work in the temple’s open space………………………………………..……….. 164 4-108 The enable visual capability between temple and village………………………….. 165 4-109 Chong Pratu: blank at Wat Wan Tao…………………………………….….………... 166 4-110 Chong Pratu at Wat Wan San……………………………………………………..….. 166 4-111 Myanmar–style brick structure gateways……………………………………………... 167 4-112 Myanmar–style wooden structure gateways…………………….…………………… 167 4-113 Lanna–style brick structure gateways……………………………………………….... 167 4-114 the different of boundary marker……………………………………………….……… 170 4-115 Front elevation of multi–layer gable roof in Dai Khoun style………..…………….. 171 4-116 Side view of multi–layer gable roof in Dai Khoun style…………………………….. 171 4-117 Front elevation of multi–layer Pyramid roof in Burmese style………………...…… 171 4-118 Rear elevation of multi–layer Pyramid roof in Burmese style……………..………. 171 4-119 Architectural Heritage buildings at Roman Catholic church……………………….. 172
Q 4-120 Architectural Heritage buildings at Roman Catholic church………………………... 73 4-121 Architectural Heritage Building at St. Marry church……...... 173 4-122 Architectural Heritage buildings at Baptism Church Van Nong Pha ( 174 ; ). (Above) A view taken from the opposite hill showing the building as the landmark…………………………………………………………………………………. 4-123 Architectural Heritage Building at Baptism Church Van Klang Na Long ( 174 )…………………………………………...………………………………… 4-124 The map showing the location of the church in historic town of Keng Tung……. 175 4-125 The sacred place of the other religious………………………………………………. 176 4-126 The sacred tree of Van Kam community ( ) …………………………………... 178 4-127 Yang tree is the landmark of Keng Tung town and also is the sacred tree of the city as well……………………………………………………………………………..…. 178 4-128 Yang tree is the landmark of Chinag Mai city and also is the sacred tree of the city as well. Right hand site is “Ho Inthakhin ( T )”: the city’s pillar of Chiang Mai city………………………………………………………………………...... 178
4-129 The big bodhi tree is the symbolic of Buddhism (right) the local community supporting the Bodhi tree in Songkran ceremony…………………………………… 179 4-130 Hoe Sure ( ) and Sacred tree…………………………………………………… 179 4-131 The map showing the sacred place in Keng Tung there are Buddhism temples,
Churches, Chinese Shrines, Sikh Guruwara, Supernatural shrines and sacred trees……………………………………………………………………………………….. 180
4-132 “Ku Chao Fa ( > )”: Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum…………………………… 181
4-133 “Ku Chao Nai Fai Nue ( < )” at wat Suan Dok, Chiang Mai…..…. 181 4-134 The map shows circulation in historic town of Keng Tung…………………………. 182 4-135 Building indicate in white, open space indicate in green…………………………… 183 4-136 The map shows the location of grand open space of historic town of Keng Tung……………………………………………………………………………………….. 184 4-137 The different views of Nong Tung, the larger pond of Keng Tung………………... 185 4-138 The different views of Nong Tung, the larger pond of Keng Tung……………….. 186 4-139 Nong Yang ( )………………………………………………………………….. 186 4-140 The different views of Nong Kham ( )……………………………..…………. 187 4-141 The map showing the pond, not existing pond and swamp……………………..… 188 4-142 the map showing the existing pond in historic town of Keng Tung……………..… 189 4-143 Pavilions for pilgrim……………………………………………………………………… 190 4-144 Kad Long ( ) at the morning…………………………………………..……… 193
R 4-145 Kad Ban Glang Na ( )………………………………………………… 193 4-146 Kad Noi Paman ( )……………………………………………………. 193 4-147 4 villages in historic town of Keng Tung as case studies…………………….……. 195 4-148 Historic village represent the traditional village planning context: A case study 197 of Wan Jom Kham Village ( )………………………………………………. 4-149 New village represent the traditional planning context: A case study of Wan 199 Jom Mai Village ( ` )………………………………………………………… 4-150 New settle down village represent new village planning context (Grid pattern): 201 case study of Wan Klang Na Long ( )……………………………... 4-151 New settle down village represent new village planning context (Grid pattern): 203 case study of Wan Chiang Lek Mai ( T = ` )…...………………………. 4-152 Business district of historic town of Keng Tung...... 205 4-153 Business district of historic town of Keng Tung (Detail map)……………….….…. 206 4-154 Important streetscape in historic town of Keng Tung……………………………..… 208 4-155 Important streetscape in historic town of Keng Tung (Detail Map)……..………… 209
4-156 Streetscape No. 01……………………………………………………………………… 210 4-157 Streetscape No. 02……………………………………………………………………… 211 4-158 Streetscape No. 03……………………………………………………………………… 212 4-159 Streetscape No. 04, No. 05…………………………………….……………………… 213
4-160 Streetscape No. 06……………………………………………………………………… 214 4-161 Streetscape No. 07……………………………………………………………………… 215
4-162 Streetscape No. 08, N0. 09…………………………………………………………..… 216
4-163 Streetscape No. 10…………………………………………………………………..…. 217 4-164 Streetscape No. 11……………………………………………………………………… 218 4-165 Streetscape No. 12……………………………………………………………………... 219 4-166 Streetscape No. 13……………………………………………………………………… 220 4-167 Streetscape No. 14……………………………………………………………………… 221 4-168 Streetscape No. 15……………………………………………………………………… 222 4-169 The illustrate showing the section of the town. Cut through Nong Tung ( ), Wat Phra Chao Ton Long ( = ) and Wat Phra kaew ( = )……………………………………………………………………………………….. 224 4-170 The bird eye view drawing of historic town of Keng Tung. On the highest hill of the town located the most important stupa of the city……………………………… 224 4-171 Wat Phra Chao Ton Long ( = ) is the one of main land mark of the Keng Tung town…………………………………………………………………….. 225
S 4-172 Pa Dang Gate only one city gate is remaining. This one is very important 226 historic monument in the historic town of Keng Tung………………………………. 4-173 “Gu Chao Fa ( > )” the ruler and member in family relic mausoleum..…….. 226 4-174 Architectural form of traditional vernacular house…………………………………… 227 4-175 “Ho Hong Khum ( )”………………………………………………………….. 228 4-176 Immigration office………………………………………………………………………... 228 4-177 Noi Yee Hotel…………………………………………………………………………….. 228 4-178 House and environment………………………………………………………………… 229 4-179 Front and side view elevation of mud house that found in Historic town of Keng Tung……………………………………………………………………………………….. 230 4-180 Mud house in the historic town of Keng Tung the new married family before they have enough resources. Then they will build the new house made of hard wood……………………………………………………………………………………... 230 4-181 Storage house made of the natural materials, bamboo is used as the skeleton of the building and straw is used as the wall material then is coated with clay… 231
4-182 Two – storey house made of unbaked brick. In front of the house open space by cutting the slope and the area is used for making brick…………………...…… 231 4-183 Brick production must be done in the constructing house’s area. Various ages of people can help altogether………………………………………..………………… 232
4-184 Tiles foe roofing and the sculpture as the ornament of religious buildings are the household industry of Yang Goang Community ( )………………… 232
4-185 The map showing the vernacular houses related to green belt…………………… 234
4-186 Historic town of Keng Tung and its green belt………………………………………. 235 4-187 The stove is in the kitchen and then the gable is for stack ventilation………….. 236 4-188 According to the field studies on Dai Khoun houses which are over 80 years old, hipped gable which is very huge was used as it could cover all the building, and, moreover, hard wood was available. However, when hard wood becomes rare, roof structure must be on smaller pieces of hard wood, and then the roof structure is changed to be more complicated……………………………… 237 4-189 A house over 120 years old which is the example of traditional Dai Khoun house……………………………………………………………………………………… 238 4-190 A two storey house influenced by Western architecture, while its roof is still in traditional style…………………………………………………………………………. 238 4-191 Example of house on steep area whose land was partially removed then the 239 house was built and becomes a two–storey house with the entrance on the second floor……………………………………………………………………………….
T 4-192 Example of house in Pa Dang Gate quarter ( ) on the old axis of the city walls, reflecting the design which harmonizes the location………………. 239 4-193 Example of traditional Dai Khoun house which is over 70 years old, with adaptation for uses, such as the upper part separated into rooms, with changes at the front adjacent to the road as a shop, which then finally cause this house a three–storey house……………………………………………………………………. 240
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Chapter 1 Introduction
This thesis is a study of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture in Keng Tung, Shan State, Myanmar. The exploration and all relevant information were gathered so as to be helpful for the studies. Both the supportive and threatening factors to the cultural landscape and vernacular architecture of Keng Tung were identified along with the recommendations to prevent Keng Tung from the tide of globalization, including tourism, but develop in sustainable ways.
1. Origin of the study
Myanmar, with its internal political regimes, had been kept closed from the outside world .The country has been partially opened for a couple years, but it does not ensure that the country will be permanently opened. Therefore, it is necessary to study and prepare the documentation of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture before the country is closed again or will be completely changed through the unplanned development.
2. Significance of the problem Cultural Landscape is a relationship between people and natural environment. It reveals the evolution of people and their cultural society from the settlement and development over time under the influence of the physical constraints and opportunities. The influence is presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal1. People in the traditional time had simple technology, which could not extremely change their natural environment as in contemporary period. They culturally modified their landscape to make it appropriate for living. This makes local wisdom, belief, religion and other cultural entities specific to cultural landscape of particular culture. Contemporary globalization is transforming cultural landscapes to be apparently the same. It is also a threat to vernacular architecture through development, urbanization and tourism. The globalization is equiped with advanced technology, which creates an impact on cultural landscapes and vernacular architecture everywhere including the remote location like Keng Tung.
1 P.J. Fowler, “Cultural Landscape”, World Heritage Paper 6: World Heritage Cultural Landscapes 1992-2002. p. 21. 1 2
Therefore, it is critical to study cultural landscape and vernacular architecture in historic town of Keng Tung before the dramatic change from the development comes. This is also to ensure that the information and the documentation of the cultural landscape and the vernacular architecture are kept for future studies.
3. Statement of objectives The dissertation aims to study, to prepare documentation and mapping the cultural landscape and some examples of vernacular architecture in Keng Tung in order to understand the linkage between people and their environment, or in another hand to study architecture through cultural landscape and living. The understanding and the interpretation of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture in historic town of Keng Tung including its values and meanings are the extension of knowledge in the settlement and development of traditional society in Southeast Asia, particularly cities with the impact of the globalization such as Chiang Mai. The outcome will help enhance the understanding of cultural landscape, the settlement and the social development of Keng Tung through time. In most cases, understanding of the past are from historical document, stone inscription and secondary document; but this study provides an interpretation from the empirical evidence from landscape and vernacular architecture through field studies and interview.
4. Conceptual frame work
- Understanding of cultural landscape can help us interpret the relationship between culture and nature with the traditional ways of living, local wisdom and belief that helps us understand intangible values and the way people, events and place intact through time. - It will foster a visualization of similar landscape with similar physical geography, ethnic groups, period of settlement, technology and beliefs.
5. Scope of study Study boundary is the entire area of “the historic town of Keng Tung and its vicinity”, however, the researcher focused on the study of city area and some examples from distinctive communities. This research conducted a study on documents regarding Keng Tung in history, geography, and ethnic ecology including to physical survey of inner urban areas and neighborhoods which are linked with various contexts. The contents are categorized as the followings.
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- The case studies of interesting villages near the downtown can show initial settlement of population prior to urbanize it. Additionally cultivated area, irrigation system, religious places and et al are considered parts of it. - The archeological sites, the eye-witness evidences of historic Keng Tung, relate to historic documentation. For example, sites of temples, swamps, religious places moats and rampart. - The case studies included the communities settling in the historic town of Keng Tung inside and outside the city walls. These community cases must have the appearance of settlement of population in this historic city from the past to the present. The followings are chosen communities: “Wan Chom Kham Village ( )” was decided as the representative of the ancient community coincided with the history of settlement in the historic town of Keng Tung. Still, it retains its traditional urban planning., “Wan Chom Mai Village ( ` )”, this community has been settled latterly (100 years of age) but it has traditional village planning, “Wan Klang Na Long Viallage ( )” , this village is the case study of the inhabitants who have created new village planning and settlement in Grid pattern, “Wan Chiang Lek Mai Village ( T = ` )” , this village has a new settlement and the government sector has constructed new village planning in Grid pattern. In adition, other case studies involved trade areas, markets and religious places. - The significant vista of the city is attributed to a part of the historic town of Keng Tung’s cultural landscape such as landmarks and main axis of the city.
- The case studies of the vernacular architecture which are able to identify the quality of vernacular architecture of historic town of Keng Tung indicated in its form, material, utilities, surrounding assimilation, alteration, and influential variables on alteration. All data waa collected from the chosen communities. - The worthwhile architectural cases consisting of esthetic value and historic value were to demonstrate urban architectural development of Keng Tung, including the architecture which was influenced by the West.
6. Research question 1. How is the cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung ? Does it still connect with environmental studies or topography? 2. How is the appearance of vernacular architecture in Keng Tung? Is there any linkage with cultural landscape of Keng Tung? By considering the uniqueness of vernacular architecture which was found, can it be considered being a part of cultural landscape? 3. What are the characteristics of vernacular architecture in Keng Tung? Are they connected to cultural landscape? Can such characteristics be the component of cultural landscape in the historic town of Keng Tung?
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4. What are the supportive and threatening factors leading the cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung to last or end up? What are strategies for the conservation and development?
7. Research methodology 7.1 Documentary research 7.2 Fieldworks The fieldworks are divided as follows: Cultural landscape fieldwork Cultural landscape in rural area consists of communities located far from the town center. The communities are categorized into two groups, which are: Cultural landscape of rural areas covers Wan Mao Village ( ), Wan Nong Or Village ( ), Wan Den
Chang ( ), Wan Lao ( ) which extends from 2 the study of Ornsiri Panin and others . Cultural landscape of rural areas covers Wan Jom Kham ( ), Wan Jom Mai ( ` ), Wan Klang Na Long Village ( ), Wan Chiang Lek Mai (
T = ` ).
Cultural landscape in urban area, which consists the communities within and around the city wall of Keng Tung. Vernacular architecture fieldwork, emphasized on form, scale and material. It, however, does not involve in residence and invisible architecture such as plan and section, unless buildings which have influential areas on designing and architectural creating.
7.3 Mapping Fieldworks are also to make overall image map of the historic Keng Tung with the following points: The location of water bodies resources; both natural and invented ones. The transportation route The location of villages; in both the city and suburbs
2 “Local Wisdom Development and Relationship between the Vernacular Gouses if Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Keng Tung”, by Professor Ornsiri Panin and research team.
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The ruin of moat and rampart of the city The sacred places such as temples, churches, musjids, shrines, and sacred trees The vernacular architecture in rural and urban contexts such as houses, row- houses, shop-houses and government buildings The utility forest shrub 7.4 Data analysis and conclusion 8. Dissertation overview 8.1 chapter 1: Introduction 8.2 Chapter 2: The concept of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture 8.3 Chapter 3: Introduction to the historic town of Keng Tung 8.4 Chapter 4: Cultural landscape and vernacular architecture in the historic town of Keng Tung
8.5 Chapter 5: Conclusion
Chapter 2 The concept of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture
Historical background of cultural landscape’s concept Word of “cultural landscape” divvied from two words, which are “culture” and “landscape”, their are so many definitions of cultural landscape given by sevaral institues and organizations. Firstly the researcher would like to give the explanation about the word“culture”. It was 1 derived from Latin, that is “cultura” stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance. Cultures can be "understood as systems of symbols and meanings that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another".2
Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population those are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire society". As such, it includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, norms of behavior such as law and morality, and systems of belief as well as the art. The word “land” has it roots in the Middle Ages and is possible earlier in Old Saxon and denotes a geographical unit. Word “scape” is a variant spelling of “shape” which means to modify, create. Hence, “landscape” is “a land which was shaped by human being who settle down in that area”. The term “Landscape” has evolved and different disciplines such as geography, architecture, landscape architecture, history, art history, anthropology etc. The term landscape can also be topography of a region, terrain which people inhabit, a piece of land overseen from a vantage point, a mapped object, art work, an experience and/or a representation, space transformed into place by human intervention, relation between place and something . The term of “landscape” as the scenery was used under the gaze of King James I
1 Harper, Douglas (2001). Online Etymology Dictionary (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=culture) 2 Findley, Carther Vaughn and John Alexander Rothney (2006). Twentieth-century World. Sixth edition, p. 14. 6 7 in London with stage design for drama production. After that was applied to the physical design of landscape.3 The origin idea of Cultural Landscape given by German historians and French geographers in the mid/later 19th century. “Cultural landscape” as a term was apparently invented in academia in the earlier 20th century. The term, and a particular idea it embraced, were promoted by Professor Carl Sauer and the Berkeley School of human geographers in the USA in the 1920s and 30s. It only came into accepted professional use in conservation circles in the 1990s and, though its use is now more widespread e.g. by politicians, it remains in general an uncommon term for an opaque concept.4 The European Landscape Convention (ELC), the first international agreement to focus exclusively on the topic, defines it as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”5 In this, and also given the definition of landscape it arises from the interaction of people with their environment over time6. Adrian Phillips gave the explanation of landscape and also used the diagram showing the idea in “Management Guidelines for IUCN Category V Protected Areas Protected
Landscapes/Seascapes”, that it is much more than scenery, or even a set of purely physical attributes: the visual aspect of landscape is only the outward face of complex human/nature interactions. Also, landscape often has important associative and spiritual values to communities in many parts of the world. Compared therefore to the thinking behind the establishment and management of many protected areas, where the emphasis is on protecting what is seen as “natural”, the protection of landscape puts people at the heart of the operation7. The relationship will be shown in the following diagram.
3 Tuan, Y. 2002, “Foreword “ in K Olwig (ed.) Landscape, nature and the body politic: from Britain’s renaissance to America’s new’s world, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. xi-xx. 4 Aitchison J. 1995, ‘Cultural landscapes in Europe: a geographical perspective’, in von Droste et al., 272-88. 5 Council of Europe, 2000. European Landscape Convention. Council of Europe, Strasbourg, France. 6 Lennon J. (ed.), (in print). Management Guidelines for World Heritage Cultural Landscapes. UNESCO, Paris, France. 7 Adrian Phillips, 2002, Management Guidelines for IUCN Category V Protected Areas Protected Landscapes/Seascapes, Cardiff: IUCN – The World Conservation Union.
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Figure 2-1: From: Adrian Phillips, 2002, Management Guidelines for IUCN Category V Protected Areas Protected Landscapes/Seascapes, Cardiff: IUCN – The World Conservation Union. p. 5.
The World Heritage Committee has now over the last decade been a pioneer in applying in a practical way such an intellectual concept within the template of its own global remit. In continuing to do so – and it is most important that it does. It is also important that it keeps in touch with the academic milieu from which it has borrowed the concept, informing the academy of its experience while being alert to inevitable, research-led changes there in the idea of “cultural landscape” itself.
Definition of cultural landscape Cultural landscape is a physical area with natural features modified by human activity resulting in pattern of evidence layers in th landscape. These layers give a place its distinctive spatial, historical, aesthetic, symbolic and memorable character. For the definition of cultural landscape, there are many experts and institutions that related to this field have given. The key element of cultural landscape key issues are “culture”, “nature” and “landscape” . All definitions emphasize the interaction of people with their environment over time and the presence of cultural values in the landscape. “Cultural landscapes represent the ‘combined works of nature and man’ designated in Article 1 of the World Heritage Convention. They are ‘illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal. They should be selected on the basis both of their outstanding universal value and of their
9 representatively in terms of a clearly defined geo-cultural region and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements of such regions” 8 and The term “cultural landscape” embraces a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment.” 9 All definitions hereafter are from the article of cultural landscapes in Europe: a geographical perspective written by Aitchison, in 199510 unless otherwise stated. Sauer’s definition is that “The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the natural area the medium, the cultural landscape the result”11 More prosaic was a definition by Wagner and Mikesell is “cultural landscape is a concrete and characteristic product of the interplay between a given human community, embodying certain cultural preferences and potentials, and a particular set of natural circumstances. It is a heritage of many eras of natural evolution and of many generations of human effort”12 Over the following decade cultural landscape began to establish itself as academically respectable again, exemplified by the influential volume, The Cultural Landscape: Past, 13 Present and Future. It needed to embrace man-influenced landscapes as well as natural landscapes and man-made structures. Nevertheless, informed opinion was changing and becoming more influential, and it was in keeping with that trend that the Centre assembled international experts at La Petite Pierre in Alsace, in October 1992, to redraft the Operational Guidelines so as to include cultural landscapes within the ambit of World Heritage. Recognising that a definition of cultural landscapes should be applicable to all cultures of the world, the definition is that “cultural landscapes are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities
8 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1999. Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Paris, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 9 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1999. Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Paris, UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 10 Aitchison, J. 1995. Cultural landscapes in Europe: a geographical perspective. In: B. von Droste et al. (eds.), Cultural Landscapes of Universal Value. Components of a Global Strategy, pp. 272–88. Jena, Fischer Verlag. 11 Sauer, C. O. 1925. The morphology of landscape. University of California Publications in Geography, Vol. 2.2, pp. 19–53. 12 Wagner P.L. and Mikesell M.W. (eds.) 1962, Readings in Cultural Geography, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 13 Birks H.H. et al. (eds) 1988, The Cultural Landscape: Past, Present and Future Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10 presented by their natural environment, and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal. They should be selected [for World Heritage status] on the basis both of their outstanding universal value and of their representativity in terms of a clearly defined geographical region, and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements of such regions”14 Many other definitions have been suggested over the last decade in different cultural contexts, notably in the series of regional expert meetings on the topic provides its own modern definition of a particular sort of cultural landscape, one extremely relevant to World Heritage in subject and close to the spirit of World Heritage itself is that “an Aboriginal cultural landscape is a place valued by an Aboriginal group (or groups) because of their long and complex relationship with that land. It expresses their unity with the natural and spiritual environment. It embodies their traditional knowledge of spirits places, land uses, and ecology”15
The United States National Park Service
The United State National Park is the national agency who has the task to conserve natural heritage and also promote that natural heritage as a tourism resources. As well as has been a leader to set out criteria for identifying and defining cultural landscape. The definition of cultural landscape is that “a geographic are, including both cultural and natural resources and the wildlife or domestic animals therein, associated with a historic event, activity, or person or exhibiting other cultural or aesthetic values”16
The Cultural Landscape Foundation The Cultural Landscape Foundation is the only non-profit foundation in America dedicated to increasing the public’s awareness of the importance and irreplaceable legacy of cultural landscapes. Through education, technical assistance, and outreach, the Cultural Landscape Foundation broadens the support and understanding for cultural landscapes nationwide in hopes of saving our priceless heritage for future generations. it also provides the idea and definition of cultural landscape which is that “A cultural landscape is a geographic area that includes cultural and natural resources associated with an historic event, activity, person, or group of people. Cultural
14 WHC-92/CONF.202/10/Add Revision of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention: Report of the Expert Group on Cultural Landscapes (La Petite Pierre, France, 24–26 October 1992) 15 Parks CANADA. 2000. An Approach to Aboriginal Cultural Landscapes. http://parkscanada.pch.gc.ca/aborig /sitemap_e.htm 16 National Park Service – Cultural Resource Management Guidelines 1997, Bulletin, Vol. 28, p. 88.
11 landscapes can range from thousands of acres of rural land to homesteads with small front yards. They can be man-made expressions of visual and spatial relationships that include grand estates, farmlands, public gardens and parks, college campuses, cemeteries, scenic highways, and industrial sites. Cultural landscapes are works of art, texts and narratives of cultures, and expressions of regional identity. They also exist in relationship to their ecological contexts”17
The Australian Heritage Commission The Australia Heritage Commission is a national agency charged with a national perspective to protect natural and cultural of Australian’s heritage and its list of places of cultural significance known as the Register of the National Estate concentrated on sites, buildings and natural areas. The concept of cultural landscape was adopted from the Australia ICOMOS in late 1970s. The concept of “place” links natural heritage and cultural values and is also described in the Burra Charter. The definition of cultural landscape defined by the Australian Heritage Commission is that “The term cultural landscape is applied to areas of landscape including landscapes where natural features have special meanings to people such as traditional Aboriginal Australian landscape, to highly modified or developed landscapes. 18 That land may continuing use or may be a collection of extant remains”
Heritage Victoria
Heritage Victoria is the Victorian State Government’s principle cultural (non-Indigenous) heritage agency and it is part of the Department of Planning and Community Development. The definition of cultural landscape is that “Cultural landscape or culturally significant landscape is a geographical area that reflects the interaction between human and the natural environment while all landscapes show a human-environment interaction. Heritage Victoria assesses only those landscapes which are predominantly culturally significant for registration and/or protection purposes and which are also typically post-European settlement places”19
17 http://www.tclf.org/whatis.htm 18 Australian Heritage Commission 200, June. 19 http:/heritage.vic.gov.au/Heritage_Landscapes/
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The World Heritage Convention20 The concept of World Heritage Committee was expressed in the 1972 UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The main idea is to ensure the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of the cultural and natural heritage of “outstanding universal value”. The six crucial cultural criteria for World Heritage inscription, here abbreviated, are that a nominated property need to be one or more of the followings: (i) a masterpiece of human creative genius; (ii) an important interchange of human value, over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental arts, town- planning or landscape design; (iii) a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or civilization, living or disappeared; (iv) an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which – a key, and much misunderstood phrase, this – illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history; (v) an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement or land-use, representative of a culture (or cultures), especially when under threat; and (vi) be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance.
Cultural landscape’s categories The United States National Park Service The United States National Park Service set up four general types of cultural landscape as: 1. Historic Site: a landscape significant for its association with a historic event, activity or person. 2. Historic Designed Landscape: a landscape that was consciously designed or laid out by a landscape gardener, architect, engineer or horticulturalist according to design principles, or an amateur gardener working in a recognized style or tradition. The landscape may be associated with a significant person, trend or event in landscape architecture; or illustrate an important development in the theory and practice of landscape architecture. Aesthetic values play a significant role in designed landscapes.
20 P.J.Fowler. World Heritage Papers 6. Paris: UNESCO. 2003. pp. 15-16.
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3. Historic Vernacular Landscape: a landscape that evolved through uses by people whose activities or occupancy shared it. Through social or cultural attitudes of an individual, a family, or a community, the landscape reflects the physical, biological, and cultural characters of everyday lives. Function plays a significant role in vernacular landscape. This can be a farm complex or a district of historic farmsteads along a river valley – rural historic districts or agricultural landscapes.
4. Ethnographic landscape: a landscape containing a variety if natural and cultural resources that associated people define as heritage resources – contemporary settlements, sacred religious sites, massive geological structures with small plant communities, animals, subsistence and ceremonial grounds as components.
The Australian Heritage Commission The Australian Heritage Commission was set up the types of cultural landscape into:
1. associative landscape including landscape of religious meaning; 2. landscape which reflect cultural processes which are still active; 3. places related to a single historic activity or period; 4. places which represent layers of history;
5. places which demonstrate the dependence of historic activities on natural systems;
6. linear landscape; 7. thematically linked places within a landscape; and 8. places representing multiple themes / multiple values.
The World Heritage Committee of UNESCO The operational Guidelines for World Heritage Properties contain the following definitions:21 1. Cultural landscapes are cultural properties and represent the “combined works of nature and man” designated in Article 1 of the Convention. They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and / or opportunities presented by the natural environment and of successive social, economic, and cultural forces, both external and internal.
21 Operation Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, 2 Feb 2005 (WHC.05/2); Annex 3. (http://whc.unesco.org/archive/opguide05-en.pdf)
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2. They should be selected in the basis both if their outstanding universal value and of their representatively in terms of a clearly defined geo-cultural region and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements of such regions. 3. The term “cultural landscape” embraces a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment.
4. Cultural landscapes often reflect specific techniques of sustainable land-use, considering the characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature. Protection of cultural landscape can contribute to modern techniques of sustainable land-use and can maintain or enhance natural values in the landscape. The continued existence if a traditional form of land-use supports biological diversity in many regions of the world. The protection of traditional cultural landscape is therefore helpful in maintaining biological diversity. 5. Cultural landscape falls into three main categories, namely:
i. The most easily identifiable is the clearly defined landscape designed and created intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes constructed for aesthetic reasons which are often (but not always) associated with religious or other
monumental buildings and ensembles. ii. The second category is organically evolved landscape. This
results from an initial social, economic, administrative, and / or
religious imperative and has developed its present from by association with and in response to its natural environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their from and component features. They fall into two sub-categories: 1. a relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, ether abruptly or over a period. Its significant distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form. 2. a continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress. At the same time
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it exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution over time. iii. The final category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscape on the World Heritage List is justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element rather than material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent.
The concept of “cultural Landscapes” as World Heritage sites Although the Convention brought together natural and cultural places into one framework, initially there was no mechanism for recognizing that many sites, to varying degrees, illustrated not just a combination of features but an interplay between cultural and natural influences. Some such, by virtue of the exceptional results of that interplay, were of ‘outstanding universal value’. In 1992 the cultural criteria were therefore slightly but significantly revised to include ‘cultural landscapes’ in an amendment to the Operational Guidelines for the 22 Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. The three categories of World Heritage cultural landscapes adopted in 1992 and defined in Paragraph 39 of the Operational Guidelines (1999) are:
Categories of World Heritage Cultural Landscape Cultural Landscape Definition
Category Category 1 A clearly defined landscape is one designed and created intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes characteristically constructed for aesthetic, social and recreational reasons which are often (but not always) associated with religious or other monumental buildings and ensembles
Category 2 An organically evolved landscape results from an initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative and has developed its present form by association with and in response to its natural environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their form and component features. They fall into two sub-categories (labeled a and b respectively for the purposes of this review):
22 UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1999. Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention. Paris, UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
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2.1 A relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, either abruptly or over a period. Its significant distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form. 2.2 A continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with a traditional way of life. It is continuing to evolve while, at the same time, it exhibits significant material evidence of its historic evolution Category 3 An associative cultural landscape is a landscape with definable powerful, religious, artistic or cultural associations with the natural element rather than material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent.
The study of Cultural landscape in Thailand
In 2002, Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand launched the new program, an international program in Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism in cooperation with universities and scholars from Australia, France and the United States. This international program focuses on the common links between tourism and heritage protection.
Featuring international and Thai lecturers, and intensive case studies, the program exposes students to a wide range of issues and practices in architectural conservation, cultural resource management and tourism. It offers professional training in these fast growing and closely related fields. This is the first program in Thailand provided the course of cultural landscape, taught by Professor Ken Taylor. He is an expert on the field of cultural landscape and also landscape architecture. In the same year, the Ministry of Culture setup as a new organization to maintain and conserve the national tradition and heritage both the tangible and intangible cultural heritage. In 2003, the Office of Environment Policy and Planning, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and Danish Government. Published in 2003 of the Draft Cultural Environment Conservation System (CECS), and the word “environment” was used instead of “landscape”. The underlying purpose of the study was to focus attention on giving priority to the value of an area rather than any individual assets. Conservation in CECS mean preserving living environment whilst ensuring development that takes place respects values – tangible and intangible – created by ancestors and the traditional way of life. Conservation should be holistic and inclusive, covering traditional way of life, local belief and indigenous knowledge, or in short
17 the “local ecosystem”. This is cultural landscape study by any other name, but confronts the question of terminology.23 In 2007, the Office of National Culture Commission, in the Ministry of Culture was set up new task. It was “cultural landscape Project”. and invited the faculty of Architecture to publish “Management Guideline for Cultural Landscape ( )”. In 2008, Kreangkrai Kirdsiri, and Usakane publishing house published a book, “Community and Their Cultural Landscape ( )”. This book gives the explanation of cultural landscape and also defines and categorizes the cultural landscape which is more suitable for Thai cultural landscape as following: “The cultural landscape is the built environment from the human behavior in each area for the sustainable living in their natural environment. However human being have many limitations in terms of technology, resources and also sometimes make people unable change their environment as they want. And the natural limitation also limited the environmental change by human being.”24 The categories of cultural landscape in this book are separated into three types as follows:
1. the rural cultural landscape 2. the semi urban cultural landscape 3. the urban cultural landscape The different of these two books is the focus group and implementation of this idea.
The first one, “Management Guideline for Cultural Landscape ( )” was produced in cooperation with the Office of the National Culture Commission,
Ministry of Culture and Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University. It is demonstrates the ideas and also the guidelines following the government’s perspectives. The second one, “Community and Their Cultural Landscape ( )” gives various ideas of cultural landscape and the several case studies that local communities can apply as suitable ways to manage their cultural landscape and cultural resources.
23 Ken Taylor. Cutural Landscapes and Asia: Reconciling International and Southeast Asian Reginal Values. Landscape Research. 2009. 24 Kreangkrai Kirdsiri. Community and Their Cultural Landscape ( ). Bangkok: Usakane Publishing. p. 20.
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Figure 2-1:“Management Guideline for cultural landscape ( )” (Left), “community and their cultural landscape ( )” (Right)
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Definition of vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture is a term used to categorize a method of construction which uses locally available resources to address local needs. It tends to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural and historical context in which it exists. It has often been dismissed as crude and unrefined, but also has proponents who highlight its importance in current design. In contrast to planned architecture by architects the building knowledge in vernacular architecture is often transported by local traditions and is thus more but not only based on knowledge achieved by trial and error and often handed down through the generations rather than calculated on knowledge of geometry and physics. This of course does not exclude architects from using vernacular architecture in their designs or being firmly based in their regional vernacular architecture. For the similarities to "traditional architecture"25 The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the world defines vernacular architecture as: “comprising the dwellings and all other buildings of the people. Related to their environmental contexts and available resources they are customarily owner- or community-built, utilizing traditional technologies. All forms of vernacular architecture are built to meet specific needs, accommodating the values, economies and ways of life of the cultures that produce them.”26 Henry Glassie mentioned the study of vernacular architecture is a way that we expand the record, bit by bit. At works, moving toward a complete view’s of the builder’s arts, we bring 27 buildings into scrutiny and toward utility in the comprehensive study of humankind. The ICOMOS CIAV mention to the values of vernacular architecture that “the built vernacular heritage occupies a central place in the affection and pride of all peoples. It has been accepted as a characteristic and attractive product of society. It appears informal, but nevertheless orderly. It is utilitarian and at the same time possesses interest and beauty. It is a focus of contemporary life and at the same time a record of the history of society. Although it is the work of man it is also the creation of time. It would be unworthy of the heritage of man if care were not taken to conserve these traditional harmonies which constitute the core of man's own existence” The built vernacular heritage is important; it is the fundamental expression of the culture of a community, of its relationship with its territory and, at the same time, the expression of the world's cultural diversity.
25 http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Vernacular-architecture. 26 Oliver, Paul (ed). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World 1. 27 Henry Glassie. 2000. Vernacular Architecture. Indiana University Press. p. 20.
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Vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by communities who house themselves. It is a continuing process including necessary changes and continuous adaptation as a response to social and environmental constraints. The survival of this tradition is threatened world-wide by the forces of economic, cultural and architectural homogenization. How these forces can be met is a fundamental problem that must be addressed by communities and also by governments, planners, architects, conservationists and by a multidisciplinary group of specialists. Due to the homogenization of culture and of global socio-economic transformation, vernacular structures all around the world are extremely vulnerable, facing serious problems of obsolescence, internal equilibrium and integration. It is necessary, therefore, in addition to the Venice Charter, to establish principles for the care and protection of our built vernacular heritage.
Examples of the vernacular may be recognized by: 1. a manner of building shared by the community;
2. a recognizable local or regional character responsive to the environment; 3. coherence of style, form and appearance, or the use of traditionally established building types; 4. traditional expertise in design and construction which is transmitted informally;
5. an effective response to functional, social and environmental constraints; 6. the effective application of traditional construction systems and crafts.
The study of vernacular architcture in Thailand In 2004, Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand developed the new program in Vernacular Architecture studies. This program focuses on the links between architecture and its environment. There are two scholars form Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University and King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang who have done many researches and books related to the vernacular architecture for more than 30 years. There are numerous students graduated and become lecturer in several universities expand the idea of vernacular architecture to undergraduate students. Emeritus Professor Ornsiri Panin explained vernacular architecture as “the architecture of villagers, which derived from daily living and the ecology in each area, has been constructed by villagers and conveyed systematic approaches by ancestors to descendants and used building-materials that could be found in local areas. Considering the structure of architecture, it had not been built punctiliously, but reflected the
21 architectural development arisen gradually including reflected the utilization of local intelligence to blend with architectural construction”.28 Associate Professor Wiwat Temeeyapan defined vernacular architecture as “a model of building which villagers constructed in each area; limited of row-house buildings or houses. Most models of villagers’ houses in each area have forms, scales, materials and construction techniques are alike. The cause is that each building is not individual designation of architect, but such designation has social mutuality in each society. Hence, the villagers’ houses in each region can be the identification of cultural phenomenon and social esthete in each society”.29 Associate Professor Wiwat Temeeyapan cited the methods of studying vernacular architecture and architectural heritage that vernacular architecture must be studied as systmatic methodology and its process has the objective to identify the value of vernacular architecture. Such value varies in aspects and meanings such as the value of architectural designation directly; the obtained knowledge can be enabled to apply for contemporary architectural designation, the value of unique culture about residence in each area’s subculture people and provinces, and the value of reflection of communities’ condition, etc.
Aside from the objectives of study about the value, there are other objectives, for example, the study of evolution procedures of vernacular buildings, the study of applying methods for contemporary period, the study of the relationship between form and ethnology, the study of cultural heritage conservation in each local area, etc.
In “The Vernacular Houses in Western Region of Thailand Thailand ( = )” by Associate Professor Wira Inpantang, there are the qualification of vernacular architecture which is typically sorted into the following nine characteristics: 1. The orientation of building which has to be compatible with wind and light direction; 2. The layout which has trees that help to maintain environmental temperature lower than other areas; 3. The layout which has a pool that its temperature is lower than other areas because of the evaporation of water; 4. Using materials revealed to natural light which have ventilation and enable people to live in residence properly; 5. Using appropriate materials as an insulator and to let the temperature inside a building lower than outside; 6. Using appropriate technology with the reduction of consuming energetic resource; 7. Using convenience system which are easily transferable and reuse.;
28 Ornsiri Panin, Ruen Puen Thin Thai-Tai. 2007. 3-4. 29 Wiwat Temeeyapan. the journal of Siamese Architect. 1998.
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8. Choosing model of building related to ecology of environment; and 9. Choosing the way of life taking advantage of environment at a minimum, consume energy at a minimum, and make the environmental pollution at a minimum. In addition, study of widthwise vernacular architecture with the methods by R.W. Brun Skill in Vernacular Architecture can be concluded as follows;. 1. Vernacular architecture can be categorized of three types. 1.1 domestic Architecture; 1.2 agricultural architecture of such as rice barn, corral, farm shed etc; and 1.3 industrial vernacular such as a rice-mill, wind wheel barn, crockery factory, smithy; etc. 2. To study survey local areas of vernacular architecture with geographic environment, climate and geology. 3. To study details and materials of buildings’ structure and construction methods. The structure of buildings can be distinguished into following main types: 3.1 wall: construction and materials; 3.2 roof: roof form, construction and materials;
3.3 plan and section; and 3.4 architecture details
Hence the definition of “vernacular architecture” for this study is that “vernacular architecture is constructed on particular areas whose main objectives are to respond to a request of usability and make happy ways of life in such areas. These architectural constructions are base on a variety of conditions and constraints found within the areas, therefore, vernacular architecture share some meanings to the concept of cultural landscape.”
Chapter 3 Introduction to the historic town of Keng Tung
Introduction to Myanmar Geography and location The Union of Myanmar which has been known by the Thais as “Burma”, is one of the countries in the South East Asia, with its long shape from north to south, with has a total area of 678,500 square kilometers (261,970 sq. mile). It is the largest country in mainland of South East Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world. It is located between Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and Assam, Nagaland and Manipur of India. It shares its longest borders with Tibet and Yunnan of China to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Burma has 1,930 km (1,199 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south.1 The country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (200 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (100 in), while the average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than 1,000 mm (40 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 °C (90 °F).
1 The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-01-13., 23 24
Figure 3-1: The map showing the topography of Myanmar and its relative location.
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In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountain ranges form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma. Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[18] The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the Ayeyarwady, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittang rivers. The Ayeyarwady River, Burma's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. The Irrawaddy Delta, which is approximately 50,400 km2 (19,500 sq mi) in area, is largely used for rice cultivation.2 Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain ranges.3 The majority of Burma's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Burmese Administration There are two type of Burmese ministration, which are “Division” called in Burman is “Yin” and “State” called in Burman as “Pyine” The country is divided into seven states and seven divisions.4 Divisions are predominantly Bamar. States, in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages. “Division” is for the area of “Ayeyarwady River” (or Irrawady River in Thai) including Yangoon, Bago, Ayeyarwady and Mandalay whose main population are the Burmese. There are seven Divisions as follows: Ayeyarwady Division, Bago Division, Magway Division, Mandalay Division, Sagaing Division, Tanintharyi Division and Yangon Division
“State” is for the area of type of ethnicity. There are seven States as follows: Chin State, Kachin State, Kayin (Karen) State, Kayah (Karenni) State, Mon State, Rakhine (Arakan) State, Shan State.
2 Thein, Myat (2005). Economic Development of Myanmar. 3 Than, Mya (2005). Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience. 4 Administrative divisions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (2006-06-29). Retrieved on 2006-07-09.
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Administrative organization This table is shows the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village groups and villages in Burma as of December 31, 20015 Village No. State/Division District Township City/Town Wards Villages Groups 1 Kachin State 3 18 20 116 606 2630 2 Kayah State 2 7 7 29 79 624 3 Kayin State 3 7 10 46 376 2092 4 Chin State 2 9 9 29 475 1355 5 Sagaing Division 8 37 37 171 1769 6095 Taninthayi 6 3 10 10 63 265 1255 Division
7 Bago Division 4 28 33 246 1424 6498 8 Magway Division 5 25 26 160 1543 4774
Mandalay 9 7 31 29 259 1611 5472 Division
10 Mon State 2 10 11 69 381 1199
11 Rakhine State 4 17 17 120 1041 3871 12 Yangon Division 4 45 20 685 634 2119
13 Shan State 11 54 54 336 1626 15513 Ayeyawady 14 5 26 29 219 1912 11651 Division Total 63 324 312 2548 13742 65148
5 List of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Union of Myanmar published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Union of Myanmar on December 31, 2001
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Introduction to Shan State “Shan State” is a large administrative division of Myanmar occurpies area of 60,000 square mile6, Its name was from the Shan people, one of several ethnic groups that inhabit the area. It is the largest of the 14 administrative divisions. Shan State is largely rural, with only three cities of significant size: Lashio, Keng Tung, and the capital, Taunggyi. Most of the Shan State is a hilly plateau; there are higher mountains in the north and south. The gorge of the Salween (Thanlwin) River cuts across the state. The plateaus and mountain ranges are in Shan state. Most of the are are about 3,000- 6,000 feet above mean sea level. Shan state is seperated by the Salwin River, with Tongyi City as the main city on the west and Keng Tung city as the main city on the east. Shan State is traditionally divided into three sub-states: North Shan State, East Shan State, and South Shan State. It is also officially divided into 11 districts as follows: Keng Tung (also spelled Keng Tong, Kyaingdon, Ken Tung and Chiang Tung), Kunlong (also spelled Kunlon), Kyaukme, Lashio (also spelled Lasho), Laukkaing, Loilen (also spelled Loi-lem, Loi- leng), Mong Hpayak (also spelled Maingbyat), Mong Hsat (also spelled Muang Sat, Maingsat),
Mu Se (also spelled Mu-se), Tachileik (also spelled Tachilek, Tha Chi Lek, Tha Chaleak), Taunggyi (also spelled Taunggye). Shan State borders China to the north, Laos to the east, and Thailand to the south. It also shares borders with five administrative divisions of Myanmar. Shan State covers 155,800 km², almost a quarter of the total area of Myanmar. The road to Taunggyi via Kalaw and Aungban branches off at Thazi from the main Yangon-Mandalay Road; another road via Ywa Ngan and Pindaya branches off from Kyaukse south of Mandalay. The railhead stops short of Taunggyi at Shwenyaung, again from Thazi junction, and nearby Heho which has an airport. There is an important road form Tauangyi direct to the east, crossing the Salwin River to Keng Tung. Keng Tung plays an important role as commercial junction of Eastern Shan trade route. Keng Tung can connect to many cities in the Mekong Sub Region such as Jin Hong, Tale ( T), Le Jieng ( T T ) (now in China), Chiang San ( T ), Chiang Rai ( T ), Chiang Mai ( T ` ) and Luang Prabang ( = )
6 Mathew Willer. “Chiang Tung: the heart of Shan State ( T : ` /( )”, Lai kon Yon Burma ( ), BKK: Asian Study, Chulalonkorn University, 2547. p. 52.
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Figure 3-2: The photo shows Taunggyi, the capital city of western Shan State. The city is located in the valley. On every mountain peak located the temples. This photo was taken from the Sulamuni Pagoda, the sacred temple of the city
Figure 3-3 and 3-4: The photo shows the cultural landscape, unique architecture and the way of life in floating villages of Inta people.
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Demography The people of Shan State can be divided into six primary ethnic groups: the Shan or Tai-Dai, Pa-O, Intha, Taungyoe, Danu, and Palaung. The valleys and tableland are inhabited by the Shans, whose language and customs resemble the Thais, Dai, and the Lao. They are largely Buddhists and are mainly engaged in agriculture. Among the Shans live the Bamar, Chinese, and Karens. The hills are inhabited by various people, notably the Wa, who are numerous in the north and along the Chinese border. Lawa or Tai Doi, who are known as the owner of this area before Ta-Dai setting down. The Palaung People are numerous in the Northern Shan State, in Namkham, Muse, Nampaka, Kut Kai, and Lashio Townships along the Burma China Border and also in the middle of Shan State, in Namsarn, Kyat Mae and Thipal Townships. The population of the Palaung people is over one million. Some of the Palaung people in Kalaw and Aung Pan in the Southern Shan State. There is a dwindling population of Anglo-Burmese in major hill stations, such as Kalaw and in Taunggyi, a hold-over from the colonial period.
Table 1: The number of population in three main cities of Shan State Annual Census Population No. city growth Latitude Longitude 1983 2008 rate
1 Keng Tung 46,938 74,339 1.78 21.29°N 99.62°E
2 Lashio 88,590 140,232 1.78 22.95°N 97.74°E
3 Taunggyi 108,231 171,385 1.78 20.78°N 97.04°E
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People on the land of Keng Tung Southeast Asia contains a large number of groups of people. For people in Shan State, whose culture are different, they can be caategorized into Tai-Dai group, Burman group, and Ethnic or Hill Tribe groups. 1. Tai-Dai group Tai-Dais moved down from the southwest of China and the north of Vietnam. According to historical, ethnographical, and anthropological records, the oldest evidence of Tai-Dai settlement is 1450 years ago on the west of Sehuan7. Moreover, the expanding power of the Huns to the Southwest since 12th Century made the Tai-Dais move to the area of Shan, northen Laos, and Lanna. Tai-Dai people can be grouped by their settlement, that is the Dais are those who have settle along the west of the Mekong river to the Salwin River, and the north of the Irrawaddy River. The Tais are those who have settled along the east of the Mekong River.8 The Tai-Dai groups can also be categorized into six sub-groups9, as follows: - the western groups comprising Dai Ahom ( ), Dai Ai ton (
), Dai Pha Kae ( = ), Dai Kham Tee ( T), Dai Yai ( ` , ); - the southern groups comprising groups of the Tais in Thailand; - the central Mekong River groups comprising the Dais in the plains along the Mekong River from Burma to the north of Laos, who are Dai Nua
( ), Dai Lue ( ), Dai Khoun ( ), Dai Yuan ( );
- the central upland groups comprising Tai Dum ( ), Tai Dang ( ), Tai Khao ( ) , Tai Sum Nua ( * ), Tai Puan ( = ), Phu tai (; ), Tai Kaloeng ( ), Tai Yor ( ), Tai Saek ( ); - the eastern groups comprising the Tais in China and Vietnam, who are Tai Yoi ( ), Juang ( ), Tai Noong ( ), Tai Tow ( ); and - the Kadai groups comprising the Tais on Hai Nan Islands ( ) of China.
7 Hun Pent and Andrew Forbs. A Brief history of Lanna ( ( ). Chiang Mai: Silk worm, 2000. p. 78. 8 Srisak Valipodom and Sujit Vongstesa. Thai Noi Thai Yai Thai Sayam ( ` , ), Bangkok: Matichon, 1991. pp. 4-5. 9 F.M. Lebar et al. Ethnic Groups of Mainland Southeast Asia, 1964. refer in Siriporn Na ThaLang. Tai ethnic group in folklore ( ` 2 = ), BKK: Matichon, 2002. p. 3-7.
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To consider the settlement factor that the Dais are on the west of the Mekong River while the Tais are on the east of the Mekong River, it can be said that Shan State and northern Thailand contain the Dai cultural groups as the Dais are the majority. This cultural group is also found in Xixuangbanna of China. The Dai Khoun, Dai Yai and Dai Lue groups have had close relationship among themself both in Shan State and Lanna10. According to the record of William Couperus Mc.leof. the scotish ambassader at Masdas, India, it was found that he came to Keng Tung in 1836, via Maulmein to Chiang mai, Keng Tung and Jin Hong. He described that Keng Tung is a big city og about 600 villages and 3,000 -4,000 population who are mostly Dai Khoen, but not in a large number as many were found to go to Chiang Mai. They tried to persuade groups of people like Dai Lue; Dai Yai and Dai Nua to settle in the city11. Also, Chao Kawila the ruler of Lanna took a lot of people of neighbouring areas to Chiang Mai after chosing the Burmese, there was a lack of labour in some towns but caused a large variety of groups of people.
Dai Khoun The Dai Khoun have close relationship to the Tai Yuan in Lanna and Dai Yai in northern Shan State. This group is the main ethnic group of Keng Tung and the adjacent areas. This group has been called Dai Khoen due their location along the Khoen River. Which Thai peolple called them Dai Khoun In the “Tai Race Elder Brother of the Chinese”, wrtten by William Clifton Dodd, there was an information about Dai Khoun as “ The Dai Khoen and Dai Lue are so closely allied, both racially and geographically, one in language and religion, that they are commonly mentioned together; the Dai Khoen and Dai Lue. But there is a marked difference, both in their appearance and their characteristics. The Dai Khoen are taller and fairer thatn the Dai Lue”12
Dai Yai The Dai Yai or Dai Luang are found in many areas with many sub-groups. They live along the Salwin River, the Irrawaddy River, and the Bhrombutra River, however the biggest group is in Shan State, which is called by Burmese government as Dai Yai state, and the
10 Siraporn Na Thalang. “the myth of creator: case study from folklore ( : U H )”, Society and culture in Thailand ( ` ). BKK: Sirinthorn Antopology Centre, 2542. p.104. 11 McLeod, W.C. [T.E. MacLeod] ‘Abstract Journal of an Expedition to Kiang Hung on the Chinese Frontier, starting from Moulmein on the 13th December, 1836’, in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 72, pp. 989- 1022. 12 William Clifton Dodd. The Tai Race Elder Brothers of the Chinese. Bagkok: White Lotus. 1996. p. 200.
32 population is called by the Burmese and Shan the state centre is at Saen Wee town of Keng Tung while the Dai Yais are found both in and around the town.
Dai Lue The Dai Lues are in Xixuangbanna of Ching with Jin Hong as the centre. The Dai Lues also moved to Shan State, in the north of Keng Tung, as it is adjacent to Jin Hong, their centre.
In Keng Tung and the area nearby, there are people of different ethnic groups such as Lua, Ann, Akha, Yang, Ekor, etc. The Burmans are also found since Burma played significant role in this area 400 years ago.
Figure 3-5 and 3-6: Figure show the costume of the ladies of the Dai Khoun Court in Keng Tung. The left is Princess Tipseela taken by Maurice Collis, the Irish Government official form England in 1937.. The right figure taken when she was old. From: Jiranan Pitpreecha, The story of traveler in oriental. ( | U ). BKK: Sarakadee, 2000.
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Figure 3-7: People of Me Kong Valley and Tribal folk in Myanmar, Laos, and Yunnan Drawn by Louis Delaporteand FrancisGarnier, from Mekong Exploration Commission Report 1866-1868.
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Figure 3-8: Ethnic groups in Burmese territories
Drawn by Louis Delaporteand FrancisGarnier, from Mekong Exploration Commission Report 1866-1868
Figure 3-9: The village of Lawa known as Tai Loi ethnic group, Settled down on the high land in Keng Tung and Mong La
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Figure 3-10: The Palaung people who visit the Dai Lue Village during the temple ceremony. This photo was taken from Mong Ma, Shan State, Myanmar in 2007.
History of Keng Tung
Myth of Origin The early history of Keng Tung is like that of northern Thailand whose history is mostly the myth, in other words, the oral history was told, not literally written. “Chiang San Chronicle ( = T )” is the historical document which mentions the myth of Keng Tung that there were four anchorites who were the sons of “Praya Vong Tee Fang Bodhi Yan (=, T = , 2)”, namely Pasyuthep Ruesee, Sutanta Ruesee, Papana Ruesee and Jantasikkha Tunga Ruesee. They all left their hometown to study Dharma and make a pilgrimage. Also his father wanted them to look for good location for new cities. The first and second son soared into the air and stopped at Chiang Dao Mountain Peak, the present Chiang Dao District of Chiang Mai Province, the third and fourth son went along the south of the lake wich was an ideal land to establish the city. The third son placed his walking stick along the north, causing the gorge for water to be drained, then that area became the land. When the wet land become the land, the golden crab, introducing that and disguised himself as human being to worship Ruesee, the fourth son, introducing that he was the “sure
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( )” or “Pee Sure (;T )”13, the protector of the lake. He also said that when the city was established at the land which used to be the lake he protected, people of the city should offer him temples, vihara, and other sacrificed offerings so that they would live happily with prosperity. After that he moved to the cave to perform ineritorious acts while the Ruesee practiced Buddhist teaching on the mountain which then was called “Doi Tung ( )” derived from his name. In the following period, one commoner named “Kwan Dure ( )” led 300 people to settle in this area but did not provide any sacrificed offering, so they faced sufferings and famine and finally moved out However, one seed of a squash of his villager fell, so the guardian deity planted it. Three months later, the plant grew up. When it was 3 years 3 months old, it could expand and cover three mountain ranges and three streams with its fruit. When the fruit was 3 years 3 months old, it split and there were the Luas inside. Their skin was not bright as the root of the squash’s trunk had been in muddy water. Those Luas were believed to reside in Keng Tung since then. It can be assumed from the chronicle that Praya Vong Tee Fang Vodhi Yan governed “Wong City ( )” or “Vitheharaj City ( )”, which is “Jing Hong city ( 14 15 T )” of China at present . Four princes left the city to the south for Haripunjaya City (Now is Lampun Province) which was Buddhism centre, and established cities when they were on the way back to his hometown. The first and second prince, or Ruesee, the city where these were the lake. Even though water naturally flows from north to south, the steep zone of Keng
Tung was from the south to the north, then the forge must lead to the north, like the fourth prince did.
The Lua, the native of Keng Tung, are believed to be “Opatikka ( )” or human being who were born, but by the squash. Their language used is in Mon-Khmer group. Their settlement is generally found in the South East Asia. Their social development were more and more complex then could form the system of relatives and finally becomes the village where there is the head of community, and live their lives on agriculture. The defensive characteristic is reflected by the surrounded ramparts, or “Vieng ( T )” which means the walled city. This was mentioned in “Moung Young ( )” , that Vieng has been created since the late 18th Budist Era16 that the Luas could protect themselves from those who intruded.
13Sue ( ) is the supernatural in the local believe who protected the space and building. 14 Tawee Sawangpanyakul. The Myth of Keng Tung ( T ). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University, 1986. p. 8. 15 Arunrat Vichienkaew. “The story of Keng Tung, Moung Pyak and Moung Len ( T = )” Story of Keng Tung ( T ). Chiang Mai: Suriwong Book Centre. 1995. p 4. 16 Sawang Manazam. Yong migration ( ; ). BKK: Thamsart University. 2001, p. 6.
37
The settlement of Tai-Dai ethnic groups can be assumed that they migrated from Yunnan to Keng Tung, with some conflicts with the Luas who needed to leave to other areas far away from the city centre. This kind of incident also happened in the history of other cities, such as Jin Hong and Yong where the newcomers chased the old inhabitants17. However it was also found in some communities that the newcomers could live compatibly with the old residents and developed their society and culture to become a new city. The myth of old cities of Lanna can be grouped into themes: there was the anchorite who could indicate the ideal location for settlement, like the myth of Haripunjaya city, where the Lord Buddha used to visit, like the “Travel of Buddha” of Lanna. Both two themes of the myth reflect traditional belief and folklore. Then people accepted and adopted Buddhism precept to their local belief and then become appropriate religion for their communities.
The history of Keng Tung during the period of traditianal state
During the 17-18 Buddist Era, many cities of Tai-Dai groups had been established, hence there were numbers of myth such as the story of Khun Borom Raja Thiraj whose seven princes governed the nearby cities18, and the story of Lawajaka Raja who governed Ngen Yang Chiang San City and had his princes govern cities. However, the Lanna history has clearer picture during the reign of Phya Mang Rai
(=, ) the Great, who was the Royal Prince of Poe Khum Lao Mang (= = ) and Nang Thep Kham Kai ( = )19, the daughter of Phya Chiang Rung Kaew Chai Moung
(=, T ). When Phya Mang Rai was 16 years old, he established and governed Chiang Rai City. In 126120, he hunted the golden deer and found a great location for “ Luk Chang Hang Moung ( )” or the satellite town of Chiang Rai21.
17 Ibid. 18 Mahasila Veerawong. Lao Chronical form ancient period to1946. (= 5 ). Vientien: National Library Ministry of Public Relation and Culture, 2001. p. 157. 19 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid. p. 45. 20 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid. p. 52. in tawee Sawangpanyakul. Chronicle of Chiang Tung (= T ), Chiang Mai. 1990. p.33. said 1229 (=. . ). 21 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid. p. 52.
38
In 1262, Phya Mang Rai ostablished Keng Tung city on Jom Tung Mountain where Jantasikkha Tung Ruesee used to pay homage then that area became an auspicious location22. Khun Kong ( ) and Khun Lang ( ) were told to fight with the Luas there, but they were not successful. Then Mang Krum ( )and Mang Krian ( T ) who were also Lua, were assigned and could beat the Luas then Mang Krum governed Keng Tung city, followed by Mang Krian23 It was believed that Keng Tung was just a small town at that time with not much political power. That is why Phya Mang Rai assigned the Luas themselves as the governor of the town. Also this was one political policy that the Luas would welcome the governors who were also Lua.24 In addition, people in administrative position could marry local people as the system of relatives was important for the strength of community. Centralize administration form Chiang Mai was not very effective was important for the strength of community in remote area. System of relatives could help strengthen the relationship between local people and the governor. The expansion of Tai-Dai groups over native people and the establishment of Keng Tung City by Phaya Mang Rai needed to be accepted by both local communities and other 25 cities nearby which were mostly relative cities or partnership cities . The invaders surely caused insatisfaction to some Luas who needed to live in other areas or depended on other Luas in other cities. Like Moung Yong, its administrative structure at that time separated the cities into seven villages which had its own ruler or governor26. This type of political structure was also found in Keng Tung City. According to the map, the location of Keng Tung City is between the kingdom of
Xixuangbanna and Lanna kingdom. The main reasons of this were for the trade and politics.
There are three important trade routes27. The first route is from Dali and Khunming to the southeast and crosses the Mekong River to Shan State of Dai Yais in Burma, then to the Irrawaddy River to the sea or via the north of Burma to the northeast of India28. The second route was from Dali and Kunming, along the south of the Mekong River to Jin Hong, Keng Tung
22 Ibid. p. 57. 23 Ibid. p. 72. 24 Sawang Malazam. Ibid. p. 17. 25 Tawee Sawangpanyangkul. Myth of Keng Tung ( T ). Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai Uviversity, 1986. p. 27. 26 Ibid. p. 9. 27 Jiranan Pitrprecha. “Yunnan Trade route in the past ( ` T )”. Arts and Culture ( ). August 1990. p. 127. 28 YoSisuki Masuhara. Economic History of Lan Xang Kingdom ( ). BKK: Matichon, 2003. p. 12.
39 and Chiang Mai where the Ping River can lead to the sea. Also from Keng Tung, it can lead to Chiang Khong of Chiang Rai Province where there is the Mekong River which leads to Luang Prabang. The third route is from Dali and Khunming to the southeast along the Red River, then to the sea in Hai Phong of Vietnam.29 However the location of Keng Tung city which is in the north of Chiang Rai and south of Jin Hong could be the threat to its stability as the Mongol Royal Court was trying to expand its territory then beat Jin Hong in 129630, as well as the Kingdom of Pagan of the Ayeyarwady River. This leads to one fact about Phya Mang Rai’s consideration in establishing the capital in Chiang Mai instead of Keng Tung31. However, first of all the King had to beat Haripunjaya Kingdom, which was on the south of Chiang Rai. The King could also control the prosperous trade of Haripunjaya at the same time32. He had Ay Pha ( > ), the courtier in the court, governed Haripunjaya City ( , ) and established Vieng Kum Kam ( T ) in 1286 (=. . 1829) and Chiang Mai in 1296 (=. . 1839). In addition, due to the fact that the King established the power centre in the area of the Me-Ing watershed ( ) when he was so powerful with the existing power centre in the Mekok watershed ( ), this area was very powerful. Although Keng Tung was not established as the capital city of Lanna Kingdom, as there was a high risk from Mongol ground force invasion, Keng Tung was still a strategic city where the King paid a lot of attention and care. For example he set the policy to increase the number of population with many more activities for people’s better economic status. One example is the initation to take goldsmith from Bagan to Keng Tung33.
29 Jiranan Pitrprecha. Ibid., p. 127. 30 The same year for establish Chiang Mai City by Phya Mang Rai. 31 Winai Pongsripiean. Papaisifu-Papaitatiean ( T> T ). BKK: The Secretariat of the Cabinet, 1996. p. 45-46. 32 Arunrat Vichieankhaew and Devid K. Wyatt. Chiang Mai Chronicle ( = T ` ), Chiang Mai: Silk Worm Book. 1996. p.18. 33 Arunrat Vichieankhaew and Devid K. Wyatt. Ibid., p. 39.
40
After Mang Krian, the Lua governor, died Phya Mang Rai had Chao Nam Tuam ( ), his grandson, to govern Keng Tung in 128134. The new ruler resided at Vieng Lek ( T = ) also called Vieng Lhek ( T = ) as temporary royal residence when Vieng Luang (or Vieng Yai), the permanent one, was being built35. It can be assumed that Vieng Lek is now Chiang Lek on the ancient city rampart which is new being prepared as Keng Tung airport on the northeast.36 Hence there are few archaeological evidences left. Vieng Lek is recorded in historical archive that its walls were made of timber, along with fortification, watchtower, moats and ramparts37. At that time, Vieng Luang, of Vieng Keng Tung, was also being constructed. In 1292 the army of Hoe38, who could be either the Mongols or the Muslim Chinese from Yunnan, pillaged cities in Shan State. Hence, the fort, moats and walls were prepared39. The Hoe army came to Vieng Lek first and the Dai Khoun who is the local community tried to fight. The army changed its tactic by letting water from the Nam Lai River flow and flood40. Chao Nam Tuam, the ruler asked for help from the necromancer who used black magic to make the Hoes changed their minds and moved out from Keng Tung41. After that Vieng 42 Chiang Lek was then called Chiang Man which means a strong city .
34 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid., p. 82. 35 Ibid., p. 83. 36 Interview Somdej Raj Arja Tham, Buddhist Supreme Patriarch no. 14 of Chiang Tung. 2 January 2005. 37 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid., p. 83. word “ Ho Hing Ho Lear ( ( ) )” already mention according to the story of establish the city, Mang Krum and Mang Krean were the ruler of Keng Tung at that time. p. 58. its mean these kind of building is the important component of the city and used as the observation tower. 38 “Hoe ( ) = Chinese people who live in Yunnan province. Sometime call “Khae (^ ). These words is use for calling the Chinese people who live in Yunnan ( ), Guangxi ( T), Sichuan ( ( ), Guangdong ( ), See in Maha Sila Weerawongsa. Ibid., p. 157. 39 Ibid., p. 83. 40 “ Nam Lab ( )” is the other main river of Kengtung flood plain. 41 Ibid., p. 83. 42 Please note. word of “Chinag Man ( T )” is the title of “Wat Chiang Man ( T )” it was temporary royal palace of Phraya Mang Rai before built ChiangMai. After he built the Chiang Mai city and the permanent riyal palace. He offer this temporary palace to be the temple.
41
Chao Nam Tuam had ruled Keng Tung City for 14 years43 then Jao Nam Nan ( ) the ruler of Chiang Khong, ruled it. However there were few records of Keng Tung during the reign of Chao Nam Nan, but there were some during when Jao Jet Pan Tu ( = = ) was the governer. This could be assumed that after the reign of Phaya Mang Rai, Lanna Kingdom declined, many cities freed themselves. When Phya Sam Fang Kaen came, Chiang Mai became the capital of Lanna again, However, Lanna Kingdom became the unity again during the reign of Phra Chao Ti Loka Raj (= )44. Keng Tung could be connected by many grand kingdoms such as the northeast Xishuangbanna Kingdom, the northwest San Vee Kingdom ( 2 T) and the south Lanna Kingdoms. Moreover, during 1839-2101 Keng Tung City became the secondary trade centre for these kingdoms. The products from Keng Tung were sent to Chiang Mai with the Me- Ping River to bring the products to the Chao Phraya Basin45. In other words Keng Tung was an ideal location for trade. This made many kingdoms try to govern Keng Tung City. The relationship between Keng Tung City and Chiang Mai was like relative as the kings of Chiang Mai of Mang Rai dynasty had continuously sent their grandchildren to govern to Keng Tung City. However after the reign of Chao Jet Pan Tu ( = = ), Chiang Mai did not send anyone to Keng Tung City. Chao Ay On ( ), the next ruler of Keng Tung City and married the daughter of Phya Kue na (=, )46 and the relationship as relatives between Keng Tung City and Chiang Mai continued. However according to “Thamnan Mulasana Chiang Mai and Thamnan Mulasana
Chiang Tung ( T ` T )” , Wat Buppharam edition, it was said that Chao Ay On fought with Ayudhya to help Chiang Mai. He became prisoner of war and worked as mahout in Ayudhya. Then he became monk at the school of
Rajmullisudhamachato and moved back to Keng Tung47.
43 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid., p. 84. This message is oppose the content in Winai Pongsripiean. 2539. p. 57. mention that “Jao Nam Tuam” reign Keng Tung City for 7 years. 44 Winai Pongsripiean. Ibid., 32-33. 45 Sasipat Tiangmit. Grand Market Chiang Tun and Chiang Mai: comparative study the development and changed from the world economic after the World War II - present ( T T ` : U H T T = T ; H/ T 5U ), Thesis, Regional Study Program, Graduate School, Chiang Mai University, 2545. p. 3. 46 Rattanaporn Setthakul. “Pravattisart Moung Chiang Tung ( T )” Rueng Moung Chiang Tung ( T ), Chiang Mai: Suriwong Book Centre, 1994. p. 32. 47 Praseart Na Nakorn, PuangKham Tuikheaw. Tamnanmullasasana Chiang Mai Chiang Tung ( T ` T ). BKK: Historical Society, 1994. pp. 162-166.
42
Before coming back to Keng Tung, Jao Ay On went to Chiang Mai. Hence Buddhism brought by Jao Ay On to Keng Tung could be from both Ayudhya and Chiang Mai. There were many temples built in Keng Tung, for example Wat Mongkol ( ), Wat Phra Singha ( = ), Wat Ton Mao ( ), Wat Umong ( ), Wat Jombon ( ), Wat San Moung Ma ( ), Wat Chiang Ping ( = ), Wat Pa Prao ( = ), Wat Bo Meang ( = ), Wat San Tong ( ), Wat Phra Mai ( = ` ), Wat Phra Klang ( = ), Wat Jom Tong ( ), Wat Nam Tuam ( ), Wat Nas ( ), Wat Sua Jam Sang ( ), Wat Jom Bua ( ), Wat Jom Jang ( ).48 Buddhism expansion from Sukhothai to Chiang Mai occurred during the reign of Phaya Gue na (1355-1385), mainly by Phra Sumon Thera, a monk who studied Thevarada Langka Vangsa Doctrine ( ) from Moung Pan ( = ) in Mattaban, which is school of Phramahasami Utumporn Thera in Mon State at present49. This was the prosperous period of Buddhism in Chiang Mai. Many temples were built, including Wat Buppharam (or Wat Suan Dok) which means the temple in the flower garden. It is a big temple on the west. There was also the residence of Phra Sumon Thera. Phya Gue Na supported monks from other cities of Lanna Kingdom such as Chiang San and Keng Tung to study for Buddhism in this temple. 50 “Bubpavasi Gana ( == T 2 )” (or Suan Dok Doctrine ( ) was taught and taken to Keng Tung but was then called “Hon Yang Kong Doctrine ( )”51. In addition, Sukhothai alphabet was also found and used in Keng Tung52. Then during the reign of Phya Sam Phang Kan (=, < ), 25 Buddhist priests 53 from Chiang Mai went to Langka to study Sihol Doctrine ( T ) . They resided at Wat Pa Dang at the foot of the Suthep Mountain. Hence this new doctrine was then called Pa Dang
Doctrine.
48 Ibid., p. 166. 49 Rattanapanya Thera. Chinnakanmaleepakorn ( T 2 ), Traslation Sang Monvitoon, BKK: Fine Arts Department, 1958. pp. 98-99. 50 Parinya Kayyasit. History of Buddhism in Lanna from 1369-1558 ( = ` =. . 5U =. . ), Thesis, Thai Inscription, Graduated School, Silpakorn University, 1982. p. 83. 51 Supin Rittipen. Khemmarat Nakorn Chiang Tung ( / T ). Chiang Mai: Dao Com Graphic, 1998. p. 92. 52 Prasert Na Nakorn. “Chiang Tung Kab Kan Rab Tua Aksorn Sukhothai ( T H )”. Pravattisat Paritas ( ). BKK: Dan Sutha Kan Pim, 1999. pp. 73-74. 53 Suraphol Damrikul. Ibid., p. 41.
43
However the new Pa Dang Doctrine ( ) had some conflicts against Suan Dok Doctrine. 54 Phya Sam Phang Kan who supported Suan Dok Doctrine chased the monks of Pa Dang Doctrine to the suburbs, such as Chiang Rai Payao, Lampang and Keng Tung. Tong U Dynasty ( ) had not been stable since the reign of King Bayinnong. However when King Along Phya became powerful, he established Shwebo as the capital city in 1752 and many Dai Yai cities were under his control. In 1753 he traveled to cities of Dai Yai State to receive loyalty and tax from the princes. Keng Tung was also one of his destinations as it was recorded that the King planted rubber tree as the landmark of Keng Tung on Jom Sak Hill. King Naresuan of Ayudhya the capital city of Chao Phraya River plain. He would also like to rule Lanna and Dai Yai cities. However it was not successful because he passed away in 1605 in Moung Hang Shan State of Burma. When King Along Phaya (= =, ) the king of Burma, who passed away in 1760 during the war in Ayudhya, there was turmoil in Burma. However things could be controlled by Prince Dnongyi. The Prince did not beat Ayudhya but aimed to rule Chiang Mai. He could expand Burma territory to the boundary of China. He passed away in 1764.
Then King Shinbuchin (= ( ) accessed to the throne and Awa became the capital city stead of Shwebo. He followed King Along Phya’s intention to expand his power to the Chao Phraya Basin. In that time Burma also had conflict with China about Shan State Hence King Taksin tried to free Ayudhya after being beaten by Burma in 1767 and established
Thon Buri as the capital city.
Keng Tung history: colonialism period to present After King Shinbuchin passed away in 1776 Burma was governed by many kings but were nor stable. In 1782 King Bodhi Phya (= = =, ) accessed to the throne during when there were changes in the world such as Industry Revelution in Europe and the United States of America and the lost of trading power of Hollands to islands in Southeast Asia. However the greatest effect to South East Asia was the Colonialism of the United Kingdom and France. Burma was one country which faced Colonialism made by the United Kingdom.
54 See in Supin Rittipen. Ibid., p. 93-94.
44
In 1881, Chao Maha Kanan ( ), who ruled Moung Yang which was a liberal state to Burma asked Chinag Mai for help as his city was beaten by Burma. However Chiang Mai could not help due to the lack of labour for Chiang Mai renovation. Moung Yang needed to accept Ava power and Jao Maha Kanan was established as the prince of Keng Tung. However he still kept relationship55. Siam tried to govern Keng Tung again in 1852 when King Rama IV commanded Krom Luang Vongsathirajsanit as the neaf with Chao Phraya Yomraj as the front commander-in-cheif. However this was not successful as the Chiang Mai army did not come because of rain- shortage and famine. During the period of traditional state, ethnic groups and the Burmese lived separately. Although the ethnic groups paid respect to Burmese kings. They had their own rulers as well as their traditions and languages. During British Colonialism, 1886-1948, the King status of Burma was stopped but the Sobwa the head system at the boundaries was kept including Keng Tung whose Sobwa could partly rule the city. Britain agreed to let the Sobwa continue the traditional administrative system. However the Sanad Agreement must be accepted. Britain was the ruler of the country supported by Shan
State in terms of trade and abundant natural resources. Britain also separated Shan State into northern Shan State comprising five cities and southern Shan State comprising 36 cities. Keng Tung was one city of southern Shan State and could continue the absolute monarchy56.
Keng Tung was totally governed by Britain in 1892, the reign of Chao Kong Kham Phu. United Kingdom took care of all benefits made in Keng Tung. There were their residences on
Doi Mei. Rupee currency exchange of India was used and changed economic status of Keng
Tung. When Jao Kong Kham Phu passed away, Chao Kon Kaew In Talang accessed to the throne. During the World War II Thailand had the same agreement with Japan in 26 May 194257. Thai army led by Major General Pin Chunhawan beat Keng Tung under the justifications of relation on ethnography history and rights to rule Keng Tung which was then called “Saharat Thai Derm” or ancient Thai federation. Chao Moung Lek Phrom Lue, the eldest son of Chao Kon Kaew In Talang and Chao Mae Patum Thevee was invited to comeback to Keng Tung along with Jao Tippawan Na Chiang Tung. Also King Rama VIII assigned Chao Moung Lek Phrom Lue as Chao Fa Siri Suwan Rajaya Phrom Lue the ruler of Keng Tung. Major General
55 Supin Rittipen. Ibid., p. 77. 56 Pranee Sirithorn. “Sarattakadee Nue Kwan Siam” ( 5 T )”, Lanna Sarn ( ). p.131. 57 Supin Rittipen. Ibid., p 82.
45
Pin Chunhawan was the high commissioner of ancient Tai federation. However when Japan and Germany lost in the World War II, Keng Tung City was given to the United Nations Organization. This made Britain have significant role to Keng Tung once again. The British began conquering Burma in 1824 and then in 1886 had incorporated it into the British. Burma was administered as a province of British India until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in Indians and Chinese, who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day Yangon and Mandalay have large ethnic Indian populations. Railroads and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the Insein Prison, then as now used for political prisoners. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralyzed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s. Much of the discontent was caused by a perceived disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonizers' refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919, Eindawya Pagoda in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalized Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe- wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use Buddhism as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was U Wisara, who died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned. Eric Blair, better known as the writer George Orwell, served in the Indian Imperial
Police in Burma for five years and wrote about his experiences. An earlier writer with the same convoluted career path was Saki. During the colonial period, intermarriage between European settlers and Burmese women, as well as between Anglo-Indians (who arrived with the British) and Burmese caused the birth of the Anglo-Burmese community. This influential community was to dominate the country during colonial rule and through the mid 1960's. On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay- twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the Thirty Comrades, commanded by Aung San, founded the Burma Independence Army. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan. During World War II, Burma and Shan state became a major frontline in the Southeast Asian Theatre. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many Anglo-Burmese and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as “The Trek”, all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially
46 the Japanese-led Burma Campaign succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the British counter-attacked using primarily troops of the British Indian Army. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. In 1943, the Chin Levies and Kachin Levies were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British administration. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the Chindits under General Orde Wingate from 1943-1945. Later in the war, the Americans created American-Kachin Rangers who also fought against the Japanese. Many others fought with the British Special Operations Executive. The Burma Independence Army under the command of Aung San and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942-1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members. On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities. The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong
Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.
In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United
Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as United Nation Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the United Nation when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi In 1992, Keng Tung City was open to foreigners because Tha Khi Lek the boundary (face to Mae Sai District, Chiang Rai) was open for tourism and trade. It is 160 km. from Tha Khi Lek to Keng Tung but takes 8 hours and more than 12 hours during the rainy season because of bad road condition. In 2002 the new route was constructed connecting Moung La, the boundary of Burma and China to Keng Tung and finally to Tha Khi Lek by Hong Pang Construction company. This route leads many types of cheap products and goods from China to Keng Tung and Tha Khi Lek and Mae Sai of Thailand. When the road from Keng Tung to Muang La was complete. This city is admin as the special administration. This is one policy to enhance development and economic benefits for ethnic groups as many types of business are run by the Lawa for example tourism and
47 gambling whose consumers are mostly the Chinese and Thais. Keng Tung tends to be for goods and tourist. However physical aspects of Keng Tung are also changing. From the above history, Keng Tung is on the strategic point of northern area of South East Asia. Keng Tung was prosperous at the beginning of the period when trade on the Silk Road began. However, as it is a land lock city in other words, there is no exit to the sea, Keng Tung cannot be a great territory. There is no opportunity for better or bigger business due to geographical limitation. This also makes Keng Tung just a strategic base of different rulers from time to time.
Names of the governors and rulers of Keng Tung The development of Keng Tung began since it was just the area of the Lawa, then Phya Mang Rai enhanced its significance due to its ideal location and had two Lawa govern the communities in Keng Tung. Communities of Keng Tung became bigger and stronger then people of the royal families were assigned to take care of this city. However due to limited evidences on Keng Tung governors and rulers, “Khamarat Nakorn Chiang Tung ( /
T )” (1998). was the main source to sum up list of Keng Tung governors and rulers including the first two Lawa governors as follows: 1. Mang Krum ( W ) 2. Mang Krein ( T )
3. Jao Nam Tuam ( 6 ) 4. Jao Nam Nan ( ) 5. Jao Muen Sam Huay ( )
6. Jao Ay Lok ( ) 7. Jao Sai Nan ( ) 8. Jao Jet Pan Tu ( =3= X) 9. Jao Ay Onn ( ) 10. (Jao Boon Chu) ( W,)X) 11. Jao Yee Kha Kham ( T ) 12. Jao Sam ( ) 13. Jao Sam Sa Ree ( T) 14. Jao Ay Lao Kham Ta ( 6 ) 15. Jao Ay Lao ( ) 16. Jao Noe Kaew ( ^ ) 17. Jao Sai Kho ( ) 18. Jao Sai Phrom ( = ) 19. Jao Sam Chieng Khong ( )T ) 20. Jao Kham Mu ( X )
48
21. Jao Tao Kham Phu ( 6 >X) 22. Jao Kaew Boon Nam ( ^ W, ) 23. Jao Kham Tao ( 6 ) 24. Jao Khak ( ) 25. Jao Ay Aun ( W ) 26. Jao In Kham ( ) 27. Jao Ram Muen ( ) 28. Jao Kaew Boon Ma ( ^ W, ) 29. Jao Sam Pee ( :) 30. Jao Muang Chuen ( ) ) 31. Jao Mong Miew ( ) 32. Jao Ti tha Nan Ta Raja ( 5 6 ) ) 33. Jao Moung Sam ( ) 34. Jao Kong Tai ( a ) 35. Jao Maha Kanan ( ) 36. Jao Maha Prom ( = )
37. Jao Kham San ( ^ ) 38. Jao Mom Chiang Kang ( )T ^ = ) 39. Jao Mom Kong Kan Phu ( >X) 40. Jao Kon Kaew In Talang ( ^ ^5 )
41. Jao Kong Tai ( a ) 42. Jao Pha Prom Lue ( > = )
43. Jao Sai Luang ( ) )
Introductution to Keng Tung Keng Tung City, the main city of Shan State, is on 21 degree 17 Lipda 48 filipda North of the latituted, and 99 degree 40 lipda East of the longtitude, and 2,700 feet above sea level. It is on the northast of Yangoon the capital city of Myanmar, about 735 kilometre, and is about 102 Kilometre from Mae Sai District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand. Keng Tung is far form the centre of Burma, but close to Lanna Kingdom of Thaland. Due to its history that the city was established by Phaya Mang Rai. Who was also the King of Lanna. Keng Tung city and Lanna Kingdom have many aspects in common, such as ethnic groups like Lawa and Tai-Dai, whose culture and ways of live are nearly the same. It can be seen from Map 1 that the location of Keng Tung is important for the trade along the Silk Road from the Yunnan to the South East Asia. That is, Keng Tung is on the same route of Jin Hong ( T ) (see no. 11, Map 1), the Capital of Xixuangbanna State ( / ), where Tai-Dai is the main ethnic group, comprising the Dai Lue from Keng
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Tung to Jin Hong (See no. 13, Map no. 1) La Town and Hai Town are located on this way (see no. 10, map no. 1), and these two town are the hinter land of Jin Hong The route on the west of Keng Tung (see no. 12, Map no. 1) leads to other cities of the Dai Yai ( ` , ) or Tai Long ( ), who are close to the Dai Khoen, the majority of Keng Tung city. This route connects Taunggyi City, the junction of western Shan trade route, and also leads to political and economical centre in the Ayeyarwady River watershed, as well as to the Indian Ocean for sea trade. The south route (see no. 14, map 1) is also significant in terms of the cultural exchange as the Dai Khoen in Keng Tung and Dai Lue in Jin Hong have close relationship to each other, but are different from Burman culture. When the Court of Khan became more powerful in 12th Century, the Tai groups of ethnicity had to leave along the south of the Mekong River to settle down. The main areas of the settlement were the Mae Kok ( ) and Mae Ping ( | ) watershed. This south route is important not only for the cultural exchange of the Tai-Dai ethnic groups, but also for the trade with cities along the Mekong River ( ), Like Luang Prabang city through Mong Yong town (see no.3 Map 1), another route is from the south of Keng Tung city to Mong Payak town, then to Mae Sai town of Chiang Rai Province at present, which also leads to Chiang San city, another important trade zone on the Mekong River. In addition, the south route of Mae Sai comes to Chiang Rai city, one of the most important cities of Lanna as the trade route junction, leading to Chiang Mai, the capital city of Lanna Kingdom. To the south, this route goes to western Lanna cities, comprising Payao, Prae, and Nan, which can also lead to town of Sukhothai and Sri-satchanalai. On the Silk Road of trade, Keng Tung city is the junction for the South East Asia, connecting China and Indian, as well as many important towns and cities like Luang Prabang,
Chiang Mai, Mandalay, Jin Hong, Etc. (see Map 2). There are satellite towns of the mentioned cities which help make better connection, such as towns of Lanna culture in the northern part, towns of Dai Lue culture in Xixuangbanna, town of Burman culture in the areas of the Ayeyarwady River as well as towns of Dai Yai–Dai Khoen culture in Shan state. (see Map 3). Keng Tung is located on the Nam Khoun ( ) watershed, a large plain of 9 kilometers wide, 13 kilometers long, totally 117 square kilometer, on the Shan plateau. As the Tai-Dai ethnic groups, the inhabitants, have rice as the main dish, the land is for rice cultivation. According to the satellite map and photos (see map 4), Keng Tung is clearly seen as a vast plain in the valley, in other words, it is a bowl-shape geographical aspect. There is a story which has been told that the area was once a swamp but water was drained of by Ruesee (C HT), then the land was for the people’s settlement. It can be said the location of Keng Tung City is ideal for not only the trade, as the junction for the trade route, but also the breadbasket of the region.
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Map 5 and 6 Ilustrate the Keng Tung bowl shape. The plain of Keng Tung’s bolw, is in irregular shape from north to south. The plain, or Keng Tung watershed, is along the foot of the surrounded mountain ranges. This also makes Keng Tung plain become the catchments area during when flood comes. There are routes to Payak Town ( = ) and Tha Khi Lek Town ( T = ). Ground water bodies scatter in the plain. Levels of steep areas are not much different. The Nam Khoen River is the main river, and its name is also for the town and group of ethnic people, the Dai Khoen. This river flows to the north of the bowl, surrounded by mountain ranges, along with the gorge for the river to run through, and let water to stream down to the Me-Luay River ( ), which is also called the Ta Ping River, from the west, then to the east, and to the Mekong River.
Figure 3-11: A Yunnan packsaddle pony Figure 3-12: Mule packsaddle
From: Otto E. Ehlers. On Hourseback through Indochina Volumne 2. Burma, North Thailand,
the Shan States, and Yunnan. BKK. BKK. White Lotus Press. 2001.
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Figure 3-13: Convoy with merchandise on the trade route to Yunnan. From: Louise Delaporte and Francis Garnier. A pictorial Journey on the old Mekong: Cambodia, Laos and Yunnan. BKK. White Lotus Press. 2006.
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Figure 1: Convoy with merchandise on the trade route to Yunnan
Figure 3-14: The map shows the historic town of Keng Tung and other historic cities in the mainland of South East Asia.
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Figure 3-15: The map shows the trade route on the mainland Silk Road from Yunnan to historic towns in South East Asia, such as Jin hong, Keng Tung, Mandalay, Luang Phrabang, Chaing San and Chiang Mai.
Figure 3-16: Camping bullock caravan in Shan State From: Otto E. Ehlers. On Hourseback through Indochina Volumne 2. Burma, North Thailand, the Shan States, and Yunnan. BKK. BKK. White Lotus Press. 2001.
7-18: The ancient map shows the location of Tai-Dai city in Shan State and Yunnan CShClt t d ftBKK Ri B k 2006 55
Figure 3-19: The ancient map shows the city and the main rive which was assumed to be is the Mekong River. From: Susan Conway Shan. Culture, art and craft. BKK: River Book. 2006.
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Figure 3-20: The Map shows the route from Chiang Rai to Keng Tung. B y Licutenant G. J. Younghusband, Guides, in 1887.
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Figure 3-21: The map shows the location of the historic town of Keng Tung, the topography of Shan State, Keng Tung is located in the largest valley of Shan Plateau.
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Figure 3-23: The aerial photo from the satellite and mapping layers show the Nam Khoun watershed in the Keng Tung bowl surrounded by high mountain ranges.
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Figure 3-24: The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded areas by the British government.
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Figure 3-25: The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded areas by the British government
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Figure 3-26: The topographic survey of Keng Tung and surrounded areas by the British government
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The name “Keng Tung” Not only literally written name of Keng Tung varies such as Keng Tong ( = ), Kyaingdon ( T ), Keng Tung ( = ) and Chiang Tung ( T ), but also the proper name differs for example Moung Khoun ( ), Moung Khoen( ), Moung Khemarat ( /) whose sources were assumed differently as follows: - One river from Keng Tung flew to the Mekong River but from the south to the north due to geographical factor which was different from other rivers. Hence it was called the Khoun River ( ) (which means “against”) like the name of the city. The population of Moung Khoun ( ) is called Dai Khoun ( )58. - During the reign of Phya Mang Rai, Keng Tung was beaten then people from Chiang Saen and Chiang Rai were forced to settle in Keng Tung. How ever they preferred their hometowns then went back but the King commanded them to go back to Keng Tung. This city was called Moung Kuen ( ) which means “return” of “come back”. The population is also called Dai Khoun ( )59.
From the Chronicle of Chiang Saen from the National Library Kampee Bailan no.951/3, given by Krom Phraya Damrong Raja Nuparb the chapter of Phaya Mang Rai and the establishment of Keng Tung converted by Saraswadee Ongsakul said that its name as Khoen was from Tunga Ruesee who placed the walking stick (crane) on the swamp to cause space for water to drain, then the area was dry and came the name of the city, Moung Khoen.
The above assumptions are from literally ancient records which are more logic and reliable than other beliefs made by local people at present.
In addition the name Khemarat ( /) can be from Khoun ( ) or Khoen ( ) also. However one history mentioned that in 1560 Phra Chao Kaew Boon Nam accessed to the throne and was named “Rattana Bhumindha Narintha Khemathipati Raja”. The name Khemarat could be from his name. One belief mentions the plague in the city people were in trouble living their lives. Traditionally, the city must be given to the monks to cure plague, then the city was given back to people with the new name as Khemarat which means the city of happiness.
58 Supin Rittipen. Ibid., 2008. p. 68. 59 Ibid.
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The setting of the city Keng Tung is located one one of the vast plateaus of Shan State, surrounded by mountain ranges with the Khun River as the main water resource for agriculture. This ideal location makes Keng Tung more and more prosperous as the breadbasket of Shan State. Keng Tung is also called “The city of three hills, seven villages, nine pond and twelve gates ( = T )” with explanation as follows: There are “three hills” in Keng Tung which are “Jom Kham ( )”, “Jom Mon ( )”, and “Jom Sak ( )”. (Jom means hill.) “Seven villages” are in Keng Tung comprising “Chiang Ngam ( T )”, “Chiang Chan ( T )”, “Chiang Lan ( )”, “Chiang Khum ( T )”, “Chiang Ing ( T )”, “Chiang Yun ( T )”, and “Chiang Jin ( T )”. (Chiang means big village or community.) “Nine ponds or small lakes“ in Keng Tung which are “Nong Tung ( )” , “Nong Toang ( )”, “Nong Yay ( )”, “Nong Lang ( )”, “Nong Yang ( )”, “Nong Poang ( )”, “Nong Khay ( )”, “Nong Khai ( )”, and
“Nong Ta Chang ( )” . (Nong means pond or small lake.) “Twelve gates” are found in Keng Tung they are “Pratu Ngam Fa ( > )”, “Pratu Pha Yang ( ; )”, “Pratu Pa Dang ( )”, “Pratu Pa Man ( )” , “Pratu Bor Nam Oi ( )” and “Pratu Jane Muang ( )”. (Pratu means gate or door.)
Figure 3-27: Nong Tung is the most important lake of Keng Tung, the historic town. The highest Chedi
is the Pra That Jom Tong, the landmark and the most important sacred place of the city.
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Nong Tung ( ) is a big lake in irregular shape situated at the city centre with stream which leads to the Khoun River. Keng Tung was established in the same period of Chiang Mai. There have been clay walls surrounding the city like in Chiang Mai though the walls are not in square shape like Chiang Mai’s. However this type of city is traditional style of cities in South East Asia. It might share the revolution with cities of Dhavaravati period which have generally been found in the region. Moreover, it could be influenced by ancient Chinese cities. The land in Keng Tung is not plain. There are swamps and hills where people have settled down. They live compatibly with nature, in other words, geographical aspects. For example hills and streams are the indicators for boundary of city walls and moats. This reflects their local wisdom which helps them live their lives happily in the ideal location despite some limitations made by nature. Keng Tung is surrounded by mountain ranges which make Keng Tung become a city on bowl shape. Hence rice cultivation is the main factor for people to earn for their living. They can do the “Na Loom ( )” in the area near water resources and this can be done twice a ywar called “Khao Na Pee ( )” and “Khao Na Dor ( )”. In some areas rice cultivation can be done once a year during the rainy season, called “Na Lan Phab ( = )”60. Trade is also important due to its location on the strategic trade route between Yunnan and Mandalay61 and between Yunnan and Chiang Mai. In addition, each village has own type of product based on their skills such as pottery village of Ban Yang Goang or knife household industrial of Ban Jom Tong, etc.
60 “Na Lan Pab ( = )” is the terrace rice field. 61 Chanvit Kasetsiri. Burma: History and politic (= : ), BKK. 2001.
Chapter 4 Cultural landscape and characteristic of vernacular architecture in the historic town of Keng Tung
Due to the concepts of cultural landscapes in the previous chapter, cultural landscapes of this study is defined as follows: “ Built environment is resulted from management made by human beings for their living in particular setting despite some limitation like technology, religious beliefs, etc. which lessen abilities to change natural aspects. On the other hand carrying capacity of nature to bear or accept changes made by human is also limited. The answer of how human beings and their culture on nature, their surroundings, is the definition of cultural landscapes.”
Aspects on cultural landscapes made by the World Heritage Committee of the UNESCO in the Operational Guidelines for World Heritage Properties contain the definitions and types of cultural landscapes as follows:1
1. Cultural landscapes are cultural properties and represent the “combined works of nature and man” designated in Article 1 of the Convention. They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by the natural environment and of successive social, economic, and cultural forces, both external and internal. 2. They should be selected in the basis both of their outstanding universal value and of their representatively in terms of a clearly defined geo-cultural region and also for their capacity to illustrate the essential and distinct cultural elements of such regions.
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3. The term “cultural landscape” embraces a diversity of manifestations of the interaction between humankind and its natural environment. 4. Cultural landscapes often reflect specific techniques of sustainable land-use, considering the characteristics and limits of the natural environment they are established in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature. Protection of cultural landscape can contribute to modern techniques of sustainable land-use and can maintain or enhance natural values in the landscape. The continued existence if a traditional form of land-use supports biological diversity in many regions of the world. The protection of traditional cultural landscape is therefore helpful in maintaining biological diversity. 5. Cultural landscape fall into three main categories, namely: 5.1 The most easily identifiable is the clearly defined landscape designed and created intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes constructed for aesthetic reasons which are often (but not always) associated with religious or other monumental buildings and ensembles.
5.2 The second category is organically evolved landscape. This results from an initial social, economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative and has developed its present from by association with and in response to its natural
environment. Such landscapes reflect that process of evolution in their form and component features. They fall into two sub-
categories:
5.2.1 A relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, ether abruptly or over a period. Its significant distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form. 5.2.2 A continuing landscape is one which retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress. At the same time it exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution over time.
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5.2.3 The final category is the associative cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscape on the World Heritage List is justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural element rather than material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or even absent.
The above categories of cultural landscapes lead to those of Keng Tung as relic and living cultural landscape as follows: 1. Relic cultural landscape includes the area of the historic town since people’s settlement and development to big and complex city. Beliefs and ways of life, along with skills and knowledge to live compatibly with geographical limitation, especially how they have been living on the hill with the change and creation of moat and city rampart as a defensive town, are evident. Many of such skills through architecture are still focused in historical evidence such as - city ramparts; - city gate; and
- Viang Kaew Hoe Kham: the royal residence.
2. Living cultural landscape is that of the historic town and the adjacent areas whose focus is on people’ settlement in an ancient town which is directly related to local history. Living cultural landscape can be categorized into two main groups.
- Cultural landscape in rural context - Cultural landscape of rural village - Village location - Village planning - Village elements - Sacred place and sacred Space - the public space in rural context - Vernacular house and its layout plan - Agricultural cultural landscape and Water management system - Cultural landscape in urban context Sacred Place - Temples and monasteries - Churches and other religious place
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- “Hor Sua ( )”: the spiritual shrine, “Mai Long ( )”: the sacred tree and “Mai Mhay Moung ( )”: the auspicious tree of the city - “Ku Chao Fa ( > )”: Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum Water body and green belt Open Spaces and public space - Circulation -Public facilities and open space ( ) - Water body and green belt - Sala ( ): open air pavilion - “Nam bo ( )”: water Well - “Kad ( )”: market Village - Historic village representing the traditional village planning context
- New village representing the traditional planning context - New village representing the new village planning context (Grid pattern) Central business district
Important vista and cultural landscape of streetscape
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1. Relic cultural landscape 1.1 Historic cultural landscape: the evidence of the relationship between Keng Tung and Lanna (Chiang Mai) The study of historic cultural landscape for the components of towns in Keng Tung is based on documentary research and field studies. Keng Tung and Chiang Mai are the case studies for the understanding of Lanna culture, with interdisciplinary approach, as these two cities have many aspects in common, like geographical and natural aspects, culture, and history. However, the dilemma of revolution led Chiang Mai to capitalism under democracy while Keng Tung people live traditional life under socialism. Academic advance of Lanna provides much more understanding and knowledge about Chiang Mai while those about Lanna are not much served. Hence this study is also based on both advantages and disadvantages of urban development. In other words, Lanna interdisciplinary studies on Chiang Mai urban development are focused. Physical change of Chiang Mai made by development and the lost of opportunities in urban development of Keng
Tung lead to the clear picture of cultural landscape and relation of these two cities in terms of culture. Tai–Dai lifestyles are close to nature, with strong family system, and their local wisdom for managing local environment and natural resources. These living factors, along with their culture, beliefs, and religions, are limited by technology, then physical aspects, including geographical features, cannot be totally changed. Instead, nature and geography affect their life and indirectly force them to live compatibly with such limitations. The way the Tai–Dai live their lives are the concrete evidence and definition of “cultural landscape”.
1.2 Cultural landscape of Keng Tung town’s historic area The formation and foundation of Keng Tung city shared some parts of history with Lanna, especially Chiang Mai, as well as their relationship until the present days. Historical evidence mentions that Keng Tung was established in 1261 (=. . 1894) when Phaya Mang Rai chased the golden hog and found this ideal location where the Lua had settled. Three areas were selected, near Doi Luang ( ), Chiang Lek ( T = ), and Keng Tung ( T ). Then the ceremony to predicte the future of each area was done by ploughing. The well–grown rice predicted the prosperity of the city.
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Each location has different good and bad prediction. If the city had been situated near Doi Luang, it would have been strong and saved from war, but there would have been economic problem. If the city had been in Chiang Lek, it would have also been strong, but not very prosperous. For Keng Tung, it was predicted that the city was not that strong, but not in harm.2 The chronicle of Lanna city formation can be divided into two types. Firstly, the Ruesi indicated the location for settlement. Secondly, the city was located on the area which is believed that the Lord Buddha came, then properity would come. For the first case, the belief that Ruesee indicated the city location was the Burmese belief, influenced by Indian belief. That is, the Burmese paid respect to Nat as the protector of town3, and to Ruesee, who was possibly form Hariphuchai Kingdom, whose relationship was also with Lawo, who had cultural relationship with the Mon. However, Ruesse was also the traditional belief when Buddhism came. Ruesi was still believed as instructor of city formation, as mentioned in many chronicles, such as that of Hariphunchai ( , ), Srisatchanalai ( T ), Lawo ( ), etc. The reason why Phaya Mang Rai selected Keng Tung as the location of the city might be because it was for the trade route and was the strategic base of inner Lanna. This could connect to Chiang Mai, Jing Hong, and Mandalay.4 Hence, Keng Tung faced risk of being dominated by other big cities. Belief of establishing Lanna cities was assumed to be from city direction ( H ), influenced by Burma. Belief in the directions of the city was related to belief in cosmos and centre of the universe. This was also related to prediction, based on positions of stars in direction chart. This belief was mentioned in the reign of Phya Sam Fang Kan (=, < ), Phra Chao Kawila (= ), and Phra Chao Suphatra ( Kham Fun) (= ( H/T < )
2 Ibid. 3 Khin Myo Chit. A Wonderland of Burmese Legends. Bangkok: Tamarind Press, 1984. pp. 5. 4 Sasipat Tiangmit. Grand Market Chiang Tun and Chiang Mai: comparative study the development and changed from the world economic after the World War II - present ( T T ` : U H T T = T ; H/ T 5U ), Thesis, Regional Study Program, Graduate School, Chiang Mai University, 2545. p. 31.
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The square–shape Chiang Mai could also be applied with the direction chart. The lines drawn from the four main gates can separate the area into four parts which do not go with the theory of the direction chart. However, when adding lines to the four corners, the cross spot at the city center can be what mentioned in the theory. However, no evidence has been made to support this assumption. Auspicious issues connecting the city establishment were also focused. The land use of each side of the city was specified. The gate was the first thing to protect the city from both enemies and devils. Beliefs in auspicious direction were concerned for example, before Chiang Mai rulers accessed to the throne, they must pass Change Phuak Gate ( ; ) in the north, the head of the city, and this supports belief in city directions as well. However, the use of the north gate might be because the King or the ruler’s residence was situated in the north side also. Land use of Keng Tung was not very focused like that of Chiang Mai due to the lack of the axis of the town and clarity in the balance of the city, then this cannot be affirmed if it followed the theory of city direction. Moreover, Keng Tung was formed by communities in villages then expanded and became the city called “Chiang ( T )”. No clear plan was set like in Chiang Mai. The land use was gradually adapted for people’s living and for city development. Only few historical documents on cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung were found. However, due to the field works, studies, and surveys along with some historical documents, it can be concluded that the city components of Keng Tung were alike those of other towns of ancient Lanna period. The city components of Keng Tung, due to the eye – witness evidence, were archaeological evidence and the settlement on location mentioned in historical documents, and these can be categorized into two groups: “strategic area for city stability” (= T ) and “spiritual and holy areas (= T ,, 2 )”.
1.3 Strategic area for city stability City rampart, moats and walls Keng Tung was also named as “the city of three mountains, seven villages, nine streams, and twelve gates ( = T )”, reflecting the huge geographical areas. “Chiang ( T )” means the city with surrounded walls which need not be made of brick. Wall can be dirt or soil, like that of Keng Tung, whose natural walls were freely formed due to Keng Tung’s geography.
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The formation of walls might be soil from ditches which were dug around the city. Wooden posts were used to strengthen the walls. When weapons for war were developed, such as cannons, the wall were made of brick for much more strength and durability. From the field studies, it was the found that there are some ancient cities near Keng Tung such as Chiang Lek5 ( T = ), Chiang Tang ( T ), Chiang Saen ( T )where the evidence of two rounds of walls were found. Between the two walls was the ditch6. It was found in the local oral history that this area was traditional settlement of Lua. These ancient cities were not apart from one another. They were found on the peak of the hill, surrounded by ditches and two rounds of dirt walls, followed by farms. This can be assumed that communities were not big. They were formed to protect enemy. When communities got bigger, they needed to find new areas as the land in the city walls were limited. The biggest ancient city is Keng Tung. Ditches and walls were firstly done in the reign of Chao Nam Tuam ( ), with Vieng Lek ( T = ), his temporary residence before Vieng Luang ( T ), the permanent residence, was complete. Wooden posts, forts and tower were also made, surrounded by moat and rampart.
However, Vieng Lek was believed to be made by the Lua who had settled in the previous time, so Vieng Lek was not newly made, but renovated. There was “Hor Hing Hor Ler ( )” which was considered observation tower to protect the city and it was also mentioned in historical documents. In addition, from the field survey, Wan Mon Ler Village ( ) was also found at the east of Pa Man Gate (
). This was at the corner of the wall, the strategic base, supporting the existence of Hor Hing Hor Ler, which means fort for war observation. Walls and gates of Keng Tung were renovated for many times. For instance, the historical evidence said that in 1430 (=. . ) the reign of Chao Saan (Phya Kongrattanapayree) (=, T), bricks were burnt for constructing walls, moats7, and forts, and in 1814, the reign of Chao Mahakhanaan ( ), bricks were used to strengthen walls.
5 The name of “Chiang Lek ( T = )” was mentioned many times in Lana’s historical documents. Right now Chiang Lek was destroyed by government development project to built the Keng Tung Airport. 6 From the field studies and interview with the local community during 21-25 July 2006 as well as with Tu Yee Suk ( W T W ), 65 year old, abbot of Wat Chiang Tang. 7 Arunrat Vichienkaew. “The story of Keng Tung, Moung Pyak and Moung Len ( )T W = ^ O )” Story of Keng Tung ( T ). Chiang Mai: Suriwong Book Centre. 1995. p 8.
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For Chiang Mai, although some parts of culture were shared, Chiang Mai walls got much more development. That is, the square – shape city plan and walls reflect skill and knowledge in measurement. In the previous time, Chiang Mai walls were also from dirt with wooden posts. For Sukhothai, the walls were not made of brick, but there were the three round dirt walls called “Tree Boon ( T )”. Brick walls of Chiang Mai was constructed in 1518 (=. . ). The reign of Phya Muang Kaew (=, ), who also initiated the laterite wall for Hariphunchai in 1517.(=.G. )
Rampart Ancient walled city
slope Paddy field
Figure 4-1: The illustration shows the ancient village (Viang) of Chiang Tang. There is the evidence of rampart and moat and slope to agricultural area. Approx. 5 meter
Approx. 4.5 meter
Inner Oute r
Approx. 3 meter
Figure 4-2: The illustration shows the moat and rampart of Vieng Chiang Tang
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Figure 4-3: The old photo shows the observation tower at Moung Figure 4-4: the wooden city walls Sing
City gate An irregular shape of Keng Tung geography was one factor for Keng Tung’s lack of city axis, unlike that of Chiang Mai. This might lead to the creation of 12 gates which were different from only four gates of Chiang Mai due to its square shape which needs symmetry and balance, as well as the consideration of auspicious directions. From the article on the story of Keng Tung, Pyak and Len city ( T = ) on Keng Tung made by Arunrat Vichienkeaw, it was said that construction of gates in Keng Tung followed the theory of eight city directions8 However, there was no historical evidence on the theory of city direction in Keng Tung. This assumption might be from that of Chiang Mai9.
8 Arunrat Vichienkaew. Ibid. p. 8. 9 Right now, there is another idea said that threr was no temple in auspicaious direction pf Chiang Mai.. See Daungjan A-pavatrut, Yupin Khemmuk and Vimol Chairat. There is No Temple in the City Dircrtion of Chiang Mai: Proof Mude by local Scholar ( T ` H T ` = 5 ). Chiang Mai: the city development foundation. 2005.
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Figure 4--5: The illustration shows the 8 auspicious directions and the 12 gates of Keng Tung.
Figure 4-6: The illustration shows the 8 auspicious directions (Mahataksa) and the 4 gates of Chiang Mai.
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The name of 12 gates in Keng Tung, starting from the east (clockwise), are as follows: Pa Dang Gate ( ), Ngam Pha Gate ( > ), Chiang Lan Gate ( T ), Pha Yang Gate ( ), Jang Moung Gate ( ) (or Jan Moung Gate ( )), Yang Kham Gate ( ), Gai Hai Gate ( ), Nong Lhek Gate ( = ), Nong Pha Gate ( ; ), Yang Pung Gate ( ), Bo Nam Oi Gate ( ), and Pa Man Gate ( ). However, it is assumed that Phu Yang Gate, Gai Hai Gate, Pa Man Gate and Bo Nam Oi Gate were newly made. All 12 names are used at present, following their location. No historical evidence recorded the use of 12 names except that of Nong Pha Gate which was mentioned in Chiang Saen local chronicle that the cremation of the King was dons outside Nong Pha Gate10. Even though there is no existence of the concept and notion on the directions of the city, notions and principles on land use are related to beliefs and auspicious factors. The gates of Keng Tung were all destroyed for the coming transportation, except Pa Dang Gate, a 5 x 8 meters masonry gate coated by white mortar. The arch on the gate reflects advanced engineering. There used to be wooden decoration which was then destroyed.
Figure 4-7: Pa Dang Gate is the Figure 4-8: Pa Man Gate is now destroyed by new development only remain of the city gate housing.
10 Sarasawadee Ongsakul. Ibid. P. 84.
Spiritual and sacred area From the sacred mountain to the sacred place From the historical evidence on the foundation of Keng Tung, the location where the mountain as the core of the city is mentioned. The sacred mountain is generally accepted by the local in Asia due to the belief that the top of the mountain is the closest to the sky, hence it is where gods and sacred things are. The belief in the sacred mountain could be from Hindu of Idia that Himalaya Mountain, or Mount Meru ( = ), is the centre of the universe where gods are. This leads to the creation of architecture, especially religious construction which are in the form of “Sikhorn ( )” reflecting belief in the sacred Mount Meru. For Buddhism, which followed Vedic whose deep root was along with Indian culture, the way to expand Buddhism belief was tougher due to strong belief of people in the previous religion. However, the local thoughts in Buddhism and gaps in Indian societies led people to Buddhism. Most monasteries are far from the urban area to avoid turmoil, but they are not too far for people to go to make merit. Many of them are found on the hills or in woods. For Northern Thailand, Buddhism had been mentioned since Hariphunchai period of King Mang Rai following Davaravati period. Moreover, Buddhism also came to Lanna by the influence of Sukhothai Kingdom. The belief in constructing temples on the top of the mountain was also brought to Lanna and become popularity. Like the belief of Langka whose importance was also on Buddha relics, the footprint of the Lord Buddha, and the Chedi, like what mentioned in Mahavamsa (the great chronicle of Cylon) about Langka and its Buddhism. In general, the Chedis on the top of the mountain were less ancient than those in town because this belief came in the following period when Langkawongsa came. For instance, the Chedi of Hariphunchai can trace to Davaravati period. Number of the Chedis on the mountain is higher than those in the city because at the beginning of the foundation of the city, the emphasis was on the city elements. However, when the society was more complex, along with belief in Langkawongsa of Buddhism, monasteries were then constructed, including those on the mountain. Temples on the mountain are not only Buddhism centre, but also city centre, like traditional belief in city pillar. The city pillar has been the belief of Lanna and in the Northern area of South East Asia. Temples on the mountain is from the same belief in the city pillar. However, temples on the mountain can also be the land mark, like that of Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong ( = ) in Chiang Rai ( T ). 80
The foundation of Keng Tung in the area where the Lua resided brought local people the new things because they had different ways of life, following their ancestors’ community management, which was still found in the oral history11, and, moreover went along with the recorded ones of Lanna. Lua people believe in Animism, including spirits, ancestors, as well as their surroundings. This is because Animism could best answer their curiosity in their environment while scientific explanation was apart from their lives. Hence ceremonies to pay respect to nature and ancestors and to contact the other world via the wizard or special people have been found. When Buddhism came to South East Asia, it could go along well with the previous beliefs. However, to pay respect to nature is still strong, including the construction of temples on the top of the mountain. This can be seen clearly that temples of Keng Tung and Lanna are on high position while communities are lower. This compatible combination leads to the acceptance and rights in land owning and people controlled by Lanna Kings. Temples on the mountain also make the surrounding areas become sacred. For example, Wat Phra That Chom Kham ( = ), which is on the highest mountain of Keng Tung historic town, is not only the town centre, but the sacred area which made people come and settle down in the area nearby12
Figure 4-10: Phra That Jom Kham was built on the highest mountain in the town of Keng Tung
11 From the interview with Sithi Sai ( ), the abbot of Wat Wan Ngag, 10 December 2004. 12 From the interview with Auy Yeee Non ( T ), the leader of Wan Chiang Tang, 21 July 2005.
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Figure 4-11: Phra That Jom Kham is the landmark of the historic town of Keng Tung
Viang Kaew Hoe Kham ( T ): the royal residence The palace was one component of traditional state like Keng Tung whose governor was the king. Hence the royal residence was not only for the king to reside, but it symbolized the king power. For Lanna, “Khum Luang ( )” or “Viang Kaew ( T )” (the royal residence) was also constructed in the city symbolizing the king status. In the area of the royal residence, “Hoe Kham ( )” was also situated. It was a throne hall for ceremonies, especially “Khun Hoe Nang Muang( U )” ceremony13, which was introduced to Chiang Mai in the reign of Phya Kawila (= ), who was supported by King Rama I to be Lanna ruler. In the ceremony, the Lua who held the basket at his back called “Za (* )” or “Zag ( * )” and a dog walked into “Chang Phuak Gate ( ; )”, followed by the King. For Keng Tung, the Lua is told to go to Hoe Kham, then will be chased to go out and let the king take that place. This symbolizes the ownership.
13 Thieanchai Aksorndit. Hoe Kham Khum Kaew: the Jewel of the Royal City of Art ( : 2T 5 T). Chiang Mai: Chotana, 2005. p. 2.
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In the historic town of Keng Tung, Viang Kaew Hoe Kham is near Nong Tung ( ) (the small lake of the city), Khong Long ( ) (the royal open space), Wat Rajchathan Long Hoe Khuang ( / ) (the royal temple), and Wat Ratchathan Long Chiang Yuen ( / T ) (another royal temple). Hoe Kham and its architectural elements were made of wood, with gable roof, like most Viharn in Lanna, along with Din Khor ( ) roof tiles which might replace natural material for roofing like weed, which is found at Hoe Kham ( ) of Muang Sing at the southeast of Keng Tung.
Figure 4-12 : Hoe Kham of Moung Sing, roofing with natural roof. : Mahasila Veerawong. The ancient Laos Chronicle (=
5 ).Vientian: National Library, ministry of press and Culture, 2001.
Figure 4-13: The old photo of Hoe Kham of Lampang made of teak wood. It this the house on stilt like the house of Tai-Dai ethnic group.
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However, the assumption on the architectural style of Hoe Kham of Keng Tung is from the compartive case studies due to the lack of evidence of the architecture of Hoe Kham as well as other buildings in Vieng Kaew before they were in Western styles. By considering the photographs of Hoe Kham of Lampang, which was built up again in the Ancient City of Samut Prakarn province, and Hoe Kham of Phra Chao Mahotarapratate ( ), the 5th governor of Chiang Mai, which then became Viharn of Wat Pan Tao ( = ) in Chiang Mai, it can also be assumed that the architecture of Hoe Kham of Keng Tung could be the same, with multiple layers of gable and roof with neat ornament. Since 1558 when Chiang Mai was beaten by King Bayinnong of Burma, Keng Tung, which used to be under Chiang Mai, was then governed by Burma. The evidence on Keng Tung and Chiang Mai during this period was rarely found, especially that on Hoe Kham. When England beat Burma in 1878, Shan State became the contact route between England and Yunnan ( ), then the Burmese and Dai in Shan State became under English governor even though the traditional ruler status in Shan still existed. During this period, the new Hoe Kham in Western–Indian style was constructed to replace the old wooden one. There was a record made by Dr. William Clifton Dodd in April 1704 that
“The wooden royal residence of the governor (Sabwa) was dilapidated, then the new one was constructed from brick. It is huge. The traditional Indian style was introduced. The construction took many years. During the construction period, the governor needed to reside in small bamboo house.” 14
The new two–storey Hoe Kham followed Indian tradition and style. This aimed to be western architecture, but directed by local engineers. Moreover, at that time, a large number of the Indians came to Burma, led by the English. This then affected Hoe Kham whose dome looks like that of Indian style. There were four porches at Hoe Kham. The front porch is for car, while the left and right porch are towers with dome at top, decorated by stucco. The windows and doors are with pointed arch. Gable is found at the main building with dome at the centre of the roof.
14 William Clifton Dodd. Translated by Nibhaednitisan (Huadlee Hutagowit) ( ^=6 ( 3 T W O 6), . The Tai Race-The Elder Brother of the Chinese. 1968. BKK. p 180.
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Figure 4-14: Hoe Kham of Keng Tung in western style.
Figure 4-15: The front view of Hoe Kham of Keng Tung in Western style mixed with Indian Mugal style, with three domes on the top of the roof.
From: Susan Conway Shan. Culture, art and craft. BKK: River Book. 2006.
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Figure 4-16: The temporary building of Hoe Kham. during when the new western style of Hoe Kham was built.
From: Susan Conway Shan. Culture, art and craft. BKK: River
Figure 4-17: The throne hall of Keng Tung From: Susan Conway Shan. Culture, art and craft. BKK: River Book. 2006.
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Figure 4-18: The dome of the sacred building at Kajuraho, Mathya Phradesh India. It
showing the relationship between Indian architecture and the architectural style of Ho Kham.
This Hoe Kham was used as a city hall and for royal ceremonies. Thada Khunsukmengrai ( U = ) described Hoe Kham that “the main hall at the front is for Chao Fa Ratana Kon Kaew Inthalang ( > 5 ), the governor of Keng Tung.Tthe second floor is the throne hall, with two rooms for two angels at two sides, as well as the rooms for the princes and princesses. At the front of the throne hall is the private area of the 15 governor, with two rooms at each side for the consorts, and those of princesses.” The relationship between Chiang Mai and Keng Tung was reintroduced, after war, by the wedding ceremony, such as that of Chao Fa Muang Lek Bhrom Lue ( > = = ) and Princess Tippawan Na Lampamg ( , = 2 2 ) in 1922 (=. . ) and that of Chao Intanon, the Prince of Chao Kaew Nawarat ( ) and Chao Nang Sukhantha ( ), the Princess of Chao Fa Ratana Kon Kaew in Thalang in 1933 (=. . ), at Hoe Kham. During the World War II, the Thai Army, led by General Phin Chunhawan (= T ; 2 2), beat Keng Tung on 26 May 1942 so as to govern Keng Tung, which was called “Saharat Thai Derm ( / )” , which means the United States of Original Tai-Dai ethich group. Chao Muang Lek Bhrom Lue and Chao Tippawan were invited to be the governor of Keng Tung and General Phin Chunhawan became the Grand Chamberlain of Saharat Thai
15 Thieanchai Aksorndit. Ibid., p 79.
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Derm. When Japan and Germany lost in the World War II, Keng Tung was given back to the United Nations and England influenced on Keng Tung again. After Burma was free from England, Navin performed the coup d’état against Ou Ong San and ended the relationship with other countries. This also means that the absolute monarchy of Keng Tung was ended. Moreover, in 1992, Hoe Kham was destroyed by the Burmese government, hence the symbol of Keng Tung court and its centre was totally collapsed.
Figure 4-19: The condition of the road to Keng Tung during the World War II Source: National Archive, Fine Art Department, Ministry of Culture
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Cultural landscape in rural context Geographically, Keng Tung town is surrounded by mountain ranges which become natural fortification to protect the city from invaders. From the tales about Keng Tung, it was said that this area used to be under water, surrounded by mountain ranges which were also the natural water dike of the lake. When the power of merit came and let the water flow out of the dike, the area then became an appropriate land for agriculture which was at the same time, for the settlement of the people. Keng Tung is now more than 700 years old with agriculture as the product to feed the city. For this study, rural area surrounding Keng Tung is focused and then lead to the understanding of community settlement. Moreover, Keng Tung is a city of Ched Chiang or seven communities in the city walls, each community comprises number of villages, which is pronounced “Mu Wan ( )”1 by Dai Khoun – Dai Yai, the local people. From the field studies, “Vieng ( T )”, the ancient town, was found. Archaeologically, Vieng comprised rampart and moat. Called “Kue ($ )”, Adjacent to this area was the escarpment which led to agricultural area outside the city walls. When communities expanded, such agricultural area was moved to the area outside the city walls because the land inside was for residences and trading. Demographically, people in Keng Tung are from different ethnic groups, such as Dai Khoun ( ), Dai Yai ( ` , ), Dai Lue ( ), Lawa ( ), Burmese ( ), and other ethnic groups. Each group settles down in the same village. However, geographical factors also affect people’s settlement. For example, Tai groups are mostly on the plateau for farming while ethnic groups like An ( ), Akha ( ), or Lawa ( ) are on the mountain ranges, earning for their living by farming and planting teas. For this study, Dai Khoun is focused as they are the main population who shaped Keng Tung landscape. To study cultural landscape in rural context, the case studies of communities who settle down on the route to other areas are concerned. From figure in next page, it can be seen that Keng Tung is on the south of large area. There are main routes to different directions. That is, on the north of Nong Pha Gate, there is a route to Muang Yang, the north of Pa Maan Gate leads to Muang La, and there is the route at the south of Tha Khi Lek ( T )= called by Burmese Ta Chilek.
1 Sao Zawtika, Sao Khun Zwom Fah Muangmitt. Two language Dai-Tai ( - ).
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It can be seen from the map that the north of the city is a large plateau for farming, hence communities are found here. Also, water management system called “Muang Fai ( < )” is found, for both agriculture and consumption.
1. Village location Generally, the landscape inside and outside the city walls of Keng Tung are different in terms of topography. Two types of settlement in Keng Tung are found, comprising that the village settled down on the plain area and the village settled down on the hill. According to the field studies it was found that the oldest house of each village is on the hill, followed by the less ancient, like the settlement of people in every village.
1.1 The village settled down on the plain area Communities on the plain area are found along the Nam Khoun River ( ) and the Larb River ( ), as well as the streams resulted by their water management. Old houses are usually on the hill as the plain area is for agriculture. However, due to some limited geographical aspects, communities along the river also faced the flood. Fortunately, their updated skills on architecture as houses on stilts can relieve such problem.
Figure 4-21: The illustration shows the village which is settled down on the plain area
1.2 The village settled down on the hill Houses in this type of village are scattered away from the city as the plain area is already for agriculture. This type of village is less ancient than that on the plain area. Temples are found on the hill, followed by houses. Artesian well is for water management instead of Muang Fai ( < ).
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Figure 4-22: The illustration shows the village which is settled down on the hill
2. Village planning Two types of village planning are found, they are “traditional village planning (; )” and “new village planning in grid pattern (; ` `
)”. In other words, the traditional one is about villages which are developed along with the coming routes while the new one is about villages whose routes are specified first, followed by the construction of new houses.
Figure 4-23: Village planning: (left) Linear, (center) Star, (right) Grid
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For this study, both two types of village planning are studied, based on the case studies on “Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai – Khern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung ( : ,, = = = 5 T ` - T )” by Professor Emeritus Ornsiri Panin and the research team, as well as the field studies. 2.1 Traditional village planning For traditional village planning, the case studies on Wan Mao Village ( ) and Wan Den Chang Village ( ) by Professor Emeritus Ornsiri Panin and the research team are concerned, as well as the field studies.
Figure 4-24: Traditional village planning: (left) Wan Mao Village (Right) Wan Den Chang Village. Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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Example1: Wan Mao Village ( ) Wan Mao Village ( ) is on the north of Keng Tung, along the road to Muang Yang ( ), at Nong Pha Gate ( ; ). The settlement of this village was about a handred years ago.2 The traditional village planning is found. (See Figure 4-25, Page 95) The routes in the village are not large, just for cattle and the use of “Loe ( )” for cart used for agricultural products. The routes also connect to other villages for people who usually walk, not for industrial vehicles which are used later. As Wan Mao is located on the plain area of the Khoun River, irrigation system ( < ) is prepared for the consumption. It can be seen that irrigation ditches ( ) from the Khoun River and irrigation dikes are generally found to raise water level which then flows to ditches. There is a large pond of the village to keep water before irrigating it to ditches connected to houses and farms. Village layout consists of the open space called “Khong Wan: the Village’s open space ( )”, “Hoe Sue Wan and Hoe Tevala Wan: community spirit house ( )”, and “Ton Mai Long: sacred tree ( )”. Temples are community centers. Small ponds are scattered in the east area as the land. There is swamp and there can be flood in rainy season. Utility forest and bamboo forest are to specify the village and its agricultural area.
2 Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK. Silpakorn University. P. 112.
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Example 2: Wan Den Chang Village ( ) Wan Den Chang ( ) is situated along the Larb River ( ), one important of Nam Khoun flood plain. The village is along the contour line of the land which is from the deposition of river sediment made by the erosion from the Larb River. Hence the orientation of building is parallel the contour line to be more suitable for the settlement. This leads to the concept of cultural landscape that the workforce of local people should be for other activities also such as for those in the paddy field. However, for religious buildings, people are willing to participate in the construction even though it consumes a lot of workforce. The pond is found at the south as the catchment for utilization. The wells for aquatic animals are found here as well. At the northwest are the utility forest and bamboo forest which, at the same time, are the natural fence for village and agricultural area. The open space of this village is not used much as it is swamp and is also a seasonal pond. The planning of this village has been developed. That is, new houses are along new routes. This village reflects well the traditional village planning which is adjacent to its surroundings, along with some changes made by the coming development.
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Figure 4-25: Traditional village planning of Wan Mao Village Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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Figure 4-26: Traditional village planning of Wan Den Chang Village. Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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2.2 New Village Planning in grid pattern
For new village planning in grid pattern, case studies on Wan Lao Village by Professor Emeritus Ornsiri Panin and the research team are concerned as well as the field studies.
Figure 4-27: New village planning (left) Wan Lao (Right) Wan Nong Or Village. Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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Example 3: Wan Lao Village ( ) The planning of Wan Lao Village ( ) in grid pattern is a modern planning and needs heavy vehicles to prepare and adjust the plot of land, then the land is separated into parts by the crossing roads. Even though the planning of Wan Lao Village is in grid pattern, such planning still has some relationship with its geographical aspects. That is, the village is along the Larb River, which is at the southeast of the village. The north is the temple as the land is higher than that of people. To settle along the river can help limit and save the workforce. However, this is exceptional for temple as it is the community centre. The principle building of temple always faces the east.
Example 4: Wan Nong Or Village ( )
Wan Nong Or Village’s planning is also in grid pattern. This village has been settled for 20 years, on the road to Muang Yang. The old village always faced flood problem, then people moved to the new area, during the period when economic and society have developed.
Grid pattern can affect the physical aspects of community, as well as local people’s behaviors. For instance, each house has its fence while the public space or “Khong ( )” has disappeared, hence activities for local people have also disappeared.
The roads in the village are large and are direct and straight roads, not twisted along houses in the village. This affects ways of living, too, for instance people use big vehicles and drive fast. The route where people can meet, such as morning markets, have disappeared while privacy and individuality increase.
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Figure 4-28: New village planning of Wan Lao Village Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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Figure 4-29: New village planning of Wan Nong Or Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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In addition, from the field studies of surrounding villages, it is found that old houses have traditional planning as the routes can connect houses altogether. The grid pattern is found in new houses along new roads to support the expansion of the village. Transportation routes become the main factor for the construction of new houses. Physical change in the village also affects local life and their intangible cultural heritage. The clearly seen example is the fence of each house which separates people in the house to the area outside. Relationship among people declines. The boundary of private space and public space becomes clearer. The fence of houses, which can be considered fence of life, make the junction, which used to be the meeting area, becomes just the transportation route and becomes an absolutely public space. The spirit of the space belong to community has been destroyed because the notion on private space and public space is more concerned, not anymore the relationship among local people. In other words, the space belong to community can raise awareness of local people in terms of the sense of belonging which can then lead to the maintenance made by people who are members of community. When such space becomes just the public space, the sense of belonging is not stirred, and moreover, can finally be faded from the community because it is replaced by privacy.
3. Village elements
From the field studies, the village elements are as follows: 3.1 Sacred place and sacred space 3.1.1 Village’s temple: the heart of community Wat (Temple) is the Buddhist area and monastery, usually comprising Ubosot: ordination hall, Vihara, Chedi, and monastery quarter for monks. For Tai–Dai groups, whose religion is Buddhism, Wat is community centre as a sacred place and a learning and studying place. Boys in community will enter the novice and continue to the monkhood. Also, Wat is for religious ceremonies for people in communities. From the field studies, every village has its own Wat. The newly–settled community will go to the temple nearby, but when people are stable enough, Wat of their community will then be built.
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Wat is always on the highest area as it is believed that people cannot build houses on the same level of Wat’s. Furthermore, it is also believed that run off water from houses should not flow to Wat, hence the location of Wat must be on high area. In addition, monks are to give the speech of the Lord Buddha, so their social status is higher as well. Run-off water from the rain to houses is considered impure. If it flows to Wat, people in community will not be prosperous, so people are willing to build their houses on the lower area. Moreover, Wat on high area is the land mark of community. Belief in the location of Wat and houses directly affect people’s settlement. For example, Chiang Tang Village ( T ) is an old village whose village layout needs to be expanded. Due to limited plot of land, new houses need to be higher than Wat, hence people agreed to relocate Wat to a higher plot of land. However, if community is on the plain area where the high land cannot be found, Wat is then separated from the village, but not too far for people to go and make merit.
Figure 4-30: Wat Gad Tai is located far away form the center of Keng Tung. The location of the temple is on the top of the hill, surrounded by community and the agriculture cultivation area. The photo was taken by the author during the grand festival of new Vihara called “Poi Luang Vihara ( )” Festival.
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Figure 4-31: Wat Kad Tai is located on the highest point of the village. From the temple compound, the lower steps for the settlement and paddy fields are seen.
Figure 4-32: Vihara of Wat Chiang Tang is an example of the original Tai Kern style in Keng Tung. Right now it is the heritage at risk because the community would like to build the new temple located at the highest point of the community following their tradition and believe.
Wan Jai and village’s temple” Wan Jai is the Dai Khoun village located on the flood plain and the hill is quite far from the village location. According to the belief of community, the temple on the higher site, but it is im ore, the community was built the temple a little far form the community to seperate the relationship from the village.
Passageway, connecting the Van Jai village and its temple. 105
Ho Tevala Wan ( ) and Sao Jai Ban ( ` ): the central spirit of community People in South East Asia generally believe in supernatural phenomena although Buddhism are their religion. For belief in supernatural phenomena of Keng Tung people, it can be categorized into two groups which are belief in supernatural guardian spirit called “Tevala ( 6 )” and belief in supernatural spirit which troubles people called “Phee (;T)”. However, Phee can be guardian spirit if people offer them properly. For “Tevala Wan ( )” or “Sua Wan ( )”, it is believed to be the spirit which protects people in community. There is a spirit house for them called Ho Tevala Wan or Ho Sue Wan. Tevala Wan or Sue Wan can be the soul of the ancestor whose morality and kindness were given to local people, such as the leader of the settlement. Tevala Wan or Sue Wan can also be the soul in the area before the village came. This can also be called “A–rak ( H )” which means guardian. Each village has its own Tevala Wan or Sue Wan to protect and bring people prosperity and happiness. Tevala Wan which is believed as local people’s ancestor also reflects people’s generosity and esprit de corp. It is believed that people need to help one another in the same family from their birth to their death.
From the field studies, there are two types of the spirit house or Ho Tevala: at the village centre and with big tree. Public space called “Khong Wan ( )” is in the same area of the spirit house for people’s ritual and activities. Ho Tevala at the village centre is believed to be originated from “Sao Jai Wan ( ` )”, a wooden pillar at the village centre. This can be influenced by the belief in spiritual mountain mentioned in religious literature, such as that of Buddhism cosmology which stated that the centre of the universe is Mount Meru. Beside, the belief in erecting Sao Jai Wan can be from the erection of Sao Sa Kang, a spiritual post of Lua people who had been living in that area before the settlement of Tai–Dai groups.
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For Lua people, “Sao Sa Kung ( )” symbolizes their head of community. New Sao Sa Kang was erected when they got a new leader. The area where Sao Sa Kang situated was for ritual. However, at present , Sao Jai Wan is erected like Ho Sua or Ho Tevala Wan, so people of new generation do not know Jai Wan, but Ho Tevala instead.3
Figure 4-35: Sao Sakang ( ) is the sacred pillar of the Lua Community. The post means the leader of the community. When they change the new leader of the community they have to build the new pillar. The photo was taken from Lawa village, Ban Mued Long ( ) , Mae Jam District, Chiang Mai.
3 From interview Ay Juay Kham, Age 32 years old. 1 January 2007.
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Figure 4-36: Sao Jai Ban is located in the middle of community, in an open space. The shape of the pillar looks like the roof of the sacred building showing the influence from the concept of sacred mountain in the Buddhist literature and also showing the development of form to be the form of sacred house. The photo was taken by the author from the Van Pa Ka Village ( ). located in the north of Keng Tung in the special autonomous region of Mong La.
Figure 4-37: The spirit house of Ho Tevala Ban of Figure 4-38: The spirit house of Van Jai is Van Chiang San is located in the community forest located under the jujube tree. The house is near the village, built by brick and cement coated. made by the recycled materials.
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3.2 The public space in rural context 3.2.1 Circulation Circulation routes of old villages are small in width and twisted along the location of houses. This reflects well there was no master plan for village settlement. Each family chose their proper plot of land, then routes were created to connect people in the same village as narrow walking trails, but than are developed for vehicles. The twisted routes can also be resulted from limited geographical area. As the plain area is for agriculture, the routes to the areas at different levels of height need to be adjusted. However, it was not convenient for people in the past due to the lack of workforce and tools. In addition, the circulation routes in the past were not large or wide as big vehicles were not used. Routes were prepared also for cart with animals or cattles.
Figure 4-39: Local vehicle: harness a cart with cow or buffalo
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3.2.2 “Khong ( )”: a public open space occupied by people in community “Khong ( )” is a multi–purpose open space, for example “Khong Wan ( )” is for ceremonies or “Khong Na Wat ( )” is for religious ritual. Due to types of everyday life activities done at Khong, it reflects ways of life and relationship of people in community, including ritual, belief, tradition, etc. Khong of village is usually at the area where circulation routes meet. Hence, it is where people usually meet and finally becomes a multi–purpose area. In addition, from the field studies, the spirit house and sacred tree are also found at Khong. The tree at Khong is considered sacred. This might be because it is a big tree in public space, so people do not cut it. Tai Khoun people do not cut big tree, especially Bodhi tree and Banyan tree due to the belief that there is spirit inside such tree, like what is said by local people that “Mai Hung Mee Phee Mai Salee Mee Phra ( M T;T T T= )” which means the Banyan tree is for supernatural being and A– rak ( H ) and Bodhi tree is the symbol of Buddhism. As a result, this area does not belong to anyone, and finally become public space. Also, Khong can influence on people’s ways of life, especially the awareness in ownership. That is, everyone in community own the same public. When sense of belonging is stirred, people in community are willing to be responsible and participate in taking care of their belonging. This also stimulates relationship among people, that is, they also are willing to help one another with generosity which finally leads to happiness in community.
In addition, Khong is also for various purposes, for instance, it is the space for people to rest when they go to places in the village, it is the playground for children, it is for placing agricultural products, or it is the meeting area. Khong Wan is a public space belong to people in community. A lot of activities are done here, leading to interaction and relationship of local people, especially after working or farming. Khong Wan is the space for all groups of people despite differences in social status.
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Figure 4-40: The crossing circulations and paths in the village causing the origin of open space.
Figure 4-41: Celebration is also held at Khong Wan as it is a large area belong to members of community. From the figure, people celebrated for “Krua Tan ( )”, that is, they brought food and other necessary things to temple when religious buildings of their temple were complete as it is the community centre.
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Figure 4-42: Khong as the playground for the children in Figure 4-43: Khong as the small business the community area in the community.
Figure 4-44: “Khong Wan ( )” is a public space belong to people in community. A lot of activities are done here, leading to interaction and relationship of local people, especially after working or farming. It can be seen from the figure that a noviced monk is talking to his mother. Khong Wan is the space for all groups of people despite differences in social status.
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3.2.3 Nam Bo ( ): the well The well, called “Nam Bo ( )”, is one element of the village, especially that on the hill without Muang Fai ( < ) water management. Nam Bo is a part of the life, for both utilization and consumption. In the past, to dig the well was very tough, local wisdom and resources were necessary. That is, local people needed to look for the source of the underground water, and this skill can be learnt from the predecessors. Then workforce must be prepared, both men who worked in the site and women who worked in the kitchen, preparing meals for men. As a result, the well belong to everyone in the village. It is usually situated in the public open space like Khong Wan ( ), at the village centre, or Khong Na Wat ( ), in front of the temple. In the other words, the well is also the indicator for the village’s public open space. The value and meaning of Nam Bo can also be found in the cultural landscape of the rural context. That is, the neat and elaborated construction was done at the well to prevent the a water from being polluted by dust, moreover it can be the landmark of community and can also be a precaution for accident as it is a safety sign in Khong, a playground of children.
Figure 4-45: “Ao Rang ( )” is the cooperation of people in community. They participated in restoring their Nam Bo. It can be seen from Figure 4-46 that the volunteer were cleaning the well
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Figure 4-46: People in community were working altogether to construct the pavilion to cover the well.
Figure 4-47: The construction to cover the well can be designed differently, but reflects the unique cultural landscapes of each village. From left figure, brick structure and coated cement are used along with tiger statue, signifying the year of construction based on belief in Chinese zodiac. From right figure, The gable roof is use to cover and prevent the well from dirt.
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3.2.4 Vernacular house and its layout plan
According to the field study and survey in Shan State and the western part of Yunnan, it was found that the village layouts and house characteristics of Tai–Dai groups are nearly the same, due to their same types of geographical factors and ways of life. Specifically, the orientation of the house, pronounced “Huen ( M )”, is that the house faces the main circulation route, along with the following elements: - Ho Huen ( M ): the low fence surrounding a house; - Khoung Huen ( M ): a multi–purpose open space in the layout of each house; - Yea Kaw ( ): the rice barn; and - Suan Krua ( ): the kitchen garden
Figure 4-48: The illustration showing the section of the house and its component
- Low fence surrounding a house Small fence is to separate each house. The fence is from material available in the area like bamboo. The hedge, called “Ho Huen ( M )” is also found. Generally, the fence is to indicate the boundary of each house or to specify or separate the area. For Keng Tung, the fence is also to indicate the boundary of each house, not to prevent the house from invaders. In other words, people in villages in Keng Tung are usually the relatives or from the same families since their ancestors, The fence is from easily–found materials, just to indicate their houses, due to belief that “good neighbors and relatives are better than the fence”. In addition, the fence is also to prevent cattle or pets which can destroy agricultural products or the kitchen garden in the house area. Short fence is generally found to prevent pigs from invading agricultural areas or temples.
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Bushes are sometimes found along the fence as ornamental plants. Creepers are also found at the fence. Plants theta can be used for cooking are also found such as hot and sweet basil ( = = ), hairy basil ( ), coccinia indica ( U ), and pumpkin (> ). Ho Huen is one element for Keng Tung cultural landscapes. Both tangible and intangible culture are underlaid, such as relationship among people in the same village. They trust one another and help one another take care of themselves, so dogs are not the pet here.
Figure 4-49: It is the sketch of Ho Huen made of Figure 4-50: It is the sketch of Ho Huen with
other plants available in the area. As the fence cane bamboo called “Mai Hear ( M )”T or “Mai Huak ( M )”. The formation of this type of fence can bring is made of the remains from the construction, the sense of privacy to the residents inside the the added plants on the fence can destroy the enclosure space. untidy fence behind.
Figure 4-51: “Ho Ta Sang ( )” is fence Figure 4-52: Caladium and taro is on the fence where there is from bamboo where light can pass. This type enough moisture. This causes the depth to the fence, and, of fence is just to identify the boundary, so it moreover, can be utilized and eaten. does not need a lot of materials.
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Figure 4-53: Ho Kaw ( ) is Figure 4-54: Ho Ta Sang ( ) is made of cleaved bamboo to made of wood and bamboo to prevent pigs.
Figure 4-56: The fence is to identify Figure 4-55: The bamboo fence is to prevent chickens from the boundary between private and scrabbling and destroying the kitchen garden. public area, then lead to clearer circulation routes in the village.
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Figure 4-57: The fence is not only to prevent invaders,
but it can also be used to place clothes.
- Khoung Huen ( M ): the private open space
“Khoung Huen ( M )”, or “Wang Huen ( M )”, is an open space on the plot of land of each house. This space is for activities, including tradition and belief, recreation, washing, fixing agricultural equipments, as well as meeting areas for members of the family and receiving informal guests. Khoung Huen is the area between the setback of the house and the fence or circulation route. This area can be that between each house in the same cluster as member of houses are relatives. Even though houses in the village are separated from one another, physically, Khoung Hen is the linkage for such flow of space. In addition, such space is helpful in terms of hygienic condition due to sunlight and proper ventilation in each season. Moreover, moisture does not harm the house as the rainwater can be drained to the area outside. Khoung is also the area where house elements are situated, such as Yea Kaw ( ): the rice barn, Nam Bo ( ): the well, Tom Nam ( ): the bathroom, Suan Krau ( ): the kitchen garden, as well the cattle pen.
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Figure 4-59: Khoung Huen ( M ) is a multi–purpose area, usually found at the front of the house, adjacent to the circulation route.
Figure 4-60: Khoung Huen ( M ) and Yea Kaw ( ) are at the front of the house, facing the circulation route, in order to be more convenient when taking rice to the house. (The right construction is Yea Kaw).
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Figure 4-61: Khong Huen ( M ) are also for informally receiving guests and being recreation area. It can be seen from the figure that the soil around the house is dug for rainwater drainage.
Figure 4-62: Khong Huen ( M ) is also to Figure 4-63: Din Khoe tiles ( ) are also place agricultural products during daytime. made at Khoung in Yang Goang Village
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- Yea Kaw ( ): the rice barn The rice barn can be called “Yea Kaw ( )” or “Lhong Kaw ( )”. It is one important element for agricultural community, and, moreover can indicate how each house is. For example stable and strong barn can represent the stability of the family. The family that stores their rice in a storage in cylinder shape made of bamboo called “Sa Viean Kaw ( T )” , means a new family and can mean that family is in not fertile area. Rice barn is usually at one side of the front area, but not far from the entrance for the convenience when taking rice to the barn. The rice barn is eminent in terms of architecture. That is, the high lower part can be for multi purposes, like to keep away rice from the moisture, to prepare smoke when there are humidity and insects during rainy season, or to prevent pests by using metal plates at each post then pests like rats cannot climb onto the rice. In addition, the height of the rice barn is related to the cart. Also, the area at this lower part can be for feeding pets or storing equipments or tools for agriculture. Another significant architectural characteristic of the rice barn is that the hardwood is used and the wooden structure is huge although the architectural mass of the barn itself is not that big. The hardwood as building structure is at the exterior, which is different from other buildings, so as to bear the loads of rice with pressure inside. The hip gable roof is at the rice barn so as to prevent humidity. The hip roof can prevent rainwater while a small gable above the hip roof is for air ventilation and relieving moisture from the barn. The wall materials can classified in two types which are boarding wood called “Mai Pan
( )” and Bamboo cleave called “Mai Fag ( > )” The use of these two types of wood causes the space, so cow dung mixed with mud is coated at the interior wall to prevent rice from leaking from the barn.
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Figure 4-64: The rice barn is at the open space at the front. It is in huge wooden structure to bear loads of rice. Boarding wood and cleaved bamboo is for the walls, coated by cow dung mixed with mud. Zinc plates are at the posts to prevent pest to go upstairs. The lower part is for cattle due to the eaves to protect then from sunlight at daytime and dew at nighttime.
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Figure 4-65: The side view of the rice barn shows well the wooden structure, with cleaved bamboo called “Mai Fag ( > )”. The gable roof with some space under the gable is to prevent the rainwater while the projecting roof is added to keep equipments and tools used for agriculture beneath. The lower situates the pig pen.
Figure 4-66: Under the projecting roof is the flail called “Krog Mong ( )”. Baked clay tiles called “Din Khoe ( )” are for the roof of the main building while straw called “Fueng ( > )” is for the newly added roof.
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Figure 4-67: The rice barn and the open space Figure 4-68: Easily–built barn is called “Sa are kept tidy and clean. The gable is for the Vien Kaw ( T )”, a storage for rice barn with small space under the gable to cylinder shape made of bamboo. It is a
prevent rainwater. Baked clay tiles are for the temporary building for new family whose roof. The lower part is for storing equipments members are not stable and ready to build and tools for agriculture. the rice barn.
- Suan Krua ( ): the kitchen garden From the field studies, it was found that the kitchen garden is one element of the house area, but it was not found in every house as the plots of land of some houses are not large. Necessary factors or elements for houses are in the area of the house plan. For the kitchen garden, which is not considered being compulsory, it usually is located near the farm outside the village. For the kitchen garden in the area of the house, it is found near the washing area or the well, along with the area for feeding pigs and chickens. However, the fence is done to prevent them from destroying plants in the kitchen garden. Plants in the kitchen garden are usually for food such as lettuce (; ), cabbage ( ), hot bazil ( = ), sweet bazil ( = ), lemon grass ( ), lemon ( ), chilly ( ;= ), eggplant ( T ), pumpkin (> ), banana ( ), etc.
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Figure 4-69: Fence around the kitchen garden means the activity of this house is not plant the kitchen garden, but also feed animal such as pigs and chickens.
Figure 4-70: Mixed kitchen garden Figure 4-71: Kitchen garden is located near the well and the kitchen of the house because this area is very humid
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Agricultural cultural landscape It was stated in agricultural theory that people freely lived their lives with surroundings, subsists on hunting and gathering, then settled down, and planted as well as did animal hunter. The settlement of people in South East Asia also began with agriculture.
Plantation or horticulture Horticulture is low intensity, small scale agriculture involving the use of relatively small fields, plots or garden.1 For Keng Tung, its overall area is surrounded by agricultural area, then there are only few plots of land left for people’s settlement. Rice fields are on the slope of surrounding mountain ranges.
1. Slope area and terrace plantation The plantation on slope area of Keng Tung can be categorized into two groups. The first one is slash and burn plantation, mostly by people of ethnic groups. This type of farming does not need a lot of water, called “Kaw Hai ( M )”. The other is tea plantation, mostly by Lawa people on the mountain ranges surrounding Keng Tung since the past. However, when Tai-Dai, especially Dai Khoun, came, the valley became the area for their plantation. Rice fields needed to be expanded to the slope, with terrace paddy field, which then was developed and became water management for farming on slope. It can be seen that the cultural landscape on the slope was first developed by selecting appropriate type of rice. When resources become available, workforce management was done and has been adapted; especially the adjustment of the soil and area, which then brought the terrace paddy field, called “Na Pap Lan ( = )” which goes compatibly with life on slope. However, the paddy field cannot be done in the area of high steep or slope as the terrace field to keep water for the field cannot be done. Hence the areas on high steep or slope are for other kinds of rice. The terrace paddy field reflects people’s local wisdom which is adjustable for limitation factors which affect their ways of life. Such local wisdom, called cultural landscape, has been given, along with adaption, to the following generations of Keng Tung.
1 Mark Q. Sutton and E.N. Anderson. Introduction to Cultural Ecology. Altamira press. p. 187.
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Figure 4-72: The agricultural landscape of rice terrace.
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Figure 4-73: The photo shows different types of rice cultivation in Keng Tung.
Rice terrace
Paddy Field
Figure 4-74: The illustration shows the rice cultivation in Keng Tung
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2. Cultivation on plain area Agricultural cultural landscape of Keng Tung is found in the plain area around the city. This type of cultural landscape is considered interesting as it is dynamic, in other words, movement and difference are found in different seasons. In Keng Tung, steep mountain ranges are in the south, with less steep and slope to the north. As a result, the Khoun River, and others including, the Khun Long River ( ), the Khoun Noi River ( ), and the Larb River ( ) run to the north. This also brings about the plain area along the river in the north of Keng Tung. (See figure 4-75, page 131) Such geographical aspects cause the large plateau in the north. This area is appropriate for agriculture as it is from and along the rivers. Large area for agriculture made people move from the south to agricultural area, and then communities expand to rural areas. It can be seen from Figure 4-76, page 131, which the settlement scattered in the plain area of Keng Tung (indicated in yellow). Villages are along the rivers, and it can be seen from Figure 4-77, page 132, that the wells are found not far from the river so as to keep water during rainy season and to use in dry season (See blue water body.) the plateau of Keng Tung and plain areas in mountain ranges, connected by rivers which run to the Khoun River, are indicated in white. Appropriate land for agriculture with water, along with resource management makes Keng Tung people able to do agricultural activities all year long. They can do the farming twice a year, called “Khao Na Pee ( )” and “Khao Na Dor ( )”. However, during seasons when water is not enough, they can grow crops like corn and watermelon instead.
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Figure 4-75: The map shows the flood plain of Nam Khoun watershed. There are Nam Khoun Long ( ), Nam Khoun Noi ( )and Nam Larb ( ).
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Figure 4-76: The map shows the flood plain of Nam Khoun watershed. The villages are indicated in yellow. Water bodies are indicated in blue and the water management system in the cultivation area.
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Figure 4-77: The map shows the water management system called “Muang Fai ( < )”. The location of the water dike called “Fai (< )” are indicated in red spot.
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“Muang Fai ( < )”: the traditional knowledge and wisdom on water management system Not only good land which affects life, but also efficiency in resource management which must be considerate, especially water management. Irrigation in form of “Muang Fai ( < )“ is a solution to solve problems made by nature. It is the local wisdom made by relationship between human beings and nature in order to live compatibly with limitations while traditional beliefs are retained. One eminent and important water management of Keng Tung is the irrigation dike system. Irrigation dike, called “Fai (< )”, is built to cross the waterway to raise the water level above the dike which then runs through irrigation canal, called “Lam Muang ( )”. The rest of the water then overflows to the frontal part of the dike, then run to streams. Materials which are available in the area are used for the construction of the dike, called “Tee Fai ( T< )”. Local people help one another for the construction because they all can use water, which runs along irrigation canal, twisted along the contour line of the area of different levels, and the rice fields are priority. Such management needs understanding in geographical aspects and surroundings which has been with Keng Tung society for hundreds years. From the field studies and photographs from the satellite, it was found that Nam Khoun watershade owns irrigation canals which connect one another like spider web, along with a lot of dikes, indicated in red dots in figure 4-78, page 134. In short, the dike is the junction for irrigation canals to different directions.
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Figure 4-78: The map shows water management system, called “Muang Fai ( < )”. The location of the water dike called “Fai (< )” are indicated in red spot.
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Figure 4-79: The locals helpbuild and fix the water dike yearly before agricultural season.
Figure 4-80: The irrigation system flows through the agricultural areas and the village.
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Figure 4-81: Behind the dike is the higher level of water used for generating electricity for the village.
Figure 4-82: The alignment of vein along the irrigation canal represents the ancient irrigation system in this area.
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“Nong Nam ( )”: the water body in landscape Besides Muang Fai system, wells are generally found to store water for utilization during dry season, especially for agricultural activities including feeding animals like ducks and fish. From the field studies, ancient water bodies with wells were found a lot. However, they are far from villages, so it could be assumed that such wells were for animals. From the map, Figure 4-77, it can be seen that Nam Khoun watershade is the centre for water management, and Muang Fai system has been used, indicated in red dots. In addition, resources of water, like wells, scattered, especially in the area near the rivers.
Figure 4-83: The pond of Chiang San Village is the area for aquatic animals and consumption in the village.
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Figure 4-84: The map shows the water bodies on the surface located on the track of ancient river.
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Figure 4-85: The ponds for the aquaculture.
Figure 4-86: “Ho Sue Nong ( )” , is built Figure 4-87: "Talaew ( )”, the symbolic of by bamboo. protection, woven by bamboo.
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Figure 4-88: The locals drain water from the pond during the end of dry season then store water in rainy season for fishing.
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Architecture in rice culture “Hang Na ( )”: the shelter in agricultural landscape Due to the fact that rice is for the life of Tai–Dai groups, their societies and activities for life are related to rice, including lifestyles, ritual, and traditions. “Rice culture” also affects the cultural landscape of these Tai–Dai groups, both their agricultural culture mentioned, and the following – mentioned architecture. As people settled altogether in groups, agricultural areas were then around the village and expanded away when the communities got bigger. As a result, from the field studies, it was found that some villages separate from the old ones as agricultural area are too far from them. As a result, they settled down in the new area which is not too far from the area for agriculture. However, to separate and settle in other area depends on many affecting factors. Many communities still settle altogether even though agricultural areas are far from their villages. Hence a temporary residence in agricultural area is built, called “Hang Na ( )”. Hang Na is a shelter which is not very stable. It is for rest at noon or night during the harvesting season. Hang Na is a semi pavilion with one or two walls. The lower part is high for people to rest beneath. The materials for the construction are available in the area. The structure of the building can be both hardwood and bamboo, with straw roof. This is convenient and easy for its restoration.
Figure 4-89: Hang Na ( ) located in the paddy field.
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Figure 4-90: Hang Na ( ) is built by temporary materials.
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“Gang Fueng ( > )”: the straw barn Besides Hang Na, another type of architecture which is found in Keng Tung is the straw barn called Gang Fueng ( > ). It is a temporary building from bamboo with high rise at the lower part, without any wall. This type of building is not for rest, it is just for keeping straw after harvesting as straw can be used for the livestock during dry period when grass are not available. The part is to prevent animals from eating the straw inside and to be prepared for humidity. There are fences around Gang Fueng.
Figure 4-91: Gang Fueng ( > )
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Seasonal and agricultural landscape One significant aspect of cultural landscape on agricultural area is it typical aspects of land in different seasons. Seasons are important for the change of cultural landscape. Notably, physical changes occur at plants at different times, since they were grown until they were harvested. Each area supports different types of plants at different periods.
Figure 4-92: The village in suburbs and the paddy field around the village varies in different seasons. One of important attribute of cultural landscape in agricultural area is alteration in various seasons.
Figure 4-93: The paddy field after being harvested becamethe areafor plantation of crops like corn, watermelon and vegetables in other seasons.
Figure 4-94: The paddy field around the village during the harvesting season. The straw is for cattle during dry season.
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Figure 4-95: The village is surrounded by paddy field. This photo was taken during rainy season.
Figure 4-93: Crop rotation in the paddy field.
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Cultural landscape in urban context The cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung had been developed from the past until the present. When Phaya Mang Rai established the city, there were people settled down then the village to be the large-scale town. The movement of the people though their culture and the economic activities developed the geographical feature to be the cultural landscape. The town of Keng Tung can be called as the living historic town. The cultural landscape components in historic town Keng Tung urban context are: Sacred place - Temples and monasteries - Church and the other religious places - “Hor Sua ( )”: the spiritual shrine, “Mai Long ( )”: the sacred tree, and “Mai Mhay Moung ( )”: the auspicious tree of the city - “Ku Chao Fa ( > )”: Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum Open Spaces and Public Facilities - Circulation - Open Space - “Nong Nam ( )” and Green belt - “Sala ( )”: Open Air Pavilion - “Nam Bo ( )”: Water Well - “Kad ( )”: Market
Village - Historic village represent the traditional village planning context - New village represent the traditional planning context - New village represent the new village planning context (Grid pattern) Business district Streetscape, Land mark and important vista
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Sacred place The sacred places in historic town of Keng Tung can classified in 4 groups as following: - Temples and monasteries - Church and the other religious places - “Hor Sua ( )”: the spiritual shrine, “Mai Long ( )”: the sacred tree, and “Mai Mhay Moung ( )”: the auspicious tree of the city - Ku Chao Fa ( > ): Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum
Temples and monasteries Keng Tung is one of the cities which were founded during the same periods of other cities in Lanna, especially those that were under Chiang Mai, Such as Chiang Rai city. As a result, many temples in these cities have the same name, such as Wat Pa Dang ( ), Wat Phra Kaew ( = ), Wat Rajthan Long Hoe Khoang ( / ), Wat Phra Singha ( = ), etc. There are many reasons why temples in Keng Tung and other cities in Lanna own the same name. Firstly, it is aimed to reflect their relationship. Besides, the crown princes who were assigned to rule other cities also had the temples built in such cities. This tradition is nearly the same as the construction of Chedi of each city in the area of the Chao Phraya Basin. Secondly, the locations of temples lead to similar names of temples even though they are in different cities. For example, Wat Hoe Khoang is near the large open space or ground, such as Wat Hua Khoung ( ) of Chiang Mai, which was called “Hua Khoung Saen Muang Ma ( )”, near Chang Phuak Gate ( ; ). In the past, Hoe Kham was constructed near Wat Hua Khoung Saen Muang Ma, with the royal ground for ceremonies, like that of Sanam Luang in Bangkok of Rattankosin era. However, at present, the construction of buildings by private sectors are in the area of the royal ground, so the exact area of the royal ground cannot be specified anymore. Wat Hua Khuang are found in other provinces besides Chiang Mai, such as Muang Yong ( ), Lampang ( ), Phrae ( = ), Nan ( ), and Phayao (= )1. Wat Hua Khuang was also found in Keng Tung, but was called “Wat Rajthan Long Hoe Khoung ( / )”, which was supported by the king. It was near the royal ground and Hoe Kham. At present, it becomes the stadium of the city and its area is also for fairs. This also reflects the use of public space like that of the past. Thirdly, it was the temple of community or built by groups of people who moved and settled down in new areas, such as Wat Yang Guang ( ), a deserted temple in Chiang
1 un at i hiainkhaew. hiang Mai eo le ( ) Understanding the context of Chiang Mai ( ). KK Moung o an, . . .
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Mai which had some relationship with Wat Yang Guang ( ), which can be pronounced as Yang Goang ( ), in Yang Goang Village of Keng Tung, whose people earned for their living by the earthenware. When villagers of Yang Goang were chased to Chiang Mai during the reign of Phya Kawila, the temple was built, but had the old name to remind people of their origin and to be the community centre. All temples in Keng Tung at present are in good condition because of regular maintenance due to the belief that Buddhism temples should not be deteriorated. Old and decayed architectures in temple are not found. The temples in Keng Tung also following Lanna architecture. That is, Viharn is for the main Buddha image and for ceremonies. Ubosot is for monks only, hence it needs not be big. The main Chedi is on the main axis. However, Ubosot and Chedi are found only in some temples. From the study, it could be assumed that Ubosot and Viharn of temples in Keng Tung was in the same style of Lanna’s architecture, but do not exist anymore. Because Keng Tung was affected by many factors like politics and influence of myanmar’s culture, so Keng Tung architecture was affected as well. For instance, not only Lanna architecture was found in Keng Tung, but also Dai Yai, Dai Lue or Burmese architecture are also found in temples of Keng
Tung.
The temples in historic town of Keng Tung at present
There are 42 temples situated in the historic town of Keng Tung, including the ancient and new ones as community centre. However, they are not older than 100 years, especially Vihara, the principal building of the temple. During that period Keng Tung was the economic centre of East Shan state, along with support from Dai princes, Keng Tung governors, assigned by England. Churches in Western architectural style were also built for Christian people. This also affected the construction of Vihara and became popular as new style of Vihara, following Western styles. Temples of Keng Tung can be categorized into “temples of the city” and “temples of the village”, following the tradition of Lanna temples. Temples of the city in Keng Tung are “Wat Rajthan Long Chiang Yuen ( / T )”, “Wat Rajthan Long Hoe Kong ( / )”, “Wat Rajthan Long Padang ( / )”, “Wat Phra Keaw ( = )”, “Wat Phra Singha ( = )”, and “Wat Phra That Jom Kham ( = )”. The rest are temples of the village. It was found from the study that old temples, both mentioned in historical documents and old historical evidences like architecture, Buddha images, and pieces of art works, are in the city centre (see figure 4-97), indicated in blue while new temples are in red.
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It can be seen from the map that old temples are around the city centre. In other words, the city wall at the south was expanded to support the city growth. The area at the old city wall becomes the circulation route.
Table: List of temples and its location and layout plan No. Name in English Name in Thai Ref. Lay Out { p
{ L
[ p
[ p
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be 153
b ±
{ ±
L
± -
L -
L [
154
Le
s -
{ L
L V
p
155
[ p f¨
L
fµ
L
sL
156
{L
s
{
p
{ p
c f³ -
157
e
L Q±
L Q±
L Q±
{c
158
Location and boundary of temple Temple is a religious place of community. It is on the highest position of village area, the temple is separated from the community to indicate the difference between temple and houses. For the temple on the plain area, short fences are to specify the temple area with the main entrance at the same axis of Vihara. However, many other entrances are also found for much more convenience for people in community. For the shape of layout plan, no temple is in geometric plan, reflecting no plan for the aesthetic aspects, which is diffent from the layout plan of temples in Thailand. Hence, it can be concluded that the boundary of the temple and community is based on the land use. For temple in rural context whose density of settlement is a lot lowerr than that in urban context, the temple area is in square shape, which is not found in urban area as temple is surrounded by people’s settlement.
Layout planning In Thailand, the temple layout planning is separated into Budhavas (= ) area as Buddhist sacred space without residents and Sangavas ( % ) area for monks. For Keng Tung, those two specific areas in temple are not found, may be because: - The level of geographical space of Keng Tung are different, so to adjust the
land into symmetry plan is not convenient and need workforce to cut and fill
the land. - Most temples have been developed along with community development. When the community got more complex, the buildings of temples also increased, but in the adjacent unoccupied area, without planning. However, for important temples supported by the Courts of Keng Tung, the main axis of such temples was prepared, then Vihara and Chedi were on the axis. The scale and number of constituent buildings that the temple compound contained usually reflected their level within the system, with the height of the basement, the degree of eleboration of the tiered gable roofs, and the quantity and ornamentation.
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Figure 4-98: The illustration shows the temple planning: (left) Keng Tung’s temple layout, (center and right) Thailand’s temple layout.
Figure 4-99: The temple area of Wat Wan Saen ( ) is separated into Budhavas area ( = ) on the upper part and Sangavas area ( % ) at the lower part.
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Figure 4-100: The separation of space by the topography
However, it was also found that there are some temples which separate the temple area into Budhavas and Sangavas, but not in terms of horizontal separation like those of Thailand. Budhavas area in the historic town of Keng Tung is on the higher area than Sangavas area due to physical limitation on the hill. When the land is adjusted into the form of terrace, the position of building needs to be based on such terrace. This reflects the compatibility between limitation made by nature and the adaptation of ways of life to such limitation.
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Direction and orientation of the temple layout East is considered auspicious direction for Buddhism concept and this also influences the temple layout. That is, the temple always faces the east then the east and west axis is the main axis for the layout. However, due to limitation in terms of geographical aspects, some temples face other directions which are still acceptable. It was found from the study that the concept of auspicious direction influence on the temple layout and the orientation of the building rather than the accessibility to temple for people. For example, Wat Rajthan Luang Chiang Thoong ( / T ) faces the east which is the cliff but the village is on the hill at the west of the temple, so people need to enter the gate at the back of the temple.
Figure 4-101: Wat Rajthan Long Chiang Thoong ( / T ), follows the concept of auspicious direction, then the temple faces the east despite the cliff while the village is at the back of the temple, then another entrance at the back of the temple was done for people to go to temple for religious ritual. Figure 4-102: Vihara faces the east which is the cliff, so Buddhists need to use the back gate
Architectural components in temple layout Components in temple comprises architecture and architectural space. Architecture includes Chedi, Vihara, Ubosot, Bodhi tree, monastery called “Kuti ( . )”, toilet called “Vet Kuti ( = W-T)”, Kitchen called “Hong Krua ( M )”, building for monks to walk back and forth for meditation called “Hong Jong Krom ( )”, bathroom called “Tom Nam ( )”, etc. Architectural space is the temple’s open space called “Khoang Wat ( )”.
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The most significant building of the temple is Vihara which is for religious ritual made by monks for Buddhists. Vihara is at the main position of temple. From the study, it was found that Chedi is on the main axis, at the bacek of Vihara, such as Wat Rajthan Long Hua Khoang ( / ), Wat Ratchathan Long Chaing Yuen ( / T ), and Wat Pa Dang ( ) which were all supported by the governors in the past. It was also found that Vihara is a lot bigger than Chedi. Actually Vihara and Chedi were constructed in the same period, but when the community expanded, Vihara then needed to be expanded, but at the same position of the old Vihara while Chedi was not renovated.
PAST PRESENT
Figure 4-103: Vihara was expanded in the following period for the use of people in community which has been bigger while the scale of Chedi is still the same.
“Khoang Wat ( )”: the temple’s open space "Khoang ( )” , the open space, is a multi–purpose area for activities, like “Khoang Wan ( )” and “Khoang Hoen ( M )” which are generally found in each house area. For temple, Khoang Na Wat and Khoang Wat are also prepared for religious ritual and activities. “Khoang Na Wat ( )” is an open area at the front of the temple layout. It is for kinds of religious activities and is the area which directly leads to the temple. One identity of Khoang Wat is the pavilion at the front for Buddhists to rest before entering inside. This pavilion is also the meeting point and community centre for people before behaving properly in the temple. Recreational activities of people in community have also been done at Khoang Na Wat, including glambling. Hence Khoang is separated from Budhavas area by physical things like gate and walls which signify and symbolize the separation. This is another design concept found in Asia.
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Activities done in Khoang Wat are only what related to Buddhism ritual. As Vihara cannot receive all people who come to temple for Buddhist ritual at the same time, Khoang Wat is also used. In addition, the traditional concept of the functional use was also found. That is, elderly men are allowed to go into or use the area at the inner part of Vihara, followed by less senior men, then women, and children. However, When he carrying capacity is unable to carry all people, women and children need to be at the area outside. Activities related to Buddhist belief and tradition are also done at Khoang Na Wat where loud noise is allowed.
Figure 4-104: The illustration shows the layout plan of the village.
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Figure 4-105: A animal balloon is an activity of the temple ceremony.
Figure 4-106: Gambling is an activity of the temple Figure 4-107: Firework in the temple’s open space. festival but done outside the temple boundary.
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“Ho Wat ( )”: Temple’s fence Fence is to specify the boundary. That is, it is to indicate the boundary of temple and separates temple from community. The fence of the temple is not high as it is not to protect the temple, but reflects some notions. For example, it is the boundary of the temple which is considered pure, called “Visuthi Bhumi ( )”, so people who enter temple area must behave properly. As a result, the fence is one of cultural landscape shaped by its use, both its physical aspect and its abstract advantages.
Figure 4-108: The enable visual capability between temple and village.
“Pak Tu ( )”: Gate way The gates of temple are in forms of both “Chong Pratu ( )” the blank, and “Pratu Khoang ( )” the gate. The blank of the space on the wall is used as the entrance to temple. The top of both sides of the wall are decorated by pillar with or without ornament. For some temples, the pole is put, crossing the space to prevent cattle and pets.
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Figure 4-109: Chong Pratu: blank at Wat Wan Tao Figure 4-110: Chong Pratu at Wat Wan San
“Paktu Khoang ( )”, the gate, is the entrance to temple with arch from brick, as “Khoang ( )” means arch structure. However “Khoang ( )” can be from “Khoang Khet ( )” which means area, so Khoang Pratu is the gate to en closer space. This type of arch gate as the entrance symbolizes the space inside and outside the temple which are totally different. That is, the area inside the temple is the space of Dhramma which is pure and ideal, and the area outside the temple is the real world. In the historic town of Keng Tung, three types of gates are found: “Lanna–style brick structure gate”, Myanmar–style wooden structure gate, and Myanmar–style brick structure gate. Myanmar-style brick structure gate was possible to have wooden structure, then brick was used for renovation, following the same old wooden structure. Myanmar-style wooden structure gate is decorated by zinc fretwork, influenced by Burmese architecture after Keng Tung was governed by Burma. Lanna-style brick structure gate is the oldest style, reflecting their relationship with Lanna. At present, the only Lanna-style brick structure gate is found at Wat Yang Goang ( ), which might be built during 1373–1375 (=.G. - ), when Suan Dok doctrine came to Keng Tung. Myanmar-style brick structure gate are found the most, followed by Myanmar–style wooden structure gate, and Lanna–style brick structure gate are found the least.
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Figure 4-111: Myanmar–style brick Figure 4-112: Myanmar–style Figure 4-113: Lanna–style brick structure gate wooden structure gate structure gate
Vihara ( ) Vihara is the most significant building of the temple used for religious ritual made by monks for Buddhists. A big Buddha image is located inside as the principle one. There are different types of Vihara, based on the location and use. The biggest Vihara, usually on the main direction of the temple, is the principle Vihara, called “Vihara Long ( )”. Name of Vihara is called differently for instance the Vihara was named as the principle
Buddha image, such as Vihara Phrachao Ton Long ( = ), Vihara Phrachao Mai Jan ( = ). For the temple which has only one Vihara, it is called “Vihara ( )” or “Phra Vihara (= )”, not Vihara Long, which is used for the main Vihara of the temple that has many Viharas.
Architectural style of Vihara in the historical town of Keng Tung It was found from the study that architectural styles of Vihara can be categorized into four groups: 1. Dai Khoun architectural Style ( ) 2. Dai Yai architectural Style ( ` , ) 3. Dai Lue architectural Style ( ) 4. Tai Yuan (Lanna) architectural Style ( ( ))
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Vihara with Dai Khoun architectural style Gable roof is used for this style of Vihara. The projecting roof as eaves on all four sides are sometimes, to increase the space inside. There are ventilation panels between the roof. Only one Vihara in original Dai Khoun architectural style is found at Wat Chiang Tang ( T ). Viharas in Dai Khoun architectural style are all renovated, without any original style left. Brick wall was constructed as part of renovation, from the ground to the gable. The renovation was done 100 years ago, at the same old position, at the same period when Christians came to Keng Tung. As a result, the influence of Christian Church affected the renovation of Vihara as well.
Vihara with Dai yai architectural style This type of Vihara is a lot bigger called “Jong ( )”, which comprises both Vihara and monastery in the same building. “Jong” also refers to Dai Yai ethnic group who have settled in Keng Tung, for example “Jong Muang Nai ( )” means temple of Dai Yai group from “Nai Town ( )”, “Jong Mok Mai ( ` )” means temple of Dai Yai group from “Mok Mai Town ( ` )”, and “Jong Nong Pha Chang Phuek ( ; ; )” means Dai Yai temple at “Van Nong Pha Village ( ; )”.
Vihara with Dai Lue architectural Style This type of Vihara is found in Dai Lue community at the north of Keng Tung, near Jin Hong which is the centre of Dai Lue, such as Wat Ratchthan Long Chiang Toong ( /
T ), Wat Wan Lam ( ), and Wat Wan Tao ( ). Vihara in Dai Lue architectural style is very beautiful, especially its elaborated multi– layer roof, which looks very big comparing to its building. The uniqueness of Dai Lue Vihara is the gable roof at the principle building, along with projecting hip roof.
Vihara with Tai Yuan (Lanna) architectural style This type of Vihara looks like that are found in Northern Thailand. However, there is no evidence of how this style came to Keng Tung and no one can trace the relationship between Keng Tung city and Lanna kingdom. From the field studies, this type of Vihara was found at Wat Wan Sean ( ) and Wat Wan Ngag ( ) which are on the ancient trade route between Keng Tung and Muang La. This route was also for the expansion of Buddhism, from Keng Tung, which received Buddhism from Chiang Mai, to Jin Hong, during the reign of Phra Chao Tilokraj. However, at
169 present, the new road comes then those two temples have been deserted, but the temple areas become restricted as they are considered fragile.
Ubosot ( 5): Ordination hall “Bosot ( 5)”, or “Bot ( 5 )”, is a chapel reserved for for Buddhist ritual among monks only where they hold monthly service at which they recite the patimok ( ) and used for ordination process. The boundary marker called “Sema ( T )” is to specify the area and symbolizes the zoning for monks used only. In the past, Ubosot was not necessary for every temple as it was for monks only, so its use cannot be for people like that of Vihara. In addition, there were not many monks as workforce was necessary for agricultural activities. Men entered noviced monkhood, not many men continue being monks. If number of monks were not enough for ritual, which needed five monks, it needed monks from other temples. As a result, Ubosot was usually built at an important area where people could meet. In other words, it was another community centre.
Temples in Keng Tung are specified by the use of Ubosot, called Hua Bua Sot or Gao Bua Sot. Five areas of “Gao Ho Bo Sot ( 5)” are found as follows: “Gao Ho Bo Sot
Wat Ratchasanthan Long Chiang Yuen ( 5 / T )”; “Gao Ho Bo Sot Wat Ratchathan Long Ho Khong ( 5 / )”; “Gao Ho Bo Sot Wat Ratchathan Long Pa Dang ( 5 / )”; and “Gao Hua Bue Sot
Wat Intabupparam ( 5 == )”. The boundary for monks’ activities is marked by stones around Ubosot, called “Mak
Hin Sema ( T )”. The stone boundary marker ( ) can be both natural stone and man-made one, in forms round cylinder or hexagone cylinder with carved lotus bud shape at top. However, water can also be boundary marker, called “Natee Sema ( T T )” or “U–Taka Khepa Sema ( )”. Ubosot with water boundary marker is called “Bot Nam ( 5 )” like that of Wat Vieng Mai ( T ` ) in Phyak town. The ordination hall of Keng Tung and the towns nearby is usually small and not on the main axis of the temple. However, its size does not affect monks’ activities as the main rite in Ubosot is the ordination which needs only five monks, and, moreover, people are not allowed to participate in monks’ ritual. Thus, Ubosot is not generally used by people in community, then needs not be big.
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Figure 4-114: Different boundary markers
Architectural style of Ubosot in the historic town of Keng Tung Architectural styles of Ubosot can be categorized into two groups as “multi–layer gable roof in Dai Khoun style ( 5 * )” “ multi–layer Piramid roof in Burmese syle ( 5 20 = )” From the field studies, Ubosots with gable roof were found the most, followed by Ubosot with Mondop roof. It is also noticeable that Ubosot with Mondop roof always has square floor plan.
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Figure 4-115: Front elevation of multi–layer Figure 4-116: Side view of multi–layer gable roof in Dai gable roof in Dai Khoun style Khoun style
Figure 4-117: Front elevation of multi–layer Figure 4-118: Rear elevation of multi–layer Pyramid Pyramid roof in Burmese style roof in Burmese style
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Church and the other religious places Since, Burma had been governed by England, the coming Western culture became attractive and exciting. Western culture was generally adopted in regions of Burma, especially the central part. Even though Shan state was governed by Dai princes, assigned by England, Western culture still played important roles, especially the Christ, which came with help in terms of education and public health. Such help made the Christ become accepted. Christ also affected Keng Tung cultural landscape in terms of architecture. That is, huge building made of brick was accepted and adopted for the restoration of Vihara, instead of wood. In Keng Tung, five Christian churches are found, indicating in Figure 4-124, page 175, in red frame, they are 1) Roman Catholic Church; 2) St. Mary Church; 3) Baptism Church Van Nong Pha; 4) Baptism Church Van Klang Na; and 5) Church of England. It can be seen that the location of the churche is away from the city centre as the Christ has been in Keng Tung for lees than 100 years. The city centre has been for people’s settlement, along with temples. Hence the new–coming Christ and its communities were founded away from Keng Tung city centre. Other religions are found in Keng Tung, such as Islam , but their communities are not big. The centre of Islam is at Pa Dang area while that of siks guruwara is not far from the main market. (See Figure 125, page 176)
Figure 4-119: Architectural heritage buildings at Roman Catholic church.
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Figure 4-120: Architectural heritage buildings at Roman Catholic church.
Figure 4-121: Architectural heritage Building at St. Marry church
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Figure 4-122: Architectural Heritage buildings at Baptism Church Van Nong Pha ( ; ). (Above) A view taken from the opposite hill showing the building as the landmark.
Figure 4-123: Architectural Heritage Building at Baptism Church Van Klang Na Long ( )
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“Hor Sua ( )”: the spiritual shrine, “Mai Long ( )”: the sacred tree, and “Mai Mhay Moung ( )”: the auspicious tree of the City People in Southeast Asia generally believe in supernatural phenomena. It is believed that sacred things can influence and cause prosperity or disaster. This might be because scientific reasons cannot be reached. In Burma, people also pay respect to sacred things, especially in tree or mountain, which is called “Nut ( )”. This belief has been with the Burmese before they accepted Buddhism. Although Buddhism becomes their religion, the belief in Nut still exists. Moreover, both Buddhism and Nut can go compatibly with people’s life. Lanna people also believe in sacred things. “Hor Sua ( )” is created as the place for sacred things to protect the area or the tree. For example, Hor Sua Wat ( ) is for sacred things to protect the temple, Hor Sua Ban ( ) is to protect houses in the community. There also houses for sacred things in trees, like the house for the spirit of Chao Luang Kham Daeng to protect Doi Luang Chiang Dao Mountain ( T ), or the house for Pu Sae Ya Sae ( ) at Wat Phra That Doi Kham to protect Chiang Mai city.
Spiritual respect is also paid to a big tree, called “Mai Luang ( )”, the royal tree. It is believed that a big tree is for sacred spirit, so cutting big tree is not allowed because it can bring disaster to community. It is also found that Mai Luang is usually not suitable to be used, such as the Banyan tree.
There is also belief in the auspicious tree of the city, it is a central tree of the city. From Lanna history, Jang Sri Bhum ( T ) was selected as the auspicious location for Chiang
Mai city, moreover, Nikhroat tree, Banyan tree, was also there. One of Chiang Mai tales started that the prosperity of Chiang Mai during the reign of Phya Ti Lok Raj was from auspicious Nikhroat tree ( ). In 1459 (=. . ), when Sri Satchanalai lost in the war, the King of Sri Satchanalai asked a Burmese monk to lure Phya Ti Lok Raj to cut down that auspicious tree. For Chiang Mai, its auspicious tree in Yang tree besides the pillar hall in Wat Chedi Luang. Like that of Keng Tung, its auspicious tree is Yang tree on Doi Chom Sak ( ). It is believed to be planted by Phra Chao Along Phya 200 year ago. In addition, Bodhi tree is also planted as it is for Buddhism. It is the symbol of the Lord Buddha’s enlightenment, especially in India as it is believed that the Lord Buddha allowed people to pay respect to the Bodhi tree as it represented Him. As a result, Bodhi tree is also generally found in Thailand, especially in Lanna, Burma and its Shan State, Laos, and Cambodia.2
Su i ummi amo n. {s c b L e Lb pL , ^ f { s ± b .L b , . . 1 - . 178
In Thailand, the tradition of planting Bodhi tree was since Davaravati period, in Sri Maha Bodhi town ( T = ) in Prachin Buri Province at present. For Chiang Mai, Bodhi tree was mentioned in the reign of Phya Mangrai in Viang Kum Kam. Moreover, when Langkawongsa came to Sukhothai, respect was also paid to Bodhi tree. This was mentioned in the inscription of Wat Sri Chum ( T ) and Wat Nakhon Chum ( ). To plant Bodhi tree of Buddhists also found in Chiang Mai, like the reign of Phya Ti Lok Raj who planted Bodhi tree in the area for revising Buddhism thoughts. This area then became Wat Maha Bodharam. Even though no evidence on Bodhi tree in Keng Tung is found, it is believe that this belief was from Chiang Mai.
Figure 4-126: the sacred tree of Van Figure 4-127: Yang tree is the Figure 4-128: Yang tree is the
Kam community landmark of Keng Tung town and landmark of Chinag Mai city also is the sacred tree of the city as and also is the sared tree of well. the city as well. Right hand site is “Ho Inthakhin ( T )”: the city’s pillar of Chiang Mai city
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Figure 4-129: The big bodhi tree is the symbolic of Buddhism (right) the local community supporting the Bodhi tree in Songkran ceremony.
Figure 4-130: Hoe Sure ( ) and Sacred tree
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- “Ku Chao Fa ( > )”: Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum “Ku Chao Fa ( > )” the mausoleum, is the monument as the shrine for the relics of Keng Tung rulers and the member of the royal family. “Ku ( )” is the stupa in a square plan. Ku Chao Fa of Keng Tung is in front of Wat Chiang Chan, not for far from Pa Dang Gate. In the past, the mausoleum was created as the relics chamber in stupa shape were kept in the royal temples. However when Chao Dara rasmee, the royal consort of King Rama the V, was back from Bangkok, the concept of the royal mausoleum was also brought to Lanna, following the concept of the royal mausoleum at Wat Rajbopit in Bangkok, the royal temple of King Rama the V, where the royal relics of members of royal family were kept altogether. The royal mausoleum of Lanna Dynasty was then created at wat Saun Dok, Chiang Mai. This also led to Keng Tung where the royal mausoleum was for Keng Tung rulers and members of royal family.
Figure 4-132: “Ku Chao Fa ( > )”: Keng Tung ruler’s mausoleum
Figure 4-133: “Ku Chao Nai Fai Nue ( < )” at Public Facilities and Open SpacesWat Suan Dok, Chiang Mai
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- Circulation The circulation in KengTung comprises roads and paths. All roads and path have been used since the past, but were made larger due to the density. Roads and paths twist aling villages and link villages altogether, along with route conecting other towns.
Figure 4-134: The map showing circulation in historic town of Keng Tung
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- Open Space According to the cultural landscape in rural contexts previously mentioned, the oon space,alkhong,an be categorized into three types: Khong Wan, Khong Na Wat, Khong Wat. For Keng Tung grand open spaces of the town, called “Khong Long ( )” or “Khong Gai Jon ( )” , were found near Wat Ratchatahn Long Hoe Khong and Vieng Kaew. In the past, they were for activities and caremonies for the court. However, when the traditional administrative regime by the court was replaced, the grand open spaces are for the activities for people in Keng Tung. From the comaparative studies on the open space with and with out buildings, it was found that thr space inside the city walls was the heart of the city due to high density in setllement. Most building are accommodations which are not very big. Huge construction are mostly gevernment building at the outer part of the city.
Figure 4-135: Building indicate in white, open space indicate in green.
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“Nong Nam ( )” From the field studies, it was found that the land inside the city walls has different levels, both hill and narrow valley, which then became the ponds in the following time. City walls were beneficially in term of protecting the city from intruders and also in some area the city wall use as the water dike to control the water in the irrigation system as well. Form the remote sensing and satellite photography, along with the field studies, the area which used to be narrow valley and geographical aspects o Keng Tung in the past, before the settlement, can be identified. From figure 4-141, it can be seen that swamps were generally found, especially during rainy season. Beside the city walls and water dike, people,s settlement for more that a thousand years also affected geographical aspects/ although ponds became shallow and finally became the land for villages settel down. The evidence for ponds were still founf, due to high moisture. In addition, Nong, which mean pond is still used even through the ponds do not exist anymore, for instance Nong Lang ( ) which is now the area for the grand market of the city, or Nong Gon ( ) ehich is the location of small market at Paman community. In the past, there were nine ponds in KengTung, Namely “Nong Tung ( )”,
“Nong Toang ( )”, “Nong Yay ( )”, “Nong Lang ( )”, “Nong Yang ( )”, “Nong Poang ( )”, “Nong Khay ( )”, “Nong Khai ( )”, and “Nong Ta Chang ( )” However , form the field studies, there are only three ponds left, which are “Nong Tung ( )”, “Nong Yay ( )” and “Nong Yang ( )” the other six ponds became the land for the settlement.
Figure 4-137: The different views of Nong Tung, the larger pond of Keng Tung.
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Figure 4-138: The different views of Nong Tung, the larger pond of Keng Tung.
Figure 4-139: Nong Yang ( )
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Figure 4-140: the different views of Nong Kham ( )
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“Sala ( )”: Open air pavilion Sala is a construction with roof. The interior is hall for travelers to rest. Sala is another element of the city. Archeological evidences can prove the concept of Sala and its use. That is “Arokayasarn” (a light house), which can also be called “Ban Mee Fai”, was mentioned in the inscription durion King Chai Varaman VII (= T 7) that Salas were found on the route connecting cities of Khmer culture, and could be categorized into groups such as Sala for resting on route between cities, Sala in front of the city, and Sala for waiting. Sala for resting on route between cities, the distance between each them depends on the length of the route. The location of Sala is usually for one – day travelling. However, Arokayasan was only mentioned on in the history of ancient time which rarely related to the present days. The existence of Sala for resting was still found around Songkhla Lake. It was mentioned by the oral history that sometime dried food as supply was prepared here for travelers. Sala was also found at the area in front of the entrance to the city. This was for travelers who arrived at night, but needed to be verified by officials in the morning for the permission to enter the city. In addition, Salas were built in front of temples in Keng Tung and Chiang Mai. However, due to Chiang Mai city development, those Salas were all removed. According to the record of Daniel Mc. Gilvay D.D. who came to Chiang Mai in 1867, it was stated that “…We could not find any house which was available. Luckily there was one Sala outside the Gate at the east for people to rest. It was just built by the officials of Rahang Town to make merit. It was a stable Sala with tile roof, teakwood floor, and three walls. The frontal part led to the six – feet terrace. There was a 12 x 12 – feet room which was used as our storage, including bedroom, living room, dining room, and working room…”3
Figure 4-143: Pavilions for pilgrim
p L p . . ^± Lp, fp. L s p{ p f { s ± p L p . . KK Matihon, 1. . - .
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“Kad ( )”: Market “Kad ( )” is market, is one culture of Tai–Dai groups. In Keng Tung, there are a lot of rotated markets, called “Kad Nad ( )”. The most important market is called “Kad Long ( )” or “Kad Tung ( )”. In the past, Kad Long was in front of Wat Chiang Chan, near the mausoleum of Keng Tung rulers. The market started from Wat Hua Kad ( ) to Wat Hoe Khong ( ) near the royal residence. When the communities got bigger, the market was moved to Nong Lang ( ) and Nong Yay ( ), the present location4. The Buddhism record of Wat Pa Dang stated that Kad Noi ( ), or a small market, was found at Chiang Jin ( T ).5 Dr. Dodd, who came to Keng Tung in 1904, took photographs of Keng Tung and said that “The market of Keng Tung was very fun and attractive. Kad Long was very big, imitated from that of China. People came to sell and buy things five days a week. The road became the place for selling and buying. Shops were along the road. Only stalls were found as things were sold on the ground, such as dishes, bowls, clothes, as vehicles were not used on roads there. When vehicles or carts came, they needed to wait, away from the market. This made sellers feel safe even though their things were on the ground. People at the market were from anywhere. Some took days to come to the market. They were from cities, mountain ranges, and farms. There were many Thais whose languages and clothes were different. There were also the Burmese, Chinese, , Indians, English officers,
American missionaries, as well as people with leper, which were generally found in big communities.
Few things sold there were from other countries, such as hardware apparels, nails, clothes like silk or wool, shirts, hats, shoes, and things for decoration like mirror frame. Most of goods were local. There were also fruits, vegetables, rice, pork, beef, fish, alcohol from rice, opium, and pieces of wood. In short, all local things were sold exchanged here,”6 The market in the past and present are not very different. However, at present many products from Thailand and China are sold, due to better transportation routes which connecting Jin Hong of China and Mae Sai of Thailand.
4 Sasipat Tiangmit. Grand Market Chiang Tun and Chiang Mai: comparative study the development and changed from the world economic after the World War II - present ( T T ` : U H T T = T ; H/ T 5U ), Thesis, Regional Study Program, Graduate School, Chiang Mai University, 2002. p.40. 5 Praseart Na Nakorn, PuangKham Tuikheaw. Tamnanmullasasana Chiang Mai Chiang Tung ( T ` T ). BKK: Historical Society, 1994. p. 166. 6 William Clifton Dodd. Ibid. p. 186-187.
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In the past, the market was the place of goods, from both local agricultural products from other towns such as Jin Hong, Lanna, or Mandalay, transported by horses or donkeys. Moreover, as Keng Tung had limitation for agriculture, people needed to earn for their living by trading. People from other places such as people of different ethnic groups came to buy things from Keng Tung to their places. In Kad Long, the main market, there are permanent stalls and the area for rotated market which reflects social management of rural context which is not complicated. People need not buy things everyday, reflecting that the housewife needs to plan well. Sellers in rotated market do agricultural activities on the days which is not for rotated market. The rotated market of Keng Tung takes five days. The first day is called “Wan Kad Long ( )” which contains a lot of activities and goods. The second day is called “Wan Wai Kad ( )”, with some goods on this day as many were sold on the day before. The third day is “Wan Kad Lee ( T)”, with many goods which are sold in early morning and activities in the market are done in the late morning. The fourth day is called “Wan Wai Kad Lee ( T)” with some goods. The last day is called “Wan Kad Khong ( )” because in the past the market was at Khuang Luang, the public open space, but then was moved to the main market, and is usually for the seller to prepare their goods or exchange goods among the sellers themselves. The market is also found in other big communities so that people do not have to come to the main market. However, there are not many types of goods available. The examples of the market of the village or community are Kad Ban Klang Na Long ( ) and Kad Noi Pa Man ( ).
Many rotated markets are found. For instance, Kad Boong ( )”, about 15 km. from the city, is on the same day of Wan Wai Kad Long ( ). The sellers are those who buy goods from the main market then sell such goods in Kad Boong. In addition, this market is to collect goods from the wood and village, then sell in the main market in the following day. “Kad Tao ( )” is at the west of Keng Tung’s Nong Pha Gate. Goods are sold here on the following day of Kad Boong. Goods here are usually from villages nearby, both agricultural products and handicrafts. “Kad Tai ( )” is about 12 kilometer. from the southwest of Keng Tung. It is a small market for few villages with not many types of goods, which are left from Kad Boong and Kad Tao on the previous days. However, this market is important in terms of the place to collect products from the wood and village to be sold in the main market. “Kad Fa ( > ) ” is at Ban Kad Fa, 8km. from the city, on the route to Muang La. This village has been the stop for trade between Jin Hong and Keng Tung since the old days. Along the roads are one–storey buildings to sell things to travelers. Temporary stalls are at the
193 back of those buildings. The role of Kad Fa seem to be less important as it is on the same day of the main market and is not very far from the city. In addition, more convenient transportation leads people to the main market.
Figure 4-144: Kad Long ( ) at the morning
Figure 4-145: Kad Ban Glang Na ( ) Figure 4-146: Kad Noi Paman ( )
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Village in the historic town of Keng Tung Keng Tung is the historic town which has evolved with the settlement. Sometimes the density of population was low, especially when Keng Tung people needed to move to Chiang Mai as the workforce 200 years ago. However, people came to Keng Tung again after the World War II for security reason. There are two types of Keng Tung’s urban planning, the traditional and new urban planning. It was found from the field studies that Keng Tung town has developed from the expansion of villages. The land in good location was all reserved for settlement. The area without settlement is because it is not appropriate such as the lack of underground water. However, better facilities and infrastructure in the future will then lead people to such area. New development areas are usually outside the city walls, except large open space, such as Kad Long ( ), the main market, which is on the area which used to be the swamp.
Village planning
There are four types of village planning context and background, with 4 villages as case studies as follows: - Historic village representing the traditional village planning context: a case
study of Wan Jom Kham Village ( ) - New settled-down village representing the traditional planning context: a case
study of Wan Jom Mai Village ( ` )
- New settled-down village representing new village planning context (Grid pattern): case studies of Wan Klang Na Long ( ) and Wan Chiang Lek Mai ( T = ` )
Wan Chiang Lek Mai
Wan Jom Kham
Wan Jom Mai
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Historic village representing the traditional village planning context: A case study of Wan Jom Kham Village ( ) For historic Village which represents traditional village planning, “Wan Jom Kham Village ( )” was selected as it is one of the significant areas while the village planning is not changed like other village. Wan Jom Kham Village is a traditional village surrounding the grand stupa of the city call “Phra That Jom Kham (= )”, the soul and the landmark of the town. “Wat Jom Kham ( )” is at least 700 years old. Although the buildings of temples and communities do not look old, due to restoration, the location and planning are traditional. The planning of Jom Kham Village is considered traditional with temple as community centre on the highest point of the mountain. Circulation routes are from the centre along the hill, with paths connecting the main routes and houses: which can be seen from figure 4-147. Where main routes are in black and path for walking or small road are indicated in red.
As Wat Jom Kham is the centre of the town, along with the royal residence, called Viang Ho Kham ( T ) at the south, Jom Kham Village was to welcome the rulers in the past. Moreover, this temple was the royal temple, so there was no monastery but was supported by monks from Wat Rajthan Long Chiang Yuen ( / T ). Hence Wat Jom Kham, a royal temple was not named “Rajthan Long ( / )” because such term was for the temple which is under the royal patronage.
In addition, the royal route for the ruler to the temple was also found at this village can the left of figure 4-148. This route and the stairs to the temple are called “Khan Dai Long (
)”, the royal grand staircase.
Note for the study in this village Even though changes have occurred to this village, they affected only the architecture. The planning is still traditional which historic value of this historic town.
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Figure 4-148: Map identifying traditional village planning context of Wan Jom Kham Village.
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New settled-down village representing the traditional planning context: A case study of Wan Jom Mai Village ( ` ) “Wan Jom Mai village ( ` )” is interesting in terms of a new settled-down community when Keng Tung society and its cultural have changed from traditional period to globalization. Since Myanmar was free from being colonized by Britain, the Dai-Tai ruler, called Sabwa, was also replaced by the governor from the government. This led to the total change to Keng Tung social structure, including its urban planning. Despite such change to Keng Tung, traditional village planning was still found, including Wan Jom Mai Village. It is located outside the city walls, on the road to Pa Man Gate and Pa Dang Gate. Moreover, due to geographical aspects, the temple of this village is also on the hill like that of the past. The urban area is in star shape, comprising two main circulation roads with other secondary roads connecting the main ones. Houses are also found along these secondary roads.
Note for the study in this village The urban planning of Wan Jom Mai Village is interesting as Buddhism is still focused despite social and cultural changes. That is, the ideal location was prepared for temple as it is both a sacred place and a community centre.
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Figure 4-149: Map identifying new village planning representing traditional planning context of Wan
Jom Mai Village.
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New settled-down village representing new village planning context (Grid pattern): case study of Wan Klang Na Long ( ) “Wan Klang Na Long Village ( )” is a new settled-down village whose urban planning is in grid pattern influenced by central Myanmar who accepted western urban planning. In this village the land was separated into parts by the road different from traditional urban planning that houses were built first followed by roads twisted along houses in the village. Wan Klang Na Long Village is on the road to Moung Yang Town. There are Dai Khoun and Dai Yai groups have settled down here since the World War II. Actually they would like to be in Keng Tung, but it belonged to other groups already so they needed to go outside Keng Tung. Factors influencing the urban planning of Wan Klang Na Long in Grid pattern are as following:
- The plain area near the river was suitable for planning in grid pattern as such area did not need much adjustment. However flood often causes problem here.
- The planning was also done by the Christian who preferred grid pattern because it was convenient.
Note for the study in this village
Wan Klang Na Long is a new settled-down village accepting grid pattern from central Myanmar in globalization period. However traditional planning was still found. That is, even though houses were built in the prepared square block, secondary circulation routes still twist along houses like those of traditional planning.
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Figure 4-150: Map identifying new settled-down village representing new planning context (Grid pattern) of Wan Klang Na Long Village.
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New settled-down village representing new village planning context (Grid pattern): case study of Wan Chiang Lek Mai ( T = ` ) The urban planning in grid pattern of Wan Chiang Lek Mai is because of the government’s lack of understanding in geographical and physical aspects as well as cultural landscape. This village is outside the city walls to Pa Man Gate. It is in the plain area of the Nam Larb River. This area was for agriculture. However 10 years ago, the government developed Keng Tung by constructing the airport at the area where “Viang Chiang Lek ( T T = )”, an ancient city, was located and moved people to new Viang Chiang Lek. Even though the location of the old Viang Chiang Lek beside the river faces problem on flood, people learned and knew when agricultural activities could take place. In addition, they learned to prepare irrigation system in form of the dike as water management. Unfortunately, as the government lacked understanding in geography and cultural landscape, they moved new groups of people to such area. Those people face problem on moisture and flood, affecting hygiene and health as they do not know well geographical factors and limitation. Such new houses moreover, cause much more pollution.
Note for the study in this village
Urban planning and development without understanding in geography and cultural landscape lead to chain-reaction problems. Moreover, the projects on housing made by the government without understanding always cause a lot more serious problem to the area and types of construction machine are also one of the causes of problems.
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Figure 4-151: Map identifying new settled-down village representing new planning context (Grid pattern) of Wan Chiang Lek Mai.
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Business district of Keng Tung Keng Tung has a long development with social and economic activities, especially after Burma was governed by Britain which made towns in Shan State, especially Keng Tung and Tong Gyi ( T) became prosperous as they were the centres of resources, especially teak wood, as well as the distribution centres to send goods to other towns as they are also able to connect the west of China and Laos. In the past, trading centre is the market where goods, like those from the wood and agricultural products, and products from other towns, were exchanged. However, when the society got more complexed, there came the merchants who collected goods at their shop and could be opened all day, unlike the market which was found only during the daytime. Hence, there has been row houses, comprising at least three bays as a warehouse for products, which are always stored at the frontal part near the road while the back is for residents. There are also two–storey row houses where goods are sold on the first floor and the second floor is for the residence. This type of building is also called “shop house”. Shop houses are found along the main roads of the town, especially in the area of Kad
Loang, the main market. The road connects Wat Phra Chao Ton Long ( = ) to Wat Chiang Chan ( T ), and the area of Pa Dang Gate. (See Figure4- 152) The dense area of shop houses started from the area of Pa Dang Gate, linking to the road in front of Wat Chiang Chan, which used to be the location of the main market in the past, then leading to Wat Phra Chao Ton Loang and Kad Loang, the main market at present. It could be assumed that the products to Keng Tung were from the northern road to Jin Hong, then to Pa Dang Gate, by carts with cattles. In addition, other routes were very steep, not convenient for trading, then people came to exchange things at Pa Dang Gate, which then brought shop houses. (See the blue arrow in figure 4-152)
Business district
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Streetscape The roads in the city walls of Keng Tung are the old ones which have connected seven communities altogether. Those roads twist along communities as they were not prepared beforehand, but expanded along the expansion of communities. Row houses are along both sides of the roads. They share the party walls, with at least three units for each row house. This reflects that the basic concept for the construction was influenced by Chinese architecture as they are not tall buildings, with at least three units. Row houses cause business districts or the nodes of economic activities. This also leads to interesting streetscape where row houses are found apart from traditional detached houses. Streetscape of Keng Tung can be called cultural landscape of historic streetscape where row houses cause uniqueness to this business district, which can be seen from Figure 4- 154
F
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Landmark and important vista Architectural landmarks found in historic town of Keng Tung are usually religious buildings due to their location on the highest point, which then because the landmark of the area. In the historic town of Keng Tung, there are four important landmarks which are: “Wat Phra That Jom Kham ( = )”, “Wat Phra Chao Ton Long (= T )”, “Phra Chao Yuen Chee New (= T )” and “Mai Mhay Muang ( )” or sacred tree of the city. “Wat Phra That Jom Kham ( = )” is on the highest position of the city. The Chedi is also to keep the Buddha relics as auspicious thing. This temple can be seen from any position in historic town of Keng Tung. “Wat Phra Chao Ton Long ( = )” was built in the area not far from the royal resident (Khum Long) at present. This area is the junction where the main roads meet.
Also it becomes the roundabout of the city. “Phra Chao Yuen Chee New (= T )” is for the new Buddha image which was built 10 years ago, by the government like other temples and religious places in central Myanmar and in different region. Phra Chao Yuen Chee New, the standing Buddha, was from the folktale on “The traveling of the Load Buddha” usually mentioned in Lanna and Shan
State that the area where the Lord Buddha visit would then became prosperous and finally was the city.
“Mai Mhai Muang ( )”, a sacred tree, is considered auspicious Landmark also reflects types of value like aesthetic, historic and social value of the historic town of Keng Tung. The study of landmark can also be the guidelines for conservation and development of the area. Furthermore, the conservation for such landmark can also maintain the city’s base and pride.
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Figure 4-169: The illustration shows the section of the town which was cut through Nong Tung, Wat Phra Chao Ton Long and Wat Phra kaew
Figure 4-170: The bird-eyeview drawing of the historic town of Keng Tung. On the highest hill of the town located the most important Stupa of the city.
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Figure 4-171: Wat Phra Chao Ton Long ( = ) is the one of main landmarks of Keng Tung.
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Figure 4-172: Pa Dang Gate, only remained city gate. It very important historic monument in the historic town of Keng Tung.
Figure 4-173: “Gu Chao Fa ( > )” mausoleum of Keng Tung rulers and members of the royal
family.
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Characteristics of vernacular architecture in the historic town of Keng Tung For the aspect of vernacular architecture, the residence, called Huen, is focused. “Huen ( M )”
Type of vernacular building Two types of vernacular building in Keng Tung were found: traditional vernacular building and Colonial – influenced vernacular building. Traditional vernacular building comprises houses made of hard wood and bamboo. It was found that most of houses are of hard wood as those of bamboo are temporary houses of the new – settled family. The baked – clay tiles are for roofing with bamboo roof structure. Traditional vernacular building is for living, then the movements or activities to the building are usually found, such as restoration and extension.
Figure 4-174: Ttraditional vernacular house.
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Colonial influenced vernacular buildings were influenced by the West after Burma was governed by British government This type of architecture usually belonged to the rich and the governors. However, they were built by local people with local materials and construction techniques. Colonial influenced vernacular buildings were found a lot, mostly for members of the royal family before the change of administrative regime. However, many of them were removed and destroyed as they could be the visibly seen evidences of Tai – Dai governors in the past. At present, only three of them left, which are Hoe Hong Khum ( ), that of immigration office, and that of Noi Yee Hotel ( T).
Figure 4-175: “Ho Hong Khum ( )”
Figure 4-176: Immigration office Figure 4-177: Noi Yee Hotel
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The relationship between vernacular building and environment Vernacular building reflects well close relationship between people’s ways of live and their environment, from the first selection of location appropriate for their communities. Vernacular architecture has been based on local contexts. Local materials, both natural like bamboo and man – made like unbanked mud brick have been used. Vernacular architecture of Keng Tung symbolizes how people learn and understand their environment then are able to appropriately adapt what they need to their life, which is the core concept of cultural landscape.
Figure 4-178: vernacular house surrounded by bamboo forest.
Most vernacular buildings are from natural and local materials, reflecting how self – reliant local people are. They knew well their resources, then tried and adapted them for life. This became the local wisdom which has been transferred to the following generations. Vernacular architecture becomes part of cultural landscape as it can be the stamp of local identity through architecture. For vernacular buldings, mud and wood are used a lot. Mud is used in forms of unbaked brick and baked brick used for walls and coating. Mud in different areas contains different qualifications, then the formular of using mud for construction is different. This is also the local wisdom, part of cultural landscape.
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Figure 4-179: Front and side view elevation of mud house found in the historic town of Keng Tung
Figure 4-180: Mud house of the new married family which will then be rebuilt to be more stable when they have enough resourses.
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Figure 4-181: Storage made of the natural materials, bamboo is used as the skeleton of the building and straw is used as the wall material then is coated with mud.
Figure 4-182: Two–storey house made of unbaked brick. In front of the house open space by cutting the slope and the area is used for making brick.
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Figure 4-183: Brick production must be done in the house’s layout. Various ages of people can help altogether.
Figure 4-184: Tiles for roofing and the sculpture as the ornament of religious buildings are the household industry of Yang Goang Community ( ).
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In addition, hard wood and bamboo are also used, but depending on type of building and its structure. That is, for temporary vernacular building as well as non – residence, bamboo is usually used while permanent vernacular building is usually of hard wood. However, bamboo is also used for roof structure, especially that for baked–clayed tiles which are in small pieces and need a lot of wood for their structure, unlike industriial tiles, such as corrugate iron sheet, which do not need bamboo at all. It could be seen that the construction, improvement, as well as restoration of vernacular architecture need materials which are available in local areas. Moreover, the green belt, or the area preserved as resources of wood for construction and restoration, is still found.
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Architectural forms Architectural forms of vernacular buildings in Keng Tung shares some aspects with that of Tai – Dai groups. That is, it is a wooden building on stilt. For this study, the building is separated into the lower part, the house, and the roof. One of the identity of Tai–Dai house is its structure on stilt, with mud at the floor and stones, called “Mak Hin ( )”, as positions for pillars. Then the house is built on the pillars to prevented from moisture. The area at the lower part is usually for cattles and tools for agriculture due to the traditional belief that people should not go there because it was considered unauspicious. However, at present such belief seems to decline as that area is separated into rooms for use. It was also found that houses which are over 80 years old are with hipped gable with hard wood roof structure for much more stability. Hard wood was usually for buildings. However, at present, hard wood becomes rare, then this affects forms of architecture. For instance, roof structure becomes smaller, but has many more units. Although the roof structure is smaller, the gable on hipped roof still exists, like the past when gable was needed as stack ventilation when cooking. At present, the gable is still found although the cooking area is separated and the gable is not functioned anymore.
Figure 4-187: The stove is in the kitchen, then the gable is for stack ventilation.
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Figure 4-188: According to the field studies on Tai Khun houses which are over 80 years old, hipped gable which is very huge was used as it could cover all the building, and, moreover, hard wood was available. However, when hard wood becomes rare, roof structure must be on smaller pieces of hard wood, then the roof structure is changed to be more complicated. Adapted from: Ornsiri Panini. Local Wisdom Development and Relationship Between the Vernacular Houses of Thai-Kern in Chiangmai – Chiangtung. BKK: Silpakorn University. 2006.
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Figure 4-189: A house over 120 years old which is the example of traditional Dai Khoun house.
Figure 4-190: A two-storey house influenced by Western architecture, while its roof is still in traditional style.
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Vernacular house in Keng Tung: the building on the topography One interesting aspect of vernacular houses in Keng Tung is that although they are on steep or different level of the land, they need not adjust the land like other towns, but the house is just on such steep land, but sometimes the land is adjusted into terrace before the construction of the building. This is another way people live their life compatibly with nature, another characteristic of culture landscape here.
Figure 4-191: Example of house on steep area whose land was partially removed then the house was
built and becomes a two – storey house with the entrance on the second floor
Figure 4-192: Example of house in Pa Dang Gate quarter ( ) on the old axis of the city walls, reflecting the design which harmonizes the location
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Adaptation of vernacular building through times As vernacular buildings are residences, there have been changes for their use, especially the space inside, for dynamic contexts. Such changes also reflect the cultural landscape of Keng Tung.
Figure 4-193: Example of traditional Dai Khoun house which is over 70 years old, with adaptation for uses, such as the upper part separated into rooms, with changes at the front adjacent to the road as a shop, which then finally cause this house a three – storey house
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Threats to the existence of vernacular buildings in Keng Tung Vernacular architecture is part of Keng Tung cultural landscape, caused by understanding and adjustment of life of local people to their land, along with their belief and culture. However, development and modernity have come to South East Asia, including Keng Tung, hence vernacular buildings are considered old fashioned. Many of them were removed and replaced by new things, especially construction materials which are imported from Thailand and China, while, actually, economic status of Keng Tung needs to depend on agriculture. Those new houses amongst traditional vernacular houses reflect how local people abandon their cultural heritage but value new and exotic things. They also symbolize the deterioration of family, formation of consumerism which comes but take the locals to be the workforce and prostitutes abroad. Threats to vernacular architecture and cultural landscape are the crisis portraying the collapse of understanding in traditional culture, but illogically and uncautiously accept modern things which are unnecessary for their life. These finally lead to the death of vernacular architecture and also cultural landscape. Moreover, such threats are the eye witness and warning of collapse in Keng Tung in the near future if no management plan is prepared. Holistic and interdisciplinary approach for the study of Keng Tung and its cultural landscape can be the option for the prevention.
Chapter 5
Conclusion
This study is to answer the following four questions: 1. How is the cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung ? Does it still connect with environmental studies or topography? 2. How is the appearance of vernacular architecture in Keng Tung? Is there any linkage with cultural landscape of Keng Tung? By considering the uniqueness of vernacular architecture which was found, can it be considered being a part of cultural landscape? 3. What are the characteristics of vernacular architecture in Keng Tung? Are they connected to cultural landscape? Can such characteristics be the component of cultural landscape in the historic town of Keng Tung? 4. What are the supportive and threatening factors leading the cultural landscape of the historic town of Keng Tung to last or end up? What are strategies for the conservation and development?
The way of life of Keng Tung people have closely related to their environment, with family structure, and local wisdom to manage their resources given by nature. What Keng Tung people have been done to nature, along with culture, beliefs and religions nation are for their peaceful and simple life, under limited technology. In other words, local people in Keng Tung can live a compatible life with nature, which is called “cultural landscape”. Cultural landscape of historic town of Keng Tung can be categorized into cultural landscape in rural context and cultural landscape in urban context. The settlement of local people depends on types of topography which can be categorized as the settlement on plain and steep area. Communities in the plain area are usually the Radious Centric Village whose centre is temple or sacred thing like Hor Sua, the auspicious tree, or the city pillar, surrounded by houses of members of the village. Another type of village is the Ring Village with temple as the centre, surrounded by houses, but into layers connected by ring roads. This is usually found in big communities where small routes must be prepared for a large number of people. It was also found that houses are in the hill for their security during rainy season when there can be flood. In addition, the oldest house is the nearest to the temple or the city centre.
242 243
Communities on steep area are usually in form of Linear Village as the plain area is not available anymore. Hence the location is usually on the roads connecting villages. Houses of this type of village are usually shop houses for trading and services. The cultural landscape of historic town of Keng Tung directly relates to nature and geographical aspects. However, there are also changes made by new development and modern things. Globalization tide seems to replace traditional heritage. Without understanding and pride, local people’s cultural heritagecan be collapsed in the near future.
The criteria for evaluating the value of historic town of Keng Tung cultural landscape are based on cultural significance from related charters, such as “the Burra Charter” and “Principles for the Conservation of Heritage Site in China”. Types of value are identified into historic, aesthetic, scientific, and social value, which are considered universal then are applicable for most case studies. Historic value
Cultural landscape and architecture of Keng Tung are the tangible evidence of the starting point and development of Lanna culture, which have still been living until the present day. Keng Tung is capable of being a case study for Lanna studies as other cities have physically changed a lot. This study of cultural landscape of Keng Tung, along with documentary research from archives, can affirm the relationship between Keng Tung and Lanna (Chiang Mai) whose past can be imagined and traced through cultural landscape. Aesthetic value
Aesthetic value can be impressed through form, scale, colour, texture, and material. However, intangibly aesthetic value can also be absorbed. The aesthetic value of the historic town of Keng Tung can be reflected through the city scape or the urban landscape, as well as the rural landscape. The landscape of Keng Tung is not totally developed to be urbanized, but its development is the harmony between the city and its surroundings, which can be called semi – urbanism. The land form of Keng Tung town is from the adjustment due to geographical aspects as the plateau and hill. Houses are not on the plain, but near the hill to be safe from flood while the plain area is for agriculture. The area inside the city walls is for economical activities like trading and services. The scale of Keng Tung cultural landscape relates to human scale. That is, big construction is found only at religious buildings like Vihara and Chedi. However, it does not dominate the scale of other town components.
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Moreover, big – scale construction is also the landmark of the city, such as Wat Phra Chao Ton Loang at the roundabout of Keng Tung, the Chedi of Wat Phra That Chom Kham ( = ), Phra Chao Yuen Chee New (= T ) at Doi Chom Sak Hill ( ) , and the auspicious tree at the top of Doi Chom Mon Hill ( ). The colour schemes can be categorized into that for religious buildings, vernacular architecture, and shop houses. Religious buildings are colourful. That is, the body of the building is in white but the roof is in red. In the past, the roof was from baked – clay tiles, so it was softer. Gold is for the Chedi and the ornaments. Vernacular architecture is in earth tone. The building is not painted. The roof is in the natural colour of the baked – clay tiles. For shop houses, the building is from brick, sometimes coated by lime or painted in white while the roof is of baked – clay tiles. The texture and material of architecture of Keng Tung can reflect the truth and nature of material and at the same time expressed its surface. For instance, wooden house is not painted to show its natural colour and surface or the brick house is not coated with cement, showing the colour of brick. Construction materials are usually natural and local, available in the area. However, changes from modern world tend to affect the historic town of Keng Tung’s identity in architecture. New construction is coming, made of imported materials. This can decline the charm of Keng Tung and people’s self – reliance.
Scientific value
Tangible scientific value of cultural resource is scarce. However, the local wisdom for the cultural landscape and architecture of Keng Tung is generally found, reflecting suitable folk technology, such as the selection of the location, the adjustment on limited geographical aspects, or water management. Such local wisdom is the intangible heritage which was learned by the predecessors then have been transferred to the following generations. Social value Every cultural area holds its own social value, in terms of spiritual value, educational value, economical value, etc. Cultural landscape of historic town of Keng Tung also holds such types of value which are beneficial for both Keng Tung people and the understanding of Lanna culture.
By considering vernacular architecture as a part of cultural landscape, it could be seen that vernacular buildings were from people’s understanding in their surroundings and resources given by nature. Their capability in adapting residences and other buildings related to their life to go along
245 well with their use, belief, and tradition makes vernacular architecture of Keng Tung have its own identity in form of Tai – Dai. This supports the notion on cultural landscape.
Collapse in cultural heritage has occurred fast in South East Asia, including historic town of Keng Tung. An important factor for such collapse is the lack of understanding of the value of cultural heritage which is the resource for sustainable development in the future. Supportive and threatening factors for cultural landscape and vernacular architecture of historic town of Keng Tung are as follows:
Supportive factors - The strength of family system can help keep their tradition and belief. Hence the cultural landscape and vernacular architecture, which relate to tradition and belief, are still authentic until new changes in the future come and might affect them. - Due to its location in remote area and the majority of Keng Tung town is the Tai – Dai group, who are considered the majority, the interest in development made by the
central government is less than in other cities. This can be considered that Keng Tung gains the benefits instead of losing. That is, it can be seen that urban development in the central region of Burma is not effective as the Burmese and their country are physically and culturally affected by modern development. Fortunately, Keng Tung has not been affected yet. Tradition and resources of Keng Tung can be kept from
sustainable development in the future if there are effective tools, especially the right guidance, for them.
- Cultural diversity and deep understanding in the landscape of Keng Tung made by local people cause multi – cultural and charming cultural landscape. This can be the eyewitness of cultural prosperity and the existence of tradition made by their predecessors. Keng Tung identity can be the basis for sustainable development in many aspects including cultural tourism.
Threatening factors - As cultural landscape is part of Keng Tung people’s everyday life, people sometimes ignore how important their cultural landscape is. Moreover, local people are now excited and stimulated by new coming things, especially those from Thailand. In addition, the value of things is wrongly based on economical status, especially house and its furniture, instead of ethical behaviours and morality. Keng Tung people go out from their place to neighbouring countries to be workforce, and, moreover, prostitutes, to make money. This because they both lack understanding in their valuable resources and devalue their human being.
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- As the majority of Shan State and Keng Tung is the Tai – Dai group, the minority of the central government, along with political conflict in the past, the government has tried to decrease the differences, especially cultural diversity. The clear evedence of this is to give importance to cultural heritage made by the Burmese, such as Bagan and Mandalay, while that of the minority seems to be neglected, and, moreover, deleted from the Burmese history and memory, and Keng Tung cultural heritage was one of them. In the past, the symbol and centre of historic town of Keng Tung, Hoe Kham, was demolished, then replaced by a new hotel. This reflects well how the minority was ignored. This also leads to the invasion into the area of the moat and city walls, without legislative tools or consideration made by the authority, whose intention is also the ignorance of historic sites of the minority. - Cultural landscape and vernacular architecture of Keng Tung directly relate to the surroundings. Changes to environment directly affect them. For example, as vernacular buildings are of local materials, they have close relation to the forest of communities, especially bamboo forest. Hence, when the number of wood in the forest
decreases, form and material for the construction are also affected as they depend on wood. As a result, corrugate iron sheet and industrial tiles have played more important roles when bamboo is less available. - At present, agricultural products to be exported are more focused and concerned, due
to consumerism in the world. In addition, improper plants to local geographical aspects are supported, such as rubber and Jatropha curcus, as they are promoted as new
economic crops for the third – world country. Steep areas have been adjusted for such
plants, affecting their traditional water management, as well as local wisdom for people to live with their limited geographical aspects.
The above supportive and threatening factors for the existence of cultural landscape and vernacular architecture of Keng Tung are the result from the field studies. However, there are complicated and detailed aspects which should be studied for the management of this historic town. Geographical aspects need to be researched deeply before any management to the site is done to prevent the collapse, but be the basis for sustainable development of this cultural landscape.
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249 Autobiography
Name-Surname Kreangkrai Kirdsiri Permanent Address 93 Maitree-ngam Rd., Muang District, Prachuapkirikhan. Thailand Contact Address 171/182 Rattanakosin Island Condomenium Somdejphrapinklao Rd., Arun-amarin, Bangkok-Noi, Bangkok. 10700 Educational Background - Bachelor of Arts (Geography-History) Faculty of Arts, Silpakorn University. Thailand. - Master of Arts (Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism) Faculty of architecture Silpakorn University. Thailand. - Industrial Geography Study (M.A. course work) Faculty
of Arts, Silpakorn University. Thailand. - Vernacular Achitecture Study (M.A. course work) Faculty of Architecture, Silpakorn University. Thailand. - World Heritage Study (Module). Cultural Heritage Centre for Asia and the Pacific, Faculty of Arts, Deakin
University, Melbourne. Australia.
- Master of Arts (Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism) Faculty of architecture Silpakorn University. Thailand. - Doctoral of Philosophy (Architectural Heritage Management and Tourism) Faculty of architecture Silpakorn University. Thailand.
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