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Public Diplomacy's Philosophy and Legal Basis

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NOTES Introduction 1. William A. Rugh, American Encounters with Arabs: The Soft Power of American Public Diplomacy, New York: Praeger, 2006; and William A. Rugh, Ed., Engaging the Arab and Islamic Worlds through Public Diplomacy, Washington DC: Public Diplomacy Council, 2004. 2. William P. Kiehl, Ed., The Last Three Feet: Case Studies in Public Diplomacy, Washington, DC: Public Diplomacy Council, 2012, Washington DC: Public Diplomacy Council; and William A. Rugh, Ed, The Practice of Public Diplomacy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. 3. Hans Tuch: Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas, Washington DC: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1990; Wilson Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004. 4. Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the U. S. Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945–1949, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009; and Nicholas J. Cull, The Decline and Fall of the U.S. Information Agency: American Public Diplomacy 1989–2001, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. 1 Legacy: Public Diplomacy’s Philosophy and Legal Basis 1. Bruce Gregory, “Public Diplomacy: Sunrise of an Academic Field,” in The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March 2008, pp.279. 2. Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency, Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 2008, pp.6–9. 3. Cull, pp.12–13. 4. Walter R. Roberts, “The Voice of America: Origins and Recollections,” American Diplomacy Online, October 2009. 5. Cull, pp.13–19. 6. Cull, p.32. 236 Notes 7. Cull, p.35. 8. Barton Paulu, “The Smith-Mundt Act: A Legislative History,” Journalism Quarterly, p.313, See the text of the law, title 22, Chapter 18, as amended up through 2008 in http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/22/usc_sec_22_00001461/. 9. Some of these points have been made by Matt Armstrong in various essays, http:mountainrunner.US/smith-mundt.html; and Matt Armstrong, “Rethinking Smith-Mundt,” Small Wars Journal, 2008; also www.smallwarsjournal.comhttp: //publicdiplomacy.wikia.com/wiki/smith_mundt_act/. 10. “Modernization Act FAQ” Mountainrunner blog, June 5, 2012, www.moun- tainrunner.us. The Smith-Mundt Modernization Act, HR 5736, passed in 2012, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c112:H.R.5736; and Emily T. Metzgar, “Smith-Mundt Reform: In with a Whimper?” Columbia Journalism Review online, January 21, 2013. 11. Cull, pp.81–82. 12. Wilson P. Dizard, Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency, Boulder CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004, p.55. 13. Cull, p.196; it was passed as US Code title 22, Chapter 33, in 1961. 14. Public Law 87–256, September 21, 1961, 75 Stat. 527. 15. Edward Gullion, quoted in Delaney, Robert F., and John S. Gibson, eds. American Public Diplomacy: The Perspective of Fifty Years, Tufts University: Lincoln Filene Center for Citizenship and Public Affairs, 1967, p.31. 16. Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Public Diplomacy and Soft Power,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science (March 2008) 94–95. See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, New York: Public Affairs Press, 2004, and Wlliam A. Rugh, “The Case for Soft Power,” in Philip Seib, Toward a New Public Diplomacy: Redirecting U.S. Foreign Policy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, Chapter 1. 17. Howard Cincotta, “Wireless File to Web,” in William A. Rugh, Ed., Engaging the Arab and Islamic Worlds through Public Diplomacy, Washington DC: Public Diplomacy Council, p.140–41; and Hans N. Tuch, Communicating with the World, Washington DC: Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, 1990, p.58. 18. Cincotta, p.144. 19. Tuch, pp.60–6; Dizard, p.165; and Cull, pp.65, 73, 77. 20. Lucija Bajzer, “Ameliorating Strained Relations: U.S. Public Diplomacy in Serbia,” in William A. Rugh, Ed., The Practice of Public Diplomacy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, pp.10–11. 21. Dizard, p.165. 22. Cincotta, pp.146–47. 23. Elise Crane, “Finding the Right Media Formula—from the Soviet Union to Russia,” Chapter 12 in William A. Rugh, Ed., The Practice of Public Diplomacy, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. 24. Cull, p.187. 25. For examples of CIA propaganda see Hugh Wolford, America’s Great Game, New York: Basic Books, 2013. Notes 237 26. Kenton Keith, “Troubled Takeover,” Foreign Service Journal, vol.76, no.9, September 1999, pp.19–20. 27. For example, the American public diplomacy staff in Egypt in 1965 was 12, but by 1988 it was down to 8. Later, in 2008, it was back up to 11, but that was because of the Mideast crises and staffing levels at most other posts remained much lower than in the 1960s. 28. Keith, pp.19–20. 29. Crane, Chapter 12. 30. Cincotta, pp.146–47; see also Dizard, pp.166–67. 31. Keith, p.20; William P. Kiehl, “Seduced and Abandoned: Strategic Information and the National Security Process,” Chapter 8 in Gabriel Marcella, Affairs of State: the Interagency and National Security, December 2008, pp.354–55; and Peter Galbraith, “The Decline and Fall of USIA,” Foreign Service Journal, vol.76, no.9, September 1999, pp.30–34. 32. The Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, section G of the FY2008 Omnibus Appropriations legislation, PL-105–277, pp.761ff, http: //frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public _laws&docid=f:pub1277.105.pdf. 33. Keith, p.22 34. Joe Duffey, former USIA director, interview by the author, 2007 35. Keith, p.22. 36. Kiehl, pp.354–55. 37. Kathy R. Fitzpatrick, The Collapse of American Public Diplomacy: What Diplomatic Experts Say About Rebuilding America’s Image in the World—A View from the Trenches, Hamden CT: Quinnipiac University 2008, pp.10–11. 38. Foreword, Reorganization Plan and Report, Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act of 1998, PL 105–277, Division G. 39. Leonard Marks, Bruce Gelb, Charles Wisk, and Henry Catto, “America Needs a Voice Abroad,” The Washington Post, February 26, 2005. 40. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, address delivered at Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, November 26, 2007, www.defenselink.mil/speeches/speech /aspx?speechid=1199/. 41. Senator Richard Lugar, “U.S. Public Diplomacy—Time to Get Back in the Game,” Report to members of the Committee on Foreign relations, United States Senate, February 13, 2009, USGPO, pp.vi and 15. 2 Public Diplomacy Professionals 1. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/208938.pdf. http://www.state. gov/s/d/rm/rls/statecbj/2014/pdf.htm. The numbers of these types of positions at State have remained almost exactly constant from 2012 to 2014. 2. Nicholas J. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p.187. 238 Notes 3. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/207305.pdf/. 4. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, address delivered at Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, November 26, 2007, www.defenselink.mil/speeches/speech/ aspx?speechid=1199/. 5. J. Anthony Holmes, “Where are the Civilians? How to Rebuild the U.S. Foreign Service,” Foreign Affairs, vol.88, no.1, Jan/Feb 2009, pp.10–57. 6. See http://careers.state.gov/officer/selection-process for details. 7. Harry W. Kopp and Charles A. Gillespie, Career Diplomacy: Life and Work in the U.S. Foreign Service, Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008. 8. US Department of State and the Broadcasting Board of Governors, Report of the Inspector General, OIG Report No. ISP-I-09–44, Review of Locally Employed Staff Compensation Issues, April 2009, p.2. 9. Chronicle of Higher Education, Volume 53, Issue 34, April 27, 2007, p.A24. 10. James A. Baker III and Lee H. Hamilton, The Iraq Study Group Report, New York: Random House, 2006, p. 92. 11. “Why the Pool of Arabic Speakers is Still a Puddle; Six Years After the U.S. Awoke to the Need for its Citizens to Learn Arabic, Obstacles Remain,” Christian Science Monitor, May 17, 2007—http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0517/p13s01- legn.html/. 12. Michael Canning, “The Overseas Post: The Forgotten Element of our Public Diplomacy,” unpublished paper, Washington DC, September 15, 2008. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. David D. Pearce, Wary Partners: Diplomats and the Media, Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1995, p.133. 16. Kathy R. Fitzpatrick, The Collapse of American Public Diplomacy: What Diplomatic Experts Say About Rebuilding America’s Image in the World—A View from the Trenches, Hamden CT: Quinnipiac University 2008, p.13. 17. Canning. 18. Peter Galbraith, “The Decline and Fall of USIA,” Foreign Service Journal, vol.76, no.9, September 1999, pp.30–34. 19. James L. Bullock, “The Role of the Embassy Public Affairs Officer After 9/11,” Chapter 4 in William A. Rugh, Ed., Engaging the Arab and Islamic Worlds through Public Diplomacy, Washington, DC: Public Diplomacy Council, 2004, pp.35–48. 20. Pearce, p.134 quoting an unnamed PAO. 21. U.S. Advisory omission on Public Diplomacy, “Getting the People Part Right: A Report on the Human Resources Dimension of Public Diplomacy,” Washington DC, 2008, sections VI and I. 22. There were 1,332 American public diplomacy positions at State, including 263 in IIP, 362 in ECA, 49 in R, and 658 assigned to the regional bureaus, with 96 percent of the latter serving abroad. American Academy of Diplomacy and the Stimson Center, “A Foreign Affairs Budget for the Future: Fixing the Crisis in Diplomatic Readiness,” October 2008, pp.14–15. 23. Canning, p.9, http://www.publicdiplomacycouncil.org/uploads/canningov- erseasposts.pdf/. Notes 239 24. American Academy of Diplomacy and the Stimson Center, ibid., p.15. 25.
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