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Edited by: Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies (IPOA), Faculty of Philology, University of Barcelona Director: Adelina Millet Albà (University of Barcelona – IPOA)

COVER ILLUSTRATION: Collection ivory King of Megiddo. P. Alexander, Imagini del mondo bíblico, 1991. (Drawing of D. Alvarado.)

ISBN 978-84-9168-243-1

This document is under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non commercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Unported License. To see a copy of this license clic here http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/legalcode.

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ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO

Madrid. De nuevo, intentar glosar la personalidad de este investigador, mundialmente famoso, resulta redundante. Él supo colocar la ciencia bíblica española, en su doble vertiente hebrea y aramea, a una altura sólo parangonable a la que logró en el Renacimiento con la publicación de la Políglota de Alcalá y precisamente en este mismo campo del estudio crítico de los textos y sus diversas tradiciones. Después de prestar atención a la literatura hispano-hebrea medieval, su identificación en 1956 y posterior edición del Targum Palestinense, cambiaron sustancialmente e impulsaron de manera intensa los estudios targúmicos y la lingüística aramea en general. Si decíamos que la voz del Dr. Millás se extinguió ayer, la del Dr. Díez-Macho habríamos de decir que todavía resuena hoy, al fallecer, en pleno ejercicio de su labor docente, en Barcelona en 1984. Y séame permitido cerrar aquí esta breve síntesis histórica, sin mentar a los vivos, receptores de tan vibrante herencia, cuya trayectoria aún abierta es mejor encargar al veredicto del futuro, pero no sin constatar el bullir inquieto del Área de Estudios Hebreos de la Universidad de Barcelona con amplia oferta de estudio del judaísmo medieval y moderno, de la literatura targúmica y de la filología semítica noroccidental en general, en la más avanzada línea de investigación, reflejada a su vez en una abundante producción bibliográfica. Esta renovación e intensificación académica de los estudios hebraicos se ha visto acompañada por un renovado interés desplegado por otras instancias de la sociedad en favor de la presencia y herencia judías en Cataluña a través de la creación de asociaciones de estudio y difusión cultural, desarrollo de los estudios bíblicos, renovación de los antiguos “calls” e intensificación de todo tipo de relaciones con el mundo judío. Después de años de una historia ambigua y difícil, podemos asegurar que lo hebreo, lengua y pueblo, aquí y ahora interesan.

Bibliografía

A.M. Badia i Margarit, L’aportació de la Universitat Catalana a la Ciència i a la Cultura (Barcelona 1981). Bosch Vilá, J.: “El orientalismo español. Panorama histórico. Perspectivas actuales”, Diálogo Ecuménico 2 (1967) 51-66. Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Período raymundiano)”, Analecta Sacra Tarraconensia 17 (1944) 115-118. Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Período postraymundiano)”, Analecta Sacra Tarraconesia 18 (1945) 59-89. Coll, J.M.: “Escuelas de lenguas orientales en los siglos XIII y XIV (Controversias y misiones a los judíos)”, Analecta Sacra Tarraconesia 19 (1946) 217-240. Colon G.: A. J. Soberanas: Panorama de la lexicografia catalana. De les glosses medievals a Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona 1985). De La Torre A. y Del Cerro.: Documentos para la Historia de la Universidad de Barcelona. Vol. I. Preliminares (1259-1451). Introducción, notas y comentario por J. Rubió i Balaguer (Barcelona 1971). Del Olmo Lete, G.: Semitistas catalanes del siglo XVIII (Sabadell 1988). Del Valle Rodríguez, C.: “Gramáticos hebreos españoles. Notas bibliográficas”, Repertorio de la historia de las ciencias eclesiásticas en España 5 (Salamanca 1976), pp. 5-62. Gonzalo Maeso, D.: “La enseñanza del hebreo en las antiguas universidades españolas”, Miscelánea de estudios árabes y hebraicos 14-15 (1965-1966) 3-21. Homenaje a Millás Vallicrosa, I/II (Barcelona 1954/1956).

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ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO dios de la tempestad, tiene sólo una significación menor y no necesariamente benéfica. No obstante, en la concepción siro-cananea la vida que viene del agua y su dios, Baal, se integran en un sistema mito- teológico más amplio, en una cosmo-teología en la que la vida terrena es un avatar del orden cósmico, azaroso y arriesgado, siempre a punto de ser engullida por las fuerzas de la muerte. Al frente y origen de esa totalidad cósmica se encuentra, como comienzo incondicionado, el dios primordial, El, (pro-)creador de todo ser vivo. En primer lugar, padre de los vivientes eternos, los dioses, sus hijos, pero también de los hombres. Naturalmente en colaboración con su paredra, la diosa Ashera, primordial como él, pero en segundo lugar, como mujer: se trata de un desdoblamiento exigido por el esquema generativo empírico que es el módulo representativo más obvio para explicar toda génesis. No hay, con todo, en esta mito-ideología un relato de creación, sino más bien esbozos de relatos de procreación: para ella el ser es la vida. Esta tiene, así, en tal ideología un origen y principio anterior al agua de la lluvia, aunque dependa de ella para su preservación en el contexto terrestre, en su forma segunda y limitada. El agua, sin embargo, tiene una origen también primordial, como en todas las cosmologías / cosmogonías orientales, y aparece como el ámbito en que se asienta la divinidad primordial mentada: el dios El tiene su morada en el “venero de los dos océanos”, que resulta así el ombligo del caos / cosmos original, y que otras veces es descrita como la montaña primordial. Dos concepciones que se complementan en la visión cosmológica global, pues dicha montaña se sitúa en la confluencia y origen de los dos océanos primordiales. Tan primordial como el propio dios supremo, este caos no es objeto de creación ni procreación: es el contexto y contextura de la realidad primordial y total. Ese caos primordial, acuoso y dual, de aguas dulces y amargas, es el sustento y el nido de lo divino en todas las concepciones orientales, en la egipcia y en la mesopotámica, por ejemplo. Y de esa agua primera fluirán las emanaciones que aportarán el agua segunda a la tierra bajo la tutela del dios correspondiente. Pero esta función fertilizadora que expanda el agua fecundante más allá del venero caótico primordial no es sin más evidente ni fácil. El caos primitivo encierra en sí otras fuerzas y el dios que lo habita e hipostasía engendra diversos hijos, los tres dioses principales: su hijo queridísimo, quizá el primogénito, Yam, el Mar, como prolongación sintética del caos primordial ambiguo: agua, pero amarga y furiosa; y luego la pareja que desdobla esa ambigüedad: el dios de la Muerte, Mot, y el de la Vida, el “Señor” / Baal. Esta tríada: Yam, Mot y Baal, representan la configuración primordial del cosmos siro- cananeo y un reparto de funciones y de ámbitos de actuación: océano, infierno, tierra, que constituyen la geografía mítica común a muchas religiones. Porque esa configuración no será estática, sino dinámica. Esos tres representantes resultan en realidad tres antagonistas que se enfrentan incesantemente, míticamente, en torno al hecho primordial que absorbe el interés, la preocupación del creyente y del mito- teólogo siro-cananeo: la salvaguarda de la vida. Ellos son y serán el enemigo, el patrón, el devorador de la vida, que resulta así amenazada por sus extremos: su principio y su fin. Sobre este marco genérico de organización y reparto del espacio cósmico vamos a rastrear las sucesivas descripciones / dramatizaciones que el mundo siro-cananeo nos ofrece del mismo a lo largo de su historia. Distinguiremos a ese respecto tres horizontes o perspectivas desde las que se plantea el origen y funcionamiento de nuestro mundo, básicamente en forma de drama, de relato dramático personalizado.

LOS MITOS SIRO-CANANEOS DE CREACIÓN

1. El primer horizonte de la creación / organización del cosmos: la creación de la “vida” de todos los vivientes (Ugarit)

La más antigua y completa versión del pensamiento mítico siro-antiguo nos la ofrecen los textos ugaríticos (s. XIV a.C.). En ellos el interés se centra, como decíamos, en la salvaguarda de la vida como contenido y sentido del cosmos: ser es vivir, la nada es la muerte. Este es su horizonte de la totalidad, pues el cosmos como un todo es primordial, no se crea. El desarrollo de este proceso de salvaguarda se dramatiza en un doble antagonismo que enfrentan a los tres dioses primordiales como detentores de las fuerzas básicas del caos / cosmos, bajo la supervisión del supremo dios-padre, El, que asiste impasible a esos enfrentamientos, los fomenta incluso y acaba sancionándolos. El primero de esos contrastes es el que enfrenta a Yam, dios del Mar, y a Baal, dios de la Tierra. Es como si la ciudad portuaria de Ugarit se viera atrapada entre esas dos realidades y de una experimentara su beneficencia y de la otra su constante amenaza. En realidad no se trata de una mitología simplemente geográfica: el dios Yam es el correlato del mesopotámico têmtum y del bíblico tehôm, la emergencia del abismo o caos primordial sin fondo ni frontera que todo lo envuelve y amenaza con engullir en su indiferenciación informe, y sobre el que se sustenta de manera inestable y arriesgada la tierra. Defenderla es defender el ámbito de la vida, de la primera diferencia, del ámbito de las nuevas formas de ser, aunque sea de un ser perecedero y provisional. Por eso la tierra se entiende siempre como espacio fértil: el desierto es otra forma de vuelta al caos, y como tal, dominio del dios de la muerte que atacará así a la vida por la espalda, después de la ardua victoria que ha asegurado su afirmación. El adalid de este enfrentamiento es Baal, el gran héroe y protagonista de esta mitología. Él es el “Señor de la tierra”, su esposo y fertilizador, el gran dios de la vida, que ha recibido el encargo más arduo en la configuración del cosmos: defender y salvar en lucha incesante la diferencia y el orden, la vida en todas sus formas, frente a las fuerza entrópicas del caos y la muerte que la insidian sin cesar e intentan anegarla y borrarla. La dramatización de este primer contraste es viva e intensa. En un primer momento, y de acuerdo con su naturaleza caótica, el dios Yam cuenta con el apoyo y beneplácito del dios supremo, El, el morador de la “aguas primordiales” que tiene en él su imagen más próxima y directa, su primogénito, diríamos (“el amado de El”, se le llama), aunque esto no se afirme de modo claro. Le recomienda destronar a Baal, impedir su afirmación, que en el fondo es impedir la renovación de su soberanía sobre la tierra. No debe olvidarse que estamos ante una mitología cíclica cerrada, que podría iniciarse por cualquier punto: éste, que señala el contraste Yam-Baal, es el aparentemente más lógico y primordial para nuestro modo de ver. El bautiza a Yam con un nombre de predilección y le promete un palacio, es decir la soberanía sobre sus hermanos los demás dioses, “grandes y pequeños”, “mayores y menores”, pero no impone su favor. Este debe ganarse en la lucha y la victoria sobre su oponente. Las fuerzas que representan estos tres dioses primordiales, sus hijos, son su propia fuerza y están ahí operantes una vez que se las ha engendrado, más allá de sus predilecciones naturales como dios primero con su propio ámbito y ambiente: el océano primordial y la corte de los divinales. La fuerza de la vida, de su propia vida, que incorpora Baal, se abre ahora a un nuevo ámbito, el de la vida mortal, que resulta una participación muy parcial de la divina, muy costosa y un poco caricaturesca. No es de extrañar que esa expansión le resulte en principio carente de importancia, incluso molesta, frente a la potencia caótica, inmanente y homogénea con su ser original, que representa Yam. Más tarde le veremos cambiar de opinión y tornarse en defensor de la vida y de Baal, encontrar incluso regusto al juego de la vida terrena en aventuras amorosas con las hijas de esta vida, según nos certifica la mitología del ciclo menor.

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO

Yam está, pues, abocado a enfrentarse con Baal y a las primeras de cambio su superioridad se impone: la del furioso Mar contra la inerme y estática Tierra. Baal está a punto de sucumbir, la vida de quedar engullida. Pero en este preciso momento viene en su ayuda una fuerza autónoma, todopoderosa por encima de la voluntad misma de los dioses, a la que el mismo dios supremo, El, tendrá que recurrir cuando quiera imponer su voluntad en contraste con la de otras divinidades, en concreto la de su paredra, Ashera, que manifiesta tendencia a obrar por su cuenta. Es la fuerza de la magia y de su dios Kothar, que en la mitología siro-cananea aparece siempre al servicio de la vida. Es como si el caos, el todo primordial se hubiese fraccionado en dos poderes: el de la voluntad, encarnada en los dioses, y el de la fatalidad (la ley natural), con sus estructuras propias e infalibles, que hay que saber dominar si se quiere escapar a ellas y que son el dominio (la magia) de un dios particular, Kothar. En el esquema canónico este dios debería ser hijo de El y Ashera; en el mito aparece, con todo, como completamente autónomo y en este caso concreto decididamente del lado de Baal, contrarrestando así el favoritismo de El para con Yam, y eso de manera comprometida, práctica y activa, posiblemente desde un compromiso previo, desde una táctica tramada y consensuada de antemano entre los dos. Cuando Baal está a punto de ser abatido por Yam, en el momento al parecer en el que éste se siente más ufano y seguro de su victoria, aparece el socio mágico: ¿No te lo dije, ¡oh Principe Baal!, no te lo repetí, ¡oh Auriga de las nubes!? Ahora a tu enemigo, Baal, ahora a tu enemigo debes aplastar, ahora debes destruir a tu adversario. Posesiónate de tu reino eterno, de tu dominio por los siglos de los siglos...... Kothar dos mazas hizo bajar y proclamó sus nombres: - Tu tienes por nombre Ayyamur. ¡Ayyamur, echa a Yam, echa a Yam de su trono a Nahar del solio de su poder! Salta de las manos de Baal, como un águila de sus dedos; golpea en el cráneo al Príncipe Yam, en la frente al Juez Nahar. ¡Que se desplome Yam, y caiga a tierra! Saltó la maza de las manos de Baal, como un águila de sus dedos; golpeó en el cráneo al Príncipe Yam, en la frente al Juez Nahar. Se desplomó Yam, cayó a tierra. Se doblaron sus artejos y se decompuso su figura. Arrastró Baal y deshizo a Yam, acabó con el Juez Nahar.

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En el sueño del Benigno, El, el entrañable, en la visión del Creador de las creaturas, los cielos aceite llovieron, los torrentes fluyeron con miel. Se alegró el Benigno, El, el Entrañable, sus pies en el escabel apoyó, y desfrunciendo el ceño se echó a reír. Alzó su voz y exclamó: - Me sentaré y reposaré. y reposará en mi pecho mi alma, porque está vivo Baal, el Victorioso, porque está en su ser el Príncipe, Señor de la tierra. /DYXHOWDGHODOOXYLDGHRWRxRHODFHLWH\ODPLHOTXHIOX\HQSRUODVWRUUHQWHUDVVRQHOWHVWLPRQLR VHJXUR GH TXH %DDO HVWi YLYR \ RSHUDWLYR /D YLGD VLJXH HO FRVPRV HVWi D VDOYR (Q HVWD FRQFHSFLyQ FRVPROyJLFDHOVHUHVXQRDVLVXQpardésRSDUDtVR/DH[LVWHQFLDHVHODJXDHOVHUODYLGD6HWUDWDGH XQDPHWDItVLFDELROyJLFD\HPStULFDHQTXHHOWLHPSRFtFOLFRHOULWPRHVWDFLRQDOHPStULFRKDGLVWULEXLGR \DFRSODGRHOPRPHQWRGHDFWXDFLyQGHFDGDIXHU]DFyVPLFRFDyWLFDHOWRUPHQWRVRLQYLHUQRTXHSDUDOL]D WRGDDFWLYLGDG\DPHQD]DODVSOD\DVFRQVXVJDOHUQDVHVHOPRPHQWRGH

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(678',26'(,17(57(;78$/,'$'6(0Ë7,&$1252&&,'(17$/+(%5(2<8*$5Ë7,&2 FRPRXQRDVLV pardƝs (QWRGRFDVRFRPRXQDPRUDGDSHUIHFWDPHQWHDPXHEODGDSDUDXVR\GLVIUXWHGHO KRPEUH $Vt VHJ~Q HO SULPHU UHODWR EtEOLFR *Q D HO FRVPRV KDELWDEOH VH RUJDQL]D FRPR XQD JUDQ WLHQGDFX\DF~SXODHOILUPDPHQWRORHVWUXFWXUDVHJ~QHOPRGHORFDQDQHRHQXQWULSOHHVSDFLRORVGRV RFpDQRVVXSHULRUHLQIHULRUODJUDQPDWUL]FDyWLFDHOHVSDFLRKDELWDEOHFLHORWLHUUD\HOPDUTXHHVHO UHIOXMR GHO RFpDQR LQIHULRU /D WLHUUD VHJ~Q OD UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ PHVRSRWiPLFD VH SUHVHQWD FRPR XQD H[WHQVD SODWDIRUPD VRVWHQLGD SRU FROXPQDV TXH VH KXQGHQ HQ HO DELVPR PLHQWUDV OD F~SXOD FHOHVWH VH DSR\DHQORVµ0RQWHVHWHUQRV¶VLWXDGRVHQHOFRQItQGHODSODWDIRUPDWHUUHVWUHTXHVHFRQILJXUDDVtFRPR XQDJUDQKRQGRQDGDYLVWDHQSHUVSHFWLYDSOXULGLPHQVLRQDO(VWDRUJDQL]DFLyQGHOFRVPRVRFXSDWUHVGtDV ORV RWURV WUHV VH GHGLFDQ D UHSREODU HVRV HVSDFLRV FRQ DVWURV SHFHV \ DYHV DQLPDOHV \ KXPDQRV /D FUHDFLyQGHpVWRVTXHFLHUUDODODERUHUDHQUHDOLGDGVXLQWHQFLyQSULPHUD\HOKRPEUHDSDUHFHFRPRHO ~QLFR VHU TXH SRVHHUi DOJR GH GLYLQR DXQTXH QDGD PiV VHD HO UHIOHMR GH 'LRV VX LPDJHQ $QWHV GH FXOPLQDUHVWHSURFHVR'LRVVHGHWLHQH\GHOLEHUD Dijo Dios: Hagamos al hombre ࢯƗdƗm a nuestra imagen y semejanza; que ellos dominen a los peces del mar, las aves del cielo, los animales domésticos y a todo bicho que se mueva sobre la tierra. Y creó Dios al hombre a su imagen, a imagen de Dios lo creó, varón y hembra los creó. 6HWUDWDSXHVGHXQVHUOHYHPHQWHGLYLQRVREHUDQRGXDO\YHJHWDULDQRHOTXHFXOPLQDODSULPHUD FUHDFLyQEtEOLFDGHORVVHLVGtDV(OVpSWLPRHV\DHOGtDGHODFHOHEUDFLyQ\ODFRQWHPSODFLyQGHODWDUHD UHDOL]DGDGHODHQWURStDGLYLQDDTXHHVWDDIDQRVDREUDHVWiOODPDGD /DRWUDQDUUDFLyQ *QE SDUWHGHOGHVLHUWRVHFRVLQDJXDODH[SHULHQFLDFXOWXUDOGHODQDGD\ HOFDRVLQIRUPHSURSLDGHSXHEORVVHPLQyPDGDVGH]RQDVGHVpUWLFDV Cuando el Dios Yahweh hizo la tierra y los cielos, y antes de que hubiese brote alguno de las praderas en la tierra, y la hierba del campo hubiese germinado, pues el Dios Yahweh no había hecho caer la lluvia sobre la tierra, ni existía el hombre que trabajase la tierra y corriente alguna que surgiese de la tierra y regara la superficie del terreno, modeló (entonces) el Dios Yahweh al hombre con polvo del suelo e insufló en sus narices aliento vital, con lo que el hombre se convirtió en un ser vivo. (QHVWHFDVRHOKRPEUHYDUyQHVODSULPHUDREUD\HOUHVWRVLQFDOHQGDULRSUHYLRYLHQHDFRPSOHWDU VXELHQHVWDU3HURHVXQUHODWRPXFKRPiVVLQWpWLFRTXHHOSULPHUR\HQpOVHPH]FODQORVHOHPHQWRVGH VXSHUYLYHQFLD ItVLFD FRQ ORV GH GLIHUHQFLDFLyQ PRUDO LQWHOHFWXDO\ DIHFWLYD (PSLH]D RIUHFLHQGRXQ VHU TXHQRVRORVHSDUHFHD'LRVVLQRTXHOOHYDHQVtXQVRSORGLYLQRVHJ~QHOPRGHORPHVRSRWiPLFRTXHOH KDFHSURFHGHUGHODWLHUUDPH]FODGDFRQVDQJUHGHOGLRVYHQFLGRSRU0DUGXN(QUHDOLGDGFDVLWRGDVODV UHOLJLRQHV KDQ FRQFHELGR DO KRPEUH FRPR XQ VHU LQWHUPHGLR HQWUH OD QDWXUDOH]D \ OD GLYLQLGDG 3DUD JDUDQWL]DU VX IHOL] VXEVLVWHQFLD VH SODQWD XQ YHUJHO XQ RDVLV UHJDGR SRU FXDWUR UtRV LGHDOVXSUHPR GHO PRUDGRUGHOGHVLHUWR3HURHVWDIHOLFLGDGYDDFRPSDxDGDGHOGHVSHUWDUGHVXFRQFLHQFLDPRUDOGHODRE OLJDFLyQSDUDFRQVX&UHDGRUGHVXVXPLVLyQ\REHGLHQFLDDXQTXHHOREMHWRVHDDSDUHQWHPHQWHEDQDO\ QDGDFRPSOLFDGR(QHOPRPHQWRPLVPRHQTXHHVFUHDGRHQWRWDOIHOLFLGDGVHYHHQIUHQWDGRDVXGHVWLQR WUiJLFROH\SHFDGR\PXHUWHVRQXQKRUL]RQWHKLVWyULFRSULPRUGLDO Puedes comer de todos los árboles del jardín, pero del árbol de conocer el bien y el mal no comas, porque el día en que comas de él, tendrás que morir.

/260,7266,52&$1$1(26'(&5($&,Ï1 &RQ HOOR HO KRPEUH HQWUDUtD HQ XQD HVIHUD TXH OH WUDQVFLHQGH \ TXH VH OH GDUtD UHVXHOWD HQ OD OH\ GLYLQD(QWUDUHQHVDHVIHUDHVHPERFDUXQFDPLQRGHWUDJHGLD\PXHUWHGHGHVRULHQWDFLyQ\E~VTXHGD HVWHQXDQWH TXH OH KDUi WUiJLFDPHQWH LQIHOL] $O TXHUHU WUD]DU SRU VX FXHQWD VX SURSLR FDPLQR YDJDUi GHVFDUULDGRSRUORVVLJORVHQWUH³VDQJUHVXGRU\OiJULPDV´FRPRGLUtDHOSRHWD /XHJRVHOHURGHDGHXQFRQWH[WRGHGLYHUVLGDGHFROyJLFDTXHGHVYHODVXFDSDFLGDGSDUDRUJDQL]DUOD QRPEUDUODHOOHQJXDMHDSDUHFHWDPELpQFRPRXQDFRPSRQHQWHSULPRUGLDOGHODKXPDQLGDG El Señor modeló de arcilla todas las fieras salvajes y todos los pájaros del cielo, y se los presentó al hombre para ver qué nombre les ponía. Y cada ser vivo llevaría el nombre que el hombre le puso.

¡Esta sí que es hueso de mis huesos y carne de mi carne! ... Por eso un hombre abandona padre y madre, se junta a su mujer y se hacen una sola carne. (VWH VHJXQGR UHODWR PXFKR PiV FRORULVWD \ GHVRUGHQDGR UHIOHMD PiV SOHQDPHQWH OD H[SHULHQFLD UHOLJLRVDJOREDOTXHHO,VUDHOKLVWyULFRYLYLyDORODUJRGHORVVLJORV(OSULPHURHQFDPELRUHVXOWDPiV FXOWXUDO RUGHQDGR \ FLHQWtILFR IUXWR GH XQD UHIOH[LyQ HUXGLWD &RQ HVWRV UHODWRV HO $QWLJXR ,VUDHO SURJUDPDVXYLVLyQGHOPXQGRFRVPROyJLFD\DQWURSROyJLFDTXHSUHVLGLUiWRGRVXGHVDUUROORVXKLVWRULD UHOLJLRVDWDO\FRPRVHUHIOHMDHQVXHVFULWRFDQyQLFROD%LEOLD+HEUHD2PHMRUGLFKRHVWHSURJUDPD LQLFLDO HV HO IUXWR GH WDO H[SHULHQFLD KLVWyULFD (Q HOOD DVXPH HOHPHQWRV GH UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ GHO FRVPRV SURSLRVGHODVFXOWXUDVFLUFXQVWDQWHV\ORVGHVSRMDGHWRGRFRQWHQLGRGLYLQROOHYDQGRDFDERXQSURIXQGR SURFHVRGHVPLWLILFDGRUGHOPLVPR (VHPDUFRFRVPROyJLFRRSHUDUiFRPRIRQGRLPSOtFLWRGHVXH[SHULHQFLD\H[SUHVLyQUHOLJLRVDTXHHQ PRPHQWRV HVSHFtILFRV UHFLELUi XQD IRUPXODFLyQ VROHPQH \ IHVWLYD FRQYHUWLGR HQ XQ PRWLYR FODYH GH FHOHEUDFLyQF~OWLFD\GHUHIOH[LyQVDSLHQFLDO/DSULPHUDDOFDQ]DVXH[SUHVLyQPiVDOWDHQHO6DOPR FDQWRDO'LRV&UHDGRUDVHQWDGRHQVXSDODFLRTXHVHVLW~DHQHO³JUDQRFpDQRVXSHULRU´GHVGHGRQGH HQYtDODOOXYLDDODWLHUUDPRQWDGRVREUHHO³FDUURGHODVQXEHV´ORTXHQRVUHFXHUGDPRWLYRVPtWLFRV FDQDQHRV(OFDQWROtULFRVHGHVDUUROODVREUHODSODQWLOODQDUUDWLYDGHOSULPHUUHODWRGHO*pQHVLV

Bendice, alma mía, al Señor: Señor Dios mío, eres inmenso. Te revistes de belleza y majestad, la luz te envuelve como un manto. Despliegas los cielos como una tienda, tus altos salones techas sobre las aguas. Las nubes te sirven de carroza y te paseas en alas del viento. Los vientos te sirven de mensajeros, el fuego llameante, de ministro. Asentaste la tierra sobre su cimiento y no vacilará nunca jamás.

(678',26'(,17(57(;78$/,'$'6(0Ë7,&$1252&&,'(17$/+(%5(2<8*$5Ë7,&2 La cubriste con el vestido del océano y las aguas asaltaron las montañas. Pero a tu bramido huyeron, al fragor de tu trueno se precipitaron, mientras subían los montes y bajaban los valles, cada cual al puesto asignado. Trazaste una frontera infranqueable, para que no vuelvan a cubrir la tierra. ……………… (VWDH[DOWDFLyQSRpWLFRF~OWLFDGHO&UHDGRUVHKDFHH[DOWDFLyQPtVWLFD\FRQWHPSODWLYDGHVXREUDHQ ODUHIOH[LyQGHORVVDELRVTXHYHQHQHOODVXUHIOHMRODREUDGHVXVDELGXUtD\HQpVWDHOLQVWUXPHQWRHO PHGLDGRUHODUTXLWHFWRGHODDFWXDFLyQGHO'LRVWUDQVFHQGHQWH 3UVV(FFOVV HQXQD SHUVSHFWLYDPiVDPSOLDSHURTXHUHPHPRUDORVHOHPHQWRVFRVPRJyQLFRVTXHVXSRQtDHOUHODWRGH*Q El Señor me estableció al principio de sus tareas, al comienzo de su obras antiquísimas. En un tiempo remotísimo fui formada, antes de comenzar la tierra. Antes de los abismos fui engendrada, antes de los manantiales de las aguas. Todavía no estaban aplomados los montes, antes de las montañas fui engendrada. No había hecho aún la tierra y la hierba, ni los primeros terrones del orbe. Cuando colocaba los cielos, allí estaba yo, cuando trazaba la bóveda sobre la faz del abismo, cuando sujetaba el cielo en la altura, y fijaba las fuentes abismales, cuando ponía un límite al mar y las aguas para que no traspasasen su mandato, cuando asentaba los cimientos de la tierra. …………………… El firmamento del cielo es orgullo del cielo y la bóveda celeste, ¡qué glorioso espectáculo! El sol cuando sale derramando calor, ¡qué obra maravillosa del Señor! …………………… También brilla la luna en fases y ciclos, y rige los tiempos como signo perpetuo. ……………………. Las estrellas adornan la belleza del cielo y su luz resplandece en la altura divina. ..…………… Su poder condensa las nubes y desmenuza las piedras del granizo. La voz de su trueno estremece la tierra

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02,6e6

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO

Transjordania, hasta el punto de que De Moor, profesor de A.T. en la Facultad Protestante de Teología de Kampen, llega a afirmar que si no son el mismo personaje, hemos de admitir que hubo en el mismo lugar y en el mismo momento dos personajes con la misma trayectoria vital. La “historia” de Beya tiene en aquel contexto egipcio el valor de una proclama política en el ámbito de las luchas dinásticas que conmovieron a aquel país. Se ofrece así como un arquetipo de relato de sublevación / liberación: arranca de la misma corte regia –el juego está entre nobles y generales–, pasa por la descripción de la opresión del poder reinante, implica una revuelta que acaba en fuga con la consiguiente persecución del ejército real y se consuma con la escapada al desierto y el refugio en la Transjordania del norte, en la provincia egipcia de Upe / Basán. Es claro que este marco épico lo completaría el relator hebreo con sus propias tradiciones de lucha con los pueblos vecinos y sobre todo lo usaría para encuadrar la otra gran función de Moisés, la de legislador, cumplida la cual el personaje se esfuma y no vuelve a aparecer en la Biblia, que será en realidad la Biblia del rey David –presente y futuro de la nación, como decíamos– no la de Moisés, hasta la época rabínica –a partir del Exilio–, cuando la historia se da por acabada y solo perdure la norma. El personaje egipcio pudo haber cumplido en mi opinión una función literaria de primer orden: la de permitir al pueblo hebreo elaborar su propia épica nacional(-religiosa) de manera sorprendentemente egregia: nace de una confrontación con el gran poder supremo de la zona, Egipto (cuyo legado cultural y religioso aprovechará), y asume así el rango de gran nación. No me atrevo a poner la mano en el fuego en pro de esta equiparación, pero no cabe duda que ofrece una alternativa hermenéutica interesante para comprender una figura como la de Moisés que se nos escurre en su realidad histórica, pero nos abruma en su significación socio-cultural y religiosa. Me permito ser tan cruel como para dejar en el aire tal ambigüedad Es pues difícil distinguir entre la persona y el personaje en la “Epopeya de Mosiés” que nos ofrece la Biblia y que la tradición judía remata haciéndolo tan excelso e intocable que sólo un “beso de Dios” le pudo arrebatar el alma. Pero en medio de ese avatar “histórico” se halla condensado, como hecho irrefu- table, un “código de conducta” del que se le considera autor por inspiración divina y que supone un hito histórico en el proceso de racionalización del proceder humano, cuya vigencia ha impregnado nuestra propia cultura.

6. Referencias

J. Assmann, Re und Amun: Die Krise der polytheistischen Weltbilds im Ägypten der 18-20 Dynastie, Freiburg 1983 [ver J. Assmann, Moshe der Ägypter. Entzifferung eines Gedechnissspur, München 2000]. J. C. de Moor, The Rise of Yahwism. The Roots of Israelite Montheism (BEthL 91), Leuven 1997. W. Faulkner, Go down, Moses (1940), ver. esp. Desciende, Moisés, Madrid 1990. S. Freud, Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion (1937), ver. ingl. Moses and Monotheism (Amsterdam 1939), ver. fran. L’Homme Moïse et la religion monothéiste, París 1986). M. Halter, Çippora, Paris 2003 (ver. ingl. Zipporah, London 2005). Z.N. Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain, New York 1939. Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (1944) (ver. esp. Las Tablas de la Ley, Madrid, 1972). D. Mathews, Royal Motifs in the Pentateuchal Portrayal of Moses (LHBOTS, 571) New York 2012. M. Pérez Fernández, O. Ruiz Morell, El beso de Dios. Midrás de la Muerte de Moisés (Biblioteca Midrásica, 35), Estella (Navarra) 2013.

MOISÉS Y LA LEY

Th. Römer, Moïse “lui que Yahvé a connu face à face” (Découvertes Gallimard, Religions 424), París 2002 (con bibliografía, p. 121) H. Wouk, The Lawgiver, New York 2012. M. Wright, Moses in America. The Cultural Uses of Biblical Narratives (American Academy of Religion Cultural Criticism Series), Oxford 2003.

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ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO sorprendentemente antinómicos pre-bíblicos, como el de condicionar por una parte la vida a la obediencia, a la renuncia a la experiencia autónoma de lo bueno y lo malo, y encomendar por otra esa misma vida-inmortalidad al fruto de una planta. Hasta tal punto que Dios no puede anular su eficacia: arrancar el árbol o neutralizar su fruto. Tiene que recurrir a un procedimiento externo: cerrar el acceso al mismo. Se refleja aquí toda la “ciencia” mágica de las plantas vivificantes de por sí y de los conocimientos secretos que solo el dios de la magia posee y que transmite al exorcista en su lucha contra hechiceros y serpientes. De nuevo, aunque sometida al poder de Dios, resuena aquí la concepción del doble poder sobrenatural que domina en todo el Oriente, que perdura en el mundo bíblico (recuérdese la Serpiente de Bronce, del desierto, cuya vista es más eficaz que la plegaria, de nuevo, claro está, porque así Dios lo quiere) y está vivo hasta nuestros días en el mundo judío y en el cristiano. Se trata de dos ejemplos de intertextualidad, de uso de relatos arquetípicos previos por parte de la Biblia para componer el relato de la propia vivencia religiosa del “problema” ineludible (“de dónde venimos”) del origen del cosmos y del hombre y el del destino y configuración de la existencia de éste.

2.2. El relato del diluvio Si en el caso anterior la intertextualidad se combina con una fuerte intervención en la transformación del arquetipo, en el caso del relato del Diluvio, como explicación del gran riesgo de desaparición de la especie humana más allá de la muerte que cada uno lleva a cuestas, la dependencia del relato bíblico del oriental es casi literal. Podríamos hablar más que de intertextualidad, de simple acomodación. El relator bíblico encuentra en aquella narración una historieta divertida –que refleja el carácter caprichoso y a la vez benévolo de los dioses mesopotámicos– y que mantenía viva entre sus gentes la nostalgia de la inmortalidad, de la que un ser humano se hizo acreedor –y con el que se topó ya Gilgamesh cuando fue en su búsqueda– por pura benevolencia de “su dios personal” en contra de la inquina desproporcionada de todo el resto del panteón; un modelo adecuado para explicar en qué acabó “la experiencia del bien y del mal” preferida por el hombre: en completa perversión. Le basta un pequeño prólogo y un epílogo para dar un nuevo sentido al relato que todo Oriente conocía (el Mito de Atraḫasis)6, para descubrimos el hastío de Dios que, no obstante, se deja vencer por su “gracia” y salva in extremis a la humanidad, para urdir un nuevo plan que le diera esperanza de pervivencia. El resto es simple transcripción del relato mesopo- támico: el arca, los animales, los pájaros mensajeros, el hombre y su familia, el diluvio torrencial-caótico. La sensatez narrativa de nuestro relator dota a su versión de una verosimilitud que el relato mesopotámico había concebido en proporciones míticas, estando los dioses de por medio. De todos modos, del nuevo arquetipo así logrado queda ese juego de pecado-castigo-gracia enunciado en el prólogo-epílogo, todo el resto la moderna prehistoria de la tierra y sus edades lo tiene por pura ficción. Pero el relator bíblico, que escribía la historia antigua de la humanidad, no podía prescindir de un “hecho histórico” aceptado por aquella sociedad. Lo asumió y lo transfiguró creando un nuevo arquetipo literario en la perspectiva de su religión “moral”, de su Dios justo y benévolo, no caprichoso.

6. Cf. W.G. Lambert – A.R. Millard, Atra-ḫasis. The Baylonian Story of the Flood. With the Sumerian Flood Story by M. Civil (Oxford 1969); R.M. Best, Noah’s Ark and the Ziusudra Epic (Winona Lake IN, 1999).

 LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD

2.3. La novela de José y el relato del Éxodo Un caso similar de intertextualidad casi a nivel de plagio lo ofrece la llamada Novela de José (Gn. 37–48), seguida del relato del Éxodo bajo Moisés (Ex. 1ss.), por la que se objetiva la gran experiencia histórica de Israel, de su creación como pueblo y a la vez la de su arraigo egipcio como tal pueblo. El relato adquiere ahora tintes claramente épicos, como corresponde a todo recuento de los orígenes de una nación. El típico nómada sin nombre ni patria que baja a Egipto para calmar su hambre se introduce, casi se cuela diríamos, en la misma corte del Faraón en virtud de la propia valía moral de su clan. Y el arquetipo que se adopta para orquestar este ascenso no es otro que la Novela de los dos hermanos, bien conocida en el Levante bajo el influjo cultural de Egipto7 –no se olvide que de éste le llega su gran agio cultural-literario, el alfabeto–. El arquetipo estaba dado y el relator hebreo no disponía de nada en su tradición literaria que lo igualase. Lo adopta y de nuevo lo transforma según su ideario religioso: su héroe es un protegido y asistido de su Dios que le dota de cualidades y poderes que le abren el paso hasta el mismo Faraón. Pero es sobre todo su rectitud lo que le ensalza. Y así, de un relato diríamos de vidas privadas con final más bien fantástico el relator bíblico crea un marco épico que aboca a la salvación y creación de una nación. Y si su salvación como tribu resulta de su entrada en la corte del rey de Egipto, su liberación final como pueblo saldrá de esa misma corte por medio esta vez no de un ministro de palacio, sino de un “hijo” de la familia real, el increíble Moisés, que Sigmund Freud, Thomas Mann, Zora N. Hurston y otros varios autores han tenido por un “mulato”, un hebreo-egipcio8. Uno pensaría que el personaje literario es de pura extracción hebrea. Pues bien, hace años el Prof. John C. de Moor publicó una obra9 en la que descubría el personaje Moisés bajo la figura del Visir rebelde Beya. Su aventura se relata en diferentes textos egipcios, estelas, papiros, etc., y ha pasado por lo general desapercibida a la exégesis bíblica. Sin embargo ambas figuras son asombrosamente coincidentes en sus avatares históricos –los que supusieron la sucesión del faraón Seti II y los reinados de Sethnakht y Tausret-Siptah– y sobre todo en su actitud religiosa, que enemistó a Beya con la autoridad faraónica y forzó su éxodo a Transjordania, hasta el punto de que el exégeta De Moor, profesor de A.T. en la Facultad Protestante de Teología de Kampen, llega a afirmar que si no son el mismo personaje, hemos de admitir que hubo en el mismo lugar y en el mismo momento dos personajes con la misma trayectoria vital. La “historia” de Beya tiene en el aquel contexto egipcio el valor de una proclama política en el ámbito de las luchas dinásticas que conmovieron a aquel país. Se ofrece así como un arquetipo de relato de sublevación / liberación: arranca de la misma corte regia –el juego está entre nobles y generales–, pasa por la descripción de la opresión del poder reinante, implica una revuelta que acaba en fuga con la consiguiente persecución del ejército real y se consuma con la escapada al desierto y el refugio en la Transjordania del norte, en la provincia egipcia de Upe / Basán. Es claro que este marco épico lo completa el relator hebreo con sus propias tradiciones de lucha con los pueblos vecinos y sobre todo lo usa para encuadrar la otra gran función de Moisés, la de legislador. Cumplida la cual el personaje se esfuma y no vuelve a aparecer en la Biblia, que será en realidad la Biblia del rey David –presente y futuro de la nación– no la de Moisés, hasta la época rabínica –a partir del Exilio–, cuando la historia se de por acabada y solo perdure la norma. El

7. Cf. J. López, “Los dos hermanos”, en J. López, Cuentos y fábulas del Antiguo Egipto (Pliegos de Oriente 9; Madrid – Barcelona 2005), pp. 125-136. 8. Cf. S. Freud, Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion (1937), versión inglesa de Moses und Monotheism (Amsterdam 1939); Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (Stockholm 1944), hay versión en español (1972); Z. N. Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain (New York 1939). O simplemente un “constructo” egipcio; cf. J. Assman, Moisés el egipcio, Madrid 2004 (vs. esp.). 9. Cf. J. C. de Moor, The Rise of Yahwism. The Roots of Israelite Montheism (BEThL 91; Leuven 1997).

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO relato egipcio ha cumplido en mi opinión una función literaria de primer orden: la de permitir al pueblo hebreo elaborar su propia épica nacional(-religiosa) de manera sorprendentemente egregia: nace de una confrontación con el gran poder de la zona, Egipto, y asume el rango de gran nación.

2.4. Profecía y lírica A partir de entonces el relato bíblico se repliega a las propias tradiciones que organiza según el esquema que dimana de su religión concebida como compromiso-Alianza con las consecuencias inherentes al propio comportamiento. Se advierten, con todo, motivos tomados del ámbito cultural; incluso la “historia sincrónica” tiene modelo mesopotámico. Pero el relato se convierte en crónica, familiar diríamos, hecha desde una visión reduccionista y un enfoque interpretativo rígido, implacable, impuesto por la experiencia exílica. No hay lugar para la literatura y su inexorable intertextualidad: la experiencia de la propia historia no tiene perspectiva exterior. O mejor dicho: sí que la tiene en los géneros que no se refieren a la crónica interna: profecía y lírica. La primera, tan típica y propia del mundo bíblico –la Biblia se presenta como palabra divina, esencialmente hecha verbo profético– tiene su modelo formal, y posiblemente no cabe otro, en la profecía mesopotámica –Asiria y Mari–, como ya en su día dejó claro Claus Westermann10 y han resaltado abundantes estudios posteriores11. Es como si Dios no pudiese hablar de otra manera: esquema oracular y contenidos religiosos son coincidentes. Pero es sobre todo en la lírica sacra donde la intertextualidad bíblico-oriental es patente. Todas las formas de poema sacro, de salmo, tienen su modelo en las literaturas orientales. Incluso de algún salmo (Sal. 29) se ha pensado que proviene tal cual de la lírica cananea12. Pero quizá sea en los salmos penitenciales y de lamento donde la dependencia arquetípica sea más manifiesta, hasta el extremo de poder intercambiarse en las respectivas colecciones, siempre con las precisas correcciones que impone el rígido monoteísmo bíblico13. Se trata de modelos tan universales que explican su utilización incluso en nuestros días como expresiones de la espiritualidad moderna, del folklore profano incluso. Un caso especialmente sorprendente, por unificar historia y expresión lírica, lo constituyen las Lamentaciones por la Jerusalén destruida. Con ellas el relator bíblico se remonta a una tradición milenaria que se lamentó de similares desgracias con el mismo tono y efusión verbal ya en el tercer milenio a.C. Jerusalén entra así en el catálogo de las grandes urbes que hicieron historia, a partir del prototipo que ofrece la ciudad de Ur14. El individuo particular, israelita y babilonio, por su parte derrama su pena ante su dios usando los mismos interrogantes ante su olvido y las mismas súplicas reclamando su intervención urgente ante el ataque de sus adversarios. Aquí habríamos quizá de hablar más que de inter-textualidad, de “inter-animidad”. El abandono existencial del hombre genera un grito similar en todas las culturas.

10. Cf. Cl. Westerrmann, Grundformen prophetischer Rede (Beiträge zur Evangelischer Theologie 31; München 1960). Véase también A. Rofé, The Prophetical Stories (Publications of the Perry Foundation for Biblical Research; Jerusalem 1988). 11. Cf. entre otros autores F. Ellermeier, Prophetie in Mari und Israel (Herzberg 1968); E. Noort, Untersuchungen zur Gottesbescheid in Mari (Neukirchen–Vluyn 1977); A. Malamat, Mari and the Early Israelite Experience (Oxford 1989); L. Cagni, Le profezie di Mari (Brescia 1995); J.M. Sasson, “About ‘Mari and the Bible’”, RA 92 (1998) 97-123. 12. Cf. J.L. Cunchillos, Estudio del Salmo 29. Canto al Dios de la fertilidad-fecundidad… (Institución San Jerónimo 5; Valencia 1976); O. Loretz, Psalm 29. Kanaanäische El- und Baaltraditionen in jüdischer Sicht (UBL 2; Altenberge 1984). 13. Cf. la obra clásica de H. Gunkel, Introducción a los Salmos (Clásicos de la Ciencia Bíblica 1; Valencia 1983); Ed. R. Daglish, Psalm Fifty-One. In the Light of Ancient Near East Patternims (Leiden 1962). 14. Cf. S. Kramer, Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur (AS 12; Chicago 1940).

 LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD

2.5. Literatura sapiencial Pero donde la intertextualidad bíblica adquiere un nivel más explícito es en el género que hemos dado en llamar sapiencial, una de cuyas características ya advirtió en su día Von Rad es la “universalidad”15. Al hablar de la lírica hemos insinuado que algunas de sus piezas podían intercambiarse en las diferentes colecciones, bíblicas y extrabíblicas. Pues bien, ese caso se da de manera abierta y confesa en el género proverbial. El Libro de los Proverbios se ha apropiado de colecciones extranjeras, que atribuye a sus autores no hebreos, incluso de una sección de la egipcia Enseñanza de Amenémope (Pr. 22, 17-24, 22), como es bien sabido16. En este caso tampoco hablaríamos de intertextualidad propiamente tal, sino de simple apropiación o cita larga, más que de plagio, pues el material era bien conocido. Esto nos recuerda el sorprendente fenómeno que nos ofrece Calderón en su comedia “Los cabellos de Absalón”, en la que se reproduce como uno de sus actos el respectivo de “La venganza de Tamar”, de Tirso de Molina, no sabemos en virtud de qué acuerdo o usurpación. A su vez la literatura oriental nos ha dejado colecciones de proverbios morales que podrían haber también entrado en la miscelánea bíblica tal cual17. Nos presenta incluso alguno de ellos según la fórmula paternal bení, “hijo mío”, tan típica del género. Por lo demás, la lírica no sacro-cultual, la narrativa midráshica y la literatura proverbial manifiestan también un alto nivel de intertextualidad. Es bien conocida la dependencia del Cantar de los Cantares respecto de la poesía amorosa egipcia, aunque la espontaneidad y universalidad de la experiencia que refleja aconseja no insistir demasiado en tal dependencia y otorgar un alto grado de autonomía a la expresión bíblica. Lo mismo pude decirse del posible reflejo de la concepción cananea de Baal como “esposo de la tierra” en Os. 2, concepción que está a su vez a la base de la interpretación / aceptación alegórica del Cantar y de su introducción en el lenguaje místico (el matrimonio espiritual; véase más abajo). En el otro gran producto de la poética sapiencial bíblica, el Libro de Job, la intertextualidad se manifiesta de manera más clara, aun tratándose también de un tema / experiencia igualmente universal: El justo doliente18. El poema babilónico de este nombre ofrece un antecedente literario bien conocido en el Antiguo Oriente y pudo servir de pauta para situar al personaje y su problema, mientras el desarrollo sistemático dramático de la tesis teológica es un producto típicamente hebreo sin parangón conocido19. Aquí como en otras muchas ocasiones el nuevo arquetipo eclipsa sus modelos precedentes. Una intertextualidad más clara la observamos en el caso de la narrativa sapiencial de tema similar, el Libro de Tobías, cuya referencia a la parte narrativa de la Novela de Ahiqar20, que parece conocer, resulta ineludible, quizá como su contra-modelo, mientras la sección de dichos y proverbios se insertaría como una colección más de este género al que nos hemos referido más arriba. La obra era bien conocida en el mundo judío postexílico. En el caso de relatos bíblicos como los de Ester y

15. G. von Rad, Sabiduría en Israel (Madrid 1985, tr.), pp. 379ss. 16. Cf. A. Marzal, La enseñanza de Amenemope (Madrid 1965). 17. Cf. W.G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford 1960) 222ss.; en este sentido son de sumo interés, por su proximidad histórica y cultural, los textos provenientes de Ugarit. cf. D. Arnaud, Corpus des Textes de Bibliotèque de Ras Shamra-Ougarit (1936-2000) (AuOr Supp 23; Sabadell 2007), pp. 139ss. 18 Cf. W.G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature, pp. 21-62. 19. J.C. De Moor, The Rise of Yahwism, pp. 131ss. considera el Libro de Job una obra de posible origen cananeo y al personaje Job un trasunto del Ayyabu de las cartas de El-Amarna, desgraciado reyezuelo de la región de Basán, zona especialmente significativa en la tradición cananea y que al parecer ha conservado hasta nuestros días un remedo de aquella tradición (la tumba del Sheikh al-miskīn). 20. Véase el texto traducido por H.L. Ginsberg en J.B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testament (Princeton NJ 1955), pp. 427-430.

 ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO

Judit, esencialmente literarios, no sería descabellado presuponer igualmente arquetipos antiguo-orientales, pero de relatos centrados en la mujer como protagonista el Oriente Antiguo no nos ha transmitido ejemplos.

2.6. Literatura escatológica Para poner punto final a este somero recorrido, bien conocido por lo demás, que ha buscado dejar clara la inserción de la Biblia Hebrea en la experiencia existencial y en el relato del Antiguo Oriente, vamos a referirnos a un tipo de su intertextualidad poco reconocido y donde el relato bíblico podría parecer nuevo y sin precedentes. Me refiero al cuadro escatológico básico que dará paso a una desbordada creación literaria en época intertestamentaria, pero que tiene ya sus antecedentes bíblicos en el Libro de Isaías. Dada la naturaleza de las religiones orientales, religiones naturales basadas en el ciclo de la fertilidad, el horizonte escatológico no ofrece significación alguna. Para ellas el sentido del cosmos se solventa en los orígenes, en la “protología”, el resto es repetición sin fin; la historia, el hacer humano, no camina más allá de sí misma. Pues bien, es a esa protología concebida como una lucha primordial entre fuerzas antagónicas, entre dioses y monstruos, a la que recurre la Biblia para orquestar su visión del final de la historia y el inicio del nuevo eón, la “escatología”. En este caso no solo el tema sino su formulación literal está tomada del mito baálico21. Resulta sorprendente encontrar en Is. 27:1 (cf. 51:9; Sal. 74:14; 104:26; Job 3:8; 40:25) la mención de “Leviatán (lwytn), el dragón-serpiente huidiza, Leviatán, la dragón- serpiente escurridiza, el dragón (tannîn) del mar”, con el que se las verá Yahwe “en aquel día”. La figura pasaría a la apocalíptica cristiana, es el “draco habens capita septem…, serpens antiquus” (Ap. 12, 3; 20, 2) y se ha convertido en un ingrediente de nuestra cultura. Pues bien, tal expresión y nombre definen al enemigo al que se enfrenta en la protología cananea el dios de la vida y la fertilidad, Baal, y al que vence, asegurando el triunfo de la vida. El dios Mot se lo echa en cara: “cuando aplastaste a Lotán, la serpiente huidiza, acabaste con la serpiente escurridiza, el ‘tirano’ de siete cabezas…” (KTU 1.5 I 1-3; véase KTU 1.3 III 40-42, aquí el monstruo es Tunnanu, el Tannin de la Biblia)22. Pero la cosa no acaba aquí. La rica protología cananea, por muy ahistórica que se la suponga, no podía ignorar el hecho de la muerte. Lo incorpora en la forma de un dios, Mot, el gran enemigo de Baal, como lo hacen otras cosmogonías orientales, p. e. la fenicia23. Esta teomaquia primordial entre el dios de la vida y el de la muerte, entre la vida y la muerte, de un dios que muere por salvar la vida, que baja al infierno, el reino de la Muerte, para volver triunfante del mismo, tiene su contra-reflejo en la esperanza cristiana que en la plenitud de los tiempos, escatología por tanto, nos presenta, según la formulación de Pablo (1Cor. 15:54) a Cristo luchando contra la “Muerte” personificada y venciéndola: “La muerte ha sido aniquilada definitivamente. ¿Dónde está Muerte tu victoria?... Gracias sean dadas a Dios que nos da la victoria por medio del Señor nuestro Jesucristo”. La diferencia será con todo sustancial: el modelo, si de hecho se lo utilizó, fue de

21. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, “Ugarit e Israel. La religión de la vida y de la muerte”, en J. Campos Santiago – V. Julián Pastor (eds.), Congreso Internacional: “Biblia, Cultura Histórica y Encrucijada de Culturas” (Salamanca 2002), Zamora 2004, pp. 149-156. 22. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, Mitos y leyendas de Canaán según la tradición de Ugarit (Fuentes de la Ciencia Bíblica 1; Madrid 1981) 213ss.; C. Uehlinger, “Leviathan”, en K. Van der Toon, et al., (eds.), Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (Leiden – Boston – Köln 19992), pp. 511-515. 23. G. del Olmo Lete, “Los mitos siro-cananeos de creación”, en M.L. Sánchez de León (ed.), Religions del món antic. La Creació (Segon sicle de conferències; Palma 2002), pp. 63-87.

LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD nuevo remodelado y cambiado en un arquetipo de sentido diferente: de la fertilidad recurrente a la inmortalidad eterna. Baal vence a la Muerte de manera provisional, el combate debe repetirse cada año, la muerte no es abolida nunca, está ahí siempre presente, es de hecho “inmortal”, la existencia humana no puede escapar a la dialéctica de la alternancia vida-muerte. La victoria de Cristo, en cambio, se anuncia total y definitiva, su muerte-resurrección anula a la “Muerte” de una vez por todas. Pero se trata de horizontes antropológicos diferentes que aquí no corresponde desarrollar. Con todo es claro que dentro de su heterogeneidad última los dos modelos (el del “dios que muere y resucita” y el de “Cristo Redentor”) mantienen una notable simetría descriptiva que sugiere una clara intertextualidad a nivel de arquetipo literario. A este respecto no se ha de olvidar que en la Fenicia del siglo I a.C., en la frontera con la Galilea del N.T., se celebraba cada año, en Tiro, el festival de la égersis de Baal en el que se recogía y actualizaba esta ideología cananea24.

3. Intertextualidad descendente

Es hora ya de que pasemos al segundo sentido de la intertextualidad bíblica, la que llamábamos descendente, esa a la que nos referimos normalmente cuando nos planteamos el tema de “La Biblia en la Literatura”. Partimos ahora de la Biblia como hecho literario consolidado y con valor propio, al margen de su prehistoria, y como prototipo descriptivo de situaciones en ella relatadas. Al mantener su carácter prototípico en culturas que la aceptan como norma religiosa indiscutida, esta intertextualidad no abocará a la creación de nuevos prototipos que la transciendan o anulen, ningna creación que parta de ella la suplantará, el prototipo bíblico quedará siempre como primordial y “clásico”. Prescindimos aquí de todo el nivel de “representación” (predominante en la Edad Media y el Barroco: “misterios”, “autos”, “teatro de colegio”) así como del de “reconstrucción” (“novela histórica”). Estos niveles pertenecen a la intertextualidad descendente de “grado cero”25: no hay propiamente “intertexto” sino simple reelaboración del texto mismo. No obstante se ha de tener en cuenta, en el caso de aparentes “novelas históricas”, que puede haber obras de este género en las que el texto bíblico es un “pre-texto” de un análisis de la realidad que aquéllas transmiten en una dimensión que transciende el relato que sirve de punto de partida. Me permito aducir la obra de Th. Mann, Joseph und seine Brüder (1933-1943)26 como ejemplo egregio de tal intertextualidad “historizante”. La preocupación por este tipo de intertextualidad bíblica estuvo ya más o menos presente en los grandes comentarios, pero fue sobre todo a partir de la creciente preocupación por la “Biblia como Literatura”, a partir de los años 40 del siglo pasado cuando se incrementó de manera muy notable el análisis de la presencia de la Biblia en las diferentes literaturas nacionales27, en los diversos géneros e incluso en autores concretos. Yo mismo me preocupé hace años de compilar, como ayuda a mis

24. Cf. G. del Olmo Lete, El continuum cultural cananeo. Pervivencias cananeas en el mundo fenicio-púnico (AuOrSupp 14; Sabadell 1996), pp. 77-80. 25. Tanto la “representación” (teatro) como la “novela histórica” (narrativa) se habrían de enmarcar en el primero de los cinco tipos de “relations transtextuelles” que enumera Genette (Palimpsestes, p. 8), mientras el uso “prototípico” de un texto corresponde a su tipo cuarto (“hypertextualité”), que supone un “hipertexto” y su correspondiente “hipotexto” en un proceso de “transformación diegética y pragmática”, relativa al universo-marco y a la acción en sí respectivamente (pp. 341ss.), proceso del que la correlación entre la Odisea de Homero y el Ulises de Joyce (pp. 355-357) es un ejemplo “prototípico”. 26. Cf. la versión española de J. Parra: Th. Mann, José y sus hermanos, vols. I-IV (Madrid 2000-2011). 27. Un ejemplo egregio a este respecto lo constituye la obra de D.L. Jeffrey, A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature (Gran Rapids MI 1992).

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO alumnos de la asignatura “La Biblia en la Literatura” (“Literatura y Mito I”), una guía bibliográfica que recogiese, siguiendo el orden de los “libros” bíblicos y sus protagonistas, las obras de la literatura universal (poesía, teatro y narrativa) que o bien “representan” el relato bíblico o bien “interpretan” la realidad humana desde el mismo como arquetipo (un empeño claramente inabarcable). Tal guía ha ido incesantemente incrementándose y puede servir para lograr una primera impresión de lo descomunal del fenómeno. En nuestros días se han compilado enciclopedias de varios volúmenes sobre “La recepción de la Biblia”28 y sobre “La presencia de la Biblia en la Cultura”29, e incluso está en prensa un “Diccionario enciclopédico de la Biblia en la Literatura Universal”30. Dejando de lado el sistemático tratamiento de ese cúmulo de obras esbozado en la mentada guía, vamos a fijarnos en tres relatos bíblicos que han alcanzado en nuestro mundo cultural, más o menos religioso judeo-cristiano, una significación que transciende incluso la creación literaria para alcanzar un valor antropológico de primer orden. En concreto nos referimos a la “Vida de Adán y Eva” como prototipo existencial, al “Éxodo” como modelo político y al “Cantar” como la osadía verbal del lenguaje místico.

3.1. Adán y Eva La “Vida de Adán y Eva”, dejando de lado su versión apócrifa, desde el drama de inspiración roussoniana de Friedrich G. Klopstock, Der Tod Adams (1757), a la novela de Pío Baroja El árbol de la ciencia (1911)31, desde Marc Twain (1892-)32 a Gioconda Belli (2008)33, pasando por Imre Madách (1862)34, Bernard Shaw (1921)35, George Tabori (1991)36 y otros varios, se ha tomado como el modelo simbólico de la existencia humana y sus momentos decisivos. En un relato ingenuo y casi fabulesco, que ha quedado como plasmación imprescindible, la Biblia nos ofrece una captación genial de los aspectos esenciales que determinan y agitan la existencia humana y que ha “inspirado” obras de una intensidad literaria realmente de primer grado. La intertextualidad es aquí manifiesta y explícita, incluso diríamos que transciende la noción misma de “intertextualidad del prototipo” para alcanzar el sentido de “tesis resumida y encriptada” en un simbolismo casi plástico, que está reclamando su desarrollo, un texto que se hace “pre-texto” manifiesto. Recuérdese a este propósito la cita de Steiner aducida más arriba. Adán y Eva es el “hombre” (’ādām), somos nosotros, todo lo que se pueda decir a ese propósito resulta algo “déjà vu”. Atención especial recibirá el tema del origen del mal. El mal viene del maligno que aparece de repente en el mismo Paraíso y se halla en constante acecho para extraviar a los hijos de Dios y malograr

28. J.M. Klauck et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of the Bible Reception (Berlín 2009-). 29. A. Beavis, N.J. Gilmour, Dictionary of the Bible and Western Culture (Sheffield 2012); Ph. Culbertson, E.M. Wainwright (eds.), The Bible in/and Popular Culture: A Creative Encounter (Atlanta 2010). 30. Cf. S. Parizet (ed.), La Bible dans les Littératures du Monde. Dictionnaire (París, en prensa: Les éditions du cerf). 31. Cf. P. Baroja, El árbol de la ciencia (Letras Hispánicas 225; Madrid 1994). En ésta el autor lleva a cabo una utilización arquetípica del tema bíblico como esquema antropológico válido para formular la antinomia vida / ciencia, como futuro ineludible del hombre, y a la postre la dialéctica histórica tradición / progreso, ciencia / religión. El tratamiento explícito del tema se lleva a cabo en un capítulo central, pero el planteamiento resuena en toda la obra. 32. Cf. M. Twain, The Diaries of Adam & Eve (1892-; versión española El diario de Adán y Eva, Madrid 2005). Una edición-versión más crítica y anotada de los diferentes textos de M. Twain la ofrece R. Santervás, La Biblia según Mark Twain (Avatares 50; Madrid 2002). 33. Cf. G. Belli, El infinito en la palma de la mano (Premio Biblioteca Breve 2008; Barcelona 2008). 34. Cf. I. Madách, Az ember tragédiája (1862; versión española La tragedia del hombre, Corvina 1978). 35. Cf. B. Shaw, Back to Methuselah. A Metabiological Pentateuch (Harmondsworth 1921). 36. Cf. G. Tabori, Die Goldberg-Variationen (1991; versión española Las variaciones Goldberg, Adriana Hidalgo ed. 2003).

LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD su obra. El mal, como el bien (divino), tienen un origen extraterrestre, vienen del Más allá, o lo que es lo mismo, tienen una consistencia o polaridad absoluta: “está ahí” y por eso no sabemos “de dónde viene”, por que no viene… El mal sale al paso a Dios en su propia obra ya desde el principio. En nuestros mismos días la “vida de Adán y Eva” ha continuado seduciendo la pluma de otros muchos escritores, como le pasó a Marc Twain, por la oportunidad que les ofrecía el relato bíblico de imaginar y completar los temas y situaciones básicas de la existencia humana que allí se esbozan de manera simple y sucinta. En ese marco alucinante del jardín de Edén se ve nacer la conciencia humana y enfrentarse a todos los parámetros esenciales: la vida y la belleza, la soledad y la relación con los demás seres vivos, la palabra y el ordenamiento del mundo, la ley y la libertad, el amor entre hombre y mujer y sus exigencias, la seducción y el pecado, el dolor y la muerte, etc. Todo en estado germinal y sin apenas elaboración conceptual, en estado primario y simbólico, como material fácilmente maleable. Y por encima de todo está la aparición del hombre histórico, su caída, como un proyecto frustrado que deja supurando en carne viva la imagen de lo que pudo ser y no fue, como un destino orientado desde los inicios a la tragedia y el dolor. Dejando aparte obras como las de Platts Rutherford H., The Forgotten Books of Eden (1927), E. Pagels, Adam, Eve and the Serpent (1989), P. Norris, Eve a biography (1998), probablemente el tratamiento más espectacular de la primera pareja y su destino como encarnación del destino del hombre en su historia es el que nos ofrece el gran poeta y dramaturgo húngaro, citado más arriba, I. Madách, Az ember tragédiája (La tragedia del hombre) (1862/1978). Con una técnica de flash- back-and-front (que ya preconizaba Victor Hugo en su La legende des siècles [1859], que paradigmatizaba Bernard Shaw en su Back to Methuselah [1921], y que retomará M. Vicent en su Balada de Caín [1987]). Madách hace reencarnarse a Adán y Eva en sucesivas épocas y situaciones históricas para someterlas a un enjuiciamiento crítico y valorar su sentido como respuesta al destino humano del que ellos son el paradigma original. Su visión es certera y su pensamiento de plena actualidad. A su vez una breve pero aguda y desenfadada versión del relato bíblico (Gn. 1–4) la ofrece el autor francés Michel Tournier en La famille Adam (1978). Las antinomias que plantean aquellas primeras figuras de hombre y sus comportamientos originales quedan al desnudo. Después de tan abundante manoseo del tema podría suponérselo agotado. Pues no. Vamos a detenernos un momento en una obra reciente que resulta un prodigio de frescura e imaginación creadora: la más arriba citada de la escritora nicaragüense Gioconda Belli, El infinito en la palma de la mano (2008). Como en un relato apócrifo de los primeros momentos de la pareja primordial, pero que respeta el escenario que sugiere el relato bíblico, asistimos al despertar del hombre a la vida (arrojado del Paraíso, la gran ilusión: ficción y anhelo) y al encuentro, pertrechado ya con todos los parámetros primordiales mentados, a su amanecer a todas las cosas y también a las contradicciones y contrasentidos de la creación. Hay que transgredir para obtener sabiduría, matar para vivir, ser cruel con los seres vivos tus semejantes. El relato mantiene todo a lo largo de sus páginas un nivel de gran frescura y inmensa capacidad de metáfora, alcanzando cotas de gran calidad en la descripción y descubrimiento del “conocimiento” y ejercicio de la sexualidad, de la belleza y su atracción, de las funciones del propio cuerpo y de la sensación del tiempo, así como en la del lamento por la cadena trófica que obliga a la madre Eva, la madre de la vida, a aprender a comer carne de muerte. Estimo que estamos ante un espléndido ejemplo de relato parabíblico que desentraña a nivel prototípico las implicaciones descriptivas y antropológicas que el original entraña. Aquí no se trata de una novela histórica, puesto que no hay una historia que reconstruir, sino un reinvención o desvelamiento de las implicaciones existenciales que el elemental

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO relato bíblico insinúa o deja entrever. Eso sí, dentro de un encuadre descriptivo que respeta el que éste supone. Estamos ante intertextualidad en estado puro.

3.2. Moisés y el Éxodo de Egipto Por su parte la utilización de la épica del Éxodo de los hebreos de Egipto como arquetipo de movimientos de liberación resulta una obviedad cultural. Para no hablar más que de nuestro inmediato contexto, desde la emancipación de los esclavos y su redoblado eco en la música “blue” hasta la Teología de la Liberación el Éxodo de Egipto es un referente constante y prototípico. El reflejo socio-político de tal referencia salta a la vista. Estamos ante una intertextualidad que transciende la esfera del relato, de la literatura en sí, para ser asumido y revivido éste como programa de acción reivindicativa, casi subversiva, revolucionaria. Una caso prototípico en el que se combina la esfera literaria con la política de manera total y eficaz, es decir, con efectos reales en el desarrollo posterior del destino del grupo que lo asumió, es el del “Mito de los orígenes de la Nación (norte-)Americana” a la que nos referiremos con más detención más abajo. El relato bíblico en sí ha alcanzado su expresión plástica más llamativa en el film de DeMille, Los diez mandamientos, mientras la transfiguración literaria más poderosa, a mi modo de ver, es la de Thomas Mann en su novela “Las tablas de la Ley”37. El texto bíblico no es asumido por Th. Mann en su valor facial sino que es leído desde la interpretación crítica que la exégesis y la historiografía oriental ya ofrecían en su momento. La recreación, por tanto, no será repetitiva o decorativa, sino interpretativa, descubridora del sentido y verosimilitud históricos. De todos modos, a su autor no le interesa sin más hacer un “comentario” al texto para ponerlo en su lugar, ordenarlo, sino que trata de “componer” un relato coherente y global con las “noticias” o retazos que el texto bíblico ofrece, lo cual implica la recomposición de todo el “virtual implícito” histórico, antropológico y psicológico de las situaciones esbozadas; es decir, hacer de un retablo más o menos colorista de escenas fijas una secuencia “cinematográfica” en el sentido etimológico de la palabra: el movimiento continuo de una existencia humana de valor prototípico universal, una situación histórica con sentido decisivo para el futuro del hombre, lo cual supone su reinterpretación a fondo, bajar al “pozo del pasado” que según Mann es de una “profundidad” alucinante38. Th. Mann nos ofrece un Moisés “mulato”, un ser desplazado en su entorno, condición que quedaría plasmada en el “medio nombre” egipcio que le impusieron: Moisés, el “hijo”, sin que se supiera exacta- mente de quién. Destruye así en el personaje central el mito de la raza y el posible orgullo que puede desprenderse para su pueblo como generador del personaje con misión universal. En aquel contexto crece la conciencia de su misión que llega a objetivarse en la visión alucinante: la de la zarza incombustible. El impulso del reformador religioso y el del libertador político se entrelazan inextricablemente. Incluso sus momentos de desfallecimiento se transforman en ocasión de afirmación de su voluntad de redención de su pueblo: ésta “en nada se diferenciaba de la de Dios, pues era una misma y única”. Se esboza, pues, una

37. Cf. Th. Mann, Das Gesetz (1945/1972; Las Tablas de la Ley, Barcelona 1972). Para lo siguiente remitimos a G. del Olmo Lete, “Representación y Arquetipo en Thomas Mann ‘Las tablas de la Ley’”: Anuari de Filologia 20/E/ (1997) 95-108. Sobre el film The Ten Commandments y el despliegue en el mismo del mito americano de “Israel-América” véase el comentario en la obra de M. Wright citada en n. 37, en particular pp. 104ss. 38. “Hondo es el pozo del pasado. Es más, podríamos llamarlo insondable. y esta afirmación también es válida, tal vez más nunca, cuando nuestra atención se dirige única y exclusivamente al pasado del ser humano”, Th. Mann, José y sus hermanos I. Historias de Jacob (Barcelona 2002), p. 15.

LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD personalidad carismática que se construye desde un impulso interior en el que la objetivación religiosa da forma a una convicción personal. Incluso su momentáneo derrotismo ante “la misión recibida” se juzga como una excusa, un disimulo, ante lo que es propia pretensión, configurada e interiorizada como “celo divino”, la categoría que mantendrá también en pie a un Jeremías. Así, este capítulo de la historia del Dios de Israel como historia de liberación y revelación acaba siendo el capítulo primero de la historia del hombre regenerado, de la humanidad posible aunque enormemente lejana. El código de esa nueva humanidad lo extrae Moisés de su conciencia iluminada por el “Invisible” y lo plasma en la lengua de su pueblo, como no podía ser menos, pues a él lo destina en primer lugar, pero lo cincela en una escritura que sirve para consignar cualquier lengua. Moisés es el autor de los dos: del decálogo y del alfabeto. La distorsión es intencionada. La palabra lleva no solo en su sentido sino incluso en su soporte y “simbolización” gráfica su valor universal. Como la raza, tampoco la lengua es motivo de orgullo étnico: la consignación, su eficacia cultural, le viene dada de fuera: el escriba Moisés, educado en las técnicas escribales de los pueblos del Oriente, descubre el sistema gráfico y consigna con él “Las Tablas de la Ley” a partir del contexto cultural no hebreo. La universalización del mensaje y del mensajero (el texto) queda así asumida. Con genial percepción del sentido religioso del relato bíblico, Th. Mann ha remodelado personajes, configurado su psicología e integrado actitudes, hasta conseguir una narración viva y verosímil del pasado histórico-religioso de Israel. Y lo que es más, ha desvelado con fuerza el pragmatismo de la formulación canónica de aquel momento: el sentido universal y perenne de “Las Tablas de la Ley”: “Todo aquél que infrinja las divinas leyes, desde ahora en adelante, sentirá que se le hiela el corazón, porque la ley está escrita en su sangre y en su carne, y sabrá que Su Palabra tiene valor”. O lo que es lo mismo, como apuntábamos más arriba: cualquiera que en nuestro contexto cultural “suba al Monte” en busca de la organización de la existencia humana bajará con “Las Tablas de la Ley”. Pero con esta novela de Thomas Mann no se agota la recreación literaria del personaje Moisés y su épica del Éxodo. A lo largo del siglo XX decenas y decenas de poemas y relatos, de autores cristianos y judíos, han vuelto sobre el tema. Vamos a limitarnos a un autor y a un aspecto específico del tema al que nos referíamos más arriba, como representativo de la amplitud de su influjo histórico: el prototipo Moisés-Éxodo como configurador del espíritu nacional de América y como tal así vivido por sus protagonistas. A diferencia de las épicas nacionales europeas que son rememorativas e idealizadoras, el mito americano es presente y encarnado, vivido como conciencia del momento39: Europa es Egipto, los europeos / ingleses son el moderno Faraón con sus ejércitos, América es la tierra prometida, alcanzada después de una nuevo Éxodo y paso del mar a bordo del “Mayflower”, los colonos que huyen de la esclavitud de una sociedad y práctica religiosa opresivas son el nuevo Israel. La Biblia les describe a ellos, es su profecía, ellos su cumplimiento. Quizá una de las formulaciones más sorprendentes de este mito que resuena en toda la literatura religiosa americana de los siglos XVII-XIX (sobre todo en los sermones y literatura conductivista) la encontramos en la novela de William Faulkner Go down Moses (1940; “Desciende Moisés”), por lo que tiene incluso de superación del estricto mito mosaico y su absolutización: América no es solo la tierra prometida, es el Paraíso, la tierra primordial…, mito peligroso si los hay. De una obra literaria con el título “Desciende Moisés” se esperaría una manifiesta presencia en

39. M.J. Wright, Moses in America. The Cultural Uses of Biblical Narrative (Oxford 2003). El libro se centra en el análisis de tres obras paradigmáticas a tal efecto: el manifiesto político de L. Steffen, Moses in Red (1926), la novela de Hurston, Moses, Man of the Mountain (1939) y el film de C.B. DeMille, The Ten Commandaments (1956).

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO ella de la figura bíblica. El caso es que ni el personaje ni su épos aparecen a lo largo de las páginas de la novela. El título (propiamente del penúltimo episodio) es en cambio suficientemente explícito como para dejar en claro el sentido arquetípico que el autor otorga al texto bíblico sobre su relato centrado en la época que vivió el final de la guerra de secesión americana y la abolición de la esclavitud con el derrotado Sur. La obra se centra en un retrato de plano fijo de ese momento de transición. No hay apenas “trama”: se nos ofrece una pura descripción, la saga si se quiere, de una familia de colonos blancos y esclavos negros que comparten tareas de explotación de la tierra, la plantación de algodón, la caza del oso y mezclan a la vez su sangre en ese empeño. Junto a ellos, es la tierra misma del valle del Mississipi, condado de Yoknapatawpha, el otro protagonista de la obra. El armazón narrativo se estructura como un fabuloso doble relato de caza: del esclavo huido y de un viejo oso; y en ese escenario se inserta toda la vivencia de los personajes. Resulta así una novela profundamente histórica como descripción de una situación y una época, pero es a la vez pura literatura: cualquier dato o momento se convierte en materia literaria que adquiere un alto y tenso valor descriptivo y recuerda las mejores creaciones del género (Proust, Cortázar). A lo largo de esa intensa y con frecuencia dura inmersión estática (con paréntesis larguísimos que frenan el relato para dejar en carne viva una situación personal o un dato del entorno) en el ser y sentir de sus personajes, Faulkner revive toda una época de América, de su sociedad y su tragedia. A lo largo de todo ese buceo en profundidad, apenas resuenan leves alusiones a la Biblia o a la vivencia religiosa en general. Pero de repente (al final de “El oso”, apartado 4), cuando el relato está ya llegando a su agotamiento dramático, cuando la caza ya acaba, aparece “Él”, el Creador, y su obra, la “tierra”, según la describe el capítulo primero del Génesis. El relato-saga de los McCaslin se funde con el relato bíblico de la creación del hombre y de la tierra. El dios bíblico se integra en ese relato y aflora su intención y responsabilidad por haber creado esos hombres y esa tierra que adquiere la dimensión de la tierra de la primera creación sin más. Esta absolutización del ser y destino del Sur arrastra consigo la mención y apropiación de episodios bíblicos como el de Abrahán-Isaac y su sacrificio, así como el de Noé y el nuevo orden que sigue al diluvio. Se lleva a cabo aquí una especie de “Teología del Sur” y a través de él de la Nación americana como tierra predestinada a suplantar a Europa en el plan divino: una sorprendente, casi alucinante formulación del mito fundacional americano en el que se encuadra el destino del pueblo indio, el de los esclavos negros emancipados, incluso el de los judíos, que se insertan también en el destino americano. El breve episodio último recoge la inserción frustrada del esclavo negro liberado del trabajo extenuante en la plantación de algodón en el contexto de la sociedad urbana, que le aboca al crimen y así a su ajusticiamiento. La abuela del chico lo interpreta como su venta al Faraón de Egipto (la sociedad blanca de Chicago) en cuyo ámbito encuentra la muerte; ella consigue recuperar su cadáver para devolverlo a la tierra de su esclavitud de la que no debió salir. Pero ésta es ya la historia de José –ella dice Benjamín–, no de Moisés. En todo caso es una variante de la esclavitud-liberación de la que éste fue el adalid y que en Faulkner revela toda su ambigüedad. No cabe duda de que estamos ante una creación mayor de la Literatura en la que la Biblia mantiene una presencia dialéctica soterrada, que para nada interrumpe ni interviene en la percepción de la realidad histórica que la novela nos revela, pero que al fin irrumpe como el arquetipo, casi como el mito que mejor explica su sentido último. Así la intertextualidad bíblica, no la de la mitología clásica, alcanza su nivel más explícito en la pluma de un moderno creador de nuestro mundo cultural. Esta absorción del arquetipo bíblico ha sido vivida tan intensamente por la sociedad americana que llegó a generar por reacción ante la situación histórica el anti-mito. Así en 1926 el ya citado Lincoln Steffen, uno de los más conspicuos representantes del movimiento radical revolucionario americano de inicios del siglo XX, publicaba su

 LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD

Moses in red (1926) en el que analiza el relato del Éxodo como arquetipo de toda “revolú- ción” y, “a contrapelo de la retórica popular que identificaba América con el Nuevo Israel (como tierra prometida y como pueblo elegido para ser testigo de la voluntad divina en el mundo), se designa como tal al recién establecido estado Bolchevique en Rusia”40. Ni que decir tiene que el libro fue atacado sin compasión ni comprensión y acabó relegado al olvido. No fue capaz de producir un modelo que compitiera adecuadamente con la visión socio-política vigente. La Biblia, no obstante, continuaba siendo el referente hermenéutico de la realidad histórica. Y los americanos en su subconsciente (o quizá algo más arriba) continúan “creyéndose” el pueblo elegido.

3.3. El Cantar de los Cantares Por último vamos a referirnos someramente a la presencia arquetípica, a la intertextualidad que el sorprendente “relato” bíblico que es el “Cantar” ha generado en nuestra literatura, en este caso en la expresión poética mística. El mismo podría ser considerado como una dramatización de Gn. 2:18, que asegura “que no es bueno que el hombre esté solo”; y de Gn. 2:23, que hace exclamar a Adán en su encuentro con Eva: “ahora sí que ésta es hueso de mis huesos y carne de mi carne”; percepciones primordiales de la realidad del amor humano, de la inocencia de la carne y del exaltado regodeo que el encuentro y la complementariedad del hombre y la mujer suponían en el orden original de la creación. Esto es lo que el “Cantar” dramatiza. Aquí radica su valor religioso: en el descubrimiento de un elemento básico del gran orden de la creación como válido por sí mismo y, como tal, querido por Dios, en la más pura línea de la reflexión sapiencial sobre la naturaleza e “inspirada” por ella, la sólida palabra divina a la que hay que escuchar. Cabría incluso advertir en el “Cantar” una profunda intención teológica de liberar esta realidad creada de toda connotación mítico-idolátrica en una percepción espontánea y directa de su valor. Un caso más de ese ininterrumpido proceso desmitologizador que atraviesa toda la Biblia Hebrea, a propósito de una realidad vivida en todo aquel universo religioso-cultural de manera sacralizada y con frecuencia depravada. Es la secularidad de la sabiduría de Israel que se encuentra en otros casos, sobre todo en su polo opuesto, el Libro del Qohelet. El hecho de haber sido asumido en el Canon de los Libros Santos es el mejor reconocimiento de su valor religioso. Naturalmente que esta realidad humana, por ser genuina y haber sido adecuadamente percibida, adquiere una capacidad significativa que va más allá de sí misma, máxime cuando ya de hecho la antigua tradición bíblica la había usado en tal sentido, como señalábamos más arriba a propósito del teologúmenon: “Yahweh, esposo de Israel”, que en el NT será el de “la esposa y el Cordero” (Ap. 19:5-9). Por consiguiente, la aceptación de este material lírico en el Canon ortodoxo estuvo sin duda precedido de una “relectura” que lo elevaba a la categoría de símbolo religioso de la relación de Yahweh con su pueblo. Y en esta perspectiva lo leyeron la Iglesia cristiana y sus místicos, los fieles de la experiencia religiosa radical, personalizando tal relación como la del alma con su Dios en la unión mística: el matrimonio espiritual. De la pasión al éxtasis. El místico incuba en su experiencia una tensión espiritual que cuando busca expresarse encuentra su cauce más homogéneo en el lenguaje poético; se halla inmerso en una esfera de vivencias inefables que sólo simbólicamente pueden decirse. Y el símbolo más adecuado es el que proporciona la vivencia del amor humano, en gran manera ella misma inefable en su propio plano, con su isomórfica pretensión de fusión y entrega, similar a la que configura la experiencia mística. Y es precisamente aquí, en el “Cantar”, donde el místico cristiano encuentra justificado y legitimado tal lenguaje. No es pues de extrañar que los

40. Cf. M.J. Wright, Moses in America, p. 39.

ESTUDIOS DE INTERTEXTUALIDAD SEMÍTICA NOROCCIDENTAL. HEBREO Y UGARÍTICO más altos poetas místicos lo evoquen en sus creaciones literarias, que ahora pueden sin más definirse como tales. Aparte, naturalmente, de los numerosos “comentarios” que del mismo se han hecho en tal clave en la literatura mística cristiana, sin duda el caso por excelencia más significativo del uso arquetípico del “Cantar” en un texto de creación es el Cántico espiritual de san Juan de la Cruz. No se trata evidentemente de una traducción, ni siquiera de una “representación” de aquél al modo de los “misterios” medievales (aunque a ello se prestaría, dado su carácter “dramático-dialogal”). Su autor hace del mismo una utilización “prototípica” en el sentido más estricto. Asume su situación base: la relación amorosa, como búsqueda tensa y encuentro venturoso, y muchas de sus imágenes y términos; incluso, en casos en que su interpretación es absolutamente críptica en el texto hebreo, como en el caso de la mención de “Aminadab” de la estrofa 40, como para dejar fuera de toda duda la fuente de su inspiración. Así mismo, le es común con éste una cierta técnica de composición, que alterna las estrofas “personales” con una voz en “off”, a modo del coro del “Cantar”, que comenta la situación. Como en el caso de las unidades de éste, también en el Cántico se advierte falta de relación lógico-dramática entre las estrofas (sólo raramente un par de ellas manifiestan secuencia argumental o sintáctica): cada una es suficiente en sí misma, expresión de una vivencia concreta. Se crea así la impresión poética de una composición múltiple y yuxtapuesta, paralela, a modo de las pinturas del Renacimiento flamenco (Del Bosco), compuestas de escenas múltiples y autónomas en un contexto o paisaje que les da unidad. El Cántico asume así del “Cantar” el clima y paisaje en que se juega el lance místico: amantes que proclaman su amor (deseo y posesión) en un contexto de naturaleza embelesada. Será el propio autor, en su glosa en prosa, el que deje bien clara la fuente de su inspiración literaria, como no podía ser menos en un creyente y teólogo cristiano, que tiene en la Biblia la “Palabra de Dios”. Pero san Juan de la Cruz41 toma del “Cantar” solamente aquello que concuerda con el sistema literario del Renacimiento –lengua e imaginería– y rechaza o modifica todo lo demás. Es típica en todo el proceso de la intertextualidad esta remodelación del arquetipo.

4. Intertextualidad subversiva

Acabamos así con la referencia a la literatura mística este breve escorzo de la intertextualidad de la Biblia, sobre todo del Antiguo Testamento, tal y como se constata en obras de nuestra creatividad literaria que encuentra en ella arquetipos sobre los que construir la expresión e interpretación de la propia experiencia / vivencia en los campos de la antropología, la socio-política y la religión a la segunda potencia. Pero antes de acabar, permítaseme añadir una nota final. A parte de los dos mencionados tipos básicos de intertextualidad, ascendente y descendente de la Biblia en la Literatura, cabe señalar un tercer tipo que definiríamos como intertextualidad subversiva, en el sentido etimológico del calificativo: “que da la vuelta, pone del revés” el modelo. Me refiero a la de aquellas obras que toman el relato bíblico no para “re-presentarlo” o “proto-tipificarlo”, sino para deshacerlo, cambiar su valor prototípico y darle un significado opuesto. En este sentido la figura de Caín (y su relato), desde George Gordon Lord Byron (1812)42 a José Saramago (2009)43, pasando por el Abel Sánchez de Miguel de Unamuno (1940)44 o The

41. Juan de Yepes – San Juan de la Cruz, El Cántico espiritual (clásicos españoles; Madrid 1995). 42. Cf. G.G. Lord Byron, Cain. A Mystery (London 1812; versión catalana, Caín. Un misteri, Barcelona 1997) 43. Cf. J. Saramago, Caim (Lisboa 2009; versión española, Caín, Madrid 2009) 44. Cf. M. de Unamuno, Abel Sánchez. Una historia de pasión (Colección Austral 102; Madrid 1990).

 LA BIBLIA Y SU INTERTEXTUALIDAD

Very Model of a Man de Howard Jacobson (1992)45, ha sido presentada insistentemente como la figura del auténtico hombre valiente y rebelde que no acepta su discriminación y cuestiona la justicia divina, frente a su dócil y mimado hermano Abel al que nada le cuesta la existencia: todo lo tiene por gracia y regalo. Curiosamente a Caín le presenta la misma Biblia como el padre de la ambigua creatividad cultural: ciudades, riqueza, armas. Ella misma da pie a su “tergiversación”. Este tercer tipo de intertextualidad muestra hasta qué punto los relatos bíblicos resultan prototípicos, paradigmáticos como percepciones geniales, clásicas, y por tanto ineludibles, de las experiencias humanas primordiales.

Creo que ha llegado el momento de que el estudio y difusión de esta significación cultural y antropológica del texto bíblico sea asumida como parte esencial de su comprensión, que los alumnos de estudios bíblicos junto al manejo de gramáticas y diccionarios de lenguas bíblicas se empeñen en el estudio de la literatura comparada y su metodología que les permita apreciar y proclamar la riqueza cultural de los textos que manejan46. Hubo un tiempo en el que las Iglesias hicieron lengua y literatura de la Biblia, traduciéndola y representándola. Hoy desde fuera de ellas se “literaturiza” la Biblia, que se hace presente con sus tipos y arquetipos en el ámbito de la creación literaria. Este es un hecho que se debe recoger como expresión moderna de la vigencia de lo religioso en la historia y sociedad humanas, cuando otras manifestaciones del mismo están en crisis. La Biblia hecha literatura ayuda todavía al hombre a comprenderse a sí mismo por que la comprensión que de él contiene no ha perdido vigencia.

45. Cf. H. Jacobson, The Very Model of a Man (Viking/Penguin1992) 46. Quizá sea este el momento en el que la ABE debería elaborar y elevar a instancias responsables un memorandum en ese sentido.

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(678',26'(,17(57(;78$/,'$'6(0Ë7,&$1252&&,'(17$/+(%5(2<8*$5Ë7,&2 bet essentiae ۊࢯašer ࢯa ࢯašƝrƗh, ࢯašƝrîm bƗhem V ࢯƗܒƗd bôV ࢯǀyƝb bî *உ\OஉZO bôࢯ ”ۊࢯyyƗlîm 273 boࢯ ࢯa cbd clm bi’Ɲr cǀber bƗࢯƝš cad VV bƗmƗh gedôlƗh रƝdût b!bǀqer b-gg erpƗhۊरƗlay hƗ arۊcƗl bƗ cal bakkǀl cal / ࢯel beliyyacal रƗl-ࢯƝl bƗmƗh gedôlƗh cal-kƝn benî ben-ࢯƗdƗm ”ۊcƗlƗh ࢯa cal haggƗg benê ࢯƝlim VV caliyyat benê šƗ’ôn *ಟOP benê yiĞrƗ’Ɲl रôlƗm ben yƯšay calmƗh * FROPƗK bapparwƗrîm calƗmôt bƗnôt bqš culpeh berôš, berôt cim berǀ’šô cam berît V cam hƗҶƗre܈ barzel cam segullƗh bƗšƗr can baššƗbet canaqîm bǀšet enܒ be anîtۊ ܈रƝ cawlƗh cawwƗl bat-pû܈ay battê-pû܈î cegel bêt sefer crb bêt talmûd cƗrag beterem cƝrƗh battê haqqedƝšîm cƗĞƗh battîm EWW VV cătƗray bayt cǀܒeyƗh ܈edeq V cǀz bǀqer berǀࢯsô ´ۊcazar ࢯa cayin berôš / berôt bbeVV gǀࢯƝl 

Ë1',&(6 geber KOOhêlîlû gibbôr, gibbǀrîmVV halƗnû ࢯattƗh gôlƗh hm lࢯ gan, gal haqqedešîm genîzƗh V hƝqîm cƗl / ࢯƝl gôy hǌqam cƗl gƟwî hesîreka V hatterƗpîm ۊdb hôy ´ۊdƗbaq ࢯa dƗbƗr hayyiddecǀnîm ´ۊdebar yhwh hƗyƗh ࢯa adrƗhۊ / ederۊ dibbƝr VV V lmۊ GDG eremۊ dôd okmƗhۊ GJO sap allǀnۊ dƗmô berǀࢯšô daq halanû ’attƗh immƝdۊ derek VV dƗsƗࢯ hammaksƝlôt dešeࢯ hamma܈܈Ɲbôt ´ۊhinnƗzƝr mƝࢯa ܈dešeࢯ mƝࢯƗre ´ۊdƗwƯd hitqabbƝs a ܈Ɲpeۊ gǀ’Ɲl ôqۊƝqۊ gan / gal ôqƟkem môsۊ geber îtۊV har hammaš -îm gibbǀr ôrۊ gizzƗh ǀrebۊ gôlƗh e g wî তUৢV arûzîmۊ gôy ayƟtô-gôyۊ h-YRF a ha’ šƝrîm তৢE ƗĞapۊ ha’ǀbôt hobnîm তW W at merǀdƗkۊ hƗbû Ɨࢯtܒܒaۊ hadrat qǀdeš ´ۊziq ࢯaۊhaggillulîm he hizhartô ke, NHQIFRPS KNO kî HQI e hakk mƗrîm kî lǀࢯ V hikrattî kî lǀࢯkƝn V kƗbôd¶¶ۊhƗlak ࢯa hƗlak ࢯim / ࢯet kǀhanîm

(678',26'(,17(57(;78$/,'$'6(0Ë7,&$1252&&,'(17$/+(%5(2<8*$5Ë7,&2 kullƗham mƗmǀk Ɨh = mimmƝk kǀh ࢯƗmar mimmƗܒƗr kol makkƝh min VV koper mimmƗܒƗr PP৬U V kepƗrîm mǌnƗd kƝn minnǀgah (= PQJK V kƗrat mƗqôm kesep NDVS môr cǀbƝr epetۊlassǀhƝr ࢯîš mera kesep cǀbƝr kissƝࢯ merkƗbƗh O le mƝrƯ’šô ۊlabbacal, laššemeš marzƝa lî môs ´ۊƝn ࢯaۊ Ɨࢯ܈ mƗ lǀࢯ lǀࢯ cƗbôt lࢯ cbwt masǀrƗh Pãত ۊ mƗšîa lôࢯ«kî Ҍim lƝb mƗšƗl leb-yƗm mǀšƝl addîq V܈ mǀšel ayyǀtôۊle OQ VV mešǀl arê mišmƗnۊlipnê mƝࢯa ƗhۊV mišpƗ´ۊࢯa ۊlƗqa liqraࢯt mišpƗܒaik P HQFOHQI V mešƗrîm PDmah mišteh mî mƗܒƗr mƝcim mƝࢯƝt miܒܒƝ’ mabbûl V mayim rabbîm midbƗr nƗࢯweh midbar qƗdƝš neࢯǌm *midbƗr ³ERFD´ nƗरîm migdelƗh V *QGK megƗdîm nefilîm uspƗs nûgêۊme maksƝlƗh nǀgah POஉ QJF nƗgîd ´ۊmillƝஉ ࢯa malࢯƗkîm nidgƗlôt melek nehƗrôt melƗkôt QĞࢯ molek nƗĞîࢯ milah nƗšaq millƗh VV nišbƗcim

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