Irrigation and Drainage Scheme of the Plain of Arta – Effects on the Rural

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect

Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28

IRLA2014. The Effects of Irrigation and Drainage on Rural and Urban Landscapes, Patras, Greece Irrigation and Drainage Scheme of the Plain of Arta - Effects on the Rural Landscape and the Wetlands of Amvrakikos' Natura Area

I.L.Tsirogiannisa*, G. Karrasa, D. Tsolisb, D. Barelosca

aDpt. of Agricultural Technology, Arta, Greece bDirectorate of Agricultural Economy of Arta, Region of Epirus, Arta, Greece, cAmvrakikos Wetlands Management Body, Arta, Greece

Abstract

Amvrakikos Wetlands National Park is located in the North-West Greece. It is an area of high environmental importance, as it is characterized by a very rich biodiversity. Because of it's importance, the north part of the gulf is protected by Ramsar Convention and is part of the EU NATURA network. The adjacent plain of Arta (most of which is part of the land part of the park), hosts intensively cultivated, irrigated agricultural land and a number of food processing facilities and though it constitutes a major threat for this ecosystem.As water is plentiful and cheap, most farmers over-irrigate using water by the old open canal scheme that covers part of the plain and from numerous drillings most of which are illegal. The main pathways of agricultural pollutants (fertilizers, pesticides etc) are three rivers (Louros, Aracthos and Vovos) and three main draining canals (Salaoras, Fidokastrou and Neochoriou). This presentation, reviews information from several research works of the last 10 years which investigated the effects of agricultural activity to the coastal and the inland natural and rural landscape. Efforts that have been made (installation of measuring - alarming stations, educational sessions for farmers, de-nitrification programs etc) during the same period are also referred. © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (©http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. ). Peer-review-review underunder responsibilityresponsibility ofof DataTechnological Research Educationaland Consulting Institute of Epirus, Hydroconcept R&D (www.hydroconcept.gr)

Keywords: irrigation and drainage management, landscape

1. Introduction

According to EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC (EU, 2000 (Greek law 3199 / FEK A/280 9- 12-2003)), action is needed to protect waters in both qualitative and quantitative terms. In the framework of the UN Environment Program (UNEP, 2005) it was concluded that a challenge of water-related issues for Mediterranean

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 2681050249; fax: +30 2681050240.E-mail address: [email protected].

2210-7843 © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer-review under responsibility of Data Research and Consulting doi: 10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.03.004 I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28 21 countries is to integrate water demand management in agriculture and to develop added value tools to optimize efficiency in irrigation. European Landscape Convention (which was adopted by the Greek state in 2010, Greek law 3827 / FEK A/30 25-2-2010) promotes protection, management and planning of natural, rural, urban and peri-urban areas including land, inland water and marine areas. The Region of Epirus (hydrological area GR05; Fig. 1) is located at the North-West part of Greece, it has a total area of 9.203km2 and a population of 353.820 p. Agricultural land corresponds to the 14% of its total area. The plain of Arta (45.329 ha, the biggest of the region), is located at the south of Epirus, it is part of the Aracthos and Louros hydrological basins (GR14 and GR46, WFD, 2013) and intersects with Amvrakikos Wetlands National Park.

Fig. 1.Hydrological basins of Greece (WFD, 2013)

xerothermic period 35 200 ) -1 180 30 C) ο 160 25 140 120

20 month (mm Rain emperature (

Τ 100 15 80

10 60 40 5 20 0 0 12345678910 11 12 Month

Τmin (oC) Tmax (oC) Τmean (oC) EΤo (mm day-1) Rain (mm/month)

Fig. 2. Gaussen’sombrothermic diagram (T in oC, R in mm month-1, data from HNMS Artameteo station). 22 I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28

The plain has an altitude between 0 and 100m and is almost flat as 72% of the area has a slope between 0 and 8%, 18% has between 8 and 25% and 10% has more than 25%.In the context of the New Land project (TEIEP, 2010), about 200 soil samples (0-30cm) of all around the plain were analysed. The majority of the samples were found to be medium to heavy textured. Finally it must be noted that the water table in the area is very shallow. The climate of Arta’s plain is of Mediterranean type, with hot summers and rainy moderate winters. Data from the local state meteorological station (HNMS, 2014; Long. 21ο0'0" / Lat. 39ο10'0"/ Alt 10,5m, record period: 1976- 1997) have been used to develop an ombrothermic diagram (Fig. 2) which shows that the xerothermic period spans from the beginning of May up to the end of September.

2. Amvrakikos an it's wetlands national park

2.1 General data

Amvrakikos gulf (405km2) is a marine lake as it is connected to Ionian sea through a narrow (600m width) and shallow channel (strait of Aktion). Its average depth is 26m with a maximum of 65m. The present form of the gulf is the result of continuous evolution, influenced by both natural and man-made factors. The intense tectonic activity of Pleiocene and lower Pleistocene periods caused a submerging of land which was gradually filled up with sediments carried by the Aracthos and Louros rivers. The graduate increase in sea level during the Holocene period let water from the Ionian sea to flood into the land cavity, giving the gulf its shape.During the last 2 centuries, human impact became more drastic as deforestation, land reclamation works, increase of agricultural activities, changes in hydrological network and coastal reformation, have all contributed to the alteration of the gulf's appearance. The wetlands that are adjacent toArta's plain cover an area of about 20.000 ha at the north coast of the gulf where a number of hills, elongated coastal peninsulas, riparian zones, lagoons, river estuaries, salt and freshwater marshes create a complex and interesting landscape. Vegetation includes oak woods, cliff forests and macchia, dense hedgerows, scattered remnants of riparian woods, pasture lands and crops. This variety of habitats, hosts an amazing diversity of living organisms, including many rare and endangered species (Rigas et al., 2003). Today, the both the wetlands and a big part of Arta's plain agricultural land are included in the Amvrakikos Wetlands National Park which is considered one of Europe's most important protected natural areas. The gulf (Fig. 3) is protected by Ramsar Convention (Ramsar, 2014), the park is part of the EU NATURA 2000 network (EEA, 2014; EKBY, 2014) and it is managed by Amvrakikos Wetlands Management Body (AWMD, 2014).

Fig. 3. Amvrakikos Wetlands National Park (left: map from http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/#; right: photo, courtesy of Arta'sAirClub). I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28 23

2.2 Crop production agricultural activities

The plain of Arta, except of extended animal production activities, hosts intensively cultivated, irrigated agricultural land and a number of food processing facilities. The main cultivations of the plain of Artaare presented in Table 1 (Karras et al., 2006) while in Table 2, the irrigated and not irrigated acreage for the various cultivations of the part of the plain that belong to the Regional Sector of Arta is presented (Directorate of Agricultural Economy of the Regional Sector of Arta, 2012).

Table 1. Main irrigated crops area at the plain of Arta (Karras et al., 2006)

Crop Area (ha) Citrus 6.490 Olives 4.360 Maize 2.980 Alfa-alfa 4.580 Kiwi 440 Cotton 380 Other 770 Total 20.000

Table 2. Cultivations of the plain of Arta that belongs to the Regional Sector of Arta (Directorate of Agriculture of the Regional Sector of Arta, 2012).

Cultivation Not irrigated area (ha) Irrigated area (ha) Cereals 733 1.200 Rise 0 90 Pulse 48 0 Potatoes 0 555 Hay annuals 1.510 0 Hay multiyear 0 4.500 Fresh vegetables 0 1.006 Orange 550 4.173 Othercitrus 0 842 Apple trees 64 206 Stone fruit trees 13 82 Fagales 1.741 60 Kiwi 0 890 Other fruits 31 65 Grapevines 0 50 Olives 4.017 1.600 Total 8.707 15.320

According to Tsirogiannis and Triantos (2009), the average crop water requirements for the plain of Arta is estimated to be 375mm (calculations were made according to Penman-Monteith equation as described in FAO 24 I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28

Irrigation & Drainage paper 56), which responds to a total of about 50Mm3year-1.Limited information regarding chemicals (herbicides, pesticides, hormones etc) that are used in the area was found (Table 3,Karras et al., 2007), while Karras et al. (2006) provide information (Table 4) concerning the use of fertilizers.

Table 3. Annual amounts of characteristic pesticides used in agricultural catchments draining in Amvrakikos gulf (Karras et. al., 2007). Pesticide Quantity Unit Dimethoate 2.600 L year-1 Diazinon 2.000 L year-1 Endosulfan 250 kgyear-1 Alachlor 1.450 L year-1 Metolachlor 1.050 L year-1

Table 4. Fertilizers that are used per crop at Amvrakikosagrosystem (Karras et al., 2006). Crop Fertilizer Quantity (tyear-1) Citrus Ammonium phosphate (25-10-0) 1.000 Ammonium nitrate (34-0-0) 1.500 11-15-15 1.000 Olives Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 500 Cadmiumammoniumnitrate (26-0-0) 1.000 11-15-15 100 Maize Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 1.250 Ammoniumnitrate (34-0-0) 1.250 Alfa-alfa Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 2.000 Super phosphate (0-20-0) 1.500 Kiwi Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 100 Ammoniumnitrate (34-0-0) 300 11-15-15 300 Potassiumnitrate (13-0-46) 225 Cotton Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 100 Other Ammoniumphosphate (25-10-0) 225 Ammoniumnitrate (34-0-0) 250 11-15-15 225

2.3 Irrigation and drainage scheme

In Greece about 70% of the available water resources are used for irrigation purposes (FAO-AQUASTAT, 2014), a number that rises up to 82% for Epirus (WFD, 2013). Two ministries are basically in charge for water issues in Greece. The first is the Ministry of Environment Energy & Climate Change which operates a Special Secretariat for Water (WFD, http://wfd.ypeka.gr/). It is in charge for the implementation of WFD 2000/60 (EU, 2000) in Greece and the relevant management plans which also regard the cost of irrigation water. The other, is the Ministry of Agricultural Development and Food (http:/www.minagric.gr) which includes the Directorates of Land Reclamation and Hydrology (Directive for Land Reclamations Projects Design and Soil Resources Efficient Use and Directive of I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28 25

Geology and Hydrology). Their main duties have to do with drillings licensing (in collaboration with WFD), public central irrigation networks design and supervision, irrigation water needs calculation etc. Both Ministries have relevant special branches in all regions of Greece. In the plain of Arta, a participatory irrigation project (Arta), which is partially constructed, operates for more than 40 years at the west part of the plain (Fig. 4), while at the east part (Peta-Kompoti) the works are at initial stage. The authorities that are responsible for water management of the public irrigation projects are the Local Organization of Land Reclamation (LOLR). Groups of LOLRs are supervised by relevant General Organizations of Land Reclamation (GOLR). Both organisations are "private companies" which are in charge for the good operation of public systems. Finally, the water sources differ radically between public and private networks. The public networks, mainly use surface water, while the private ones use underground water. Lately there is a rising interest for artificial water reservoirs. Most of the private drillings are illegal. During the last years a stateinitiative (Greek Dec. 145026 FEK/B/31 14-1-2014) scopes to register, evaluate and legalize drillings, but the cost of the procedure and the mistrust of farmers make incommode the effort. Irrigation in the area is performed by means of surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip systems in proportions of about 40%, 40% and 20% respectively (Tsirogiannis and Triantos, 2009), with a continuous diminution of surface irrigation. The vast majority of farmers irrigate based on experience and inherited practical advices. As water in the area is plentiful and cheap, most farmers over-irrigate using water by the old open canal scheme that covers part of the plain and from numerous drillings most of which are illegal. The main pathways of agricultural pollutants (fertilizers, pesticides etc) are three rivers (Louros, Aracthos and Vovos, Fig. 4) and three main draining canals (Salaoras (DC1), Fidokastrou (DC2) and Neochoriou (DC3), Fig. 4).

Arta Peta - Kompoti

Fig. 4. The irrigation scheme of the plain of Arta (white lines;Arta (west part); black lines; Peta-Kompoti (east part)), the 3 rivers (blue lines; from left to right: Louros, Aracthos and Vovos and the 3 main drainage canals of the plain (yellow lines; from left to right: Salaoras (DC1), Fidocastrou (DC2) and Neochoriou (DC3)) 26 I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28

3. Connection of agricultural activities, irrigation and drainage scheme and environment

Agricultural activity at the river basins of Louros and Aracthos is the major threat for the ecosystem of the park (WFD, 2014). Over-irrigation is causing salinisation of ground water, but the problem is still not significant at the plain of Arta. During the last decade, the market problems regarding the orange cultivations, results limited interest for harvesting the fruits which are left to fall on the soil and decay. The relevant effluents are a new threat for both ground and underground water bodies. Floods, which are common in the area, are also responsible for the transportation of fertilisers and other contaminants to the sea.

40 DC3 (1 station) 3

NO 35 DC2 (1 station) -

30 DC1 (3 stations)

ppm NO Vovos river (1 station) 25 Louros river (4 stations) 20 Aracthos river (5 stations) 15

0 Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Fig. 5.Contamination by nitrogen and heavy metals (Karras et al., 2006).

Karras et al. (2006), evaluated the risk of nitrogen and heavy metals contamination in three rivers (Aracthos, Louros and Vovos) and 3 draining canals which discharge in the area of the park (Salaoras (DC1), Fidokastrou (DC2) and Neochoriou (DC3)). They remark the connection between concentration of N in the rivers and the canals, with rainfalls and they concluded that the quantities of N and heavy metals are tolerable from the ecosystem and do not create any serious disturbance (Fig. 5). Karras et al. (2007) found that peak concentrations of characteristic pesticides were detected at the estuaries of all water paths. They conclude that typically the concentrations are within the set limits but when not typical threats for the main cultivations arise, high concentrations of the relevant pesticides are detected for some period after application. Another problem that it is revealed is that many farmers use the rivers and the draining canals not only for spray equipment washing, but as litter-bin too. The ecological risk assessment was performed by Karras et al. (2007) by applying the Risk Quotient (RQ) Method for three taxonomic groups (algae, zooplankton and fish). The results showed that medium to high risk (0.1

Fig. 6. Typical aspects of crop production effects on landscape in the area I.L. Tsirogiannis et al. / Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 4 ( 2015 ) 20 – 28 27

4. Conclusions

Irrigation and drainage systems can have a variety of impacts on landscape, environment and socioeconomy (Doughery et al., 1995; Wichelnsand Oster, 2006). The present work presented in brief information regarding the effects of irrigated agricultureat the landscape of Amvrakikos Wetlands National Park. As the situation is considered marginally acceptable and the WFD (2013) states that the criteria set by WFD 2000/60/EC are not expected to be met within the set deadline, the state makes environmental audits (GMNE anfGCLD, 1998), runs de-nitrification programs in order to lower the N loads(Greek Dec. 50981/2308 FEK/Β1895 29-12-2006) and plans to train the farmers regarding the use of fertilizers and pesticides (but not yet regarding irrigation water management) while the wetlands management body makes continuous efforts in order to control the contamination factors (installation of measuring - alarming stations (http://www.xmeox.gr/monitoring/), educational sessions for farmers etc). The recently approved Regional Water management planwhich has been developed in the framework of WFD 2000/60/EC (WFD, 2013) is expected to contribute to the rationalisation of water usage for agricultural purposes.Regarding irrigation and drainage, the completion of the central systems and the efficient management of water in both basin and farm level are the sine qua non goals that have to be set. For the latest the ETCP GR-IT 2007-2013 IRMA project (http://www.irrigation-management.eu), provides a good platform, as it develops counselling and training sessions along with a set of management tools.

5. References

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Tsirogiannis I., Triantos S., 2009. Survey of irrigation practice in Arta and development of web tools for irrigation management. National Conference of the Greek Society of Agricultural Engineers, Thessaloniki, 8-10/10/2009 (pp. 51-58, in Greek). UN Environment Program, 2005. Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development - A Framework for Environmental Sustainability and Shared Prosperity. UNEP(DEC)/MED WG.277/4. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/egmIndicators/MSSD_latest_eng.pdf, accessed: 1/7/2014. WFD, Special Secretariat for Water (Greek State), 2013. Management plan for the hydrological basins of Epirus (GR05). Athens (in Greek). Wichelns D., Oster J.D., 2006. Responsible Management of Water in Agriculture. Agricultural Water Management, 86(1–2): 114–127.