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Sustainable Riparian Zones. a Management Guide

Sustainable Riparian Zones. a Management Guide

2 3 4 Instituto deCiênciasAgráriaseAmbientais MediterrânicasICAM,Univer Conselleria deMediAmbient,Aigua,UrbanismeiHabitatge,Gener SUSTAINABLE RIPARIANZONES Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia -Universidade TécnicadeLisboa, Comarques delPais Valencià 114-6, 46930QuartdePoblet, LabOr -Laboratório deOrnitologia, DepartamentodeBiologia, Centre peralaInvestigacióil’Experimentació Forestal (CIEF) Tapada daAjuda1349-017 Lisboa, Departamento deEngenhariaFlorestal A ManagementGuide 7002-554 Évora, Portugal alitat Valenciana sidade deÉvora, João. E.Rabaça Daniel Arizpe Edited By Ana Mendes

5 : Appendices. Ana Mendes The respective authors, artists and photographers. authors, The respective Essência - ROFFdesign (http://essencia.roff.pt) : Part 4; : Part : Front cover, introduction, part 2, part 3 and part 5; introduction, cover, : Front Daniel Arizpe copy editing by Mary Georgina Hardinge with additional collaboration with additional collaboration Hardinge copy editing by Mary Georgina : Part 1; Jean Roché: Part ISBN: 978-84-482-4967-0 no.: V-3315-2009 Legal Deposit Layout Development: and Design Printing: Gràfiques Vimar (http://www.vimar.es) edition: English page photographs: cover and separator Front de Campos António Luis © 2008 Generalitat Valenciana © 2008 Generalitat and photographs: drawings © Texts, and Dylan Cox. of Carlos Tortosa

6 e mhsz, mn ohr, h picpe f the of principle the others, among emphasize, we Law, Water the in considered principles the Among on depending them, inwhatitswaterneedsare concerned”. directly and terrestrial and ecosystems, aquatic of protection the and aquatic improve to “… is and goal clear One ecosystems. riparian water the the of of subject quality the ecological on laid importance great the demonstratesWaterLaw the and WFD the Analyzing Water Law(Lawno.58/2005,29December2005). the by legislation Portuguese the to transposed EC), WaterFrameworkDirectiveDirective2000/60/ (WFD, the of application the to owing context, European water bodies, a challenge that we have to face, in the important step towards reaching ecological quality in an constitutes systems riparian of rehabilitation the great quality and usefulness of this the Manual. Currently,to contribute and authors the of skill scientific in-depth treatment they are given, certify to the high the and book the in found subjects of diversity The relevance inthescopeofenvironmental policy. associated their ecosystems. Both aspects and represent priorities of major these protect to aims which resources, water of critical management modern the a in role play also and and of riparian zones are of great value for the conservation that fact the from results importance Its and timeliness. opportunity great of issue an certainly is This to thesustainablemanagementofriparianzones. an important set assembles of technical and that scientific contributions book a A GUIDE”, – MANAGEMENT ZONES RIPARIAN “SUSTAINABLE of Manual publication the the see to satisfaction great a is It Foreword now andinthenearfuture. face we that challenges important systems, the to answers of right the find to us proposesallow and to innovative integrated management global, a environmental towards undoubtedly, step is, important which book an this of editors and would like to express my appreciation to the authors legal existing the framework. in contained guidelines the to in engaged are expression tangible give to aiming that tasks and actions levels regional and local at operating institutions for tool working important an constitute will It practices. management sustainable and demanding innovative, supporting in useful be certainly will It relevant. extremely are Manual this quality,ecological of good contents achieving the of For all those purposes, plus the great underlying goal potential ofwaterbodies. good and condition good the with associated goals any and other actions that aim at fulfilling the environmental wetlands of measures rehabilitation and of watercourses and adjacent zones, the conservation riparian enhancement and and restoration systems the zones, river of rehabilitation specific and conservation the to as such adapted actions for call or purposes, plans management into integrated measures improvement and protection resource water instruments, considered the Among the terrestrial and source related prevention andcorrection principle. principle precautionary and the ecosystems, water of management integratedwater,the of of environmentaldimension Minister forEnvironment, SpatialPlanningandRegional Prof. Dr. Francisco Nunes Correia Development ofPortugal

7 and application of the knowledge highly topical and urgent nature of the subject the of nature urgent and topical highly cross-disciplinary cross-disciplinary team that brought together skills and sensitivities from fields, different including geography, scientific ornithology, botany, engineering and forestry genetics, among , others, restoration and management the of view in matter, requirements of the Water Framework Directive’s objectives, and environmental development acquired from the Mediterranean river countries (Portugal, , corridors Spain of and ) various which have been intervening in and altering riparian gallery despite these for being millennia unique landscape of many valleys, particularly in summer. ecosystems in the a the

b) c) The enormous effort made by all the partners in the their making and cooperating unreservedly in project information and contacts available has contributed warmth, The guide. this of quality the to significantly closeness and enthusiasm with which all the authors shared their knowledge are reflected in the contents pleasure a been has it that say just I May guide. this of to be part of this team. The editorial leadership of this project has involved a tremendous effort on the part of CIEF, the Higher Institute of Agronomy and the University of Evora to combine the learning and experience of different universities, research centres, regional conservation development and authorities the was this that considered we exertion, the Despite and agencies. correct way to go about conserving and improving our ecosystems. While by no means exhausting the need for and more better information on Mediterranean riparian galleries and management and recovery methods, the information collected during the RIPIDURABLE this knowledge can be harnessed to manage these ecosystems appropriately, particularly in function-restoration specific actions. aspects marked the project: Three important a) Preface The past hundred years have seen population unprecedented growth and increasing efficiency of the technology that the humans intensification and use in the course extracting and of for exploring and building, commerce, their activities, in industry, raw materials and biological resources. This growth to years, thirty last the in exponentially increased has the point where the web of human interactions and scale. global a on now is ecosystems in intervention of It is estimated that in the next 25 years the water for the population requirements growing will exceed the availability of this natural resource. In regions such as the Mediterranean, where access to water is uneven in space and time, the need to establish a pattern of human growth that is sustainable and conserves this resource and the aquatic ecosystems associated with it is evident. steadily having are land and water of use increasing The more obvious effects on river ecosystems, including modification of the and river’s transverse profiles, original profound distortion of longitudinal the natural runoff system, alterations in , alterations in the type and quantity of the energy matter and nutrients) that (organic and food sources biological to due alterations and the reach interactions with exotic . The environmental aspect of river management, which initially centred on water quality and species protection, has been succeeded now by a holistic view of conservation functions and processes fluvial maintaining on based ecosystem. river the of ‘health’ or integrity the on and The operational objective is ecosystems to an ecological status to approaching that return disturbed which existed before the human disturbances took place. The Water Framework Directive enshrined this new view of water ecosystem quality in law and set Integrated status. ecological good achieving for dates management and restoration of aquatic ecosystems will be one of the major action areas in the future management of water resources. The EU InterregIIIC-South project Sustainable “RIPIDURABLE, Management ran of from 2005 Riparian to and 2008. ” dynamics It studied of the river hydrophysical and ecology corridors, biological components, and including how their

8 perspectives on the ecosystem and its management. its and ecosystem the on perspectives restoration and upgrading projects, bringing different also been made by other researchers involved in river have contributions as this, members in alone been RIPIDURABLE not have The this for Guide. basis Management the providing structured knowledge, of systematic, body a constitutes nonetheless areas, subject similar in projects other and project, with riverecosystemmanagement. we trust which will be useful to everyone who deals in any way framework educational an is result The Professor, PhD,Habil.HigherInstituteofAgronomy, Technical University ofLisbon Maria Teresa Ferreira

9 Afonso Costa 3, 1949-002 Lisboa, Portugal Lisboa, Afonso Costa 3, 1949-002

Departamento de Ambiente e Ordenamento do Departamento de Ambiente e Ordenamento e de Desenvolvimento / EDIA, Empresa Território de Alqueva, S.A. Infraestruturas Rua Zeca Afonso, 2 - 7800 – 522 Beja, Portugal http://www.edia.pt Chatzinikolaou Yorgos / Hellenic Center for Marine Research Institute of Inland Waters Lithari, Anavissos, Attiki, Greece 46,7 km Atenas-Sounio, Mavro http://www.hcmr.gr Rui Cortes de Trás-os- Universidade Departamento Florestal, Montes e Alto Douro Vila Real, Portugal Apart. 10135001-801 UTAD, http://www.utad.pt Henri Décamps Scientifique and National de la Recherche Centre EcoLab / Laboratoire Sabatier, Paul Université d’écologie fonctionnelle cedex 4, France Toulouse 29 rue Jeanne Marvig, BP 24349, 31055 http://www.ecolab.ups-tlse.fr Pedro Brufao Curiel Pedro de AEMS-Ríos con Vida / jurídica Área de Extremadura Universidad Facultad de Derecho, Spain Cáceres, s/n, 10071 Avda. de la Universidad, http://riosconvida.es António Campeã da Mota e Desenvolvimento de Agricultura Geral Direcção Rural Av. David Catita Contributors Maria Helena Almeida Daniel Arizpe Ochoa (editor) Instituto Superior de Agronomia / Universidade / Universidade Instituto Superior de Agronomia de Engenharia Técnica de Lisboa, Departamento Florestal Lisboa, Portugal da Ajuda, P-1349-017 Tapada http://www.isa.utl.pt Duke University Marine Lab Rd, Beaufort, North Carolina 135 Duke University U.S.A. 28516, http://www.duke.edu/ Ronald Bjorkland College Craven 28532, U.S.A. 305 Cunningham Blvd., Havelock, North Carolina http://www.cravencc.edu/ Erwin Bergmeier und Abteilung Vegetationsanalyse für Albrecht-von-Haller-Institut Phytodiversität, Göttingen Pflanzenwissenschaften, Universität Göttingen, 2, 37073 Karspüle Untere http://www.geobotanik.org/bergmeier/index.html Rhema H. Bjorkland Centre per a la Investigació i l’Experimentació per a la Investigació i l’Experimentació Centre Ambient, Aigua, (CIEF), Conselleria de Medi Forestal Valenciana Urbanisme i Habitatge, Generalitat Spain 46930 Quart de Poblet, 114-6, Valencià del Pais Comarques http://www.cth.gva.es [email protected] Domingo Baeza Sanz / Grupo de Investigación en Hidrobiología ECOHIDRAULICA S.L. Oficina 407 11bis Rodriguez San Pedro, Madrid, Spain 28015 http://www.ecohidraulica.com/equipotecnico.htm

10 http://www.eawag.ch/index_EN Eawag, Box611, 8600Duebendorf,Suiza Technische HochschuleZürich(EAWAG-ETH) Wasserforschungs-Institut /Eidgenössische Michael Döring http://www.env.uoi.gr Seferi 2,30100 Agrinio,Greece Conservation, University ofIoannina Management, Lab. ofEcologyandBiodiversity Faculty ofEnvironmental andNatural Resources Panayotis Dimopoulus http://www.isa.utl.pt/def Tapada daAjuda, P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,Departamento deEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade António Fabião http://www.isa.utl.pt/def/ Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade André Fabião http://www.isa.utl.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Dalila Espirito-Santo http://www.hcmr.gr 46,7 kmAtenas-Sounio,Mavro Lithari,Anavissos,Attiki,Greece Institute ofInlandWaters Hellenic CenterforMarineResearch / Alcibiades N.Economou http://www2.iict.pt/jbt/ Investigação Jardim BotânicoTropical, Institutode Maria CristinaDuarte

Científica Tropical, Lisboa,Portugal. José AnastasioFernándezYuste http://www.isa.utl.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Rosário Fernandes http://www.isa.utl.pt/def/ Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Carla Faria http://www.u-bourgogne.fr/ B.P. 138,F-21004 Dijon,France Vie etdel’Environnement, Laboratoire d’Écologie Université deBourgogne, Faculté desSciencesdela Bernard Frochot Av. Desenvolvimento Rural Direcção Geral deAgricultura e Carlos Freitas http://www.cm-alpiarca.airc.pt R. JoséRelvasnº374-2090Alpiarça,Portugal Câmara MunicipaldeAlpiarça José CarlosFerreirinha http://www.isa.utl.pt/def/ Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Maria Teresa Ferreira http://www.forestales.upm.es Avda. deRamiro deMaeztus/n,28040Madrid,Spain Universidad Politécnica deMadrid Escuela Universitaria deIngenieríaTécnicaForestal, Unidad docentedeHidráulicaeHidrología dela

Afonso Costa3,1949-002 Lisboa,Portugal

11 .dgadr.pt/ Afonso Costa 3, 1949-002 Lisboa, Portugal Lisboa, Afonso Costa 3, 1949-002

http://www Martínez Santa-María Carolina de la Unidad docente de Hidráulica e Hidrología / de Ingeniería Técnica Forestal Escuela Universitaria de Madrid Politécnica Universidad de Maeztu s/n - 28040 Madrid, Spain Avda. de Ramiro http://www.forestales.upm.es/ Av. Irini Loi / Development Agency for South S.A.L.G.O. ETANAM S.A.L.G.O. - Amvrakikos Greece , 48100 Ydragogeiou, - Periochi Lascaratou http://www.etanam.gr Juan Carlos López Almansa Católica de Ávila Universidad s/n, 05005 Ávila, Spain C/ Canteros http://www.ucavila.es/ Miguel Marchamalo Departamento de Ingeniería y Morfología del ETSI Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Terreno, de Madrid / Politécnica Universidad Ecohidráulica S.L. 28040, Madrid, Spain s/n, Ciudad Universitaria Aranguren Prof. http://www.caminos.upm.es/imt/imt.htm Kasper Johansen Kasper Remote Sensing and Spatial Information for Centre Planning and Science, School of Geography, of Management. The University Environmental Queensland Brisbane, QLD, 4072, http://www.gpem.uq.edu.au/crssis/ Johannes Konstanzer Umweltanwaltschaft Tiroler Innsbruck, 2/3, 6020 Brixnerstraße http://www.tiroler-umweltanwaltschaft.gv.at/ Gonçalo Leal e Desenvolvimento de Agricultura Geral Direcção Rural Diego García de Jalón-Lastra Diego García R. José Relvas nº 374 - 2090 Alpiarça, Portugal http://www.cm-alpiarca.airc.pt Ana Ilhéu do Departamento de Ambiente e Ordenamento de Desenvolvimento e / EDIA, Empresa Território de Alqueva, S.A. Infraestruturas Rua Zeca Afonso, 2 - 7800 – 522 Beja, Portugal http://www.edia.pt Maria da Graça Saraiva Maria da Graça Técnica da Universidade Faculdade de Arquitectura e Regionais de Sistemas Urbanos de Lisboa / Centro (CESUR) http://www.fa.utl.pt/ Hatzirvassanis Vassilis Greece GR-16233, Atenas, 57, Vironas Granikou Rita Hipólito Municipal de Alpiarça Câmara Carlos Godinho de Ornitologia, Grupo LabOr / Laboratório de Investigação em Ecossistemas e Paisagens Mediterrânicas / ICAAM, de Évora Universidade Portugal Évora, 7002-554 http://www.uevora.pt Departamento de Ingeniería Forestal, Forestal, Departamento de Ingeniería de Madrid Politécnica ETSI Montes Universidad s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain Ciudad Universitaria http://www.montes.upm.es/ Sofia Giakoumi / Hellenic Center for Marine Research Institute of Inland Waters Lithari, Anavissos, Attiki, Greece 46,7 km Atenas-Sounio, Mavro http://www.hcmr.gr

12 [email protected] http://www.isa.utl.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Ana Mendes(editor) http://www.fiu.edu/ 11200 SW8thStreet Miami,Florida33199, U.S.A. Environmental Studies Florida InternationalUniversity, Departmentof Michael M.McClain http://www.fish.washington.edu/ Room 224BFSH;Box355020, Seattle, WA 98195-5020, U.S.A. Fishery Sciences University ofWashington, SchoolofAquaticand Robert J.Naiman Hunoldstrasse 14;A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria ARGE Limnologie Christian Moritz Consultora autónoma Kátia Morgado http://www.isa.utl.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Ilidio Moreira http://www.uevora.pt 7002-554 Évora, Portugal ICAAM, Universidade deÉvora em EcossistemasePaisagens Mediterrânicas/ Departamento deBiologia,GrupoInvestigação António Mira http://www.cm-montemornovo.pt Portugal Largo dosPaços doConcelho,7050-127 Montemor-o-Novo, Municipal deMontemor-o-Novo Divisão deAmbienteeServiçosUrbanos/Câmara Filipa Pais http://www.portugal.gov.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Conselho NacionaldaÁgua Centro deEstudosFlorestais / Francisco Nunes Godinho http://www.cm-alpiarca.airc.pt R. JoséRelvasnº374-2090Alpiarça,Portugal Câmara MunicipaldeAlpiarça Vanda Nunes [email protected] http://www.uevora.pt 7002-554 Évora, Portugal Universidade deÉvora Paisagens Mediterrânicas/ICAAM, Biologia, GrupodeInvestigaçãoemEcossistemase LabOr /Laboratório deOrnitologia,Departamento João E.Rabaça(editor) http://www.uevora.pt 7002-554 Évora, Portugal Universidade deÉvora Ecossistemas ePaisagens Mediterrânicas/ICAAM, Paisagístico, GrupodeInvestigaçãoem Departamento dePlaneamentoBiofísicoe Teresa PintoCorreia http://www.isa.utl.pt Tapada daAjuda,P-1349-017 Lisboa,Portugal Florestal Técnica deLisboa,DepartamentoEngenharia Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia /Universidade Rui Peixoto

13 Perrikou 40, Nea Philothei Athinon, GR-11524, Atenas, Greece 40, Nea Philothei Athinon, GR-11524, Perrikou Stamatis Zogaris / Hellenic Center for Marine Research Institute of Inland Waters Lithari, Anavissos, Attiki, Greece 46,7 km Atenas-Sounio, Mavro http://www.hcmr.gr Klement Tockner und Leibniz-Institut für Gewässerökologie (IGB) Binnenfischerei Berlin e.V., Müggelseedamm 310 im Forschungsverbund 12587 Berlin, Germany http://www.igb-berlin.de/ Pilar Vizcaino Martínez / Grupo de Investigación en Hidrobiología ECOHIDRAULICA S.L. Oficina 407 11bis Rodriguez San Pedro, Madrid, Spain 28015 http://www.ecohidraulica.com/equipotecnico.htm Alexios Vlamis-Gardikas Câmara Municipal de Alpiarça Câmara R. José Relvas nº 374 - 2090 Alpiarça, Portugal http://www.cm-alpiarca.airc.pt Sangalli Paola Asociación Española de Ingeniería del Paisaje Artur Ribeiro Consultor autónomo de Sousa, nº 6 5E - 1600-188 Lisboa, Portugal Alfredo Rua Prof. Jean Roché Consultor autónomo 53, rue de l’école, Le Sambuc, 13200 Arles, France Joaquim Rosa do Céu Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola, Grupo Departamento de Engenharia Agrícola, Grupo de Investigação: Água, Solo e Clima / ICAAM, de Évora Universidade Portugal Évora, 7002-554 http://www.uevora.pt Sá Sousa Paulo Departamento de Biologia, Grupo de Investigação Mediterrânicas, em Ecossistemas e Paisagens de Évora ICAAM, Universidade Portugal Évora, 7002-554 http://www.uevora.pt Apartado 5064, 20080 San Sebastián, Spain http://www.aeip.es Adélia Sousa

14 24 Management and restoration principles Morpholgy and dynamics of riparian zones. 18 Introduction 148 142 127 122 114 Assessing theecologicalqualityofriverine 110 105 101 96 89 84 66 asecologicalcorridors Biodiversity descriptors. 50 30 Contents . Theimportanceofgeomorphologyin 1.3 Basicriver-restoration principles 1.2 Morphologyanddynamicsofriparian 1.1 . Remotesensingapplicationinriparian 3.5 Landscapeaesthetics:assessingsocial 3.4 Rapidvisualassessmentprotocols for 3.3 Analysingthelandscapeand 3.2 Ripariansystemsaszonesofpervasive 3.1 Mammals 2.5 Riparianbirds 2.4 Amphibiansandsemi-aquaticreptiles 2.3 Theinfluenceofriparianvegetationon 2.2 Riparianwoodyvegetationinthe 2.1.2. Riparianwoody vegetationinGreece 2.1.1 andflora ofriparianzones 2.1 setting therulesforriparianrehabilitation zones Introduction areas perception monitoring inriparianzones structuring role ofripariancorridors anthropogenic stress freshwater 192 177 171 168 164 Developing andimplementingaproject 157 285 282 Appendices 274 268 251 244 220 Case Studies 209 202 198 conventionsandcommunications Partners oftheRIPIDURABLE-project . Biophysicalengineeringtechniquesused 4.5 Selectionoftechniques 4.4 Project design 4.3 Legalandadministrative guidelinesfor 4.2 Planning 4.1 asbio-indicators ofriparian 3.6. . Several landowners inaprotected area: 5.5 Apubliclandownerinarural area: 5.4 Several landowners inaprotected area: 5.3 Several landowners inarural area: 5.2 Asinglelandownerinarural area: 5.1 Sustainablerivervalleys:economicvalue 4.8 Establishingriparianvegetation 4.7 Machinery 4.6 List ofrelevant European directives, in riverrestoration the restoration ofrivers andwetlands ecosystems reforestation around thePedrógão riparian woodlandatAmvrakikos Almansor rehabilitation oftheGandumand Paul daGouchamitigationproject and goodforest practices revitalisation oftheTyrolean riverLech

15 16 Introduction i.e. from a According According to this definition, it from is a human totally the anthropocentric beings, of conservation angle, including objectives, who sustainability define concepts why is That biodiversity. of and environment related to the term ‘sustainability’ are inescapably linked with a type of human activity and its impact defining mentioned, previously as why, and nature on ‘environmental sustainability’ in itself, biocentric angle, is questionable to say the least. The we here that out point to is this all saying of purpose the with zones’ riparian ‘sustainable about talking are conscious intention of intervening in their workings, them regulating freely, act to them allowing whether in some way or exploiting their natural In resources. other words, when we refer to the sustainability of riparian zones we are referring to management. Bearing in mind the definition wide the diversity lax of how interests and that whole a as society in coexist opposed radically for easy very is it is, sustainability of idea, same the within accommodated be to objectives so almost anything goes (Arribas Herguedas, 2007). sustainable a for criteria the defining that means This essential, is areas natural for programme management these define to help will that ideas the suggesting and the main purpose of this book. criteria is precisely A sustainable or rational management model for the natural environment needs to be based on a deep of understanding how it works, making it possible to might activity human any that impact the determine greatest the attempt and systems natural the on have possible minimisation of environmental important very many perform such systems impacts. in and Riparian book, this in seen be will as society, for services generations, future of survival the guarantee to order preserving them over time must be one of the main objectives it of is any management Equally, measure. in systems natural of efficiency the that fact known a consequently, and, functions ecological their fulfilling in providing environmental services, proportion to increases their conservation status and in reaches 2004; (SER, environments wild or unaltered in peak a MEA 2005). Conserving the systems, riparian elements the of dynamics that natural help the maintain to in the case of good ecological status and restoring et tenere sus- ‘from below’ and , sustinere Introduction , 2003; Ward and Tockner, 2001). and Tockner, al., 2003; Ward In order to understand ‘sustainability’, it remembered must that the be definition of this term is the result of a social and political convention that came into being with the Bruntland Report 1980s in and was ratified a the few years later late at the first Earth Summit conference, which gave rise Rio to Declaration the on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992). This pillars’ termed the ‘three balancing what are declared requires that sustainability of development: economic social growth, justice and conserving Declaration: the the of environment. 1 People Principle in are out central set as to pillars, these “Human beings are at the centre of sustainable concerns development. for They are healthy and productive life in harmony with nature”. entitled to a ‘to hold’) is a static notion, quite ‘development’, the which implies opposite dynamism, movement, of change, progress (Redclift, if ecology is the Echeverri, considered 2006). Equally, 2005; Noguera between living science that studies the interrelations de beings and their interactions with the environment, where the fundamental defining characteristic the dynamics is of physical, chemical and processes biological (Margalef, 1992), highly are definition by which systems, these ‘sustain’ then attempting to changeable, cannot fail to be somewhat paradoxical. Why then devote management of a riparian zones? These areas, book being associated to of with the pattern a by extent lesser or greater a sustainable to influenced river systems, very sizeable and alterations hydrogeomorphological are constantly processes. Precisely for this of sets heterogeneous reason, and dynamic most the of some they harbour biological communities to exist in nature (Piegay Talking Talking about or ‘’ecological ‘sustainable sustainability’ complicated and controversial. The use in these development’ two and/ is terms of a noun and an adjective derived from conceptually the verb ‘to sustain’ displays contradiction an that has evident nonetheless become ontological deeply rooted in every sector especially of political language, society and has even and reached language, the title of this book. Strictly speaking, ‘to sustain’ (from

18 iw ht il e plcbe o h vs majority vast the to applicable be will that view broad a take of to trying integrity always ecosystems, the riparian affect that aspects main and the of subjects most address to attempted have We end. to beginning from read cumulative if knowledge a of up body builds that whole coherent a part of also but individually, read if idea complete a way offering unit a independent an such is chapter in each that book the structuring effort in the to invested due is versatility out This dictate. singling needs by or chapters and interests reader’sown the as chapters individual of order in either approached be can volume this compilation, a Being be very satisfied. shall we functions, and structure natural with their riversides, and rivers protect and preserve to If we have managed to convey to the reader the need large. at public the among arouse subjects these in to interest ideas of source a as and academics and restoration, and also as a reference work for students and/or conservation riverside and river in engaged professionally those and managers for useful very be will that tool practical a as intended is guide This to thetask. up been have coherent we that hope we a editors, its As focus. book the give to complicated quite it made has view of points approachesand of variety a from Evidently,perspectives. such specialist different their areas riverside of problems the approaching how and part, taken have authors 64 of total area function, they systems natural these what of view overall an reader the give to aims book this because Consequently, view. integrates of points and that disciplines many approach multilateral only but a unilaterally through gained be cannot function systems riparian complex how of understanding An resources toensure thatitfunctionswell. over time and the less it will need external action and naturalthe conserved area,be morewill the it stable et al., 2007). As a result, it is presumed that the better that site therefore possess greater resilience (Aronson in themselves establish that communities the biological and site the of characteristics bioclimatic and hydrogeomorphological the fit processes succession ecological the status good with system a in because objective to pursue in every management plan. This is them when they are degraded, should be the optimal te poet fo eswee Te theoretical The elsewhere. from projects other two and project RIPIDURABLE the of course the in undertaken projects rehabilitation ecological three presentspart last and fifth The zones. riparian in use some and management gives for it recommendations establishing methods Additionally, and vegetation. and reintroducing riparian for banks criteria stabilizing and bioengineering for soil some methods as well as maintenance operations, and channel in used machines and differenttechniques with deals also approach.It ecological an restoration project out with a multidisciplinary carrying and up drawing in elements the main describes part fourth The action. into moving for prepared better little a be will reader the them, and how they function, and with some ways to study areas riverside of elements main the a of with knowledge Armed them. explaining and describing of task difficult the tackling before processes nature its and quantifying all, approaching, above of and, complexity understanding the with reader the two parts, particularly the second, this part confronts first the in adopted viewpoint descriptive more the than Rather areas. riparian studying and assessing for tools different of part theme the third on miscellany The a is peninsulas. Iberian and Greek the region:Mediterranean European the of ends both at communities vegetation riparian main the describe projects restoration and (Armsworth plans management for relevant most considered is which information the is than rather through a dynamics, species-level reductionist approach, as this and their of view of point the from addressed are species and groups biological different The mammals. and birds , and amphibians fish, vegetation, into divided been have groups The systems. riparian in elements biotic fluvial to processes. The second relation part briefly presents in the stability channel estimate to models engineering biophysical of examples some profound a analysis fromof the very concept of ‘restoration’, and gives starting principles, restoration that govern them. This part also defines basic riparian in matrix the which all the areas, other processes take place, and the riparian rules of morphology and dynamics the in concepts basic defines part first The arose. it which in context the to and authors the Mediterranean of most of origin marked the to owing evident, is tendency a Nevertheless, cases. of , 2007). In this part, two sections two part, this In 2007). al., et

19 The Editors The Editors Creating Creating a book takes more than just authors and editors, so we would also like to thank a number of other people who played a direct or indirect We part. particularly want to mention those responsible for the French edition, Paula Dias, and edition, the Panayotis Greek Dimopoulus, for their and understanding patience throughout the editing process. Georgina Hardinge made a vital correcting the English contribution texts and provided by pertinent of contributions the are important less No comments. Rosa Gómez and Nuno Ana Izquierdo, Esther Tortosa, necessary the all with dealing in helped who Paulino, legal and administrative processes. This book would not have been possible without the support of the institutions that funded it helped and to make the the people complex processing who of and payments grants function smoothly, so we would like to express our gratitude to the INTERREG IIIC South Amparo to particularlly , in team programme Portuguese the of members the to Montesinos, Montán National Coordination Unit, Fernando Nogueira and Raquel Baptista, and to the administration teams of the ten RIPIDURABLE partners. Our thanks also go to all those who kindly let us use their photographs and drawings, greatly improving the to and guide, this of appearance visual and value the educational designers, Vanessa and Patricia, for giving it shape and colour. Lastly, and above all, we are grateful to all the RIPIDURABLE project partners their trust in for us and supporting placing us at all times, and particularly to Stam, Arantxa, Carla, André, Carlos, Irini, Jean and Filipa. At this point, all that remains hope for that the book is to your liking and us to wish you to do is to pleasant reading. arguments arguments discussed in the preceding chapters can be evaluated in these five examples riparian of systems in very diverse contexts. One action of the on main points of interest lies in the of different forms land ownership and use and their influence project on execution and the subsequent management of the rehabilitated provided with a list of EU legislation and regulations zones. Finally, readers with relevance are to river and riverside management. cooperation interregional an of result the is book This project called RIPIDURABLE which was co-funded (www.ripidurable.eu) by the European Community through the INTERREG IIIC South programme. The RIPIDURABLE project brought together ten partners and three for countries European Southern four from a half years with the objective of seeking solutions to problems related to management riparian and (riverside) restoration. zone partners chose the editorial team The and conceived the RIPIDURABLE structure and core contents of this guide through a participation process which was set in motion to gather the contributions and suggestions different members who took of part in the its design. The editors and a good number of the authors belong to the RIPIDURABLE partner organizations. The other authors are a large and diverse recruited group in different of ways experts to cover the remaining content requirements, who have become involved and taken a keen interest in this project. and work We their to know committed very are them of all that are we and activities day-to-day their with busy very deeply grateful to them for spending so much time and effort on this book. The authors, least the all fact we In here. can record on thanks our do give is to satisfied than more have external, and in-house both our expectations: many thanks to every one.

20 ambiente enIberoamérica. IdeasAmbientales3:23-35 habitar. In Noguera de Echeverri AP (ed) Avances en filosofía y medio el desde complejo ambiental pensar el sobre reflexión Una tierra? la hombre el ¿Poéticamentehabita (2005) AP Echeverri de Noguera Human Well-Being Synthesis.IslandPress, Washington, DC,USA. and Ecosystems (2005) (MEA) Assessment Ecosystem Millennium Margalef R(1992)Ecología.EditorialPlaneta. 196:75-86 Sistema sostenible. desarrollo de (2007)idea F La Herguedas Arribas USA natural capital: Science, Business, and Practice. Island Press, Restoring Washington DC, (eds) (2007) JN Blignaut SJ, Milton J, Aronson Forward forConservation.ConservationBiology21(6):1383–1384 Way the and Science Ecosystem-Service (2007) MA Sanjayan TH, Ricketts C, Kremen PR, Ehrlich GC, Daily KMA, Chan PR, Armsworth References river ecology. 46:807-819 Ward JV, Tockner K (2001) Biodiversity: towards a unifying theme for URL: http://www.un-documents.net/agenda21.htm) on (Online York. New Declaration Nations, United Development. Rio and Environment 21, Agenda Summit, Development Earth (1992) and (UNCED) Environment on Conference Nations United International (OnlineURL:www.ser.org) Restoration Ecological on for Society Primer Tucson: Restoration. International Ecological SER The (2004) Group Working Policy and Science International (SER) Restoration Ecological for Society An (1987-2005): development oxymoron comesofage.SustainableDevelopment13:212-227 Sustainable (2005) M Redclift le pour Institut développement forestier. Paris gestion. et fonctions Écologie, d’eau. cours riveraines des forêts Les (eds) (2003) C Ruffinoni G, Patou H, Piegay

21 22 1 Morphology and Dynamics of Riparian Zones et al., ) 2 7,771 8,187 8,341 9,082 9,391 9,082 8,562 7,681 4,449 7,578 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ surface (km area 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 768 1536 3 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Estimated riparian Estimated width (m) Michael Döring Michael Klement Tockner width of the active zone increases from headwaters to large lowland rivers. constant relatively remains zones riparian by covered However, the total area (table 1.1.1). orders across Riparian zones provide multiple ecosystem services, serving as mediators and integrators of the water land- interface, and are important sites for water storage, recharge, and nutrient organic matter and cycling (Dwire and Lowrence, 2006; Hughes, 1997). Therefore, riparian zones ecosystems within river catchment basins. are key 1,295,245 682,216 347,544 189,218 97,827 47,305 22,298 10,002 2,896 2,526,130 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Total length Total (km) 1964; Brinson, 1993; Tockner and Stanford, 2002). and Stanford, et al., 1964; Brinson, 1993; Tockner 2005; al., et 3.7 8.5 19.3 45.1 103.0 236.5 543.8 1,250.2 2,896.2 1.6 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (km) ., 2006; Stanford Stanford 2006; al., et 1 1,570,000 350,000 80,000 18,000 4,200 950 200 41 8 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Number length Average Defining and delineating riparian zones riparian Defining and delineating 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ Stream Stream order ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2005). ripar- total and width riparian average , and rivers of length total and average streams, of number estimated order, Stream 1.1.1 Table in the USA (after Leopold ian/floodplain surface area Figure Figure 1.1.1. A three-dimensional view of a riparian ecosystem including surface and subsurface landscape elements (from Stanford Riparian zones are three dimensional zones of transitional direct interaction between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, extending from the water bodies to the edge of upland systems (Naiman edge of Malard 2005; al., et MORPHOLOGY AND DYNAMICS DYNAMICS AND MORPHOLOGY ZONES OF RIPARIAN Gregory, 1991; Gregory, Figure 1.1.1). The size of the riparian zone ranges from very narrow strips in constrained headwaters, with the they few possess geomorphic almost features the completely riparian , to complex embedded systems along large into rivers characterized by physically diverse (Gregory, 1991; Naiman and Decámps, 1997). The

Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones 24 age diversity can be used as an integrative an as used be can diversity age stages. Habitat successional and ages different of patches and maintains the diversity and complexity of habitat creates rejuvenation Repeated 1.1.2). Figure 2005; Tockner review, in al., (Doering forests riparian and islands vegetated as such , high sustain that resources in productivity,rich thereforeenvironments stress,low and to water high and variations thermal extreme with bars) gravel and sand (e.g. surfaces bare from range Habitats habitats. riparian different primary as destroyand heterogeneousthe arraycomplex and of maintain, structure, act create, that factors drivers ecosystem These 1991). (Gregory, and geomorphic processes and vegetation succession longitudinally, laterally and vertically by hydrological linked dynamically systems, open are zones Riparian types mayremain constant(Arscott habitat various time, of abundance over overall the configuration although and size location, their the fact that the individual habitat types can change Stanford mosaic habitat Ward 2002; shifting (Poole, the as to referred be can of aquatic, amphibious, and terrestrial habitats which array dynamic a create drivers These heterogeneity. thermal and succession; and disturbance formation; habitat and movement channel transport; matter; sediment organic of storage and decay production, for forces driving water; subsurface and surface routingof the include key patterns biodiversity the and processes biogeochemical zones, riparian In including thehistoricalcontingencythrough time.Thethree dimensionsofbiocomplexityare heterogeneity, connectivity, andhistory. can be defined as the degree to which ecological systems comprise biological, social and physical components in a spatially explicit structure, Biocomplexity biocomplexity. creating thereby processes, ecological and geomorphic hydrologic, among relationship Dynamic 1.1.2 Figure Geomorphic Processes Key driving factors inriparian zones Hydraulic and et al., et 2005). “Shifting” refers“Shifting” 2005). to specifically 2002; Lorang 2002; al., et , 06; Naiman 2006a; al., et Retention ofnutrientsandsediments-BankStabilisation Transport ofOrganic matter, ,seeds, moisture et al.,2002). Nutrient andSedimentErosion/ Allocation ofwood,seedsandmoisture ., 2005; al., et Habitat Heterogenety t al., et Biocomplexity et ie n ntin cnet Geoy 19; Doering 1991; (Gregory, content nutrient and size extreme variations in soil to properties, in lead terms of moisture, feedbacks grain abiotic-biotic complex These 1997). Hughes, 2006; Petts, and (Gurnell zone riparian the through passing water up hold to and nutrients and bind to ability its through in patterns geomorphologic and hydraulic vegetation affects turn and zones, riparian across patterns vegetation and soil of trend succession the affects The erosion and deposition of sediments and nutrients and materials of transport propagules (Hughes,1997). and erosion, deposition, local by constructive be might event) (e.g. pulses flood and flow smaller whereas areas, large over erosion and mortality vegetation causing destructive, be to tend event) flood 100-yr Gregory, 1997; (e.g. duration short of large1991).Infrequent (Hughes, landforms geomorphic and topography distribution, vegetation structures and creates movement, channel including Flooding, (Naiman pulses flow and flow of magnitude and frequency ing of riparian zones depends on the timing, duration, structur- geomorphological and riparian Hydrological zones. shaping variable master the is Hydrology (early species). types pioneer habitat endangered with often young stages, successional of loss the through mainly diversity, age reduce regime sediment the of truncation the and channelization, regulation, Flow systems. riparian of integrity the assess to indicator et al., 2005; Malanson, 1993; Gregory, 1991). Succession annual

25 Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones 2005). Vegetated islands are “high et al., growth by trapping fine sediments, retaining moisture moisture retaining sediments, fine trapping by growth and nutrients from decomposing (Gurnell plant material energy landforms” (Osterkamp, 1998) along rivers that to correspond riparian instream patches. Islands are key landscape elements along rivers because of their high length, their rich and flora, and their importance as a source of At nutrients areas. productive, less adjacent, for and matter organic the same time, they are among the first landscape elements that disappear as a consequence of flow regulation and river channelization. Islands can be considered as sensitive indicators of the integrity of riparian corridors. it in the soil solution from surrounding agricultural et al., 1984). land (Lowrance Riparian zones offer an abundant and diverse array of food resources for both aquatic and communities. For terrestrial example Fisher and Likens (1973) showed, for the Bear Brook in New Hampshire, that and streams of matter organic the of 98% than more forest. riparian surrounding the by supplied was rivers Similar values were reported by for Langhans the Tagliamento river (2006) in NE . In addition to particulate organic matter (POM), riparian zones can contribute substantial amounts of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and nutrients to Soil water DOM river and nutrients originate ecosystems. directly via leaching from unsaturated regions of riparian zones during floods or indirectly from (Naiman and subsurface Déchamps, 1997; flow Gregory 1991). The the among nutrients and matter organic of exchange different riparian landscape elements and the river largely depends on season and hydraulic conditions, but can be particularly substantial during flooding events (Langhans, 2006). et al., et et al., et al., 1998; Tockner Riparian corridors and landscape connectivity and landscape corridors Riparian ., 2001; Table 1.1.2). Table 2005; Gurnell et al., 2001; Riparian zones play an important role in removing and matter, organic particles, inorganic retaining and roughness the increases vegetation Riparian nutrients. of the soil surface and can cause reduced velocity Fine particulates. of sedimentation consequently and and soil the in communities microbial and plant as well litter, as above-ground plant organs, are able to assimilate dissolved nutrients from surface and they have subsurface an Therefore waters. important buffer function for upstream or pollutants from adjacent delivered terrestrial Studies in the costal plains of (USA) landscapes. showed from that the retained more than 65% of the nitrogen and 30% of the phosphorous reaching The individual habitat types of riparian zones differ widely in their degree of productivity, soil organic matter, sediment vegetation productive Very matter. respiration, organic mineralize and of habitats to linked often capacity are islands as such patches to lower productivity such as bare gravel (Brunke and Gonser, 1997; Tabacchi et al., in review; riparian plant see communities exhibit a high degree table of 1.1.2). Consequently, structural and compositional Beside diversity. fluvial disturbances, riparian plant communities are affected by also disturbance regimes in adjacent upland areas, such as wind, fire, and outbreaks caused by phytopathogens and insects. Large wood derived component from important an riparian is pulses flood vegetation by distributed and of riparian areas. It provides habitats and for flora refuges and fauna and retains organic matter and Gurnell 1997; Hughes, 1997; (Gurnell, nutrients depends largely development island Vegetated 2005). on large wood accumulations supporting vegetation

Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones 26 -litter decompositioninaquaticandriparianlandscapeelementstheT Table 1.1.2 Differences in soil/sediment organic matter (OM), autotrophic , Net Primary Productivity (NPP), sediment respiration, and of the floor, riparian zones play a critical role critical a play zones riparian floor, valley the of point deepest the at location their of Because 2005). al., et (Gregory,Naiman 1991;runs and pools, thereby creating numerous different habitats such as debris, woody large and islands by mediated often are separations Channel stability. bank and channel heterogeneity in streams. Riparian vegetation controls surface- thermal subsequent and enhance exchange water subsurface zones riparian the of elements landscape different The groundwater. shallow and moisture soil of evapotranspiration through cooling provide and streams,order low in especially shading, habitats. adjacent They reduce their solar heating of of stream water by dynamics and heterogeneity the to contribution considerable a make zones Riparian Aquatic Terrestrial 5) preliminary data,coarse mesh-bagsmethodusingPopulus nigra (S.Langhans,unpubl.) 4) estimatesbasedonpreliminary data(M.Doering,unpubl.) 3) heterotrophic system(shadingbydenseriparianforest canopy)P/Rca.0 2) loticchannelsP/R=1 1) mainchannelpresumably 10–20 gOMm ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Bare Gravel Orthofluvial Parafluvial Pond Lotic Channel Riparian Forest (Hardwood) Riparian Forest (Softwood) Established Island Pioneer Island Riparian zones: Regional centers ofbiocomplexity ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (g OMm OM Soil/sediment ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 10000 6000 500 -5000 12000 10000 6000 2000 500 -2 , surface-disconnectedalluvialchannelpresumably upto 50 gOMm -2 ) (g OMm Biomass Autotrophic ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1 50 10 -60 7000 7000 5000 600 200 -2 1) ) 1.1.3). (Tockner regimes disturbance these with cope to biota of adaptation specific the and and refuges of availability change, the influences again this regimes) disturbance (i.e. processes location along a river corridor, dominant geomorphic the on Depending event. disturbance a take after place may recolonization which from terrestrial assemblages and aquatic for refuges important also Danehy, provide zones and Riparian 2005). al., (Richardson et Naiman 2007; hotspots importance biodiversity global are of zones riparian Finally, matter withintheentire watershed. energyand of flux integratingcontrollingthe and in (g OMm NPP ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ -1500 0 0 2000 2000 2000 800 200 agliamento corridor(estimatedvaluesfrom different sources). 2) 2) 3) -2 yr -1 ) (g OMm respiration Sediment ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ -1500 1500 500 -1500 1500 1500 1500 300 50 -2 yr -1 ) 4) t al., et -2 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (k-value) decomposition Leaf ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.0055 0.0052 0.0231 0.0019 0.0019 0.0023 0.0019 0.0020 06; Table 2006b; 5)

27 Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones Drift Mobility Physiologic/ethologic ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Morphological adaptation Life cycle Flexible life history Risk spreading adaptation Diapause Adaptation Gurnell AM, Tockner K, Edwards PJ, Petts GE (2005). Effects of depos- of Effects (2005). GE Petts PJ, Edwards K, Tockner AM, Gurnell ited wood on biocomplexity of river corridors. Frontiers in Ecology 3:377-382 and the Environment Physi- in Progress biogeomorphology. Floodplain (1997) FMR Hughes 21:501-529 cal Geography controller a as heterogeneity floodplain Riverine (2006) SD Langhans distribu- invertebrate terrestrial and dynamics matter organic the of tion. PhD Thesis. ETH, Zürich Leopold LB, Wolman MG, Miller JP (1964) Fluvial processes in geo- Dover Publications, New York morphology. Lorang MS, Whited DC, Hauer FR, Kimball JS, Using Stanford airborne multispectral imagery JA to evaluate (2005) geomorphic work across floodplains of gravel-bed 15:1209-1222 rivers. Ecological Applications Lowrance T, Todd R, Fail J, Hendrickson O, Leonard R, Asmussen (1984) Riparian as forests nutrient in filters watersheds. agricultural L Bioscience 34 Malanson GP (1993) Riparian Cambridge Press, Landscapes. Cambridge University river- and Flood-pulse (2006) K Tockner R, Zah U, Uehlinger F, Malard Ecology 87:704-716 glacial river. scape dynamics in a braided Naiman RJ, Decámps H (1997) The Ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 28:621-658 conser- Ecology, Riparia: (2005) ME McClain H, Décamps RJ, Naiman vation and management of streamside communities. Elsevier/ Aca- San Diego demic Press, ex- with formation, island fluvial of Processes (1998) WR Osterkamp Wetlands Idaho. River, Snake and Colorado Creek, Plum from amples 18:530-545 habitats Shore Floodplain ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ heterogeneity Substrate Dead zones wood Large Hyporheic zone wood Large Backwater/pond Inundation Avalanches ■ ■ ■ ■ Channel Migration Lateral ■ Drying ■ Cut and Fill Processes Fluvial style, disturbance regime, refugia, and adaptation of aquatic macroinvertebrates along a riparian corridor (from References Lowland section Headwater Piedmont section ■ ■ ■ ■ Meandering Location, Fluvial style Regime Disturbance ■ Straight Refugia ■ Braided

Arscott DB, Tockner K, van der Nat D, Ward JV (2002) Aquatic habitat Aquatic (2002) JV Ward D, Nat der van K, Tockner DB, Arscott dynamics alpine along River, river a ecosystem braided (Tagliamento Northeast Italy). Ecosystems 5:802-814 Brinson M (1993) Changes in the functioning of wetlands along en- 13:65-74 Wetlands gradients. vironmental Brunke M, Gonser T (1997) The ecological significance of exchange 37:1- Biology Freshwater groundwater. and rivers between processes 33 and Soil K. Tockner M, Woodtli T, Ackerman Uehlinger U, M, Doering sediment respiration pattern in a complex river floodplain mosaic in review Northeast Italy). Ecology. River, (Tagliamento Dwire KA, Lowrance RR (2006) Riparian ecosystems Jour- and Introduction. management: and function, buffers structure, multiscale - Association 42:1-4 Resources nal of the American Water Fisher SC, Likens GE (1973) Energy flow in Bear brook, New Hamp- shire: An integrative approach to stream 43:421-439 Ecological Monographs ecosystem metabolism. ecosys- An (1991) WC Cummins WA, McKee FJ, Swanson SV, Gregory of riparian zones. Bioscience 41:540-551 tem perspective Gurnell AM (1997) The hydrological and geomorphological signifi- Let- and Ecology Global floodplains. forested of cance 6:219-229 ters Gurnell AM, Petts GE (2006) as riparian engineers: The Taglia- Earth mento Italy. Surface River, Processes and Landforms 31:1558- 1574 Kollmann PJ, Edwards BPG, Smith DM, Hannah GE, Petts AM, Gurnell J, Ward JV, Tockner K (2001) Riparian vegetation and island forma- tion along the gravel-bed Fiume Tagliamento, Italy. Earth Surface and Landforms 26:31-62 Processes Table Table 1.1.3 - et al., 2006b). Tockner

Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones 28 Cambridge (ed). The state of the world’s ecosystems. Cambridge University press, NC Polunin In: ecosystem. C threatened Critically Gordon Floodplains: JA, (2005) Stanford R, Naimann G, Quinn SE, Bunn K, Tockner river landscapes.Freshwater Biology40:497-516 RC Wissmar (1998) Development, maintenance and role AM, of riparian vegetation in Planty-Tabacchi G, Pinay DL, Correll E, Tabacchi für Limnologie29:123-136 Verhandlungenecosystems. river of VereinigungInternationalen der Stanford JA, Lorang MS, Hauer FR (2005) The shifting habitat mosaic Science 53(2):131-147 Forest forests. temperate in zones riparian their and streams water Richardson JS, Danehy RJ (2007) A synthesis of the ecology of head- within theriverdiscontinuum.Freshwater Biology47:641-660 uniqueness addressing ecology: landscape Fluvial (2002) GC Poole diversity. Freshwater Biology47:517-539 landscape Riverine (2002) C Claret DB, Arscott K, Tockner JV, Ward future trends. Environmental Conservation29:308-330 Tockner K, Stanford JA (2002) Riverine flood plains: Present state and NE-Italy). Hydrobiologia 565:121-133 (Tagliamento, river floodplain dynamic a in nestedness and versity di- Amphibian (2006b) JV Ward C, Baumgartner I, Klaus K, Tockner Blackwell Publication. Publisher Special IAS 339-358. Rivers, Braided (eds). PettsGE C, Bristow J, Best G, Smith Sambrook In: rivers..braided of Ecology (2006a) J Zettel C, Claret A, Paetzold U, Karaus K, Tockner

29 Morphology and dynamics of riparian zones e not always in tune with e not always in tune with techniques and materials used to solve or ork begins without due consideration for the ameliorate ameliorate one problem cause new problems or other existing problems. worsen W The The priorities defined ar river’s response or its potential for natural self- restoration.

José Anastasio Fernández Yuste Yuste Fernández José Anastasio Santa-Maria Martínez Carolina actual needs. b) The source of local problems is hardly found in the length ever of river that is being It restored. to be is quite possible that the solutions applied to some of the local problems that may cause have new problems upstream been or downstream identified and alter the dynamics of other processes, thereby leading to yet greater dysfunctions than those they place. in the first meant to correct were These failures might be used by some to be must point rivers that and out mistaken is approach the that completely domesticated and controlled, illegitimate as advocate society of sectors certain that aspirations the only way to deal with river maintenance issues. It is therefore critical, and acknowledge above what a river all, really is. The to task of understand providing an academic definition that stands alone as an accurate, complete and sufficiently descriptive depiction of the true essence of a river is not at all extremely and complex wide-ranging, the given easy, intricate nature of the subject. The following should approximation: as a kind of preliminary be regarded This chapter considers the conceptual aspects of river of aspects conceptual the considers chapter This restoration that should guide the identification of problems, and of their causes and effects, in order to set priorities and objectives, plan strategies and of rivers. nature the true design actions to preserve technical governing principles the of some presents It for river restoration. proposals c) a) What a river? is In the non-specialised world, a ‘river’ channel. is In simply the a best of and cases riparian it biota. This includes limited aquatic concept of – a a course of water river flowing between banks – is not only incorrect (because it is incomplete), it is perverse. also It is incomplete because a river is a much broader and more complex reality than just a watercourse and a riverside. The river basin is much more than a linear drainage wider network territorial scale, it supports structure. a complex system On a of interactions in space and time that give rise many to closely associated, highly dynamic processes. A river must therefore be considered a which it system is not in always easy to separate cause from effect, where biotic and abiotic components interact continuously and dynamically. This system must be defined within a wide territorial framework, which requires consideration of its entire total space dynamics. To and this should its be added the river’s condition as a structuring element of the landscape, the as such regions in aspect important extremely an Mediterranean, where water is scarce and irregular both in time and in space and is thus a key in factor the composition, organisation and structure A river is far than more the the territory. mere entire of composition, structure and functions of the fluvial system, it is the very ecosystems. the surrounding structures pillar, which connects and An inadequate understanding of rivers can also be perverse because a limited approach can easily lead to serious mistakes: There There are no recipes or ready-made solutions that accurately detail the steps to be restoration taken project. in This a is because river every river is different a reality, a new problem, and there are no universal solutions. In each case, the strategy must be based on analysis and thoughtful consideration. should proposals Technical make use of the available knowledge of the processes involved materials and procedures. relevant and of the BASIC RIVER-RESTORATION BASIC PRINCIPLES

Basic river-restoration Principles 30 Table 1.2.1.-WhatisaRiver. and of space andtime. processes their functions takes place within a and very wide framework components and abiotic biotic terrestrial and permanent aquatic and of dynamic interaction close, very a which in sediments and water of course natural a is river A iain opnns n poess I mdl their models It processes. and components riparian flow regime provides a structure for both aquatic and the The ecosystems. fluvial of agent organising main the within agreement wide is regime flow natural the that community scientific currently is There are examples representative shown intable1.2.2. most The generated function. has ecology understandto riversus how help several that models fluvial of development fluvial recent relatively the The vitality. its preserve allow to system basic that the principles understand environmental to from pausing profited without has rivers man immemorial, time From ■ A riveris: ■ ecosystems riveritselfandbetweentheitssurrounding spaceandtimescales,betweenthecomponentsof ■ degrees ofdependenceontheriver ■ –channel,hyporheiczoneandaquifer –upper, middleandlowercourse; andvertical transverse –channel,banksfloodplain;longitudinal ■ dynamicstodevelop ■ regimes ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Part ofman’s cultural andsentimentalheritage Processes andrelations, occurringwithinhighlyvariable Both aquaticandterrestrial biota,withverydifferent A mosaicofbiotopesfollowingdifferent gradients: The spacethatisneededforitsgeomorphological Water withadequatequantity, qualityandflow How does ariver work? road and a bridge. A river is an opportunity to feel emotion and fill one’s soul. sel for the life of others. A river is permanent change and diversity. A river is a A river is water, space, and time. A river is life – its own private life – and a ves- Table 1.2.1covers someofthesepoints. undoubted complexity, a few more didactic its points may be made. despite definition, a such on Based and phreatic zones. the interactions between channels, banks, floodplains of nature the and resources food of characteristics and quantity pools, the habitats, aquatic and of structure riffles the of distribution the complexity, and size shape, channel determines regime flow The Strange etal.,1999). and Richter 2002; Naiman Richter,2000; Svedmark, and Nilsson 2002; Arthington, 2002; Arthington, and (Bunn habitats these between interaction dynamic for and habitats of variety a for allows and conditions environmental water ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ A riveris not: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ A parkequippedwithmore orlessattractive sheetsof A bodyofwaterflowingthrough atown A source ofwaterresources A unusedspace A sump An evacuationchannelforwaterandsediments A mere hydraulic system A placetogofishingandswimming A stickofplasticinetobemouldedatwill , 2002; Poff2002; al., et ., 1997; al., et

31 Basic river-restoration Principles o The rate of change of the flows, or flashiness, is also of great biological importance. It is a proven that fact many species emerge from when in sharp water increases levels take place; flow states of repose regimes thus trigger many biological processes such scattering or migrations upstream pre-reproductive as able are organisms regimes, unaltered In phenomena. to respond to the rates of rise and recession during protect floods, since they have enough time to react, about to occur. themselves or flee when changes are and variability magnitude, of characteristics above The cycles life the with harmony in be also must duration of species. Floods, droughts and spates must occur at the right times, in tune with water temperatures and the number of hydrological daylight variables (water hours. depths This and variables environmental and (water temperature and allows speeds) oxygen contents, substrate characteristics, etc.) to evolve in step with biota life-cycles and guarantee the survival of thriving communities. The complexity of interactions components system between fluvial the of rest the and regime the flow and space different be studied at must it that is such the of conservation successful why is This scales. time biodiversity and functionality of riparian ecosystems depends the on main the ability or to restore protect aspects of the natural of change. timing, and rate duration, frequency, flow regime: magnitude, A gradient of energy and matter is available along the length of the river. is available along the length of the river. and matter of energy A gradient is based on four dimensions: longitudinal of lotic ecosystems The structure is critical for ecosystem integrity and sustains flow regime The natural ■ ■ ■ ■ distribution of biocenoses all along its pr This determines a continuous different of adjusting in space and time to the file, in a permanent process and matter) availability. levels of (energy ■ (channel-floodplain); vertical (channel-phreatic (channel-channel); lateral In turn, each of these dimensions can be analysed as zone); and temporary. in itself. a gradient ■ of the five main to the characteristics Every river is a response biodiversity. timing, duration, frequency, components: magnitude, flow regime natural of change. and rate Brief Description et al., 1997) Natural Flow Regime Natural The The river continuum concept Four-dimensional organisation ■ ■ ■ ■ (Poff Model ■ et al., 1980) ( Vannote ■ 1989) (Ward, The motor of fluvial system functionality is single not a , but a flow regime throughout that changes the year year. Within and the flow regime, varies floods are critical from to the year structure and to stability keeping of the its channel, both in the plan dynamic view and balance cross-section. In floods addition, in guarantee transverse connectivity with the floodplain, allowing bidirectional flow not only of water but also of organisms, sediments, propagules and nutrients. Furthermore, creation they and stimulate rejuvenation the of pools and the lateral formation of sandbars, and facilitate and access to breeding areas. The magnitude, variability and duration of floods has an size of influence the on materials that the are and deposited transported along the water course, on river-bed removal and on ground maintaining water exchanges between surface/subsurface/ the channel and the aquifer. The degree, variability and duration of droughts, or minimum discharge, are also critical to aquatic and riparian ecosystems. These volumes restrict habitat availability when conditions are more unfavourable seasonality and duration of patterns natural their and act as barriers against species not that suitable are for these environmental the intrusion of characteristics. foreign Conceptual models of the river (from Nilsson and Svedmark, 2002). Nilsson and Svedmark, (from 1.2.2 - Conceptual models of the river Table BASIC RIVER-RESTORATION BASIC PRINCIPLES

Basic river-restoration Principles 32 cmrms wt te nvtbe iiain to which theriveris subjected. limitations inevitable the with compromise a different from the river’s natural state, but reaches significantly is that status a achieve to MITIGATE: composition, as possible totheriver’s natural condition. the recover structure, processes and functions that are as close to REHABILITATE: preserve its self-regulated dynamicbalance. and integrity full achieve again once to it allowing composition, natural the structure, processes and functions recover of a river, thereby to RESTORE: concepts are: used widely most three the of definitions the then, of ‘restoration’, ‘rehabilitation’ or ‘mitigation’. Briefly, and applicable techniques than on discussing the use solutions potential devising by hand at problem the solving on expended profitably more be will efforts our however; debates, terminological hair-splitting on wasted be not should energy and time much Too river mitigation. and rehabilitation and as such rivers management, with connection in used are that define the concept of restoration and other concepts use this or that word. Accordingly, this section aims to we when to referring are we what exactly know we desirable and we need to establish definitions so that always is terminology Accurate term. or the replacing keeping of advisability the and specialists, ‘restoration’ concept of the about of arises debate convention a later or or sooner meeting every At river asitshouldbe. the scenario: reference the define clearly to order in explicitly detailed be should characteristics These state. natural its in river the the of characteristics basic defines objectively that pattern a conditions: reference establish to is (WFD), Directive Framework A crucial step in this process, as set forth in the Water Reference scenario andobjective scenario Concepts dowe meanWhat byrestoration? o etr o cm coe o etrn te river’s the restoring to natural state. close come or restore to orderin conditions possible guaranteeingbest at the be should aimed actions all meaning sense, generic below,its in taken here used as ‘restore’, term The is actuallyinlinewiththattruemeaning. is supposedtomeanandthat the project inquestion it what means really‘restoration’ term the that sure make should We needs. their to ecosystems whole hardlybut iconic be may subordinationthe justify of immobility,which species certain considering only or park’ that condemns the ‘fluvial river to an a unnatural creatingstate of , and trees few a planting than further no go projects these cases, of best the In outrages. unacceptable be to out turn then and place”, a such and such at river the of “restoration wonderful as the as Seemingly described announced, used frequently are projects horse. often Trojan too infamous all an is ‘restoration’ term The and highly illustrative, assuggestedinfigure 1.2.1. clear, are medicine with parallels The sought. is situation possible best the cases, both In above. of consideration as restoration, in the sense described rightful original, worthy as is but ideal from far are that results offer its might to mitigation circumstances, such river In condition. the restoring of possibility any longer no is thereunequivocally, and inevitable If limitations exist, mistaken. and this has been proved alternatives, objectively quite is two approach other this on but value the higher on a than place restoration to infrequent not is It course of water whose banks are permanently stable permanently are banks whose water of course ever-brimming an of notion ‘picturesque’ or ‘poetic’ the themselves: for created have people that river ideal an of image idyllic the match not does often the be’ in should it as river ‘the or river’ ‘natural especially the since and regions, Mediterranean area, this step is extremely important, climatic all In

33 Basic river-restoration Principles et al. methods such as those proposed by Richter (1998), Richter and (2006a). Richter Santa–María and Fernández Yuste (2000) or Martínez for claims river the area the zone, migration Channel solid its and flows energy its adjusting of purpose the by occupied space the also is It discharges. liquid and river biota and serves as a corridor connecting the different landscapes which make up the terrestrial ecosystems that the river flows through. Historical maps, or pictures of depicting the photography, status of the area before the oldest available can alterations, widespread introduced action human aerial be employed in defining and characterising fluvial spaces. Empirical equations such as those recently developed by Lee and Julien used. These (2006) equations make can it possible to also calculate be a suitable size, based on bankfull discharge, for the main geometrical ratios of the plan-view and cross- section channel. Aquatic and riparian , biota the ultimate expression case this In functions. and processes system fluvial of it is more difficult, or even impossible, to find up- to-date information on reference conditions. From the 1950s to the 1980s, river-management criteria in Europe were based water exclusively resources. on These exploiting comprehensible from criteria, a historical point of view, which led may to policies be concerning the licensing, planning and organisation of fluvial spaces that produced very , which is what determines the true nature of a river more than anything else, in terms of both its biotic and abiotic components. The Natural Flow Regime can be determined using et al., 2000). and mitigation. (Based on Rutherfurd, rehabilitation between restoration, 1.2.1 Differences Figure and nicely flanked by -shaded promenades and rises never overflow. whose moderate conform often demands public that surprising not is It to precisely that imaginary idea of teaching by countered be must demands thoughtless a river. These society that the appropriate and truly desirable river is one that exists in harmony with the surrounding environment and the and that a true river must not be corrupted with alien needs to seek landscapes its own canon but of fullness and beauty. attempt any that shown and taught be should People to turn a river into something which it is only deprive it of its not dignity; they should be made to can understand that any result thus obtained will in the have even may and useless and short-lived prove end consequences. disastrous dramatically In general, it is not easy to establish the reference conditions of a river. The task becomes particularly difficult when referring to its courses, middle and as lower centuries dispossessed the of river of almost human all conditions reference of characterisation of The features. its activity original have should include information following: about at least the Natural Flow Regime

Basic river-restoration Principles 34 SEQUENTIAL only biological potentialfollowitscourse; should and physical own river’s the let then way, work the point restoration AUTONOMOUS: thereby river itselfdoesmostofthework; dynamics, fluvial the that way a such in processes natural promoting with HARMONY IN with theestablishedgoals; for compliance of degree the of indicators monitoring appropriate incorporating and detail in and actions programmes necessary the defining PRECISE, and socialdiscouragement; expectations that will only lead to technical, political the of limitations situation and and shying away from utopian, unrealisable diagnosis the with line in REALISTIC yet AMBITIOUS of thelandscape; elements structuring and systems dynamic complex CONGRUENT be: a and should It objectivity,expectation. hopeful of rigour, amount generous with defined be and must river possible best the is scenario’ ‘target This and cultural aspects. of economic and, political, social, the considering by course, space and water of regimes quantities, and qualities adequate of availability potential and actual the analysing by defined be must scenario’, ‘target the e. i. river, ‘possible’ The achieved. being its of chance real a is there unless goal the become cannot it but valued, and known be must It utopia. a enough, since the pristine river it seeks is all too often While certainly important, a reference scenario is not ecotype andthepositionofreach understudy. the of basis the on assume to scientific us allows knowledge that structure and composition natural the apply or rivers, comparable in obtained of results use make can characterisation reference-biota However, WFD. the by required reports pressure and impact the of publication recent the since light come to has as reaches, lower and middle run-down : ih h cret ocp o rvr as rivers of concept current the with hvn gas ht are that goals having , e sd o teghn h rsoain process. restoration the strengthen can to whatever opportunities used identify political be and and system economic the legal, on bear to different the evaluate brought and arebeing that pressuresdemands social and identify also must but biota, it riparian regimes, and flow aquatic and current spaces fluvial of assessment must an is’ ‘that include river the characterising of task The its ownself-recovery mechanisms. process should give the river what it needs to activate and whole The causes. their detected eliminate to attempting been have that dysfunctions the of effects the mitigate to solutions best the proposing diagnosis, right functional the making its to key to the is integrity, important most are that those least at or detail, sufficient in aspects different its all describing and river the is’.know ‘that to Getting target (the river scenario), there is the river we actually have, possible’ the river reference ‘best (the the be’ and should scenario) it ‘as river the Besides fluvial the considering ecosystem asawhole. after selected be then should these of appropriate most The proposed. be to alternatives intervention viable socially and technically allow and support public enjoy must scenario target The feasible.considered opportunities be cannot possible the and it influence that factorscurrentsituation,the the assessmentof an and do not submit a target scenario on the basis of reference-scenarioaddresscharacterisation not do that PROJECTS OR PROGRAMMES RESTORATION and social economic sustainability; environmental, of basis the on groups CONSENSUS social different the of expectations the satisfies that ACCEPTED GLOBALLY A ON BASED involved; TIME-ADJUSTED 4) 3) 2) 1)

Recovery ofaquaticbiota; Recovery ofriparianvegetation morphology Recovery Recovery of hydrological regime and water quality f hne mgain oe n fluvial and zone migration channel of

o h dnmc o te processes the of dynamics the to

35 Basic river-restoration Principles st? each should be addressed first? each should be addressed about programmes that will Which river or r Which tasks should come fir Bringing increase social awareness and public involvement heritage and cultural this natural in safe-guarding

its present condition, its potential, and the relevant social context in which any restoration activities are to take place. a) 6) where courses river to turn should attention Secondly, is that rehabilitation, or restoration for scope is there fluvial spaces in which it to is say, possible, gradually and sequentially, to structure, functionality and restore dynamics to conditions their status. reference that approximate composition, where spaces to given be should consideration Lastly, mostly is This possible. is programme mitigation a only applicable to urban reaches, where damage is often the usually are areas these Unfortunately, irreversible. first to be considered for heavy investment on the basis of nothing more than political opportunism. aim sole the with ‘recovered’ thus is space fluvial The of scoring points for the local council. Often it is the river that is made to fit the measure of the rather town, than the town and its citizens adjusting the river by to giving up spaces and adopting uses that allow co-existence with it. The above, as harsh it may sound, should not lead us to the radical conclusion that rehabilitating reaches in urban spaces should be disregarded because its of lack of environmental efficacy, or is only to be considered if it is possible to achieve a sufficiently ‘natural’ target scenario, where enjoyment must public then use be and Neither one limited nor and the other restricted. is the urban case. Projects environments in frequently offer opportunities: exceptional b) and characterizing the best-preserved and applying an aging changes of use in and around fluvial oving legal measures to avoid deterioration of deterioration avoid to measures legal oving oducing measures that eliminate or at least Prioritisation criteria: where do we start? do we where criteria: Prioritisation First things first things First spaces, including compensation for any measures such loss income that may derive from of Defining such in water of availability guarantees that regime quantities, qualities and regimes as are adequate to ensure maintenance of the geomorphological and biological attributes that are compatible with good ecological status of the water course Intr of almost stretches limit the impacts on these rare unspoilt water course and/or, as far as on bear to brought pressures the possible, reduce or remove them Identifying Appr selected areas, defining fluvial-space uses which are strictly compatible with river dynamics and functions Encour rivers or reaches rivers

4) 5) 3) 2) In short, river recovery programmes cannot be viewed be cannot programmes recovery river short, In as a mere collection of isolated actions, they must be the result of a deeply thought out process that considers the fluvial system as a whole, including When it comes to setting restoration priorities, two basic aspects must be taken into consideration: In order to define action priorities, it is reasonable to apply economic, efficiency criteria: social the river and lowest or expense – in reach all environmental three senses where – will the produce the closest approximation to status reference should first. be considered protective that means principle this of application The based be may action Such prioritised. be must action on the following pattern: 1)

Basic river-restoration Principles 36 ■ ■ ■ ■ Stages b) of state the of aware public the make a) Table 1.2.3Stagesofthefluvialrestoration process. necessary minimum the creating of tutoring guidance, and of labour a be should restoration Fluvial natural recovery capacitiesanddomostofthework. its account deploy river into the letting by restoration taken fluvial in and acknowledged be must resilience this and mechanisms Those species. alien maintaining their basic processes and as for barriers to limit access by factors renovation as events indispensable exceptional of that use mechanisms make to developed them allow fact in have Rivers preserving for elements ecosystem compositionandstructure. essential also are biota, riparian and aquatic among cause they disturbance undeniable their with droughts, and Floods region. resilience is particularly marked in the Mediterranean face of conditions created by extreme situations. This River ecosystems have great power of recovery in the ■ ■ ■ ■ Stage IV Stage III Stage II Stage I

changing people’s attitudes to fluvial spaces. This spaces. fluvial to attitudes people’s changing efficient it can be very profitable indeed when in terms of even words, investment in other urban reaches is not In environmentally area. built-up the outside rivers other for sacrifices and investments obtain to easier it make will that culture new a new people its opportunities forenjoyment. and town the offer will turn in sacrifices that will benefit the restored river, which making means This space. surrounding its and water of use the limit to need the of and river the They They Criteria for prioritisation ofinterventions: what to dofirst? encourage a new way of looking at the river,the at looking of way new a encourage ■ ■ ■ ■ Functions andcomponents toberecovered ■ ■ ■ ■ Recovery oftheaquatichabitat Recovery ofriparianvegetationfunctions Recovery ofchannelmigration zoneandfluvialmorphology Recovery ofhydrological regime andwaterquality opportunities. available all of most the making is as essential, rigour are and discussion reflection, analysis, recover, to rivers our allow will priorities that decisions the set make and to order In inflexible. become never priorities a have should it referencebut of point, kind standard, some to the advisable is It of section. this nature in to described aim relative above the point final underline the in comments The the recovery process by: next step is to examine the possibility of speeding up Once the river has water and space at its disposal, the fluctuation around aconditionofdynamicbalance. changing less or more and permanent in system a as can itself river trigger the processes the that allow it to aspects, achieve its status three these on Based degree determineariver’s abilitytorecover: lesser or greater a to which aspects three are There as describedintable1.2.3. be should events of sequence The premise. basic the is That all. for and once problem the solve to seems that intervention radical a than rather conditions, (right quality and regime) recover, inalltheirdifferent aspects. to helped and respected be to rivers for need the of awarenessraising for critical is asset intangible WATER + PC TIME SPACE +

37 Basic river-restoration Principles basic basic design principles einstating the vegetation to develop a favourable einstating the vegetation to develop a favourable r biotope that includes fauna and serves its natural and source a element, filter a corridor, a as purpose a barrier.

3) Some necessarily general the basic actions considerations involved in about in the next section. presented are programmes most river recovery hydrological hydrological patterns that are most significant from perspective. an environmental To this end, the following of an environmental regime are defined using EFR methodology: 1. Maintenance of structure the interannual variability ‘Wet’, ‘standard’ and ‘dry’ analogous years proportions are to included those in identified natural in regime. the This guarantees the of maintenance all the processes associated regime. within the environmental diversity with hydrological 2. Maintenance of the structure intra-annual variability Ensuring that flow fluctuation throughout the year is comparable to that of the natural regime for each type of year; this will guarantee the maintenance of natural seasonal patterns within the environmental regime. 3. Maintenance of driest-month flows Stricter preservation of the driest-month flows of the natural regime for each type of since year, these are the most restrictive conditions for biota in the Southern European and region. North African climatic 4. Maintenance of flood patterns Inclusion of floods that are processes related to (small-magnitude biological and floods), particularly high-frequency those spawning associated phenology, with to fish- ensure that they are artificial elements that may be Recovery of functions, components and processes components of functions, Recovery quality and water regime of hydrological Recovery estructuring the basic patterns of past the river’s dismantling potential are there unless channel, the constricting inadvisable; action an such make that involved risks r morphology;

It is a well-known fact that utilisation of the water resources of a river basin must inevitably alter the variability, magnitude, of terms in regime flow river’s seasonality and all frequency, of which are critically entails recovery Regime ecosystems. the for significant defining the hydrological characteristics that must be met by the flow regime in order to maintain the basic elements of the natural composition, structure and functionality of the fluvial ecosystems, as well as associated terrestrial ecosystems characteristics. That is why the resulting new regime regime. ‘maintenance’ is or ‘ecological’ ‘environmental’, called an concepts of review splendid a offers (2005) Magdaleno and methods for calculating ecological flow regimes. More Martínez recently, Santa-María and Fernández Yuste (2006b) proposed flow a estimate new method called environmental- Flow Regime (EFR), which the gives not just Environmental one, but a whole series of potential environmental regimes or scenarios and evaluates them on the basis of their degree of approximation to the natural regime. In pre-existing dams, this gives resource managers a tool for incorporating environmental aspects within the decision-making protocol in an objective quantified manner. and In newly-constructed dams, the EFR also makes it possible to define scenarios management whose quantitatively and qualitatively defined, with a environmental view cost to resource-allocation optimisation measures. After can the in regime natural the of role crucial be the explaining composition and functioning of fluvial ecosystems, it is only logical to conclude that regime environmental- design should use the natural regime reference as a point and try to reproduce the natural 1) 2)

Basic river-restoration Principles 38 during recession periods. water of body main the from disconnected suddenly or rises during displaced being individuals of result a influence as communities not aquatic natural must of dynamics curves the recession and variability rise The of respected. seasonality natural and natural considered the be should variability of Interannual regime. those to duration in and comparable magnitude are floodplain- that values and flood connectivity geomorphological of Inclusion connectivity floods and floods geomorphological of Maintenance 5. appropriate. arepatterns seasonal their that and river-bed the on accumulated deposits finer the remove to sufficient Recovery of fluvial space of freedom and functionality through compensation payments for land-use changes. (Based on (Based changes. land-use for payments compensation through functionality and Johnson, 1999). freedom of space fluvial of Recovery 1.2.2 Figure accurately CMZ the define to easy is It banks. and bed channel vegetation, the interactionbetween the in and load sediment its and water the transporting channel by the floodplain, and the energy invested in the to available made and defined energy potential This balance is the result of the interplay between the and achieve a good discharge/sediment load balance. laterally move to order in conditions, needs, natural under river the that floodplain the of part the as defined be can (CMZ) zone migration channel The Channel migration zone in whichimmobilityisalmostentirely nonexistent. time-framenatureconsideredwide be a must within dynamic its because riversides, and channel current the beyond and above space free requires that life morphological dynamic and intense an has river The Recovery offluvialspace offreedom andmorphology hydrological planningobjectives. accordancein recoveryquality generalwater with of the guarantee that measures introduce to necessary also is it regime-restorationactivities, with Together minimum level of water quality does not make sense. a ensuring without recovery flow-regime Achieving caused bylowdischarges. disturbances from recover can biota the that ensure thresholds based on natural-regime values, in order to of terms resilience for – seasonality in and duration magnitude, – events flow minimum Establishing 6. Maintenanceofabsoluteminimumvalues c) b) a) definition CMZ for should includethefollowing: protocol reference general A environment, the however, the task may become practically impossible. transformed has action human When limits. clear own its marks river the because when human activity has not altered the fluvial space,

The In meandering Photointerpr n h rcntuto, aig t osbe to possible it making reconstruction, the accuracy of in degree high a allows photography bankfull in width channel the conditions w and zone ≈ 10 w, where CMZ is the width of the migration the of width the is CMZ wherew, 10 eet s o lsr ehooy o aerial for technology laser of use recent etation andhistoricalcartography courses,ratiothe applicable isCMZ

39 Basic river-restoration Principles Box 1.2.1 Fluvial morphology and habitat

■■ Microhabitat: The hyporheic zone – the interstitial saturated area of the bed and banks that contains part of the river’s water or is affected by – is an essential element of the river, both because of its capacity as a biotope for the system’s trophic base (periphyton; benthic organisms) and because it defines the properties of the physico-chemi cal exchanges with the phreatic zone and of the resistance to flow. At the “micro” scale, section morphology also determines the hydraulic characteristics – depth, velocity, turbulence, shear stress – which in turn define the aquatic biotope. These characteristics are thus decisive for competition, feeding, interaction, reproduction and shelter. They also determine local sedimentation dynamics and influence the processes that scatter propagules, micro-organisms and organic matter.

■■ Mesohabitat: At this scale, morphology establishes the presence, sequence and persistence of riffles and pools, the mesohabitat forms that determine aquatic-biotope diversity. It also determines riparian and neighbouring floodplain characteristics, thereby influencing the corridor’s functions as habitat, barrier, conduit, filter, source and sink, which are critical to fluvial ecosystem integrity.

■■ Macrohabitat: At this level, morphology determines the location, characteristics and dynamics of the longitudinal sequence of planforms and is therefore the key element in the longitudinal evolution of the fluvial ecosystem’s biotic and abiotic components.

identify old and abandoned branches 2) Recuperation of the vegetation with appropriate and supplement the information obtained from species, ensuring that their origins and genetic conventional aerial photographs (Magdaleno, diversity are controlled and respected 2006) 3) Sufficient continuity to ensure the efficacy of the Defining the CMZ is the first step, but it cannot projects over time be left at lines on a map. Administrative, legal and technical strategies must be put in place so that the 4) Payment of compensation for loss of income available information can be used for the benefit resulting from new land uses of the river. Within the CMZ, more detailed areas should be defined: successive strips running parallel A critical analysis of Common Agricultural Policy experiences of similar action to replace farmland to the river channel, representing spaces with with can provide criteria and strategies to specific environmental functions (Malavoi, J. et al., guide these interventions. 1998). Through considering the peculiarities and characteristics of those strips, limitations can be established on soil uses, which must be compatible Fluvial morphology with environmental functionality. Another A river is a three-dimensional system in which complementary strategy for achieving the desired matter, energy and biota are transferred along its CMZ is to promote land-use changes on private land. longitudinal, transverse and vertical axes. Flows in In rural environments or areas surrounding towns, the direction of the stream, lateral interaction with the aim is to reinstate spaces that the river needs banks and floodplains and exchanges with alluvial which are currently used for farming, stock-breeding aquifers are all important. Fluvial hydrosystem and/or forestry (figure 1.2.2). integrity depends on the maintenance of those Basic river-restoration Principles three dimensions, on hydrological, geomorphological Aid for the creation of riparian spaces should envisage and biological components and processes, and on the following: the dynamic interaction between them (Petts and Amorós, 1996). 1) Morphological adjustments that safeguard the riparian area, its continuity and its connectivity In this context, morphology is undoubtedly a crucial with the river-channel and the surrounding element of the river. It is the system’s response to terrestrial ecosystems matter and energy inputs. That response is the result of interaction between existing matter – the flowing liquid and the solid volumes, the energy available 40 for its transfer – defined by the gradient of the and time, with high rates of feedback. It is not always floodplain, and the energy that is necessarily lost in easy to segregate cause from effect, or dependent the transfer process. Strictly speaking, morphology from independent variables. Furthermore, the results and its dynamics are an abiotic element of the river, that are available for characterisation of these but because they influence the quantitative and processes are still far from being organised into a qualitative characteristics of the aquatic and riparian definitive doctrinal corpus. It is therefore necessary biotopes (box 1.2.1), they have a significant effect on to point out that the calculations in the literature the biota. should be considered more as an order of magnitude than as a true and definite value. A first approach to When considering any intervention involving fluvial fluvial morphology reveals four degrees of freedom morphology, the first thing to remember is that no represented by four planes: the longitudinal gradient, shape or form can be forcibly imposed on a river. the plan-view form or planform, the cross-section This leads to one immediate conclusion: in order and the riverbed or channel-bed forms. These four to incorporate fluvial morphology into river action degrees of freedom are not independent from one plans, it is essential to possess the necessary tools to another, but they have different dynamics in space define the basic morphological characteristics of the and time. Some considerations of planform and river section in question and the relation between cross-section, the two most significant degrees of these and the variables that have shaped them. In freedom, are presented here below. other words, it is vital to know the morphological patterns that determine the dynamic balance of the Planform reach in order to assess its current morphological Early work in this (Leopold and Wolman, 1957) status and undertake actions that achieve a structure sought to establish simple relations between which is in harmony with the desired morphological basic planforms (straight, meandering, braided, dynamics. anastomosed) and the variables by which they are controlled to a greater or lesser extent, such Before continuing, some important points require a as gradient and bankfull discharge (Qb) (table few brief comments. Fluvial morphology is the result 1.2.2). Subsequent work (Parker, 1976; Berg, 1995) of interaction between very complex processes that incorporated certain more complex variables take place at a variety of different stages in space (Froude number, specific power, etc.) that allow for

Box 1.2.2 Bankfull discharge

■■ MORPHOLOGICAL criterion: this is the discharge that ‘fills’ the channel, meaning the channel below the floodplain. Morphological determination can be performed with the indicators proposed by and Leopold (1978): point of change from bank slope to floodplain level; point of change from steep to significantly flatter slopes; change in type of vegetation; changes in texture of deposited sediments. Some exceptions apply to these general rules. In arid or semi-arid environments, for example, there are rivers that have macro-channels, adapted to extreme events, with a much smaller active channel which moves freely within the macro-channel; the active channel is the one that should be considered for Qb characterisation (Van Niekerk et al., 1995).

■■ criterion: this is defined as the increment of discharge that transports the largest fraction of the sediment load over a period of years (Andrews, 1980). Its value may be calculated simply by selecting the flow that maximises the result of multiplying the frequency by the solid volume. In addition to being more objective and sounder than the above criterion and integrating the physical process that is responsible for channel geometry, this proce dure represents a conceptual advantage by bringing together two key aspects, magnitude and frequency, within the Qb concept.

■■ The practical difficulty of applying the morphological criterion and the complexity associated with determining the frequency curve for sediment discharge have led to the development of different protocols for faster calculation. One procedure worth considering is to work out the discharges corresponding to 1- to 5-year return periods, circulate them over a hydraulic model of the river section (using HEC-RAS, for instance) and identify the one that comes closest to ‘filling’ the channel. Basic river-restoration Principles Basic river-restoration 41 41 Qb w=aQbb ; d=cQbf . (independent variable) and the variables The specialised literature abounds in have studies that allowed these parameters (Andrews, to 1980; be Hey estimated and and Jackson, 2001; Thorne, Lee and Julián, 1986; 2006). Because Castro these relationships are empirical functions it is very important to make sure, before using them, that the characteristics of the experimental range used to Cross-section Cross-section characterisation only variables: requires width (w) two and mean between relationships potential depth establishes theory (d). Regime Shear stress distribution in a standard cross section. cross distribution in a standard 1.2.4 Shear stress Figure Bankfull discharge and sediment transport. and sediment 1.2.3 Bankfull discharge Figure more more accurate calculations. If no other references are available, using the relationships described and by figures these and other authors specific information about the planform of the can river supply that is to be restored. It is important to bear in mind that the morphology flow of basis the on determined be must reach the of rates after the restoration of flow regimes. Thus, if intense regulation is be not should situation that to corresponding present pattern the morphological be will It scenario. target geomorphological a as used based morphology, correct the determine to necessary on the bankfull discharge when the environmental is applied. flow regime

Basic river-restoration Principles 42 Figure 1.2.5 Streambank treatment in a curved reach according to shear stress distribution. estimate them are in line with those of the applicable jumps (L) and by fall height (H). The distance between project. In addition, it is always advisable to use jumps is two to three times the width of the channel more than one relationship in order to obtain a wide (Chin, 1989). Abrahams and Atkinson (1995) propose spectrum of results. H/L ≈ 1.5 S, in which S stands for the channel gradient. The role of this pool and jump sequence in mountain Riverbed forms channels is crucial, since it ensures intense energy Where sand-bed rivers are concerned, sediment dissipation, an essential component in controlling the ripples, and are very much related to high amount of potential energy that steep gradients the type of regime; ripples and dunes are associated give to the flow. with subcritical (tranquil) flow (Froude number <1), while antidunes are associated with supercritical Restoration cannot impose, it must simply offer guidance: the river is both the sculptor and the (rapid) flow (Froude number >1) and can change sculpture, the creator and the creature within short spaces of time. They play an important role because they induce significant energy losses, but their importance is not as great from the point Stabilisation of bank slopes of view of restoration morphology, as they are highly variable over time. Once the objective-scenario morphology has been determined, whatever measures are necessary to In gravel-bed rivers, the sequence of riffles and allow the river to reach and maintain that objective pools is to be found in both straight and meandering status must be put in place. The starting point, of reaches. Gravel beds are much more stable over time course, is to guarantee the channel migration zone, than sand-bed forms and they provide the river with since, as has already been pointed out, morphology a high degree of hydrological and granulometric is essentially dynamic: the river moves, although it variability, with a prominent role in aquatic-biota always does so within a reference pattern and on diversity. The genesis and dynamics of these riverbed the basis of more or less well-defined dimensional forms lie beyond the scope of the present overview; features. Based on those possibilities, it is advisable readers who are interested can consult the section to carry out actions that speed up the river’s on riffles and pools in David Knighton’s magnificent repossession of its shape and space. book (1998). One of the problems that these interventions must Jumps and pools are typical of mountain courses with address is bank slope stability. It is not a question gradients in excess of 3-5%. Morphologically, they can of fixing them totally and permanently, but rather be characterised by the distance between consecutive of helping them to remain stable for long enough Basic river-restoration Principles Basic river-restoration 43 should be expressly considered in with the geobotanical characteristics characteristics geobotanical the with i.e. its ability to solve or ameliorate the and branch structures must be well suited and reproductive material should regards regards planting, the time of year and, the Compatibility As weather conditions and soil moisture should be considered These carefully. aspects are not always given the importance inert with working to used are they involved those when deserve, especially unaffected by these factors materials which are Maintenance the project design. Adequate time-periods resources and must be provided for preservation of the to living material that ensure has been the installed. of the river reach Root to bank slopes; roots should provide good plant and grow soil anchoring and branch rapidly and structures should exhibit appropriate behaviour during floods The proceed from the same region of provenance and adequate genetic diversity guarantee

5) Lastly, it should be pointed out that bioengineering restoration river in indiscriminately used be not must projects. Like any other material or technique, use should be its based on an in-depth analysis of the relevant problem, on the consideration of current conditions and on reasonable expectations its efficacy, as to problem or dysfunction detected and to achieve the desired effect with the fewest means in the shortest possible time. In other words, every attempt should be made to avoid the frequent mistake of thinking that simply because these techniques use living or dead plant material, they guarantee the success of used. in which they are any project 2) 3) 4) The use of very bioengineering careful protocol to elements be drawn up, requires in materials, terms a of execution and maintenance. As with selected be must species chosen the mentioned, already mind: the following points in 1) the magnitude of shear stresses and the materials, execution and maintenance e the maximum environmental functionality e the maximum environmental functionality Adjust operations to the magnitude and distribution of these stresses Ensur of the solutions applied Determine their distribution over the cross-section

3) It is not infrequent for the third of these criteria to the other two. This not be applied while disregarding stability, desired the achieving in failure to leads only a as interpreted be to error design a cause also can but sign of inadequacy of the materials and components that should be securing environmental functionality. This mistaken conclusion can discredit the material rather than the project designer and discourage the and techniques. use of new approaches of unit per force (tangential stresses shear regards As a at are they that mind in bear to crucial is it surface), decrease and slope bank the of base the at maximum in a significantly linear manner until they zero reach 1.2.4). surface (figure on arriving at the free In order to ensure slope stability, it is therefore not advisable to use a single solution. The materials that flow the of action the to resistance greatest the offer when they are properly laid, such as trunks etc., and rolls, should stumps, fibre be organic rip-rap, tree placed from the base up to the usual flood level (a of not more than one year). Up to the level of the ordinary floods that define the channel (a return period of 2 fascines, live blankets, (organic used be to may elements 5 years), bioengineering brush mattresses, etc.). vegetation is necessary Above unless special circumstances that level, 1.2.5). apply (figure only to allow the vegetation and other natural processes to adjust to the intended new river conditions. One important exception applies, however: when bank instability jeopardizes the safety of people, property or infrastructure, permanent stabilisation must be considered in the absence of alternative solutions. To secure bank slope the stability, following must be done: 1) 2)

Basic river-restoration Principles 44 and plant species, organic matter, thermal conditions riparian corridor, it is also a parallel conduit of its to Thanks definition. limited most and strictest its sediment, and water with filled channel a just not is weather extreme conditions, reproduce and in interrelate. A river shelter seek feed, they where habitats, riverside inhabit that organisms many by areperceived changes microclimatic their these of All surroundings. those from different spaces quite riparian therefore are of conditions environmental the perspective, structural a From processes. soil many on influence positive a have which temperaturesground, the near lower to leading use, water optimal offers rainfall and effective protection woodland from and the wind favour sunlight of riparian interception cover, plant adequate which in Conditions outside ariverside grove. of up to 7.5 º C between the temperatures inside and difference a describes (1996) Sterling environment. surrounding the of and that than atmosphere temperate humid more a creating scarce, is water when even evapotranspiration facilitate availability water of levels higher since function, riparian for critical is This cycle. biological their complete allow to plants the thus and moisture to access adequate have ground water level in order to ensure that their roots stream– water-dependent plants – that need to be near the view, of species phreatophyte of series point a of consist corridors botanical strictly a From stream network (ramblas) (Source: Instituto Cartográfico Valenciano). ephemeral an in corridor riparian of function Conduit 1.2.6 Figure Recovery ofriparian woodland function eie, s h dtriig atr n h process the in factor determining the as hydrological regimes, natural of recovery the should be programmes therefore restoration of goal main The development of stages (Sterling, 1996). successive undergoing microhabitats heterogeneous highly of mosaic a of up made ecosystems open are contrary,they the On time. in permanent and stable mature, strictly not are state natural most their in woodlands riparian water level. It should therefore be borne in mind that in variations sharp and periods, dry extremely with alternating floods, and rises catastrophic to subject are they since destruction, their entails sometimes this that but water the to closer be to need species woodland crucial riparian is in restoration. nature It must success be remembered that of phreatophyte guaranteeing patterns for the for Respect the recovery ofbioticandstructural heterogeneity. for criteria and purposes recuperation for material reproductive the offer will which reaches, preserved well- the of communities natural the of are reference points key The functionality. environmental of recovery for especially, most also, but rehabilitation, Riparian restoration must strive not only for aesthetic have previously beenreinstated. morphology and zone migration regime, flow river’s Riparian 1.2.7). systems, but its survival can only be guaranteed if the and 1.2.6 vegetation is thus (figures a fundamental component of fluvial energy and Cartográfico Valenciano). Instituto (Source:corridor. riparian of function Filter 1.2.7 Figure

45 Basic river-restoration Principles recover recover its riparian band in a natural way. Human intervention should thus be seen as short-term aid; the first rises and floods, with their load of water, sediments, seeds and propagules, are the definitive source of the energy and materials that model and the riparian corridor. restructure different levels of biotic potential. Projects should be should Projects potential. biotic of levels different designed to cover the widest spectrum of habitable conditions. Examples of these types of action 1998): (FISRWG, are base the in placed boulders of Groups cluster: Boulder flow channel to provide create cover, scour holes, or velocity. of reduced areas or quarrystone or structures Sills: Log, Weirs boulder, placed across the control habitat, pool channel create to bed and/or streambank and anchored to the gravel. or collect and retain bed erosion, Fish passages: Any one of a changes which number enhance the of opportunity instream for target fish species to freely functions. move life other to and utilization, habitat upstream spawning, areas for Log/Brush/rock Shelters: Logs, structures brush, installed and streambanks in rock to the enhance fish and erosion, streambank prevent dynamics, web food lower habitat, encourage portion shading. provide of Tree cover: Felled trees placed along the streambank substrate organism aquatic cover, overhead provide to and habitat, stream current deposition, and drift catchment. deflection, scouring, Wing deflectors: Structures either that streambank but do not extend entirely across protrude from a channel. They deflect flows away from the bank, and scour pools by constricting flow. accelerating the channel and Recovery of the aquatic habitat of the Recovery of dynamic change taking woodlands. place within riparian quality high regime, flow adequate an has river the If water and physical space in biological potential is which immense. In to such conditions, move, its within relatively short periods of time, the river can Recovery of the habitat for aquatic biota is the last step in the proposed process of fluvial restoration. This is so for an obvious reason: quantity and quality habitat the available the controlling main factors are the hydrological regime, the channel’s physical characteristics, the water quality and the ecosystems. riparian It does not therefore make sense to address habitat and much recovery, less consider the introduction of species, if the above-mentioned four factors have not reached an acceptable level Conversely, in of a reach in functionality. which flow regime, water quality, morphology and riparian conditions been have restored it is highly probable, unless pressure human is extreme, that colonise and settle the fluvial space. gradually the aquatic biota will In addition to the specific actions can considerations be carried out noted with a above, speeding view to up and/or complementing natural the availability, habitat’s fostering the development communities of that are healthy and diversity. composition structure, in terms of their The main objective of this type of action is basically to encourage hydraulic different structures diversity. are set up To in the channel this on and the banks end, to break down the certain hydraulic homogeneity parameters, depth of or velocity, for instance, and induce variations in other dependent turbulence, stresses, shear as such variables hydraulic secondary flows, etc. This combination hydraulic with granulometric diversity, and in morphologic variability and other environmental gradients, will gradually create different microhabitats with very

Basic river-restoration Principles 46 tblt. h rvr ed tm t dvlp t own is It state. natural its its to return and process develop recovery to time needs river The stability. now can morphological river towards process self-recovery its lead the and point that at finished has facilitator a as work man’s since true, partly only is this non-specialist, may seem like leaving things unfinished, the but that To slopes. river-bank all secure indiscriminately and generally or interiors, curve in beaches create pools, and of sequence a up set forcibly to advisable be not it. would Specifically,it of care take will itself river the since advisable, is morphology the on action more no that, Beyond where necessary. the stabilised be then should Banks requirement. of prior a definition are on-site section the of geometry basic the and – planform instance for work, morphological restoration is the aim – unchannelling planning – first things first – as well as time. If global good requires This self-recovery. for potential its of use full make to allowed be should which itself, river the with tune in be must and order right the in out carried be must actions restoration fluvial Different o tee rjcs I ms nt e ogte that forgotten be not must It projects. these support for society’s garner to help will that is tool the participation public that conviction a on based be also should it but requires, law the what is that because projects and programmes river-restoration to applied be must process public-involvement This departments’ intotheirorganisational structures. incorporate‘public-involvement to beginning fact in river-basin are authorities river-basin Some of plans. hydrological which implementation and the in planning, development participation social active hydrological promote should of component significant a as involvement public defines WFD The Public involvement Self-recovery, timeandmonitoring the finalgoal. proposedorderachieve be in to can actions new and is not recovering in harmony with the goals, changes river the If taken. actions the to responded has river stage of the project have been achieved and that the each of aims stated the that sure make to needed is monitoring completed, are they Once project. the of end the signal not do actions these generalbelief, to short time-limit and are soon concluded; but contrary rather a have actions direct general, In monitoring. projects: restoration river of aspect but forgotten often crucial another to leads This completed. has been process the of stage until proposed every finished and be each not will project the conclusion: immediate an to leads time-frames accurate Setting main stages. the of each in achieved be to objectives the define and time-frames accurate set and to programmes projects restoration for desirable, indispensable, is indeed it Nevertheless solutions. short-term tangible, demands often society because time that for allow that projects design to feasible always not participation. adequate public proactive ensure include to time-scales and thus funding should plans Restoration in support order toachievethedesired results. popular have to crucial is it so system, fluvial the of integrity ecological the of benefit the up the use and enjoyment of spaces and activities for give often must public the successful, be to projects these For done. been has work apparent the after long effectively until and completely become not do results final their and time of periods extended over place take generally projects restoration river

47 Basic river-restoration Principles examination, the design, calculation and execution approached be cannot project restoration fluvial a of without defining the reference scenario, identifying alterations and their potential causes and and effects realistically defining the target medical treatment can be administered scenario. without due No monitoring and no river restoration process can be deemed to have concluded if adequate monitoring have not been put in place. measures Restoration or rehabilitation be programmes based bears must and on whole a as a ecosystem fluvial deeply the considers thought-out process that in mind all the environmental, social, and emotional issues. cultural economic, Cause/effect relationship and its dynamics in space and time and its dynamics Cause/effect relationship of damage of reversibility Degree Priorities and action sequence definition of objective scenario and realistic Accurate economically and socially feasible alternatives for action Design of technically, the basis of the fluvial system as a whole action on Selection of the most appropriate Implementation of an educational and social communication programme Design, calculation and execution Maintenance Adaptive management Assessment of results Recovery of hydrological regime and water quality regime Recovery of hydrological studies…) previous aerial photographs, Review of available documentation (cartography, of morphological and biological characterisation sedimentological, Hydrological, the fluvial system Identification of human actions that have affected Uses and demands scenario) conditions (reference Definition of reference and and also upstream on the reach, and their effects Identification of alterations as well as process, restoration the that influence or restrict Identification of factors ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ the system it from downstream alternatives and opportunities Viewing the whole picture Viewing DIAGNOSIS TREATMENT MONITORING CLINICAL HISTORY EXAMINATION ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Restoration flowchart Restoration Stages of the fluvial restoration process . process 1.2.4 Stages of the fluvial restoration Table Finally, Finally, an integrated flowchart general protocol is that may presented, be applied a restoration projects. Such to a protocol must underline all river the most important steps and stages involved in the restoration of fluvial reaches and stress the need to consider them as a whole, within the context of a strategy that requires making use of each and every elements (table 1.2.4). one of these different The best metaphor to illustrate this strategy is that of a doctor treating a patient. Just as it would unacceptable be to reach a much less medical give treatment, diagnosis, without considering and the patient’s clinical history and conducting a physical

Basic river-restoration Principles 48 Ministerio deMedioAmbiente,Madrid teración Hidrológica en ecosistemas fluviales. Ministerio de Fomento, Al- de Índices (2006a) JA Yuste Fernández C, Santa-María Martínez Corse Rhône-Méditerranée- l’Eau de coursAgence 2 nº Technique des Guide d’eau. liberté de l’espace de Détermination (1998) JR Malavoi eniería civil142:29-44 Ing- fluvial. medio del gestión y caracterización la teledetección en (LiDAR) láser la de Aplicaciones (2006) R MartÍnez F, Magdaleno CEDEX Fomento. de Ministerio del Publicaciones de Centro terpretaciones. in- e métodos conceptos, ecológicos: Caudales (2005) F Magdaleno DC Washington Office, Printing Government US straight. and andering me- Braided, patterns: channel River (1957) MG Wolman L, Leopold Channels. JournalofHydraulic Engineering132(12):1347-1352 Alluvial of Geometry Hydraulic Downstream (2006) PY Julien J, Lee Arnold, London perspective. new A Processes. and Forms Fluvial (1998) D Knighton ogy Handbook,NewYork Biol- National Part190. USDA. Habitat. for Managing level. Johnson CW (1999) Conservation Corridor Planning at the Landscape Journal ofHydraulic Engineering112:671-689 beds. gravel mobile with channels Stable (1986) CR Thorne RD, Hey line URL:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/stream_restoration/) 3/PT.653.(On- 57.6/2:EN A No. 0120-A;SuDocs No. Item GPO tices. Prac- and Processes, Principles, Restoration: Corridor Stream (1998) (FISRWG) Group Working Restoration Stream Interagency Federal Freeman andCo.,NewYork W.H. Planning. Environmental in Water (1978) LB Leopold T, Dunne Geographyc 13:391-407 Physical in Progress channels. stream in pools Step (1989) A Chin 37(5):1249-1262 Association Resources Water American of Journal USA. Northwest, and regional hydraulic geometry relationships: Patterns in the Pacific Castro JM, Jackson PL (2001) Bankfull discharge recurrence intervals rivers. Geomorphology12(4):259-279 perennial of pattern channel alluvial of Prediction (1995) JH Berg International transfer ofriverbasindevelopment Workshop. Dialogue Mekong Australia. from lessons and methods importance, ecological flows: Environmental (2002) AH Arthington ogy 46:311-330 Hydrol- of Journal Wyoming. and Colorado Basin, River Yampa the in streams of discharge bankfull and Effective (1980) ED Andrews 31:2593-602 Research Resources Ad- Water streams:resistance. flow Steep-pool maximum to (1995) justments JF Atkinson G, Li AD, Abrahams References geomorphic processes. JournalofGeology68:54-74 frequencyforcesand of in Magnitude (1960) JP WolmanMiller MG, Journal oftheNorthAmericanBenthologicalSociety8(1):2-8 Ecosystems. 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URL: (Online Australia Canberra, Hydrology, Catchment for Centre Research Cooperative Corporation/ opment Devel- and Research Resources Water and Land Streams. Australian for Manual Rehabilitation A (2000) N K, Jerie ID, Rutherfurd 1478 riparian ecosystems along meandering rivers. Conserv. sustain Biol. 14:1467– to regimes flood Prescribing (2000) HE Richter BD, Richter Rivers: Research &Management14:329-340 Regulated network. river a within alterationhydrologic of sessment as- spatial DP,A Braun (1998) JV, PowellJ Baumgartner BD, Richter 47:769-784 BD, Richter KL, Prestegaard JR, Karr Sparks RD, Stromberg MB, JC (1997) The Natural Flow Regime. Bioscience Bain D, Allan NL, Poff London Hall, and Chapman hydrosystems. Fluvial (1996) C Amoros PettsGE, and braiding inrivers. JournalofFluidMechanics76:457-480 Parker G (1976) On the cause and characteristic scales of meandering Environmental Management30(4):468-480 sequences of Changing Water Regimes: Riparian Plant Communities. 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49 Basic river-restoration Principles S the S the water < 1,815 ω W/ < 1,815 respectively. However, 2 et al., 2003). the However, ω values (2 > the coefficient n, decreases decreases n, coefficient the i.e. (Sear 2

et al., 2003). One explanation for this ½ Q the mean annual discharge, S 2/3 R is the hydraulic radius and ω > 35 W/m ), showing the capability of the different types of 2 Rui Cortes m channel slope and w the channel width. channel slope and w the A very extensive study carried observed quasi constant out for UK rivers acceleration, acceleration, V = 1/n R where surface slope. It is obvious from roughness, in increase this simple formula that the velocity. This is exactly an what happens near river creates which vegetation, riparian mature with banks a resistance to flow and diverts the current to the middle of the channel. In spite of the difficulty in computing n with precision in natural channels (it involves a great number of tables, with correction factors) it is clear that the decreases speed with of the increasing current roughness. to estimate n uses: procedure A common channels to adjust and dynamically to power, stream supported a finding that erosional instability occurs when the extreme difficulty in finding simple relationships between stream power and (Sear apparent channel stability is is associated with vegetation, which has significant impacts on all complexity these of processes, the increasing predictions. relationships can be Nevertheless, easily the understood from one the of the equations that link velocity and flow resistance, like the Manning equation (developed for conditions of uniform flow), which is very allows useful flow because velocities it (V) to be computed through differences in hydraulic roughness roughness coefficient, (n, a term that is directly related Manning’s to flow): to resistance conditions for channel instability also depend to a great extent on the diameter of become particles the smaller of composed bed beds river particles, since unstable at lower stream power values. Thus, in beds where the dominant material was silt, gravel, gravel/ cobble and cobble, movement took place at 73.3, 37.8, 78.8 and 142.0 W/m ): 2 g the gravity ρ is the density of water, Fluvial geomorphology and the riparian corridor geomorphology the riparian and Fluvial When dealing with the of restoration riparian layers, a very important aspect is knowledge of the channel condition. bank river the of assessment and dynamics instream the or found is failure bank critical if fact, In conditions are far from equilibrium, with extensive not will it processes, widening and instabilities lateral be possible to establish riparian vegetation. Besides, these assessments need to be that made techniques to bio-engineering provide the the deciding for basis are needed to achieve a certain bank (or river bed) stabilization, as a stage, first followed by installation of the appropriate vegetation. Information hydraulic about geometry is towards develop to tends system river a that concept necessary, based on an equilibrium between the channel and the flow the of water and sediments. Riparian vegetation plays a major role the influences directly in it since stability and evolution channel processes. deposition and transport erosion, sediment It should be stressed that is not possible to establish guidelines for the rehabilitation of a river corridor without information on the hydrogeomorphological of the stream. characteristics The intention of this chapter is to provide everyone involved in river management with simple equations and an explanation of relationships so that they can understand the character of streams and predict the geomorphological dynamism of the river channel. The formulae presented here do specific not require knowledge any of viewed hydraulics as just and illustrations, bearing must in this chapter mind goes be on that to describe the most relevant physical processes that occur in a stream. However, they do use comprehensible variables that provide useful information about the geomorphological processes relations linked to between erosion and parameters. common hydraulic The ability of a stream to interact between erosion, transport and sedimentation can be expressed easily (W/m power ω per unit bed area by the stream THE IMPORTANCE OF OF IMPORTANCE THE THE SETTING IN GEOMORPHOLOGY RIPARIAN REHABILITATION RULES FOR ω = ρgQS/w where

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 50 hne (s n h tables), the in (as channel erbn zn, lxbe eeain eue the reduces vegetation flexible zone, near-bank Lawer by 12 compilation than the (see less of ratios width/depth with channels in significant more is contribution This stress. shear the distributions of near-bank velocity and boundary modify vegetation riparian of trunks and stems The flows peak toextreme values. when autumn, in energy high with channel by gravel-bed Mediterranean illustrated a in formulae phenomena above the the the reflect of 1.3.2 and consequences 1.3.1 channel. figures river in photos the The of stability the improving for consequences synergistic has also hydrology, bank and morphology bank strength, soil on roots bank its of of situations in instability. Moreover, crucial this vegetation, with the effects is bank This and erodibility. hydraulics flow near-bank influencing velocity, in reduction the to most contributes that in cross section size and shape, shape, and size section cross in where: n =(n indication offragility, canbeseeninsomespots. first a reeds, exotic by However,colonization banks. the of collapse the avoids which channel, the of centre the to flow the diverting flow,resistanceto and effective increasingn an as acts it disturbed highly not is layer riparian the Where processes. geomorphic tense in- to leading floods infrequent by caused hydrodynamism high by characterized (Odelouca) Portugal south in stream A 1.3.1 Figure h woy iain eeain ascae with (associated vegetation riparian generally woody the is it factors, correction these all Among correction forthemagnitudeofchannelmeander ufc irregularities, surface obstructions, b +n n b bs vle o a moh straight smooth, a for value base - 1 +n n 4 creto fr vegetation, for correction - 2 +n n 3 +n 2 creto fr variations for correction - 4 ) m n 19) I the In 1997). al., et 1 creto for correction - n 3 - correction for correction - - m n 4 ) channel morphology: to LWD of contributions main following the suggest compilations Piégay,These and Kondolf2005). 1997; Gurnell, and (Piégay deflection and concentration flow through erosion, increasing channel, the scour to sediment deposition, while in other leading reaches they may places, some in banks and bed channel the armour may LWD of Accumulations processes. for (LWD) also important contributes significantly to are the geomorphic that stems explaining fluvial hydrodynamics: large woody live debris only not is It non continuousriparianlayers. in gaps some in erosion to leading zones, wake with accelerated flow and the heavy turbulence associated of areas producing trunks, the by promoted be may instability of pockets local banks, the near velocities through extreme moderate trees although Nonetheless, velocities drag. large-scale reducing as elements, act roughness trunks tree dynamics: of complexity fluvial the increases vegetation woody of pattern spacing the that and vegetation herbaceous to compared mechanisms hydraulic different very create trees that consider authors These turbulence. damping by secondarily boundary,and soil the from away velocities highest the turns which profile upwards, velocity the soil shifting by by primarily experienced surfaces, stresses shear and velocities dominance ofexoticspecies). a (with structure or diversity little exhibits or absent is vegetation tions the streams are far from dynamic equilibrium and the riparian the bend opposite a steep, very eroded outside bank. In these situa- teristically triangular at the bends, with a point on the inside of charac- are cross-sections their and loads transport sediment high have channels These systems. energetic highly such of roughness hydraulic the decreasinglayer, riparian the The affected segment. have orchards disturbed more a in stream same The 1.3.2 Figure

51 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation

7 k friction ø is generally 10 k the bulk unit weight of the of weight unit bulk the γ ø) ). -3 sin Ia cos ø x ) tan(45 + γ 1-cos(I- ø) γ 4c

bank angle and angle bank c is bank material cohesion (kPa), I

bank material (kN m a value around 0.50 and for gravel bed rivers, Hc’ = (2c/ Where Hc = In situations where extensive the failures use to appropriate more probably is need it considered, to be formula: These formulae also have the advantage that their coefficients and exponents are more in stable the previous than ones: for instance, 1986; Thorne, and (Hey 3.74 and 2.85 between varies 2005). Stewardson, Of course, the exponents and coefficients must be obtained for a specific stream can or only watershed and be extrapolated the to other substrate conditions material if or (meandering) is similar to the cases studied, because longitudinal geometry they exhibit high variation order to between facilitate access to regions. reliable field data, In the USDA (2000) published a compilation by of different authors, writings that includes coefficients and site descriptions for a wide range of situations. geographical For Stewardson (2005), reach hydraulic can be geometry efficiently described by only three hydraulic variables: surface width, formulae the of use water above, mentioned as But velocity. depth and mean requires previous long-term studies unless Restoration found in the bibliography. conditions are similar of the riparian layer often demands a quantitative assessment of bank stability. In the case of cohesive banks, the occurrence of a failure, generally along a discrete surface deep within the bank, takes place when fluvial erosion at the toe of the bank leads to very steep bank angles and the weight of the bank material exceeds the cohesive forces. The critical bank height (Hc) for given by: planar failure is angle, k10 b 0 Q t) t = 0. 11 0 t ) as a function b = k -1 can be excluded b s 3 50 Q w or (-kt)

are coefficients determined by of the hydraulic characteristics and i k k6 k9 of transport and deposition of the 50 50 50 storage, by influencing the distribution storage, by influencing the distribution D D D al complexity of channels, with k2 k5 k8 k10 k10 7 Q = a + b e Q Q b and 1 0 4 is the median bed particle size in mm 3 the elevation of the channel bed at are reach average width and depth average reach and d are is the bankfull discharge in m is the bankfull discharge 50 , is the reach average slope average is the reach is the channel bed elevation (at time 0 is the period of observations since ): = k Z S D Q a Z considerable considerable effects on the diversity of ecological habitats dynamics matter. of particulate organic fractions different Sediment power of stream Modification the dimensions and stability of increasing the the lateral river connectivity bed, of the channel with main the side channels and the riparian zone structur w regression, regression, where a assumes positive the values case in of conditions or negative ones t in b

b

------When dealing with the stability of the river channel and the surrounding riparian zone, it is often more important to predict the instance to bankfull express extreme width (w situations, for - - - d) The relationships between the flows of water and channel sediments are empirical and the and the main problem is that they require a large amount of data referring to relatively long periods. Most of the formulae are derived from the following power functions (where the parameter D a) b) c) w w = k d = k S = k Z = Z where: - for simplification). - of either mean discharge ( ), or bankfull discharge (Q

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 52 I (increasingbank river the profilein vertical creates a relations the illustrate to between the components. For instance, if the erosion aim they again, but, once frightening bit a appear may formulae These scale. (Adaptedfrom Kondolf andPiégay, 2005). Figure 1.3.3Bankstabilitycharttorelate bankstabilitytoheightandangle(onlyindicatedforsaturated conditions).Bankheightisinlog plcbe ic te al ey any n empirical on mainly rely all they since applicable universally is none but purpose, this for developed been also has equations bedload of range wide on A transport. information without complete not is stream the of knowledge the of overview simple A the Hcvaluescanbeincreased significantly. trees riparian mature with instance, riparian For vegetation. by colonisation to consider not refer do and calculations soils these that remembered be must However,it 1.3.3). (figure weight unit bulk the from height vertical critical the calculate to order in premise) dramatic most (the soils saturated consider and angles friction different for curves construct to Using the last of the above equations, it is also possible practical for required purposes. are testing laboratory or calculations no and materials local the to according variables two these for values the provide manuals Still, stable. if more course, of are, particles spherical less internal shape; their the on essentially depends of which particles, movement relative of possibility the for stand with terms These (ø). used, angle friction arehigh a value) (c materials cohesive more unless decreased be must height bank the required, is angle bank high a if that know to banks, necessary is river it rehabilitate to planning when Again, ) it decreasesit ) Hc needs to be determined, standard reference , so the bank will probablycollapse. will bank the so Hc, its critical value (ω’= value critical its power can also be related to bed particle size, defining however.materials, bed for uniform Similarly, stream appropriate more considered be must slope; equation this with decreases but particles the of size the with increases discharge) critical of values (high bed river the of stability the formula, this to According Q (Q width unit per discharge water critical the relate to Bathurst by presented relationship empirical the mind, in limitations these with (Thorne materials bed uniform in especially work, experimental and S and storedthat and and power sediments stream between relationship namely opposite generally the parameters, morphological and hydraulic these of trends longitudinal the shows 1.3.4 Figure the and turbulence displacement ofbedparticles. more induce waters shallow whereas energy, stream higher accepts it increases depth water the as character): dynamic naturally its useful streamthe of stability the about information provides(within that formula a is this again, Once sediment motion: bed initiatiate to required power the as width) bed ω c c ’ =290(D =0.15g ) withthemedianparticlesize Q are maximized. 0.5 50 D ) 1.5 50 log 1.5 S -1.12 ( /w, where ω/w, 12d (1987), which attempts which (1987), al. et D 50 ) , where disdepth , 2003). Bearing 2003). al., et D 50 is the channel the is w , isasfollows: peaks wherepeaks ω

53 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation et the rehabilitated corridor should be otection: fenced off from stock. fenced off from Pr whereas whereas control of fluvial erosion or habitats for aquatic species may be based on a narrow retention nutrient strip, or removal sediment like aspects width. greater require - These rules are not such a simple matter, especially the composition and density the width of of the vegetation intervention, since and they must specified be in much more detail for Concerning each situation. the width calculation, mentioned that such a large number it of works have should be been published, each with their respective formulae, that anyone who has to matter will firstly start feel overwhelmed by the dealing amount with this of information and will then try to seek help from outside the literature. There is this make to designed even programs computer of number a reasonable (Lowrance REMM sophisticated the like easier, task - Riparian vegetation should be Buffers should be placed on all perennial, This parameter must rely on the main Riparian buffers: guidelines for determining their width and structure depending on the conservation objectives depending on the conservation width and structure their determining for guidelines buffers: Riparian egetation: intermittent and ephemeral maximum feasible streams extent. This to means riparian that strip should the the follow the entire length of the stream, although taking into that consideration this is not possible in low order systems an important feature. or when cliffs are V Width: functions that the buffer is intended to perform: Extent: exclusively of native species in order to provide the most appropriate habitat and also to preserve genetic integrity and biodiversity. At a distance certain from the stream, accepted. harvesting may be - - - - - Reviews by Wenger (1999) and Webb and (1999) Erskine of the scientific literature in some important respects: agree on this subject - Figure Figure 1.3.4 Longitudinal variation of hydrogeomorphological features (logarithmic scale) associated with the transport and deposition of sediments and the role of riparian vegetation (modified from Church, 2002). The importance of the riparian strip is controversial, the since the part intention downstream of is catchments large to is fully the However, of in express generally rivers. role regulated this European vegetation both in upland areas, where it is associated with the input of particulate organic matter, and close to the mouth, significance for areas. owing to its

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 54 width foraslopeof1%: coefficient a with (S), strip slope percentage the riparian and metres the in (W) of width the between relation Nieswand pollutants, associated and sediments trap to strip buffer a For most European conditions. for accepted be may and objectives specific for adequate very are below described procedures the simple However, obtain. to difficult or are complex variables their and data calibrated not too or either intensive are models these Unfortunately, topographicand soil vegetation, defining conditions. quality impacts with different simulated widths, after al., 1998), which allows managers to determine water ean ntbe Rpra bfes a contribute can decisively tocontrolling stream sedimentationby: buffers Riparian unstable. remain to banks eroded causing germination, also seed may reduce sand fine and silt of accumulation high a filter-feeding vegetation, in riparian directly the or For fish acting macroinvertebrates. in as mortality causing well by as transmittance, light decreasing by productivity primary affects and bed stream the in deposited is it when invertebrates and effects on stream biota. It reduces the habitat for fish An excess of sediment can have numerous deleterious in sedimentaryareas. segments lower moreappropriatefor is previousone the with whereas streams, rivers order low in for gradients higher appropriate more is formula This the to according headstreams). 0.30 in decreases to (c conditions geologic and topographic 0.15 from ranging where W =10+c(S), conditions: most to adapt to easier is which formula, following a great number of authors for such streams gives the the limit for this relation. Information compiled from is slope % 15 a fact, In streams. order low for wide based on the width of the buffer, which is clearly too is it of criticism relation; simple a course, of is, This W =k(S S is again expressed in % and 1/2 f 5 eciig h sadr buffer standard the describing 15 of k ) (1990) proposed a direct a proposed (1990) al. et c is a coefficient - - - - - Naiman of carrying out such specific management in each zone. difficulty the and constraints topographical of because adaptation practical lacks it but pollution, non-point reducing of aim principal the with system Of course this is a good representation of a theoretical the nutrientconcentration. zone 2, which is essential for efficiency in decreasing into flows that water the of velocity the decrease to order in slope the along run-off the distributing to controlled mowing and ; its function is related with grassedstrip a is 7m, of width maximum a with is zone, third the it while removal; nutrient for designed occur; may harvesting moderate where area the second zone, up to about 25 m, is a more complex control; erosion of role the with forest undisturbed river,the by near placed is and m of composed being 5 exceed not does zone Welsch first for the areas: agricultural system by buffer riparian proposal three-zone a of the (1991) mention textbooks of number great a guidelines, vegetation Concerning of only5-10 m. possible to reach efficiencies above 80 % with widths ranging slopes in from 10 -15 % with dense riparian vegetation, it was that stressed and areas for upland specifically continents different from authors different of contributions compiled (1999) Wenger far headstreams. European is in accepted This be to strips. large too wide m 60 with obtained were efficiencies high that concluded also They removal. sediment in decrease 10% a provides 3.5 of factor a by width buffer the increasing that reported and USA the of coast east the to reference with subject Desbonnet - - - - - T Stabilizing str T flows andriverbedscour Decr T trap transported sediments. settle inthebankinsteadofriverchannel rapping large inputs of woody debris, which then which debris, woody of rappinglargeinputs they that so particles suspended the rapping rapping terrestrial sediments in the easing the velocity of sediment-bearing storm (2005) adopt the same criterion of the of criterion same the adopt (2005) al. et 19) eiwd ok o the on works reviewed (1994) al. et eambanks, sopreventing erosion

55 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation et al., 2003) and et al., 2006) deal mainly spp., Tamarix africana, Vitex et al., 2004), or for assessments in i.e. streamway zone width, and their future et al., 1997), QBR (Munné with riparian features. These last two indices were developed for the Iberian Peninsula. Whereas QBR the index does not use and deals strictly the with the condition reference of the riparian condition layer, the RQI links the state of this vegetation with the hydro-morphological characteristics of the river segment in question. Historical data should not be forgotten, Piégay however. and Saulnier (2000) used a series photos of aerial covering a period establish a map of the River Ain basin in France that of over 50 documented spatial years and temporal rates to of channel mobility in order to predict the evolution of channel shifts, consequences for the riparian forest. While mapping assess to watersheds entire across vegetation riparian satellite on progress labour, hard requires integrity its imagery is making it possible to map the degree of conservation of riparian buffers even strips. This for is possible narrow thanks to the use of satellite imagery with moderate (20 – 30 m) and very high (1 – 5 m) spatial resolution, which give additional information and make these images comparable to aerial photographs. The advent of Lidar technology, a very helpful tool based on three-dimensional laser RQI (González del Tánago (the priority is to composed reduce essentially of grasses and forbs. overland However, flow) and studies on Mediterranean areas are lacking and is even if there were no disagreement on the advisability of establishing different vegetation layers, in relatively arid areas it is more appropriate strips in to accordance with the organize water availability the and soil conditions of the site, using well-adapted local species (e.g. Juncus etc.) agnus-castus, Nerium oleander, rivers, adopting the name of Urban River Survey or URS (Davenport Mediterranean rivers (Buffagni and Kemp, 2002). In France, the SEQ-MP is probably the main technique for assessing river conservation status and has also been widely applied across the (Boon country. SERCOM et et et al., 2004). In the UK, where river et al. (2005) consider that identifying Assessing the ecological integrity of riparian habitats of riparian integrity the ecological Assessing al., 2000; Kamp quality assessment methods have been successively improved, the River Corridor Survey or RCS 1992) and the River Habitat Survey or RHS (Raven (NRA, which method, last This tools. important are 1997) al., uses a recognized reach-scale assessment technique, now covers all the geomorphological variation Britain Great and It Ireland. has also been constantly of modified to incorporate urban or heavily engineered Naiman sites is critical and is a fundamental aspect reference of assessment. Classifying riparian assemblages and riverine habitats also requires an integrated analysis of physical, chemical and biological factors. These authors compiled a summary of a large number of assessment techniques (twelve, almost all developed in the USA) but concluded that their application is sometimes questionable and that managers prefer methods. assessment rapid ‘realistic’ In Europe most of specifically for analyzing the quality the of the riparian methods used layer. However, are there not are of an increasing assessment number protocols characteristics due that to their include functioning essential role of riparian in fluvial the systems. instance, the Working In Group of Germany, the Federal States for on water issues (LAWA, 1993) laid the foundations for the development of morphological and protocols structural that features of consider the river bed and the riparian quality of zone surface when water assessing are being bodies. applied the by managers These in German speaking protocols countries and continue to be improved (Muhar 3 zones but diverge with regard to their respective sizes and functions: zone 1 should exceed 10 m and must combine bank stabilization and shading with wildlife habitat creation and nutrient removal; here selective timber harvesting may occur; designed zone to slow 2 flood waters is when the banks are inundated and to increase landscape diversity, but consists of only one or two rows of (minimum native width 3-4 zone m); 3 finally, has a similar shrubs function and size to that described by (1991) Welsch

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 56 adjacent types of land cover. Information on remote on cover.Information land of types adjacent the precise limits between riparian forest patches and demarcateto and zones buffer the in vegetation the of distribution height the map to possible it made has book), this of 5.3 chapter see information more for 2006; (Goetz, cover vegetation the of imaging techniques are notindependentanditisoftenadvisabletocombinedifferent methods. These . with combination in or before used be should that banks river reinforceeroded to proceduresused Main 1.3.1 Table described projects restoration further oninthischapter. of cases few a by forestry.and aretechniques these of illustratedMost in a number of fields such as hydrology, soils, biology experienced personnel under the guidance of experts by performed be must and panacea a considered be not should book) this in IV part and procedures of techniques (see table 1.3.1 below for the main groups these However, areas. riverine the use that and those to communities aquatic to support provide may that habitats create to and functions natural the to return a facilitate to is objective The situations. such for suitable most the are systems stabilization bank bioengineering Soil unstable. remain banks river the not possible to apply direct seeding or planting when is it that mind in bear always should management is establishment plant virtually impossible. The authorities in charge of river and occur rates failure high bank when of indispensable absolutely is This measuresrecoverythe vegetation. for riparian the of necessary any or taking to prior techniques) permanent temporary (by stabilized be to need banks the erosion, accelerated of because situations, many In ■ andplanting Characteristics ■ Techniques ■ ■ Branch packing Bank shaping Guidelines for streambank stabilization backfill. branches andcompacted andplanting followedbyplacingtopsoil bytoereinforcement and thecriticalheight,preceded sothatitdoesnotexceed ■ ■ ■ ■ Alternate layers oflive Correcting thebankslope Technical requirements Applications and normalsubmersion streambank away from ■ otherpractices levels,inconjunctionwith stream powerwithlowerosion ■ ■ ■ For eroded patchesof In streams withmoderate et al.,2004). Sickle (Van scores integrity) biotic of (index IBI like it can be related sufficiently to stream health metrics predictor of the ecological condition of streams, since good a be to proved has buffers riparian of sensing f) e) d) c) b) a) for workinthefieldtoreinforce riverbanks: rules simple few a define (1998) Boeters and Simons figures 1.3.5to1.3.8. observing by complemented be should 1.3.1 Table

Avoid outwards W Avoid nutrientinputinthestr Determine Define thenecessaryaccessr Indicate movement andautumnforseedingplanting (generallysoil work for the fromof end the for depots ti o dmgs eeain t s motn to important is preserve. it vegetation damages or strip r a mc a psil fo te channel the from possible as much as ork equipment that compacts soil in the riparian clearly the area to be improved and places in advance the most suitable period for period advance themostsuitable in Effectiveness bylocalspecies. alsoallowingcolonisation quicksoilreinforcement, vegetatedbankproviding ■ nativespecies ■ ■ ■ Rapidly establishesa Enhance colonizationof estrictions eams

57 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation Quickly establishes a Long term durability in Long term durability a natural Provides Allows colonisation by effective in Very Creates immediate Creates Besides decreasing Quickly establishes Gives high channel toe ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Effectiveness ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ thick layer of riparian thick layer of riparian vegetation, but may affect natural colonisation. moderate slopes and moderate to high stream moderate like the outside power, of bends in comparison appearance with gabions or rip rap, banks and rehabilitates that had a high soil loss vegetation, but natural high does not resist water velocities and must be combined with other bioengineering systems hydraulic increasing creating roughness, the conditions to reduce sediment and trap current protection, quickly quickly protection, riparian restoring conditions along the entire erosion conditions bank, provide soil that increase which increases humidity, the viability of rooted plants riparian vegetation and velocities stream reduces near the banks for steep banks protection other techniques where may fail Especially recommended for for Especially recommended To be used in areas subjected be used in areas To Interlocked boxes of logs applied in Can be generally For use in medium order Use above base flow levels Use above base flow levels after bank Appropriate useful in semi-arid areas More for steep appropriate More ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Applications and and Applications requirements Technical ■ high slopes excavated by the a but may require stream, stable foundation or even toe currents when strong protection frequent are ■ often after to high erosion, geotextile , previous of bank correction and where angle is difficult ■ alternating with filling layers cuttings of soil and live branch ■ low slopes; often requires bank shaping and toe protection ■ wood material where streams is available ■ threatened when banks are by high flows ■ moderate shaping where in the stabilization is required absence of high shear stress ■ or in banks with reduced sloughing ■ slopes and in high stream a power conditions, requires stable foundation; can be used only at the base of the bank Row of attached trees over Row of attached trees cuttings Live branch Interlocked boxes of logs Interlocked boxes of logs cuttings Rows of branch Tree planting along Tree baskets filled Wire-mesh material Cover of rock Continuous layer of live or or Continuous layer of live placed over fibers Natural ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ the toe of the streambank, to the base anchored ■ in alternate layers arranged perpendicular to the bank, with compacted soil placed over geotextile ■ alternating with filling of soil and live layers cuttings branch ■ evenly spaced along the slope, or only in the entire interface between the water and the bank (for low flow conditions), and partially by soil covered ■ to increase streambanks roughness hydraulic ■ with cobbles and boulders, live with soil, where covered to introduced are branches root ■ stones to boulders) (from with live stakes introduced into the openings ■ to attached dead branches, live stakes. with the ground ■ the banks and attached by dormant cuttings; staked near the toe are rolls of the bank Tree revetment revetment Tree geogrid Vegetated Live cribwall Live fascine Dormant post Dormant post gabion Vegetated or stone Riprap Brush mattress Geotextiles;. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ planting ■ ■ with toe revetment joint planting Techniques■ Characteristics ■ coconut fiber roll

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 58 goals oftheproject more precisely. the setting for useful very is survey a such Besides, the where bioengineering techniques are going to site be employed. the of limits strict the to not confined area, larger a encompass should observations area and the surrounding ecosystems. Therefore, such in order to analyse the linkages between the selected essential also is it program, monitoring a future thorough the in assessed be can interventions the of referencerelativethe the i.e. efficiency that so state, associated work make it possible to define the present the situation, field prior this and will only Not elements environment. physical biological the of inventory the appropriate an conducting from by catchment information ecological relevant gather to and scale right the define to necessary also is It vegetation. stability riparian the develop to of need the and degree banks the of different the segment, river selected the along variability natural the of account be taking spot, each to adapted but not extensively applied should structures these aspect: one important share they but case each in distinct quite are characteristics physical and objectives rehabilitation (Cortes below in table 1.3.1 have been applied are presented briefly Three cases where some of the techniques mentioned ehiusCharacteristics ■ Techniques ■ Wing deflector Applications , 2004; Boavida 2004; al., et intothechannel cuttings,thatpenetrates orofbarriers oflive ■ ■ Structure madeofboulders, , 2008). The 2008). al., et Technical requirements Applications and . produces ameandering alternatelyonbothbanks, channelled;whenarranged where thestream was especiallyinagricultural areas mediumorder streams, ■ ■ Can beusedinlowor it was necessary to control erosion, the priority was priority the erosion, control to necessary was it if even hand, other the on 1.3.6), (figure dam the of Downstream 1.3.1). table in described as bed, river and banks the stabilise to order in segment this for designed techniques multiple the of observation an for 1.3.5 figure (see required were reservoir the of catchment upstreamreaches critical most the in channel the of the enlargement the stop all to measures in that concluded problem the of appraisal species, mainly giant reed (). A laborious exotic by replaced been has vegetation native where strip riparian poor the into extend by which orchards dominated use, soil intensive by surrounded is through it Additionally, floods. flash by channel influenced river strongly running dynamic a with layers, sedimentary influences, Mediterranean typically with river a is This reservoir. supply water new a from downstream and upstream situations: contrasting two presented river same the Portugal, of south the in located Odelouca, R. firstcase, the In active needed rivers Tâmega intervention inarelatively more limitedsegment. and Estorãos the Odelouca extensive rehabilitation was River more advisable, the in while defined: be and to of rehabilitation the objectives areas the allowed and affected them around the those between deviation the showed assessment the here, presented cases the In Effectiveness diversity ofthehabitats consequently, the heterogeneity and, increasing thephysical channel,besides themiddleof andremoving themfrom sedimentsnearthebank channelbyaccumulating abilitytoconstrictthe thebankandhas ■ ■ Deflects flowawayfrom

59 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation Deflectors Deflectors and rock islands are the channel introduced to incorporate along shelters for the aquatic community. The rest channel) of will be improved (filled the with soil and bio- river degradable bed geotextile) to (former receive while several shrubs), and (reeds species hygrophylous native rows of a geotextile revetment on the original and . suitable conditions for provide banks will exotic the of material dried and cut the of Mattresses upstream the in applied extensively be will Reed Giant and downstream sections of the river, covering the banks and followed by post planting, to avoid the of this species. invasion rapid extremely Figure Figure 1.3.5 Illustration of the different techniques used to enhance the (trees river planting post dormant 28a), and channel (21a mattress in brush 17), and (16 planting and the shaping bank include They upstream layer. riparian area the improving by protecting the banks and correspond Numbers (19a). cribwall and 26) and 19b (18, rap rip vegetated (20), gabion vegetated 28b), and (21b geotextile with shrubs) and to monitoring sites along the river. to address the entirely new hydrological conditions natural of modification considerable the from arising flow regimes caused by the regulation of the river (which even made it necessary to define a minimal instream flow). Here the design included modifying channel new meandering a out laying by bed river the in a segment where the river had been progressively excavating the river banks. The purpose was to allow a reasonable water depth in conditions order for to the create threatened the fish populations complete their life cycle (two species are endemic to to this region). This new channel is stabilized by rock rolls or gabion rolls, flexible “sausages” of local rock material in netting nylon to or which wire plant rolls are fixed or in which soil and seeds are introduced.

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 60 the result of previous sand and gravel extraction, the In the artificial of the river Tâmega (figure 1.3.8), rock ripraps andgabions. the in planting joint or vegetation native of stakes live using by achieved structureswas artificial the of mitigation Visual planting. by followed shaping bank wing deflectors and organic fibre rolls, besides simple toe protection to a complete rip rap revetment), stone different types of rip rap (variable height: from stone gabions, namely segment, river the along detected techniques different were combined heterogeneity, according to physical the instability the increase and and (Lamprey) impact visual fish the decrease to order In migratoryTrout. Brown of spawning affecting the also was which bed, river the in fines of deposition the avoiding towards and vegetation of establishment subsequent the towards step first the was This exceeded. be to banks the of height critical result of previous bottom dredging which caused the was designed to consolidate the collapsing banks, the 1.3.7) (figure Estorãos river the in intervention The supported bypostwalls. terracescreating correctedby is slopes bank the of gradient the downstreamsection, narrower the In banks. original the near trees riparian to soil) of deposition the requires (which channel wet the to next shrubs channel; and excavated plants herbaceous the from defined, edge are layers to riparian differentrolls rock uses procedure 8-11).This sites (in reservoir the from coming flow reduced the contain to part over-wide the in channel flow low sinuous procedurecreatea a to with banks stabilize to techniques soil-bioengineering of combination a Figure 1.3.6 Design of the techniques to improve the downstream section of R. Odelouca, which will be affected by flow regulation. There is unchanged. preservedstill and naturalits remainedit vegetation, was not seriously affected by the extraction activities and the alteration of the soil cover. As the right bank heaps soil a of accumulation the suffered from impact greater had and visitors to offers accessibility it better as focused, priorities rehabilitation term short the where was This bank). (left rehabilitation for chosen area main the along used procedures the illustrates 1.3.8 Figure layer. a riparian with diverse more appearance bank natural a for the conditions creating and weeds cutting previous activities, of human remains the removing preferred, improvement was habitat extensive areas visitors. other of the pressure In the from them protect to or the spots were it was necessary to stabilize the banks to limited strictly was structures disruption. artificial of use The habitat radical of because species fish exotic of dominance a showed inventory the Also, activities.. recreational favour to was objective main

61 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation Examples of the mixed techniques used for rehabilitation along one of the banks of the widened channel of the River Tâmega. River the of channel widened the of banks the of one along rehabilitation for used techniques mixed the of Examples 1.3.8 Figure 1. and to rip establishment upstream: rap of downstream sods 2. and and From rip joint grasses; rap planting; 3. post wall: 4. toe and rip rap bank shaping covered with grass; 5. toe rip rap and branch mattress (with live stakes); 6 and 7. weed cutting and removal of soil heaps; 8. area. recreational Distribution of selected stream bank stabilisation techniques along the target segment of River Estorães (about 1 km). The use use The km). 1 (about Estorães River of segment target the along techniques stabilisation bank stream selected of Distribution 1.3.7 Figure gabions) (soft geogrids vegetated with shaping bank and deflectors wing planting, joint with rap rip of forms different gabions, vegetated of may be observed.

The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 62 Proc. 1stFederal Interagency Hydrologic ModellingConference Zones. Riparian in Processes Ecological for Simulator Model: ment JM, Thomas DL, Hubbard RK (1998) The Riparian Ecosystem Manage- Sheridan DD, SP,Bosch Imadar RG, Williams LS, Altier RL, Lowrance schaft Land- freien der in Fließgewässern mittelgroße und kleine für wurf Verfahrensent- Deutschland. Bundesrepublik Gewässer- der strukturgütekarte Die (1993) (LAWA) Wasser Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft ester, UK Kondolf GM, Piégay H (2005) Tools in Geomorphology. Wiley, Chich- in Habitat River of Assessment (2004) Brandenburg Germany. Limnologica 34:176-186 K Holzl R, Bock U, Kamp for RiverEngineeringandManagement.Wiley, Chichester Morphology River Applied (eds). MD Newson RD, Hey CR, Thorne In: Lawler DM, Thorne CR, Hooke JM (1997) Bank erosion and instability. Journal ofHydraulic Engineering112:671-689 beds. gravel mobile with channels Stable (1986) CR Thorne RD, Hey la Directiva Marco delAgua.IngenieríaCivil143:97-108 Índice RQI para la valoración de las riberas fluviales en el contexto de (2006) R Garilleti F Lara D, Jalón de García M, Tánago del González tion 42:133-143 WaterResourcesAssocia- American the of futureprospects.Journal Goets SJ (2006) Remote sensing of riparian buffers: past progress an of Rhode Island University Bibliography. and Review Summary A Zone: in Coastal Buffers Vegetated (1994) N Wolf V, Lee P, Pogue A, Desbonnet Applications and Research River 20:687-704 rivers. urban of and classification survey Habitat (2004) Armitage.PD AM, Gurnell J, Davenport tional SymposiumofEcohydraulics, 658-662.IAHR,Madrid Portugal. In: García Jalón D, Vizcaíno Martínez P (eds). Fifth Interna- North in studies case two systems: lentic and lotic of rehabilitation the in techniques bioengineering of use the for approaches Dif- ferent (2004) LFS Fernandes JM, Lourenço DG, Oliveira RMV, Cortes landscapes. riverine in Freshwater Biology47:541-557 thresholds Geomorphic (2002) M Church South-European Rivers. JournalofLimnology61:199-214 Kingdom: addenda for the application of the River Habitat Survey in Buffagni A, Kemp JL (2002) Looking beyond the shores of the United Edinburgh Freshwater (eds). DL Quality: DefiningtheIndefinable,299-326.TheStationeryOffice, Howell PJ, Boon In: function. and structure Development, (SERCON): conservation for rivers evaluating for tem Boon PJ, Holmes NTH, Maitland PS, Rowell TA, Davies J (1997) A sys- pean Centre forRiverRestoration of the 4th International Conference on River Restoration. Euro- Proceed- Portugal). (southern stream Mediterranean a in bilitation T Ferreira A, (2008) PinheiroUsing a two dimensional approach to evaluate channel reha- R, Cortes J, Santos JM, Lourenço I, Boavida Sediment Transport in Gravel-bed Rivers, 453-477. Wiley, Chichester (eds). RD Hey JC, Bathurst CR, Thorne In: rivers. mountain steep for equations discharge load Bed (1987) HH Cao WH, Graf JC, Bathurst References of Georgia Buffer Width, Extent and Vegetation. Institute of Ecology, University Riparian on Literature Scientific the of Review A (1999) S Wenger ment Conference (Adelaide)2:683-689 Manage- Stream Australian Second the of Proceedings (eds), R tley of rehabilitation riparian vegetation the in southeastern Australia. In: Rutherfurd ID, for Bar- Guidelines (1999) WD Erskine AA, Webb ice Protection and Enhancement for of Water Resources. USDA Forest Design Serv- and Function Buffer: Forest Riparian (1991) DJ Welsch tions 14:388-380 Applica- Ecological use. land human of scenarios alternative under P, Haggerty streams of condition biological S, the Projecting (2004) Gregory J Li P,Ashkenas, Bayley A, Herlihy J, Baker J, Sickle Van (Online URLhttp://www.usda.gov/stream_restoration) Group. Working Restoration Stream Interagency Federal Practices. and Processes Principles, Restoration: Corridor Stream (2000) USDA Research Letters 30(20):Art.No.2028. Geophysical ripples. vortex above entrainment sediment intrawave Thorne PD, Davies AG, Williams JJ (2003) Measurements of near-bed of Hydrology 306:97-111 Stewardson M (2005) Hydraulic geometry of stream reaches. Journal fining theindefinable?TheStationeryOffice,Edinburgh habitat quality. In: Boon PJ, Howell DL (eds). Freshwater Quality: De- Habitat Survey: a new system for classifying rivers according to their River (1997) FH Dawson NTH, Holmes EverardM, PJA, Fox PJ, Raven ference, NewZeland applied to the French gravel bed rivers: Proc. Gravel Bed Rivers Con- concept streamway,management The a (2000) D Saulnier H, Piégay phology 19:99-116 phogical pattern: examples from S.E. France and S.England. Geomor- geomor- river and debris woody Large (1997) AM Gurnell H, Piégay Rehabilitation ofRivers. Wiley ecologically sound river bank management. In: to de Waal L, Wade M, Large approach A (eds). systematic A (1998) R Boeters J, Simons Geomorphology. R&DTechnical Report FD1914, DEFRA,London Sear DA, Newson MD, Thorne CR (2003) Guidebook of Applied Fluvial recommendations. Water Resources Bulletin26:959-966 S Blarr BB, Chavooshian and model reservoirs:A supply protectwater to strips Buffer (1990) TB, Shelton RM, Hordon GH, Nieswand ods andProcedures. ConservationTechnical Handbook1.Bristol National Rivers Authority (NRA) (1992) River Corridor Surveys. Meth- Am- sterdam Elsevier, Riparia. (2005) ME McClain H, Décamps RJ, Naiman Freshwater Ecosystems13:147-163 and : Aquatic index. QBR streams: and rivers in habitat riparian of quality ecological the assessing for method field simple A (2003) M Rieredevall N, Bonada C, Solá N, Prat A, Munné Applications inAustria.Hydrobiologia 422/423:343-358 and Approach Methodological Quality: Habitat Good with Rivers of Identification (2000) M Jungwirth S, Schmutz M, Schwarz S, Muhar

63 The importance of geomorphology in setting the rules for riparian rehabilitation 64 2 Biodiversity Descriptors. Rivers as Ecological Corridors et al., 1990; Angelstam, 1996; , 2002). There is an urgent is an urgent There et al., 2002). et al., 1998). Panayotis Dimopoulos Dimopoulos Panayotis Stamatis Zogaris an ecotone, an “ecological boundary” between the difficult especially is it realms, aquatic and terrestrial to create classification criteria to identify riparian types and their boundaries. In a riparian zone strict with its adjacent sense, stream is sometimes the not considered a distinct self-regulating ecosystem with recognisable boundaries (Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Riparian zones are often conceived of as a This chapter provides a concepts concerning riparian review placed vegetation is Emphasis and woodlands. of flora, riparian on focus a fundamental with on riparian woodlands since they epitomise natural riparian woody vegetation over most of Europe and are considered one of the most vulnerable riparian zone features. Goodwin, 1999). Due to their patchy and frequently “disturbed” vegetation formations, practitioners conservation must management problems. cope neglect have very often led to mismanagement. Misunderstanding with and complicated Natural riparian considered vegetation one of communities disturbed and the threatened natural are most habitat types in Europe. anthropogenically Over 90% of the have already been large modified by river or floodplains have been cultivated and are therefore considered “functionally extinct” (Tockner and Stanford, 2002). Some types of riparian vegetation have been altered so much that they are difficult to imagine in their natural state (Wenger 1998). Chytry, In many parts of Europe and on other continents also, important small relics areas of protected official from away exist often forests riparian and are very vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures (Hughes, 2003; Natta need to preserve existing intact riparian woodlands and to speed up a pan-European effort to native restore riparian vegetation continent (Tabacchi along rivers on this et et al., et al., 1999; et al., 2005). et al., 1989). et al., 2000). One of the et al., 2005). Understanding Attributes and definitions Attributes Introduction One of the most perplexing issues in river ecology involves the precise definition and delineation riparian zones and their associated vegetation (Verry of et al., 2004). Although important progress has been made during the last two universally accepted decades, delineation criteria for there riparian are no vegetation (Baker, 2005; Since Naiman riparian zones are usually considered part of A remarkable number of recent have proven scientific the outstanding importance of riparian studies vegetation for maintaining a rich biodiversity and distinctive (Tockner and Ward, al., 1999; 2000; Décamps Poiani and Décamps, 2002). vegetation features Riparian have often been called “linear oases” since they harbour conditions found scarce nowhere else in resources the surrounding and landscape (González-Bernáldez Especially in open landscapes, the native non-wooded riparian woodland maintains or (SNW, extent” its to proportion of out importance “an agricultural termed been have zones riparian Furthermore, 2000). for conduits as serve which zones” transition “critical substantial fluxes of materials and energy between both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Ewel 2001). These dynamic transitional zones and their distinctive vegetation provide important “ecosystem services” ranging from nutrient filtering to flood- protection (Naiman zones riparian in dynamics vegetation region-specific is critical for making generalisations to transferable management, (Middleton, 1999; Nilsson and Svedmark, 2002). conservation and restoration The scientifically-based management vegetation is of not a simple procedure. Riparian zones riparian most complex the biosphere’s “among considered are ecological systems” (Naiman and conserve to striving when encountered problems manage riparian zones is that they are often heterogeneous, unstable systems, difficult very to classify into predictable systemic entities (Bunn VEGETATION AND FLORA FLORA AND VEGETATION ZONES OF RIPARIAN

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 66 eieto o rpra zns n ter vegetation their and zones riparian of delineation practical for definition operational comprehensive A specific definitionswillprobably persist. structured; hierarchically hence, slightly differing region-specific and purpose- and multidisciplinary their vegetation classifications are today increasingly and zones Riparian 2002). Décamps, and Décamps 1981; Tendron, and (Yon vary definitions particular frequent throughout the latter half been of the last century, but has the languages European various in termed riparian, alluvial, variously gallery or (often riverine woodlands) woodlands river-side to Reference communities. vegetation particular define to been used recently rather only has “riparian” word the even and evolving still are definitions zone Riparian river-side features (Gregory recognisable and unique harbouring systems” “open as and of conceived be may distinctive and properties recognisable have zones these however, meet; environments different where zone transition mixed definition presumably does not include the stream’s the include not does presumably definition and by the ability of soils to hold water”. This generic flooding or tables water elevated by influenced be may vegetation where uplands, the water the towards high marks and encompasses low the zone between channel stream riparian vegetation specific “the to qualities: reference a includes also following which zones riparian the lotic of definition give much-cited (1997) Décamps and Naiman Riparian zonevegetation Evolving definitions et al., 1991). Despite these delineation ofriparianwoodlands. the guide to definition practical a and zone riparian are of approachdefinition vegetation-based broad a below: given management a for definitions Two 2004). (Verry estimation resource and delineation definition, successively factors: continuum important three conceptual encompassing a follow to strive should zone riparian of concept practical the perspective, management a from vegetation riparian with working rememberwhen to that important is It scheme. delineation vegetation riparian the of needs specific lotic environment and the specific purpose or region- the of understanding our from derive must Naiman, 1998;AguiarandFerreira, 2005). 1988; (Harris, well-designed are investigations when management and inventory for effective are types zone riparian of delineations and definitions specific region- descriptive certain discrepancies, conceptual h etn o hgohtc eeain NC 2002;Décamps andDécamps,2002; Baker, 2005). (NRC, vegetation hygrophytic of influence extent the and uplands adjacent their water with connect bodies hydrology subsurface and surface wide acceptance since it defines riverside areas where gained has definition This 2.1.1). figure (see channel active the as defined usually is that area the – edge aquatic portion although it does include the stream’s t al., et

67 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones of the stream’s active channel (Stromberg, The 1997). first perennial woody vegetation that forms a lineal band of vegetation near the water’s edge can be denoted by an imaginary line which we will call the “woody greenline” (a concept Winward, modified 2000). from The where realm terrestrial upland the riparian towards landwards woodland extends topography and soil dryness exclude the dominance of hygrophytic vegetation; where the the true terrestrial vegetation begins defines lineal boundary an imaginary “woody “Woody brownlines” are much brownline” easier to delineate in (figure 2.1.1). semi-arid or agricultural landscapes, although even in forest landscapes vegetation changes are strongly influenced by soil wetness and Of course, microtopography. these two linear conceptual boundaries may often be fuzzy; but for practical definition and inventory purposes they could be useful guides, as Winward’s (2000) much-cited approach has shown et al., 2004). (Verry Riparian woodland Riparian Figure Figure 2.1.1 Sketch of the ‘riparian ecotone’ and the streamside ‘riparian woodland zone’, which is a active channel. component to the river’s proximity woody vegetation and by its topographic of defined by the dominance of hygrophilous this ecotone and is It has become important recognisable usually and distinctive to the for definition focus on a (Verry river or stream specific a to adjacent vegetation woody et al., 2004). Riparian woodland has often been used Hunter example, for zone; riparian the delimit help to (1990) refers to the riparian zone as “the conversely and influence significant a has band that forest of is significantly influenced by the Therefore, stream”. should woodland or forest riparian a that suggest we be dominated by hygrophytic and woody should vegetation interact with surface waters through and a subsurface strong functional and structural waterbody. with its adjacent lotic relationship In order to create an that criteria use to important is it woodland, riparian operational delineation of are easily and practically assessed on the Riparian woodlands usually ground. create streamside bands of woody vegetation (dominated by trees and high ), usually beginning at the immediate edge

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 68 (Salix trees broadleaved these, Of life-forms. over-story as dominate and riparian woodlands of structure the determine plants Woody diverse structurally and vegetation (Nilssonetal.,2002; Baker, 2005). distinctive floristically most the hold often woodlands riparian landscape, surrounding the to compared vegetation; terrestrial considerably in structure and function from adjacent et al., 2004). Most importantly, this vegetation differs (Bohn damaged if rapidlyregenerate can or damage are They permanent without events flood such survive to able autumn. and summer the in periods dry summer,early and winter,and the spring in flooding example, for inundation; to due changes frequent with levels water in fluctuation as substantial as flow well water from stress mechanical to are adapted floodplains on zones riparian of communities plant and plants Most season. growing least the of at part for depth by rooting within saturated riparian dominated is soil since usually species hygrophilous is characteristic vegetation Riparian disturbances. or conditions environmental particular to sensitive are that composed assemblages are characteristic of zones riparian rapidly result, a change As they occupy. space to the to regard capacity with and time the over both part, very in have, includes heterogeneous vegetation assemblages. These vegetation formations floristically usually and physiognomically vegetation Riparian and managingtheseareas. planning researching, in floristic important are the identifying assemblages so for zones, riparian used characterizing and often are —especially species— plants woody riparian above, mentioned As in mild-winterMediterranean areas. stands forming sometimes or companions as usually found, are hardwoods evergreen or mountains) the in and Europe of north the (in rarely,conifers more Prunus Riparian vegetation andfloral characteristics The vegetation spp. and Quercus , Ulmus spp., , Fraxinus spp., spp.) are the most frequent; , Alnus spp., spp., spp., the southernBalkans(seefigure 2.1.2). of rivers many in gradient longitudinal the Plane of part Oriental as such orientalis (Platanus species this, of 2001); (Stromberg, because variability flow water surface great with coping of capable very are species These (Dawson andEhleringer, 1991). channel river adjacent just the in not water surface the availability, on groundwater on species rely hygrophilous which are they phreatophytic; are (Platanus Planes as such species riparian some dependent on availability. For areexample, composition plants woody all not species but action areas, riparian plant within water the and affect drastically availability water Evidently, formations (Ellenberg, 1988). (Salix-Populus) -Poplar than ground flooded woodland can only develop on higher, less-frequently (Quercus-Ulmus-Fraxinus) -Elm-Ash species-rich The river. the along band vegetation particular a in type forest determine may alone flooding prolonged and poplar particularly, include, these species inundation; of tree periods long few very survive a can and only themselves example, For establishing persisting. to suited most that species are those act select to filter that ecological an constraints as zones. create riparian conditions in Riverside life to adaptations particular possess species river’s these the above, mentioned with As fringes. associated table water high and conditions humid the exploit that species specialist include woodlands riparian of plants Characteristic al., 2004). (Bohn characteristic also are tops tree the to up grow sometimes that lianas areas, warm and humid morein floodplains For forests soils. nutrient-rich on floodplain deciduous of aspect spring (early) the in regularly are present. The geophytes latter play an important role, particularly and Hemicryptophytes Under-story plant assemblages are also often diverse. Alnus Mdltn 19) I ti way, this In 1999). (Middleton, ae ieped ln a major a along widespread are ) willow Populus, Salix spp) et

69 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones valley features which cause frequent and microclimate, which also vary with use riparian areas as migration corridors. As rivers often flow through alpine species along their corridors; they transport different , species are frequently found in river corridors at much lower elevations. As a result, riverine riparia diversity floristic region’s a for places gathering are (Nilsson and Svedmark, 2002). Climate altitude affected and and by relief are topography to floodplains). gorges from (e.g. ranging Upland geomorphologic disturbances in riparian zones, such as landslides, mud flows which and in avalanches, turn create heterogeneity successional stages (Naiman, 1998). and re-set Plants

Species-richness varies in rivers, usually following a longitudinal pattern, from the . the Ward and colleagues headwaters (2001) provide to a longitudinal generalisation identifying three broad types of fluvial units includes: richness patterns. This generalisation and their relative species- 4) 5) 6) Many specialist hygrophilous species in can the semi-aquatic endure conditions found in wetlands, within riparian zones. commonly present which are On the indicator basis wetland of species the plant sites, probability wetland that in a survive species will values have been developed (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). For example, a simple North American system five into species plant riparian places 1996) FWS, (US the with gradient wetland-upland a along categories following categories: Obligate Wetland, Facultative (for Upland Upland, Facultative Facultative, Wetland, an application see Baker 2005). et al., 2005; Nilsson and variation: environmental gradients surface and ground water flow regimes; s – lack adaptations to specific disturbanc s – produce large numbers of wind and ers – resprout after breakage or burial of al variation adjacent to the river: variations et al., 2005; Naiman isters – withstand flooding for long periods Species-rich transitional zones zones transitional Species-rich varying along an gression; upstream-downstream they pro- vary and elevation, stream riparian relief, zone size and in effect dynamics. depending on in micro-topography and geomorphology, and soils groundwater levels; this is usually the result a both forming movements channel river lateral of mosaic and a of micro-zoning vegetation patterns with different disturbance histories and different and regressions. successional progressions these mainly create the remarkable spatial of riparia. heterogeneity temporal and Later Longitudinal Flooding, types (i.e. habitat do not survive). unfavourable individuals germinating in an either the stem or roots by floods or after being by ; browsed Res season; during the growing Avoider Invader water-disseminated propagules alluvial habitats; that colonize Endur

3) Svedmark, 2002). This species richness is explained mainly by the following: 1) 2) Depending on the vegetation formations are often several times richer geographic aquatic or region, terrestrial surrounding in found those than riparian habitats and usually harbour restricted specialised to these species riverine (Sabo semi-terrestrial areas c) d) On the basis of their ecological strategies in riparian zones, riparian plant species can be classified into and Décamps, 1997): four major types (Naiman a) b)

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 70 o noprt tee no lsiiain schemes classification into these incorporate to made been have attempts and and 1999) (Montgomery, hydrologic both processesgeomorphologic patterns vegetation shape that recognized classification methods advanced More 1988). Dister, 1979; (Chessel, availability water with primarily in associated described weregradients, lateral and longitudinal strong to relation patterns vegetation riparian Later 1970). history (Carbiener, vegetation riparian natural varied many of distinctiveness the and delineate helped “uniqueness’ descriptions stands the remnant to given of was attention Much 1977). Smittenberg, and Gradstein de 1964; (Van Winckel, units phytosociological on based were and usually descriptive and simple were woodlands riparian of classifications plant-based most Initially, goals (Aronson etal.,1995;Ferreira etal.,2002). for ecological assessment and for building restoration important especially is which process a conditions, reference type-specific describe to able be to order Tabacchi vegetation patterns and processes (Ward a to riparian- fundamental then of understanding and theoretical relations empirical to on move to research for order in crucial is Classification 1992). Ferreira in- specific more ventory and classification systems (Pettit for need a generated has ment manage- vegetation riparian to attention Increased c) b) in increase an shows which unit river ained a)

most temperate rivers, species richness is usually is richness species rivers, temperate most a richness; and, a biodiversity downstream; constr Conceptual generalizations concerning riparian woodland classifications rie rvr nt ih eaiey o species low relatively with unit river braided eneig ie ui wt hg dvriy In diversity. high with unit river meandering , 2001; Goodwin, 1999; Leonard 1999; Goodwin, 2001; al., et 19) Casfcto i as vtl in vital also is Classification 1998). al., et et al., 2001; et al., 2001; et al., et ou o rltosis o itcrlvn physical environmental factors. biotic-relevant to relationships on schemes focus valuable most the systems, classification (Schwabe, landscape” the Corbacho 1989; of relatively part a homogenous “spatially- within communities considers plant associated that region- classification a specific complexes”, “vegetational mapping of Related to this is a plant-based classification method (Harris, 1988). to order types valley in stream-vegetation distinctive delineate features geomorphologic and types community plant natural combined areas riparian 1999). One effective classification scheme for natural patterns at the landscape scale (Forman, 1995; Harris, canopy vegetation and is a better integrator of long-term over-storey of combination under-storey vegetation, although the over-storey or a on or storey over- the on primarily based is types community of vegetation natural potential (Swanson the or vegetation) (actual composition floristic present defined the by is either type community Plant 1998). Naiman, 1988, as (Ellenberg, unit classification fundamental the type community riparian plant on use patterns based vegetation systems classification Several Aguiar etal.,2005). Coller van 1985; Osterkamp, and (Hupp Nilsson andSvedmark2002). 1994; Tabacchi, and (Décamps wetlands) riparian be lowland (i.e. may richer or reaches)braided (i.e. poorer habitats river certain natural although in formations, reaches middle the in higher 98 Cyr, 98. Stratification 1998). Chytry, 1988; al., et 20) A wt ohr biotic other with As 2003). al., et 1997; al., et

71 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones Figure 2.1.2 Generalization of natural longitudinal change in the major streamside hygrophilous tree species along the rivers Acheloos and Alfios, Western Greece. The lower mid-courses and lowlands harbour the largest number of hygrophilous woody species, since riverine flood- plain habitats are much larger here and large karstic springs produce large perennial flows and rich wetlands. Note the dominance and wide distributional breadth of a phreatophyte, the Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis).

Generalizations about water flow types in riparian areas

Simple examples of attempts to categorise stream In most cases, only perennial and intermittent types and their riparian zones have often concentrated streams can support riparian vegetation that behaves on the river’s surface water flow typology (Uys and as functioning riparian vegetation communities. O’Keeffe, 1997; Ward et al., 2001; Hansen, 2001). Although water does flow down ephemeral streams Riparian vegetation is often important in highlighting (e.g. storm water), the water table is usually not the distinctiveness of three hydrographically very sufficiently close to the soil surface to allow different stream types, perennial, intermittent and hygrophilous vegetation to access the greater quantity ephemeral (figure 2.1.3), which have long been of water it needs to grow. Vegetation growing along mapped and inventoried in relation to stream ephemeral streams may be more densely structured, ecosystem types (Leopold, 1994; Gordon et al., or grow more vigorously, but generally there are no 2004). Perennial streams have visibly flowing surface dramatic differences in composition compared to the

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones water throughout the year. Intermittent streams are surrounding upland vegetation. There are exceptions more variable and are typically without water in to this, as has become evident from many relative the drier months. Water appears on the streambed studies (Radabaugh et al., 2004) which lead to the only during the wetter season or for prolonged conclusion that the distinction between ephemeral periods after precipitation events. This occurs and intermittent streams should be primarily based because underground water is sufficiently close to on the hydrological regime and secondarily on the the soil surface to rise above the surface after being vegetation. In a seasonally-arid climate where dryland recharged by precipitation. Therefore, intermittent rivers dominate, the duration of surface water flow streams have an important connection with ground usually sets the level of environmental harshness water; in contrast, ephemeral streams usually do (Giller and Malmqvist, 1998), so this distinction is not. This creates distinct hydrological and vegetation important and usually plays an extremely important characteristics that usually help in distinguishing role in the riparian zone’s natural vegetation intermittent streams from ephemeral streams. composition. 72 Figure 2.1.3 Generalised scheme of perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams and associated woody flora. Modified from Baker (2005).

Perpetual Succession

Many researchers have attempted to group riparian Typically, the vegetation of riparian areas usually plant assemblages and relate them to environmental includes a range of successional stages. When factors (Haslam, 1987; Szaro, 1990; Aguiar et al., human activities influence and confound natural 2000). Often, many of these attempts are confounded disturbances, the patterns encountered in riparian by frequent spatio-temporal changes in these vegetation communities may be multiplied or, in communities, related to a multitude of successional vivid contrast, a depauperated, simplified, species- patterns (Barker et al., 2002). The frequent natural poor vegetation may result (Décamps et al., 1988). changes in riparian zones create conditions that The characteristics of riparian vegetation also vary have been called “perpetual succession” (Campbell with the areal extent of the river systems: small and Green, 1968). There are still varying views of riverine areas beside intermittent streams are the role and significance of successional patterns usually less diverse than along larger rivers. Typically, in riparian systems and researchers are still probing riparian zones frequently also contain wetland the importance of ecosystem-level processes versus habitats, which may be termed floodplain or riparian population-level processes (Mitsch and Gosselink, wetlands, creating a variety of aquatic and semi- 1993; Middleton, 1999). As mentioned above, this aquatic environments such as ponds, reed-beds and dynamism is largely responsible for the remarkable forests within the riparian zone (Mitsch and environmental heterogeneity of riparian zones. Gosselink, 1993).

Is riparian vegetation wetland vegetation?

In the recent past riparian zones were considered Décamps, 2002; NRC, 2002; Baker 2005). It has long types of wetland habitat (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993, been known that it is often very difficult to construct Swanson et al., 1988; Cowardin et al., 1979; Johnson, precise boundaries between a wetland and a riparian 1978). In recent years, in most inventories and zone, since there is so much overlap, and real-world reviews, riparian zones are considered to be distinct are often super-complex broad boundaries from wetlands, although differences from wetlands (Minshall et al. 1983; Verry et al., 2004). Certain are not easily defined (Innis et al., 2000; Décamps and classifications that target wetlands in particular will Vegetation and flora of riparian zones and flora Vegetation 73 et al., ., 2007). et al., 2007). straightforward, straightforward, due to the inherent heterogeneity of forms that Understanding riparian fundamental using or models conceptual biotic-environmental building vegetation and relationships may take. (such as surface parameters environmental surrogate useful making in aid can patterns) flow regime water usually more isolated in space, rarely linear, often circular or most oblong in shape, and usually show more patchiness than riparian zones (Innis 2000). Irrespective of how similar or different they may be, however, for many years now wetlands and riparian areas have been treated both in very terms of differently management and in conservation policy (NRC, 2002). typical wetland types have been In the object of more numerous management cases, interest than riparian areas since they many are more “aquatic” or more “freshwater” systems or policy conservation strict with associated directly are and/or protected lotic areas (Silk and Ciruna, 2005). Since wetlands and riparian zones closely are related entities, it is important to use our understanding of possible best their for systems transitional these both “keystone similar as function both since conservation, habitats” in the landscape (DeMaynadier and Hunter, 1997). upstream-downstream upstream-downstream et al., 1999). As mentioned and ) are dominated by dominated are swamps) and marshes Environmental factors affecting riparian vegetation affecting riparian factors Environmental Simplified conceptual view of wetland versus a typical riparian zone, showing the close relationship between these two related related two these between relationship close the showing zone, riparian typical a versus wetland of view conceptual Simplified 2.1.4 Figure Zogaris zones; semi-aquatic wetland habitats usually exist within the wider riparian zone (from transitional The vegetation that has develops complex in riparian relationships river basin, river region, scales: varying at parameters with zones multiple abiotic segment and site (Bunn above, generalizing about the distribution and extent and distribution the about generalizing above, not is unit landscape a or region a over areas riparian of obviously continue to include riparian zone habitats (Middleton, 1999). But even the with though association strong wetlands a have both and zones riparian hydrologic regime and both occupy a fuzzy border- there realms, terrestrial and aquatic the between line them. between differences several are Riparian zones usually vegetation support assemblages and semi-terrestrial wetlands in differ their characteristic from spatial disturbance attributes, most regimes, community (Innis organization et al., 2000). Wetland hydrologic setting, (e.g. habitats and semi-aquatic and aquatic vegetation. Most typical wetlands are usually inundated for longer periods of time. Riparian vegetation differs spatially, being characteristically linear and often well-connected in response in patterns distinctive showing form, linear a to longitudinal gradients (i.e. differences). Wetland vegetation formations are

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 74 a) zones: three characteristic general attributes seen in riparian produce help mechanisms specific their and These drivers feedback. system with other each influence often therefore and interdependently 2.1.5). work four All (figure biogeography and geomorphology, hydrology, climate, are these 2002); Svedmark, and (Nilsson vegetation zone vegetational riparian of major characteristics the affect drivers” “system or factors environmental overriding four least at that surmised be can It management. for generalisations the (i.e. systems river temporary distinctive and in some extreme cases the arid conditions create basins river European southern many in conditions leeward side of mountains locally create seasonally-semi-arid the on areas rain-shadow as such effects Climatic types. flow river of behaviour specific the climate-driven the of hydrological component cycle is stream key flow, which directly A affects 1998). riparian Malmqvist, and (Giller scale affecting basin river at vegetation processes many influence may climate energy, vegetation and water of source a of As structure. determinant the is broad-scale and ultimate cycles hydrological local sets Climate from NilssonandSvedmark(2002). hydrologic, geomorphologic and climatic drivers, and how they relate to particular mechanisms which affect them at various scales. Modified biogeographic, their by governed are which zones riparian of characteristics basic three showing model conceptual Simplified 2.1.5 Figure

eeeain n dgnrto poess seen in rivervalleys(Middleton,1999;Sakio,1997). processes degeneration and regeneration P reul ucsin te ope vegetational complex the – succession erpetual Climate ramblas novd n hpn te om ht riparian that form the shaping communities take. mechanisms in environmental involved the of explanation brief a with below, reviewed are drivers system The c) b) to intermittentlyflowingrivers. contrast in vegetation, riparian of zone broader and better-developed a have to expected be can flows perennial with Rivers2002). environments Décamps, and (Décamps type Mediterranean or seen semi-arid behaviour in hydrologic harsh flashy the than predictable more and simple are that stable systems river remarkably create may conditions climatic cases, other In streams. intermittent and ephemeral in common be may behaviour torrential although torrents, alpine with confused be to not are rivers (Salinas Spain) in

2002) land-water the (Naiman, interface of heterogeneity biophysical Species-rich et al.,2001; Scott (Ward vertical and lateral longitudinal, pathways: Fluvial aha efcs te he dimensional three the – effects pathway ctn efc cetd y the by created effect ecotone , 00. hs temporary These 2000). al., et et al.,1996) t al. et Robinson 2005, al. et

75 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones large geomorphologic features, such as new channels new as such features, geomorphologic large and riparian wetlands; minor floods affect individual plant species (figure 2.1.6.). Therefore the hydrology, shape to known is regime, flow surface the especially the successional evolution and ecological processes affecting riparian plant communities (Nilsson and Svedmark, 2002). Water availability is critical to hygrophilous plants, that is, plants which are adapted to relatively high or continuous high soil moisture content. It usually shows remarkable temporal and spatial variability. Temporally, water availability complete drowning during high-water conditions to may range absence. water total of conditions during desiccation form both flow, water with associated is availability Water with and flow, of permanence and flooding of height the locally-prevailing geological and soil conditions. Although the surface water’s action is during floods, prominent riparian zones are connected to the linkages through largely water river resources basin’s to groundwater. 1997). Running water shapes et al., Hydrology Figure Figure 2.1.6 Simplified conceptual model showing three basic characteristics of riparian zones which are governed by their biogeographic, Modified scales. various at them affect which mechanisms particular to relate they how and drivers, climatic and geomorphologic hydrologic, Nilsson and Svedmark (2002). from The flow regime is considered the grand structuring force in river systems and greatly affects vegetation (Poff riparian the form of the river environment; due to its spatial size, the affects ultimately it variability, temporal and shape, structure and extent of riparian vegetation. The flow characteristics which affect the zone are riparian the following: magnitude, frequency, rate (Nilsson, permanence and timing duration, change, of and Svedmark 2002). Hydrological disturbance regimes, such as flooding, are especially important to riparian vegetation. This has recently been used as an important criterion in defining the riparian zone boundaries through the operational use of the “flood-prone et al., area” 2004). (Verry Floods of different frequencies magnitudes and affect different riverine components. and riparian A been spatio-temporal useful in hierarchy interpreting of the has riparian relative formations stability as influenced (Hughes, by 1997). flooding High-magnitude floods influence

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 76 and deposition, and in large part may be closely tied closely be may part large in and deposition, and erosion of rates the affect strongly may vegetation Woody geomporphology. also river’s the Vegetation affects greatly 1984). Hickin, 1996; Osterkamp, (Gordon vegetation riparian and processes geomorphic their landforms, fluvial fact, In riparia. thereinterdependentclose, a is relationship between in vegetation woody of patterns distribution the controlling factors important most the among areprocess and form Fluvial-geomorphic s n nertr f clgcl odtos and assist can therefore and differentscales, spatial and conditions temporal over ecological expressed pressures of anthropogenic integrator an as serves community, biotic a The as corridors. vegetation, river riparian of status conservation the of indicator important an also is vegetation Riparian of the particular species present (Aguiar and Ferreira, are characteristics life-history the disturbances) on dependent highly to resilience and patchiness as (such attributes woodland riparian the Furthermore, species pools of riparian zones (Nilsson and naturalSvedmark, 2002). the impacted greatly usually have biota the on change climatic of effects differential The area. riparian given a for pool species available the determines glaciations) (e.g. events geological by geographybarriersbiological and dispersalto caused in changes historic of influence The structure. and driver in forming the riparian vegetation composition Finally, biogeography is also an important “historical” Human alterations riparian affecting vegetation Biogeography Geomorphology , 2004; Hupp and Hupp 2004; al., et general hydrogeomorphic conditions. good indicator of specific landforms and, thus, of the a usually are accumulation. stages succession sediment vegetation Riparian assist greatly features they river since create help materials woody 1995); these Gregory, and (Gurnell debris woody coarse of provisioning its is change and stability channel to contribution vegetation’s riparian the of aspect and forms fluvial (Naiman, structures of stability overall the with up ai rsoss f h vgtto t seii and specific combined anthropogenic disturbance. to vegetation the of responses the basic of understanding practical a gain to made be Munné (Ferreira assessment environmental in (Richardson etal.,2007). regional- vegetation riparian the on consider effects biogeographic to scale important is it scales, multiple across operate vegetation the of dynamics community the that proven been long has it Since 2004). Crone, and (Holl vicinity the in areas forest other from isolation relative their and size their on fragmented depending vary may and artificially “islands” as act may they degraded are since ecosystems but riparian systems, riparian on tested (such as island biogeography) has theory not been biogeographical adequately of contribution The 2005). 2003). This is why every effort should effort every why is This 2003). al., et 2005). One very important very One 2005). al. et 2002; al., et

77 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones decreased deadwood, decreased Mediterranean, Mediterranean, has a disproportionate riparian areas because livestock effect tend to concentrate on in riparian vegetation, which provides rich water, shade, and forage (Kauffman and Krueger, a Conversely, total absence or 1984). release from ungulate grazing pressure may create habitat problems; conservation since rapid (water habitats open many of woody loss a causes plant regeneration richness species of loss overall an cause may and etc) (Benstead et al., 1999). in riparian areas The fragmentation and isolation floodplains) of embanked in (as riparian channels river their zones from or from longitudinal continuity of damming) (as is a in complex problem and the it is difficult case often to predict the effects of this degradation on riparian vegetation communities. When riparian communities are disconnected from their rivers they the to propagules plant release and receive longer no same degree and in the same amounts as in natural conditions (Nilsson and Svedmark, 2002). Riparian zones become more isolated from the surrounding landscape and overall diversity (Nilsson usually and decreases Berggren, 2000; Aguiar and 2005). Ferreira, Both cumulative fragmentation and desiccation progressive by caused and synergistic effects may reduce species and structural diversity. Forest fragmentation may be associated with simplification, which may structural have grave consequences for local and landscape biodiversity. Fragmentation of certain habitats forest and of reduction structural (e.g. forest the within properties old trees and snags, loss are of important certain problems tree species) that also ecological integrity. affect riparian Forestry, and grazing and grazing agriculture Forestry, Hydrologic and geomorphologic alterations and geomorphologic Hydrologic The combination of forestry and extensively altered agriculture riparian areas has throughout most lowland areas in the Northern 2002; Anglestam, Hemisphere 1996). (NAS Agriculture and in cases many forestry are also pollution, excessive erosion and responsible of riparian for chemical zones. Modern forestry has also degraded floodplain forests through severe alterations in the tree species composition (especially in lowland tree plantations). Livestock grazing, especially in localised parts of the Many human alterations of riverine environments, especially of With vegetation. riparian affect may geomorphology, natural waterway and diversions dams, high of proliferation a hydrology and engineering on rivers, the effects of a river loss riparian for problem in serious a becomes river “connectivity” zones. of Dams natural not areas only inundate large longitudinal the disrupt also they vegetation, riparian pathway used by altering plants, natural dispersal reducing (Nilsson 2002; and or Pringle, Svedmark, 1998). Manipulation severely of hydrological regimes through irrigation works and embankments has also disconnected rivers riparian from floodplains (Thomas, 1996). their The result is an adjacent artificial fragmentation of plant communities where there had been an extensive linear continuum with interactive lateral and longitudinal dimensions. In the absence alternation of of a flooding regular over and falling dry, the alluvial plant communities may 1990) or develop into die back (Rood and Mahooney, non-riparian communities; forest for example, other, pedunculate oak-ash and oak-elm floodplain forests degenerate into pedunculate oak-hornbeam forests (Hügin, 1980 [1984]).

Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 78 nitain wtr ehre ad aua hydrology natural and recharges water infiltration, impervious by space), parking replaced factories, buildings, (roads, is surfaces vegetation As zones. riparian on impacts widespread have development Mining, river regulation for transportation, and urban itr o wdsra atrpgnc hne these change, anthropogenic widespread of history this Despite 2000). Berggren, and Nilsson 1997; al., (Brown whole a as corridors river affected that have changes extensive to led have zones riparian to alterations whole-scale and fragmentation Such either or extensive arable into land for many centuries. converted and burned cleared, grazed, been have woodlands alluvial period; Neolithic the already inhabited and affected by human societies in were floodplains habitats lowland The 1990). al ., European et (Wenger among disturbance human of among the landscape features with the longest history Riparian ecotones, and especially their woodlands, are widely becomes species alien an when “Naturalisation” place takes barrier. biogeographical major a means which across humans “introduction”, by transported been has plant an a that to due site a at plants” include all non-native plants that are located are based on Richardson and colleagues (2007). “Alien effects their and species alien concerning definitions Aguiar 2000; to Berggren, prone are and Nilsson 1998; (Naiman, species invasive they hosting pressures, anthropogenic by disturbed are rivers when and propagules; plant of dispersal the for conduits as act riversphysiography; hydrologydynamic and their to due primarily plants, River ecosystems are highly prone to invasion by species. alien plant alien or non-native the of by establishment created disturbed pollution” “biological been of kind frequently a by have zones Riparian Conclusion andconservation implications Alien species Industrial, urbanandrecreational impacts 20) Te following The 2001). al., et et vegetation areas. aesthetic riparian important locally of the values biodiversity and degrade seriously may disturbance carelesssince and poorlyconceivedconstruction are all modified. Finally, recreation is a problem locally, rmtn cnevto mngmn (et and Gorrod, 2006;DécampsandDécamps,2002). (Keith management conservation promoting of formulation for conditions riparian about generalisations the robust complicate and controversy create heterogeniccan management and of applications diverse associations the The complex their 2001). features, riparian Rackham, and (Grove restorationand/or conservation riparian for pathway difficult to define or decide on the best management relic often is it in landscapes cultural In woodlands. riparian heterogeneity creates often disturbances Naiman formations are remarkably resilient (Angelstam, 1996, damage tonativespecies( extensive cause can which fungi) as (such pathogens the introduction of alien species is the introduction of with associated problem important another Finally, ( Robinia Bean Locust arepseudoacacia) characteristic transformer species. and donax) (Arundo Reed Giant Europe, southern in – transformersare species alien of percentage small very a Usually,only 2000). (Richardson “transformers” termed be may areas substantial over habitats natural of nature or form condition, character, the change which aliens Invasive introduction. of sites in the from distant areas offspring reproductive produce to plants the barriers that various assumes “Invasion” and overtaken. also are reproduction to surpassed barriers are biotic survival and abiotic when established, 20) A i o ntrl n human and natural of mix A 2005). al., et e.g. Tsopelas, 2004). t al., et

79 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones et al. 2002; Richardson et al., 2001), meaning Baker TT (2005) What is a riparian area? (Online URL: htttp://www. cahe.nmsu.edu/riparian/WHTRIPAREA.html) dominance of tree Barker Patterns JR, Ringold PL, Bollman M (2002) in coniferous riparian forests. 166:311-329 Forest Ecology and Management Benstead PJ, José PV, Joyce CB, Guide. Grassland Guidelines for management RSPB, Wade and restoration. PM (1999) European Wet Sandy Bohn U, Gollub G, Hettwer C, Neuhäuslová Z, Raus Weber T, H Schlüter (2004) H, Map of the Natural Vegetation 1:2.500.000. of Interactive CD-ROM. Europe. Explanatory Scale Text, Legend, Maps. Landwirtschaftsverlag Münster. man- forest riparian of effects The (2004) TR Nisbet S, Broadmeadow agement on the of review a environment: freshwater best literature management practice. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 8:286- 305 forests: floodplain European (1997) GF Peterken D, Harper AG, Brown Bioge- and Ecology Global management. and functioning, structure, 6:169-178 Letters ography innovative and pragmatic projects. approaches restoration necessary in ecological are often Unfortunately, much vegetation restoration good-meaning work “with is little riparian being knowledge of promoted and their natural functioning” structure (Ward that mistakes in restoration can create restoration or management failures (Wissmar 1998). Many restoration projects and fail or are really Berschta, a poor contribution to conservation, especially in cost-benefit sense, a and this is often because of the insufficient understanding of natural conditions (i.e. reference conditions) and their natural functioning. It is very important for conservation and practitioners management authorities to have a understanding of the region-specific natural thorough history as well as the vegetation fundamental formations and ecology to be of able to riparian natural interpret and anthropogenic influences and processes at various spatial scales (i.e. site, river segment, river basin and region) (Robinson, et al., A 2007). better understanding of the complex workings of region-specific riparian integrative and dynamic effective, vegetation more for necessary is conservation management. i.e. much quicker than the 200 years or more References Aguiar FC, Ferreira MT (2005) Human-disturbed landscapes: effects on composition and integrity of riparian woody vegetation in the Conservation 32:30-41 Environmental River basin, Portugal. Tagus of A Albuquerque exotic (2005) and Patterns MT, Aguiar FC, Ferreira native plant species richness and cover along a its floodplain. Plant Ecology 184:189-202 river and across semi-arid Iberian vegetation native and Exotic (2001) I Moreira MT, Ferreira FC, Aguiar establishment following channelization of a western Iberian river. 17:509-526 and Management Research Regulated Rivers: Aguiar FC, Ferreira MT, Moreira IS, Albuquerque A (2000) Riparian types in a . Aspects of Applied Biology 58:221- 232 Angelstam P (1996) The ghost of forest in forests past- diverse biologically of natural reconstruction for basis a disturbance as regimes Diver- Faunal of Conservation (eds) RI Miller RM, DeGraaf In: Europe. Landscapes, 287-337. Chapman and Hall sity in Forested Aronson J, Dhillion S, Le Floc’h E (1995) On the need to select and ecosystem of reference, however imperfect: a reply to Pickett and Ecology 3:1-3 Restoration Parker. Overall, Overall, the woodlands of natural Europe are numbered as amongst the floodplains most threatened of all and European natural ecosystems riparian (Angelstam, 1996; Prieditis, Stanford, 2002). Attention 1999; has therefore been paid, Tockner and for several decades now, to exceptional sites and to restoration attempts the (Géhu, preservation of 1980 [1984]; Henrichfreise, 1996, 2001; Hügin and Henrichfreise, 1992; SNW, 2000). The delineation of protective “buffer strips” application as has a been policy-relevant widely applied, is difficult although to it “prescribe” general rules for vegetation natural buffer widths, formations since are natural so riparian heterogeneous and Nisbet, 2004; Rodewald (Broadmeadow and Bakermans, 2006). The potential for re-naturalisation and regeneration of disturbed riparian zones through protection and exists still regime water near-natural a of restoration and embankments dismantling by (e.g. cases many in freely, develop to left are forests riparian If barrages). 60-80 in appearance natural a reach usually can they years, it takes for forest on drier soils to develop a similar character (Szczepanski, 1990; But Angelstam, because of the need to 1996). restore both hydrology and geomorphology if restoration is to be complete,

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Vegetation and flora of riparian zones 82 iain oet f h HdjaJm’r fodli, iei. Land Nigeria. Degradation &Development7:297-295 floodplain, Hadejia-Jama’are the of forest riparian the in change ecological and construction Dam (1996) DHL Thomas river landscape.Freshwater Biology40:497-516 the in vegetation riparian of role and maintenance Development, (1998) RC Wissmar Planty-TabacchiA, G, Pinay R, Hauer TabacchiE, Wetlands, 437-446.Elsevier, Amsterdam AE, Lugo In: Brinson M, Brown Poland. S (eds). Ecosystems of the of World Vol. 15 – wetlands Forested Forested (1990) AJ Szczepanski effects onecosystempatternsandprocesses. BioScience38:92-98 Landform (1988) RG Woodmansee N, Caine TK, Kratz FJ, Swanson Ecology andManagement33:315-334 acteristics, tree species distributions, and size-class structures. Forest Szaro RC (1990) Southwestern riparian plant communities: site char- units. landscape of Landscape Ecology2:237-253 differentiation the for importance their and habitats water flowing of complexes Vegetation (1989) A Schwabe Arizona. Freshwater Biology46:227-240 tree, riparian the of rate growth on perature tem- and regime flow stream of influence (2001)The StrombergJC central Arizona.Great BasinNaturalist 57:198-208 wood, Goodding willow, and salt cedar seedlings after large cotton- floods in Fremont of survivorship and Growth (1997) JC Stromberg ington, D.C.USA Wash- Press, Conservancy,Island Nature The conservation. diversity Silk N, Ciruna K (eds) (2005) A practitioner’s guide to freshwater bio- ian woodlands.SNW, Perthshire, Scotland Scottish NativeWoodsmanaging ripar- and (SNW) (2000)Restoring the and establishment ofbottomlandtrees. Geomorphology14:327-339 processes Fluvial (1996) GT Auble JM, Friedman M, Scott Andarax River, Spain.Environmental Management26:539-552 climate, Mediterranean semiarid under basin a and in vegetation chemistry water Riparian (2000) AT Romero G, Blanca MJ, Salinas Ecology 132:161-195 Plant Japan. central Mountains, Chichibu the in forests riparian of regeneration the on disturbance natural of Effects (1997) H Sakio Platanus wrightii Platanus , in , Publication. InstituteofInlandWaters-HCMR. Special Athens Research Marine for Center Hellenic life. of oases riverine protecting Greece: in Zones Riparian (2007) P Dimopoulos S, oumi Giak- Y, Chatzinikolaou AN, Economou V, Hatzirvassanis S, Zogaris l’Europe. Strasbourg de Conseil Europe. en alluviales forêts Les (1981) G Tendron D, Yon 40:571-585 Biology Freshwater perspective. catchment a ecosystems: of riparian management and Restoration (1998) RL Berschta RC, Wissmar Rocky MountainResearch Station,Ogden,UT ForestService, USDA areas.report, GeneralRMRS-GTR-47. technical resourcesriparian vegetation in the Monitoring (2000) WinwardAH of 33/34:5-12 Management situation and Ecology Present Forest forests. (1990) floodplain European KA the Gutzweiler A, Zinke EL, Wenger fective riverrestoration. RegulatedRivers, 17:311-323 ef- for basis the Understanding as corridors river in processes (2001) and patterns natural F Malard U, Uehlinger K, Tockner JV, Ward and SoilPollution: Focus4:67-94 tional definition and delineation for resource assessment. Water, Air, func- a ecotone: Riparian (2004) ME Manning CA, Dolloff ES, Verry ciologiques 9:19-54(Lesforêtsalluviales)Strasbourg 1980 dy- la et Phytoso- Colloques sauvage. rhénane l’architecturealluviale forêt d’une namique Wyhlerwald, Le (1964) R Winckel de Van Management 21:517-531 rections for temporary river research in South Africa. Environmental di- early zones: fuzzy wordsand Simple (1997) O’KeeffeJH MC, Uys line URL:http://www.nwi.fws.gov/bha/) Summary.(On- National 1996 wetlands: in occur that species plan US Fish and Wildlife Service (US FWS) (1996) National list of vascular 3:38-42 (InGreek) Georgia-Ktinotrophia Greece. of Planes the on disease destructive new a disease: stain canker Plane’s Oriental The (2004) P Tsopelas chiv fürHydrobiologie Suppl.115:293-310 Ar- corridors. riparian along Biodiversity (1999) JV Ward K, Tockner future trend. Environmental Conservation29:308-330 Tockner K, Stanford JA (2002) Riverine floodplains: present state and

83 Vegetation and flora of riparian zones Alnus Ulmus Tamarix Tamarix Salix alba, , Quercus gallery forests ) comprises ) Alno-Padion Phoenix . theophrasti It is at its and , widespread on the mainland, , purpureae widespread on the mainland, amaricetea is scrub composed of (syn. incanae opuletalia albae, occurring throughout Greece, Alnion forests along riversides, chiefly in the mountains of the northern half of the mainland, as well as residual hardwood forests with comprises willow scrub, including various shrubby and arborescent willows S. such amplexicaulis, as S. elaeagnos, and S. xanthicola. triandra S. purpurea, S. Vitex , other tamarisks, Nerium oleander, parviflora agnus-castus most diverse in the southern part of the mainland and in the bigger islands. comprises Platanus orientalis as well as frequently flooded woods alba) and willows (Salix alba). P. nigra, of (Populus poplars Nerio-T Fraxinus in the flood plains of big rivers. and Fraxinus P Salicetea

Panayotis Dimopoulos Panayotis Erwin Bergmeier and melt-waters but are and otherwise aerated. The well-drained soil is stony layer or sandy. includes The many herb tall sylvestris, forbs Cardamine amara, such pendula, Carex as Angelica remota, Carex sylvatica, Filipendula ulmaria, Equisetum Lycopus europaeus, exaltatus, telmateia, Lycopus Lysimachia punctata, Osmunda regalis, Peucedanum aegopodioides, Ranunculus Rumex sanguineus and Urtica dioica. ficaria, The structure and ecosystems functions depend of on stands these are generally the highly dynamic riparian due to natural water disturbance. regime. Existing stands are either not managed The or sometimes used for woodcutting or grazing. are in evident peril of extinction. of peril evident in are Ulmus and Fraxinus Riparian woody vegetation in Greece is referable to syntaxa: the following phytosociological 1) 4) 3) 2) are are Fraxinus Fraxinus , Quercus and/or and/or Salix alba occur Salix prevail, while Vitex agnus-castus Alnus glutinosa . Apart . theophrasti Phoenix Alnus glutinosa Alnus Alnus incana or , Platanus orientalis and shrub species Riparian forests of forests Riparian Riparian forests Alnus and glutinosa arborescent galleries of throughout nemoral Europe. In Greece, as in much of much in as Greece, In Europe. nemoral throughout to chiefly restricted are they area, Mediterranean the mainland. central and northern the of mountains the As defined here, such forests are equivalent to the with forests ‘Alluvial excelsior (Alno-Padion, Alnion albae)’ incanae, habitat Salicion type (91E0) Directive. of the EU Habitats Alnus glutinosa reaches limits in Europe in the Aegean, while A. incana only its south-easternmost just reaches Greece, where it occurs in the Rodopi Mountains in mixed forest stands. riparian forests are periodically inundated by rain- RIPARIAN WOODY VEGETATION VEGETATION WOODY RIPARIAN IN GREECE common. Mountain streams without are generally little or not hydrological at all disturbed, although impact reservoir dam projects have already severed several valleys. Many permanent streams in the south have become seasonal as a result of decreasing and increasing water consumption rainfall for irrigation and changes and interference hydrological to Due tourism. in land use, especially in the mainland lowlands, the hardwood-dominated riparian forests of Riparian vegetation in Greece is extremely diverse. While generally Mediterranean in character, given it a boreal is touch in the Rodopi Alnus mountains incana by or conveys subtropical impressions as with Aegean South the in tall, comprises vegetation riparian plants, woody from ephemeral as well as graminoids clonal of reeds dense Forests summer. in deposits mud and gravel on plants consist of one or a few dominant tree species, with shrubs, lianas, and a variety of herbs depending on geographical latitude, altitude, valley topography, flooding regime, sediment type and content. soil In nutrient the north, tree species Alnus, of Fraxinus, the Populus genera and further south, such as Nerium oleander and

Riparian woody vegetation in Greece 84 the larger rivers were regularly inundated. The habitat Prior to regulation and drawdown, the floodplains of Periploca graeca, Vitis vinifera, Tamus communis. lianas: in rich are small) invariably are Greece in (which forests preserved Well dioica. dulcamara Solanum cucubalus, Silene ficaria, Ranunculus aestivum, Leucojum podagraria, with developed, well is undergrowth and subspecies) Ulmus 2 (with subspecies), minor 2 (with angustifolia Fraxinus pedunculiflora, Quercus hardwoods the are Greece forestsin riparian these treesof significant most The to the The (91F0). type habitat Balkanic subtype which occurs in Greece corresponds rivers’ great the along excelsior Fraxinus minor, drained forarable land. recreation (e.g. replacedbeen have by stands Many Itamos-Sithonia). Mount continuously on infrastructures increasing are area catchment the the of in regime hydrological the affects also rivulets and waters spring of diversion but impacts obvious most the are reservoirs Water , irrigationanddrainage. to related a are type constitute habitat this to or threat potential endanger that activities Human oet of forests mixed ‘Riparian the of part form They extinction. of brink the on are Greece in forests such of remnants The regulation. hydrological to due widely vanished Europe. have but systems river big the southern to restricted are They and nemoral in widespread are Forests of hardwood trees (Fraxinus, Ulmus, Quercus) Riparian mixed forests with Leucojo-Fraxinetum angustifoliae. oet. uh ua interventions human Such forests. Alnus and laevis Ulmus robur, Quercus or Populusor plantations rxns angustifolia Fraxinus Quercus pedunculiflora, Ulmus minor Ulmus pedunculiflora, Quercus The procera. Ulmus Humulus lupulus, Humulus Aegopodium Urtica and Ulmus most threatened forest habitats inGreece. the considered be must and ecosystems fragile very are forests riparian hardwood The regulation. river to due level water the of drawdown the and water inundation by non-flooding especially regime, water the in changes from originate still threats severest The areas. agricultural adjacent from impacts from suffer and small very are stands remaining few The widespread wetland forests. and extensive remnants more are much formerly forests of existing is The grazing common. Livestock also land. agricultural extend order to in mainly cut, been have themselves stands The drawdown. groundwater as such regime, water and conditions habitat the influence that impacts human intense to subject been have forests These the herblayer. of large annual quantities of phytomass, especially in habitat highly productive and favours the production the renders which sediment fertile of accumulation and input considerable by is There interference. human restricted not is this that provided and regime flooding the on depending dynamic, enormously is Epirus (Photo:P. Dimopoulos). Figure 2.1.1.1 Alnus glutinosa grows on the banks of the river Aoos, and Fraxinus angustifolia Fraxinus

85 Riparian woody vegetation in Greece galleries ongravel Salix alba galleries ongravel scrub and Salix purpurea Figure 2.1.1.3 Figure banks of the river Voidomatis, Epirus (Photo: E. Bergmeier). banks of the river Voidomatis, Hydrological Hydrological management, degraded have lakes and streams along constructions road building or and destroyed Together many with stands, clearing for (after drainage) and often for plantations agricultural of fast-growing purposes irreversibly. poplar , habitat transformation has reduced most of its area. Other severe threats are extensive gravel and sand extractions. water Degradation by or regime flooding or level water through in changes alien by habitat the of colonization favours pollution or maintain to essential is it preservation, For species. reinstate the natural flooding regime of the stream or lakeshore. Large-scale sand and gravel extractions should be banned, as well as plantations of exotics Quercus Quercus pedunculiflora in the Argios Varnavas wood (Photo: Arantxa and Populus Fraxinus Fraxinus angustifolia S. xanthicola, the latter woods Populus Populus ) nigra are usually Salix alba) and tall poplars (in Populus Populus multi-layered riverine forests Riparian mixed forest with and Populus Populus alba and Salix Prada. See chapter 5.3). See chapter Prada. of I Annex in defined as (92A0) type habitat galleries” the EU Habitats Directive. past, the In managed. not generally are Willow as well as nowadays, they have been degraded and removed, mainly at river deltas and lakesides, where land reclamation for agricultural crops and poplar has mining gravel and sand for as well as plantations reduced their distribution area irreversibly. They are also used for grazing and hunting. The management must focus on protection. of these forests This habitat type is among deltas, in occur stands arborescent where particularly the most threatened, along /river mouths and at lakesides. It is sensitive to changes in water balance and to water pollution and is affected by irrigation and drainage. are are widespread in Europe and beyond, in and the Near East. However, extensive stands are especially rare, in the Mediterranean. Arborescent willows (in Greece exclusively Greece dominant along gravelly and Shrubby sandy willows (Salix river amplexicaulis, S. elaeagnos, shores. S. purpurea, S. triandra and restricted to the north-east) occur riverbeds in and gravel patches banks. Such in forests and scrub correspond to the “Salix alba and Figure Figure 2.1.1.2 Salix and

Riparian woody vegetation in Greece 86 biodiversity, their value is related to the provision of provision the to related is biodiversity,value their overestimated.regardsbe As cannot value ecological quality and preserving local climatic conditions, their banks, soil conserving stabilizing materials, solid and erosion, water retaining preventing of in benefits woods functional the of Because hircinum andMelissaofficinalis Hypericum ramosissimum, E. arvense, E. telmateia, Equisetum pendula, Carex are herbs characteristic more the Among lianas. common are aspera Smilax north. the in with and south the in oleander Nerium , Tiger Platanus quadripunctaria. the of population unique a harbours forest This areas. damp in veneris by dominated layer and ground a undergrowth developed poorly with Rhodos, orientalis , south-western from Apart belongs here. woods”. orientalis “Platanus 92C0: type habitat as listed are woods plane Directive, Habitats EU the of I Annex In communities. species-rich constitute they where gorges, shady steep, of bottom the particularly, and basins, spring streams, temporary or permanent of deposits boulder or gravel rivers, large of deposits and archipelagos,alluvial poorly stabilised colonising stands are distributed These throughout the . Greek mainland and rivers temporary Balkan courses, water southern and Sicilian Greek, along forests distribution. in Platanus orientalis woods are eastern Mediterranean a with countries European few the among is Greece prohibited. be should forest riverine of cutting and as such Platanus orientalis Platanus utvr and cultivars Populus iudma orientalis Liquidambar ny cus n h Ptluhs aly on Valley Petaloudhes the in occurs only ii vinifera , Vitis om gallery forms orientalis Platanus s fe ascae with associated often is woods and communis Tamus Clearing Eucalyptus. . alr frs also forest gallery datm capillus- Adiantum Liquidambar Salix Platanus Panaxia species

and towaterpollution. reservoirs) constructions, riverbed diversion, (water changes hydrological to sensitive thus are and water flow temporary least at on depend forests Plane of status orientalis conservation The character. protective exclusively an have should their management significant value, ecological great remain their to Due impacts. wood-cutting waste now, and Even animals. dumping the feed to pollarded been frequently have but grazing, for except today orientalis Platanus value isprized. recreational and aesthetic their Besides, landscape. scale and their landscape contribution to the mosaic character of the the at corridor a species), as position plant their hygrophilous for also and animals many for biotopes unique comprise (they residence rivers shouldbecomenature reserves. these of entirelength The Evros,riversPinios). (Aoos, major some least at regimein flooding non-artificial Skotina, Greek Macedonia(Photo:E.Bergmeier). entalis Figure 2.1.1.4 Figure and forests is favourable in most of the sites. the of most in favourable is forests trees on the stream banks. Near banks. stream the on trees telmateia Equisetum Riparian forest with formerly pollarded formerly with forest Riparian odad ae o managed not are woodlands Platanus ori- Platanus Platanus

87 Riparian woody vegetation in Greece Nerium Tamarix and Phoenix , theophrasti an endemic palm of south- Nerium oleander ern Aegean coastal river Crete, here mouths at the in mouth south-west of (Photo: E. Bergmeier). the Anatolia Megalou Potamos and near Preveli Figure Figure 2.1.1.5 offer a refuge in the otherwise dry, open and often the moist sites. that surrounds landscape barren Nerium wetlands support species and form a habitat for other wetland species many migrating of the eastern Mediterranean fauna. Management of vegetation units of this habitat is not practiced, but measures should or aim improvement of the at sites as required. conservation Generally, the and/ conservation status of the habitat is favourable within its distribution range. However, as the plant communities depend on water they are sensitive to changes in hydrological conditions and many stands have vanished due to groundwater or manipulation have been Nitrophilous species often polluted invade disturbed stands by with a decreasing groundwater garbage level. In some sites, the increasing dumping. of aim the with burnt is vegetation the agricultural surface area, but regenerate after fire. after fire. regenerate Scirpoides woods. The , more rarely Phoenix” habitat Phoenix theophrasti Phoenix . theophrasti Juncus heldreichianus, and Platanus Nerium oleander span a Vitex agnus-castus Rubus sanctus is a common shrub Salix, Populus Thermo-Mediterranean woods and scrub with and scrub woods Thermo-Mediterranean species and, only in southern and Tamarix eastern by Crete, by the arborescent palm Thermo-Mediterranean Thermo-Mediterranean riparian woods are abundant in the south and east of the Iberian Peninsula, less frequent in eastern Provence, Liguria and Corsica, and also occur in southern Italy, Sardinia and , southern and western Ionian Greece, archipelagos and the Crete. Outside Europe, Aegean the habitat and type occurs in Mesopotamia. more and Africa North in eastern and Mediterranean parts of the In Greece, such woods are Nerium oleander or mostly dominated by Thermo-Mediterranean woods and scrub correspond to the “Thermo-Mediterranean riparian galleries and woods” habitat type (92D0), but the palm stands are included in the “Palm groves of type (9370) which occurs only in the Canaries (with Phoenix canariensis) and Crete. occurs only in Crete and in south-western Anatolia. Among the more common graminoids in these two habitat types in Greece are Saccharum ravennae, Arundo donax, and holoschoenus. along the margins. Vegetation types with wide ecological spectrum. Soils or may influenced by be fresh-water. Periods of brackish soil water saturation may be seasonal loamy, sandy or or often stony. permanent, They develop at soils drier sites than habitat plays an important role in the physiognomy of the southern landscapes, where woodlands scarce, are and especially add they constitutes Islands, Aegean the In component. an important and occurrence water indicate diversity, landscape to aesthetic

Riparian woody vegetation in Greece 88 rxns excelsior ) (Fraxinus Ash Common the are species dominant the region, Eurosiberian the In frequent. are etc. nettle-trees, poplars, elms, as such species angustifolia (Fraxinus Ashes Narrow-leaved region, Mediterranean the In region. grow in both the Mediterranean and the Eurosiberian the of woodlands Riparian and are typicallygleyed. the fluctuations in water volume in the watercourses, on depending soil, waterlogged less or more occupy Tamaricetalia. The riparian forests of Western Europe are Others associations. order with the greatest number of Iberian vegetation classes. phytosociological belong Peninsula the the in to woods riverside the All lhuh oe yrpios n xerophilous and hygrophilous variations existwithinthiswoodland type. more although plateau, central the of rivers big the of stems main the along as such altitudes, lower at regions dryer in found are woods poplar white general, In varieties. and species non-native employ normally plantings is it whether white or black poplars that they replace, community since human original the in changes profound to rise giving anthropogenic, be to found often are these poplars, black by occupied site a In high calciumcarbonatecontent. a with types silt/sand growareusually they which in are influenced by the level of phreatic water. The soils arethat river the but flooding to exposed totally not the summer months. They colonize the strips close to during drought of periods survive to able even are not necessarily in direct contact with the water. They but streams and rivers to close deep, soils alluvial on gleyed floors, valley in found are woods region, poplar Mediterranean the In both. covers section the or the is species dominant the whether on depending alamedas, and choperas between distinction a make Spanish The Poplar woods r ht poplar, white or álamo Querco-Fagetea or black poplar, black or chopo and purpureae Salicetalia and Pilar VizcainoMartínez Miguel Marchamalo Juan CarlosLópezAlmansa Diego García deJalón-Lastra Domingo BaezaSanz s the is albae Populetalia order albae Populetalia ad te arboreal other and ) This alba. Populus Nerio-Tamaricetea Populus nigra, Populus f) e) d) c) b) a) Mata anddelaFuente,1985),distinguishing: riparian plant formations by woodland type (Sánchez A very practical type of Bittersweetclassification is one that groups Dulcamara (Solanum dulcamara). baccifer), (Cucubalus officinalis (Saponaria Soapwort dióica), (Bryonia Bryony White lupulus), (Humulus hops including regions, both to common are plants herbaceous Certain species. Eurosiberian other and rm italicum, Ranunculus ficaria,Symphytum tuberosum of , etc.). (Arum predominance geophytes a and hemicryptophytes with stratum herbaceous a and sanguinea (Cornus shrubs of formed thirdis the and and Fraxinusangustifolia as trees,such high less of composed is second the tall, m 30 to up can present three strata. The woods first is these made development, up of of level poplars highest their At landscape (Photo:J.VicenteAndrés). Figure 2.1.2.1RipariangalleryofBlackPoplars inaMediterranean

T Willow woods Alder woods Ash woods Elm woods P RIPARIAN WOODLANDSINTHE amarisk woods. oplar woods fr xml) Tee s also is There example). for vulgare, Ligustrum IBERIAN PENINSULA , er Catchfly Berry ), Ulmus minor Ulmus

89 Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula Rubia ) are generally in contact in generally are alba) Populus White Poplar stand. (Photo: and White Olga Miguel Mayoral Poplar Figure 2.1.2.2 Figure Ángel Gómez). stratum and a final stratum of hemicryptophytes and hemicryptophytes of stratum final a and stratum geophytes. Three types of elm woods those may of be the continental distinguished: peninsular regions of the meso- and supramediterranean bioclimatic those belts, of valley floors and torrent meso- and supramediterranean belts, already clearly courses in the in transition to the mountain belt, and those of the region. in the south of the Valencia xeric areas more The first of the three types is generally made up of black elms poplars, and ashes; when on occasion the soil is sandy, alders commonly appear. such as Geophytes as arums (Arum italicum) are also frequent. They generally occupy cool, fertile soils with good permeability and a clay disturbed texture by human and activity are because they deeply can turned be into irrigated land for vegetables. growing and licorice (Glycyrrhiza ) glabra and common or dyer’s madder (Rubia ) tinctorum are common. Towards the seasonally totally dry upper reaches of rivers such as the Ebro these poplar woods (association of and tinctorum with elm woods. Occasionally, when the dryness of contact in they with direct are the the soil is greater, climatophile series of holm . ). These woods These ). Vinca diformis, Rubus ulmifolius Ulmus minor s.l. minor (Ulmus elms and ) herbaceuos strata formed by Elm woods Elm woods are usually are into stratified a canopy tree of up to 20- 30 m in height, a microphanerophytic and lianoid Elm woods and ash woods are the most extensive riparian woodlands associated with floodplains or river terraces where the water table remains close to the surface of the ground only during the rainy or freshet seasons and falls sharply horizontal the in of the drying-out summer partial a causing months, surfaces. The attenuated water deficit favours the strategy of deciduous trees and the presence in the undergrowth of species that are typical of climax deciduous forests. Because of their distribution on the highest parts of embankments, terraces and banks, these woodland types enter into contact with mixed oak woods. This vegetation structure is found on deep soils which, while moist, are less so than in the poplar Generally, the woods. dominant species are ashes (Fraxinus angustifolia Poplar forests with a greater Mediterranean influence Mediterranean greater a with forests Poplar (Vinco-Populetum albae) and continental-type ones of locations interior more in albae) (Rubio-Populetum the Peninsula exhibit slight differences in behaviour and floristic composition. Along the bioclimatic banks belt of rivers Mediterranean sea, we the find in what Folch (1986) calls areas mesomediterrnanan riparian wood the . In this kind of the alameda litoral closer to the species woody the by enriched is composition species Fraxinus angustifolia, Ulmus monogyna, myrtifolia minor, or Crataegus and an Arum italicum and Rubus caesius among others. Poplar woods with a more xeric appearance but a similar structure to these are found continental in areas the more of the Peninsula, interior in of the the mesomediterranean belt Iberian Castile-Maestrazgo-La of Mancha the and number smaller a contain They provinces. geographic Aragon bio- neotricha), (Salix willows whereas species, Atlantic of

Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula 90 can be found of associations forming galleries. These galleries. forming associations of found be can examples Nonetheless, months. summer the during livestock the shade to trees the preserving pastures, wood into converted usually are woodlands These (Lonícera híspáníca),etc. by farmingusesmaybeseen. terraces, where river pockets of vegetation badly and degraded floodplains in is other the the water; of of lack because planted be cannot poplars smaller where with rivers and volumes of water and more severe summer droughts, streams of courses the along is one 1996): al., et (Lara situations ecological different two in encountered be type, can they this although of formations find to difficult now is It climatophile seriesofholmoakstowards dryerareas. the with or belt mesomediterranean the in land flat These elm woods are in contact with poplar groves on helix). poor very are They drought.are(Hederacoveredand ivy commonly woodlands in of periods long resistant to relatively are groves elm Mediterranean sylvatica as such region this of species characteristic by enriched are region Eurosiberian the in forests Elm (Rosa as some shrubby species typical of thorny edges: roses (Acer maples monspessulanum), etc. are normally alnus ), frequent, as well (Frangula buckthorns alder aucuparia), (Sorbus ashes mountain oaks, and ashes these as well as composition, floristic their In ficaria. with trees ash of association another of speak authors some although (Fraxinus ashes narrow-leaved angustifolia by dominated is a with fluctuating waterlogging profile. Their physiognomy soils cool in on valleys belt, supramediterranean wide the in and mountains between areas open flat in floors, valley on found are forests Ash here belowforuseasaguidetoreforestation. simplified be will and complex highly is formation and the Atlantic region of the Iberian Peninsula. Their Ash forests are very common in both the Mediterranean Ash woods spp.), brambles (Rubus brambles spp.), t. h more The etc. campestre, Acer paui, ssp. ) and Pyrenean oaks (Quercus pyrenaica ), and italicum Arum ) and honeysuckles and spp.) Ranunculus Carex oak orholmclimatophileseries. Pyrenean the with side dry their on connect which forests, ash supramediterranean unlike oaks, holm or oaks cork of series climatophile the with zones, xeric more towards and stages, substitution forests their or alder with contact in generally are forests ash the hydromorphy, greater with zones Towards undergrowth, substrates. sandy and the rocky both populate in can and shrubs willow with usually moisture, phreatic constant practically with rivers small of banks the on forests ash hygrophilous are Portugal (Photo:DanielArizpe). Figure 2.1.2.4RiparianbeltofNarrow-leaved AshesintheAlentejo, Lluch). Figure 2.1.2.3 Figure

specimens near Madrid (Photo: Jacinta (Photo: Madrid near specimens minor Ulmus

91 Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula and Fraxinus angus- ), while towards the ) and some thermophile Alnus glutinosa Nerium oleander Mixed forest of in southern Portugal (Photo: Daniel Arizpe). in southern Portugal Figure Figure 2.1.2.5 tifolia oligotrophic oligotrophic alder forests on with siliceous carbonate-poor waters and substrates mesotrophic alder forests with limy substrates rich waters. bathed Oligotrohic alder in forests typically take - the form of a narrow strip of woodland alongside a watercourse with an absolute predominance alders. In of mesotrophic alder forests, although alders are still dominant, various willows with soil preferences make their different appearance. These grow downstream from the oligotrophic forests, taking advantage of chemical changes in the substrate and in the water. The western alder forests altitude zones are (practically on the found sea-shore) of the from low- thermomediterranean bioclimatic belt up to heights of 900-950 m in the mesomediterranean belt of the western sectors of the biogeographical Carpetan-Iberian-Leonese areas (districts in of the Orense and provinces Salamanca) as well well-represented as in being the very Portuguese-Extremaduran biogeographical area, in the basins Tiétar, AImonte, of Ruecas, Guadiana, Tormes, the Agueda, rivers Alagón, Mondego etc. In colder zones the alder forests can be in contact with ( warmer zones of the Guadalquivir andriver Guadiana basins, bioclimatic belt, there is in an oleanders ( evident presence of the thermomediterranean ), other typical Corylus avellana, and Alnus glutinosa, Fraxinus Clematis campaniflora, Galium broterianum, broterianum, Galium campaniflora, Clematis Alder woods Alder Unlike poplar, elm and ash grow on alluvial woods, soils that alder are permanently water- woods saturated throughout the year. common As alder well as (Alnus the species glutinosa of these riparian woodlands as such include taxa Osmunda regalis, Salix atrocinerea, etc. scorodonia, Scrophularia The common alder is widely distributed throughout Europe, in both Eurosiberian region. It prefers fix acid the can tree soils, This soils. loose clay on grow and also can but Mediterranean sandy, and the atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into ammonia alni, Frankia with symbiosis its to thanks compounds which lives in its roots, entering them through the root hairs in the same way as other Through root angiosperms. excretion, nodule necrosis, leaf mulch decomposition and rainwater running off the trunk, branches and leaves, the nitrogenated compounds and enrich them. to the soil and the water return The frequent interest in repopulating with this tree contributes springs it from two that causes: is one other is the its and contribution to fertilization nitrogen does yet productivity water favours and genesis soil to tree alder as the , water accelerate not canopy prevents long-cycle in growth the water. This is because the dark green leaves of the alder absorb the visible spectrum selectively and reflect part of the sunlight that falls on them, leading to conditions of particular the semidarkness for beneath reason the further A trees. the of crowns the on stay leaves alder that is fact this of importance autumn. of end the until tree Obviously, the combination of these have particular effects on the factors structure of this type will of wood. In optimum conditions, alder forests are made up of a canopy of angustifolia, Celtis australis among other trees. The microphanerophyte stratum is usually more sparse, although some nemoral ferns biomass. develop a considerable Since alders tolerate a wide range of soil acidities they are found in very varied situations, notably

Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula 92 ece, ice, ses Prna ok, se or ashes oaks, Pyrenean aspens, , , contain also they but predominant less or more are trees:sallows of mosaic a contain treewoods Willow R. ulmifolius,caesius presence in the latter of brambles (Rubus curylifolius, the purpureae order. The differences of are increased by the shrubs willow of formations to rvd rfg fr eti frs ih ih heat high with ferns requirements(Woodwardia radicans, Stegnogramma certain for refuge provide frequently they mild, are winters the and contrast - the macroclimate of these areas shows little seasonal and Country areinteresting.As broadsense) a regions(in Asturias -Basque the of woodlands alder riparian The taxa. Atlantic contain Eurosiberian alder forests are slightly different, as they are frequent. hollies (Ilex but aquifolium) and aspens (Populus tremula) lacking ), celtiberica (Betula birches typically as such species Atlantic are etc. regalis, scorodonia, Osmunda Scrophularia campaniflora, as such Clematis species thermophile where systems, river reaches of the Tormes, Alberche, Jarama and Henares highest the in streams and rivers the of headwaters Alder forests are also found in higher areas along the macrocarpa, Culcita as such ferns disjunct tropical as such taxa endemic numerous with value, landscape and ecological great of woods alder of have examples good area biogeographical Cadiz-Huelva-Algarve the of belt thermo-mediterranean the in rivers streams and The habitat. Cadiz-Huelva-Algarve the of forests alder the to transition natural the bridging alnus Frangula as such species of the (Salix atrocinerea) although numerous species typical sallows common of preponderance physiognomic a have woods willow Tree-sized predominate. shrubs where those and specimens tree-sized with groves Simplifying, a distinction can be made between willow Willow woods Populetalia albae Rhododendron ponticum ssp ponticum Rhododendron subsp. subsp. Dorycnium rectum, Smilax aspera, aspera, Smilax rectum, Dorycnium etc. etc. ) andcertainferns. baetica, Luzula forsteri Luzula baetica, order are frequent, in contrast Davalia canariensis, canariensis, Davalia . . baeticum Salicetalia , etc. etc. , and and hy r i cnat ih urmdtraen ash supramediterraneanforests. with contact in are they valleys wide in and rivers of reaches middle the In the climatophile series of holm oaks or Pyrenean oaks. woods are in good contact with willow groves or with alder the view,all of almost point dynamic the From the to Galicia-Asturias areas. ranges mountain Pyrenean the from lands the in described been have associations forest alder of number a and region Eurosiberian the in varied very is composition biomass aerial and floristic The and theydeservemaximumprotection. considerable is value ecological their so etc.), pozoi, area inValencia, Spain(Photo:DanielArizpe). Figure 2.1.2.7 (Photo J.VicenteAndrés). 2.1.2.6 Figure Stands of Salix alba in the lowlands of the Júcar River ie cvrd y dne tn o Cmo Alder Common of stand dense a by covered River

93 Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula or mixed (Photo: Daniel thickets thickets , sometimes , triandra S. tamujo S. salviifolia Salix salviifolia communities, S. eleagnos, are noted for their Mountain stream with Salix purpurea and S alix S. purpurea or ) withstand- oleander) ( Nerium Oleanders Well-adapted 2.1.2.9 Figure ing successfully a strong spate in an Iberian rambla Arizpe). Figure Figure 2.1.2.8 eleagnos (Photo: Daniel Arizpe). In willow shrub formations, a very broad range of combinations is found. which can be predominantly with wide distribution. When there is no one dominant species they are usually described as mixed willow thickets. Hybrids of these trees depending or, on the as such species other location, contribute to the formation of the community. S. Salix Rubus Fraxinus Fraxinus S. purpurea tamujo thickets. S. fragilis, S. triandra or S. purpurea ). Salix atrocinerea , etc.). and Salix atrocinerea and If degraded they may contain other Riparian vegetation in the hottest zones: Tamarisk, oleander and oleander Tamarisk, zones: in the hottest vegetation Riparian S. x matritensis. Supramediterranean common In the warmest areas of the Iberian Mediterranean region, rainfall is typically irregular and, apart from the main rivers, watercourses remain dry for most of the year. Optimum hydrolologic conditions only return after the short periods time of periods short for of rainfall heavy very is rain. pattern The usual that turns dry watercourses into torrents of rushing water. Torrent courses ) (ramblas abundant are in particularly the SE corner occasionally with is frequent, flooding following rain of the Peninsula and serious consequences. do formations tree conditions, extreme the of Because not exist on these particular riverbanks, which have developed a highly specialised type of vegetation: tamarisk, oleander and var. Lambertiana, var. when more eutrophic, and salviifolia. willows such as mountain ashes. Willow shrub formations divide into divide formations shrub Willow ashes. mountain calcic. two types: siliceous or The presence of other willow species various factors, depends including the on degradation to which some willow thickets are subjected. those For on instance, siliceous ground are accompanied by sallow forests have their optimum habitat by flat, slow-moving streams and on water-saturated soils. The soils they moist, where are grow with an organic horizon. They are frequent in the Carpetan-Iberian- Leonese biogeographical area (association of , atrocinerea and Portuguese-Extremaduran willow forests, rich in ash trees angustifolia (association of corylifolius Other more localized note are the common communities sallow woods of worthy Atlantic the Ibero- thermomediterranean of belt, where ferns (Thelypteris palustris) marsh are common, which are known as an association of Vitis sylvestris and

Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula 94 ephemeral streams (Photo:DanielArizpe). (Tamarix boveana,T. canariensis). species some of salinity to resistance strong the owing to saltpans, littoral or continental in enclaves colonize some even can and courses torrent chalky or clay sandy, They woods. riparian deciduous for unfavourable are that situations riverside in climate thermo- and into mesomediterranean belt reaching areas with , a dry semi-arid or arid hot, with areas is habitat optimum Their thickets. closed small canariensis T. gallica, various of up T.T.africana, (Tamarixboveana, tamarisks of species made density physiognomic of formations little tree or shrub are thickets Tamarisk drid. Ma- Monografías. CEDEX, Jarama. del cuenca la de carpetanos ríos los de vegetación la de Estudio (1996) P Ramírez R, F,Garilleti Lara celona Bar- Ketres, 10. Nº Memòria Natural, d’Història Catalana Institució ed). (2nd Catalans Països dels Vegetació La (1986) R Guillèn, i Folch forming mixedforests. sometimes and enclaves mountain certain in found Mediterraneanregion,typically the relictin a almost are they as interesting very are woods Riparian 2.1.2.10 Figure References Riparian birch woods aai canariensis Tamarix ); on rare occasions they form they occasions rare on ); a aatd ooie of colonizer adapted an , iebns hr te rsne f te seis is species limited bythequalityofwater. other of presence the where populate riverbanks also they soil, the stabilise to helping as well As zones. these of processes erosion typical the All these formations Portuguese- are very important for controlling the in riverbeds Extremaduran biogeographical area. siliceous colonize stony They species. prevalent the are tinctoria) which in formation shrub spiny a is tamujar Portuguese- A area. biogeographical the Extremaduran of enclaves Murcian-Almerian in thermophile exist the certain also they in although area, is biogeographical habitat Their stony. optimum generally courses, torrent colonising formations can form dense populations of Oleander permanent vegetation by types. dominated (physiognomically vegetation shrub analogous other are thickets tamujo and Oleander problems. when there are water table salinity or water pollution or woodlands, riparian the of degradation following very in situations: oligotrophicsubstrates,with conditions, thermoxeric ecological other two or in willow formations replace can communities These Medio Ambiente de General Dirección la de ambientales temáticas Unidades dulce. MOPU. agua de riberas Las (1985) V Fuente la de D, Mata Sánchez (Photo: AntonioPena). iue 2.1.2.11 Figure

eua alba Betula tn in stand Portugal Estrela, da Serra (Flueggea tamujos eim oleander) Nerium

95 Riparian Woodlands in the Iberian Peninsula et et et et et al., et al., 2004), et , al. 1997; Wang et al., 1998; Lammert and et al., 2004; Van Sickle et , al. 1996; Allan et al., 1991, Osborne and Kovacic, 1993). Francisco Nunes Godinho Nunes Francisco consequence, many European river fish species are imperilled, particularly taxa with restricted ranges. For example, a recent conservation status in evaluation Portugal (according to IUCN of vertebrate criteria) ranked as the group with found in harsh habitats like intermittent headwater streams, where fish are concentrated in pools shrinking during extended dry periods (Godinho ., 2007). 1997, Magalhães et al stability the for important also is vegetation Riparian of the riverbank and its removal could result in high and siltation due to increased bank erosion (Gregory Organic matter inputs from riparian vegetation are major food sources for aquatic invertebrates, many large and 1974), (Cummins, fish by eaten are which of woody debris creates complex often instream related habitats, to higher fish diversity et al., 2003). Nelson, 1994, Gregory (Davies and The relationships between riparian cover, land use and fish assemblage structure and dynamics been have documented in a series of studies (Steedman, 1988; Roth al., 1997, 2000; Klauda Allan, 1999; Schleiger, 2000; Meador and Goldstein, 2003; Hughes but complex factor difficult interactions to identify often the make key mechanisms or it to involved quantify their combined impact (Penczak al., 1994). Nevertheless, a wide range of of indicates riparian that vegetation the has removal evidence a negative impact upon fish communities (Jones al., 1999; Pusey and Arthington, 2003). The presence of extensive and complex riparian margins often cover indicates high at stream environmental river quality, whereas highly altered riparian zones associated with impoverished are river habitats and fish communities (Karr and Schlosser, 1978; Gregory al., 1991). et al., 1999), whose et al., 1986, Weatherly et al., 2005). Nevertheless, increased et al., 1998), whose individual growth could Fish assemblages assemblages Fish Fish and riparian vegetation and riparian Fish Throughout Throughout history, river fish have been important for humans as a source recreation (Shaw, of 2003). However, rivers food, have been commerce and profoundly altered by man, where particularly human in influence is areas old, such as Europe. In Rivers and streams are influenced by multiple factors, factors, multiple by influenced are streams and Rivers often interacting at different spatial and temporal scales. Catchment land use and riparian vegetation interact to affect water quality and aquatic habitats and therefore including fish (Meador and Goldstein, 2003). influence aquatic communities, Riparian vegetation is important for fish as it affects aspects like light and and water quality, temperature as well as habitat and food et al., availability 2001). Consequently, the (Zalewski removal of riparian vegetation can be an important cause of fish habitat degradation. Physical changes to the instream habitat, such increases as in sunlight and water to temperature reductions due in the canopy thermal cover, can environment alter of the the river. particularly limiting for This coldwater fish species, such could be as the salmonids (Murphy and Ormerod, 1990, Torgensen worldwide populations have been climate global contracting to due further and contract to expected are change (Chu sunlight exposure and higher water could stimulate temperatures the growth of aquatic macrophytes, changing the instream habitat structure amount and and the type of food available (Bunn for salmonids locally (Lobon-Cervia and Rincon, 1998). increase temperature water in increases streams, water warm In due to reductions in canopy cover, with in association higher primary productivity, deterioration could of the aquatic habitat promote (e.g., low levels of dissolved oxygen). An extreme situation can be THE INFLUENCE OF RIPARIAN RIPARIAN OF INFLUENCE THE FRESHWATER ON VEGETATION FISH

The influence of riparian vegetation on freshwater fish 96 ebr o svrl families, several of include members and diverse more usually are assemblages depth, therefore offer a large variety of habitats. In WR, fish width, gradient, cover,riparian and and vegetation substrate, aquatic volume, river flow of size in channel, greatly vary – salmonids exclude – Warmwater (WR) (CR), Rivers Rivers Coldwater to contrast In for (Klemetsenetal.,2003). the food staple for the invertebrates, aquatic of production critical particularly is streams these headwater in matter organic of source a as vegetation riparian of importance the addition, In for species. the thresholds critical the below maintaining temperature for the important by is provided vegetation shade riparian the Peninsula, such Iberian regions the as warmer in Therefore, temperature. water in increases to intolerant quality, particularly habitat being in variations to sensitive trout very are salmonids, for Typically streams. headwater tolerate European many cannot in 25ºC) above that temperatures water (species species coldwater Brown trout (Salmo trutta, figure 2.2.1) is the typical patterns, nutrient levelsandfoodavailability(Ross,1997). flow velocity, water substrate, gradient, elevation, oxygen, dissolved temperature, light, as fish rivers, such factors to according lowland organised are assemblages larger to small streams from headwater systems, river Along (Moyle 1996). habitats Cech, and aquatic distinct with associated are assemblages fish freshwater particular Overall, to theGuadianaRiverbasin(Cabral etal.,2006). cyprinid hispanica, an Iberian small-sized endemism that is now restricted the as such taxa including species, threatened of number highest the Salmo trutta) (Salmo Trout Brown 2.2.1 Figure (Photo: F. NunesGodinho). ies ht am ufcety to sufficiently warm that rivers i.e. pris cobitids, percids, e.g.,

from an Iberian stream Iberian an from Anaecypris r s togy iie b te rqet ae level water oscillations. frequent the by limited strongly is or absent is vegetation riparian where environment an reservoirsprovidedby (Godinho habitat fish invaders inIberiaare well adaptedto the altered successful most Ferreira,the and example, For 1998). (Godinho taxa environments, native with negatively interact altered often by favoured being species, bass, largemouth trout, rainbow the s h pmkned sunfish, pumpkinseed the as such taxa including distribution, wide gained and have century 19th the since introduced been have carp, common the like introductionsfish old to addition areas.Europe,In in large over introduced of expansion successful the been has alteration of signs notorious most the of One time. over greatly changed have distribution fish freshwater of patterns natural the result, a As . domestic and industrial of discharge the and damming development, urban and agricultural deforestation,by affected particularly been have WR Due to their proximity to areas of high human presence, riverbanks duringhighflowevents. of stability the maintaining for fundamental also is non- preferred vegetation riparian a WR, larger In as habitat. spawning roots tree behind example, holes use For (Barbus barbel habitat. of species aquatic some of diversity and availability the on influence its of because fish for important particularly is vegetation riparian WR, In fish biomass. highest the also but species, of number fish largest the dominate only not having Cyprinids WR, European most in assemblages cyprinids. and esocids F. NunesGodinho). Figure 2.2.2Barbel( Barbus bocagei)from anIberianriver(Photo: . Introduced salmoides. Micropterus n the and mykiss Oncorhynchus other species other carpio, Cyprinus eoi gibbosus Lepomis p. fgr 2.2.2) figure spp., , 1998), al., et ,

97 The influence of riparian vegetation on freshwater fish D project (http://fame.boku. & et al. (2007) the EFI should be improved as benign periods. Consequently, the capacity to move the for crucial be could network river the along freely maintenance of fish species/populations and barriers to its movements, like dams, pose serious threats to fish conservation. Nevertheless, human pressure on water resources is likely to continue to increase in these areas, and fish could proper a requiring be availability, water for humans with competing directly (Cowx needs societal and ecological between balance et al., 2002). 2000; Baron and Collares-Pereira, In Europe, the FAME R ac.at) developed a standardised fish-based method (European Fish Index, EFI) to assess the status ecological of European fluvial the FAME systems. project only considered five Nevertheless, key physical/ chemical parameters, with the key pressure, “habitat disturbance”, combining the following morphological indicators: condition, riparian sediment load. As a result, the index is not adequate integrity and for distinguishing the effects of riparian vegetation on fish assemblages and biotic integrity. As stated by Pont regards riparian zone status or land use, mainly by completely. more pressures describing anthropogenic These future developments such pressures particular detect to EFI the of capacity should improve the to riparian vegetation. as those related affected are rivers since most European Furthermore, assessment biological the pressure, of types multiple by tools should help to identify which pressures most measures. restoration prioritise to order in fish affect This prioritisation should enable river managers to restore riparian vegetation when this is selected as an important factor constraining fish integrity and ecosystem status, thus increasing the probability of success of ecological river rehabilitation/restoration schemes. These aspects are particularly critical for European in status ecological good least at achieving by the WFD. as required by the year 2015, rivers i.e., a et al., 1990). Fish as indicators of environmental degradation in rivers. The European Water Framework Directive Framework Water The European in rivers. degradation of environmental indicators as Fish Water permanence can be a problem for fish in some in fish for problem a be can permanence Water to have streams intermittent in living species and WR, face strong environmental constraints. Intermittent warmwater streams – often larger small rivers – tributaries harbour fish of species that ability to have respond to the drought, either by being able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions desiccating in pools and/or by to moving places downstream were intermittency (refugia) and is colonizing the harsher less places in more pronounced Due to their reaction to different types of human- induced disturbances, including alteration physical (Ormerod, habitat 2003), increasingly freshwater used as fish indicators are of in habitat rivers. quality In fact, communities/populations the relationship and between their fish aquatic the environments is the environmental assess to fish basis of monitoring quality biological for using of (Fausch degradation The indexes of biotic integrity (or ecological status) - derived from Karr’s index of biotic integrity (IBI) - usually employ a group of metrics based on fish assemblage structure and integrated into a single numerical function index. The index which results for a particular site (exposed to some level of are results index the to compared finally are disturbance) in a system unexposed to such disturbance, site (Hughes et al., 1998). reference After its widespread use in the USA, the concept of biotic integrity has been adopted in Europe by the Water Framework Directive (WFD, 2000/60/EEC). The directive states that all European rivers should assessed be via a reference condition approach using assessment tools based on biotic elements, including fish. More the specifically, WFD aims to improve the environmental quality of rivers, requiring that: i) all fluvial systems be classified into five quality statuses (high, good, moderate, poor and bad), depending on the degree of degradation, and ii) all except heavily ecological good least at attain bodies water modified status by the year 2015.

The influence of riparian vegetation on freshwater fish 98 ences 55:1618-1631 integrity.assemblage Sci- Aquatic and fisheries of Journal Canadian fish of indices evaluating and developing for process A (1998) DP Hughes RM, Kaufmann PR, Herlihy AT, Kincaid TM, Reynolds L, Larsen Society. Bethesda, Maryland Fisheries American 37. Symposium Rivers. World in Wood of ment Manage- and Ecology The (2003) AM Gurnell KL, Boyer SV, Gregory water. BioScience41:540-551 and land between links on focus zones: riparian of perspective tem Gregory SV, Swanson FJ, Mckee WA, Cummins KW (1991) An ecosys- voirs. AquaticLivingResources 11:325-334 Portuguesereser-in gradientsenvironmental to relation in position com- assemblage Fish (1998) MIP Castro MT, Ferreira FN, Godinho sin. Environmental BiologyofFishes50:105-115 bass, largemouth sunfish, pumpkinseed in variation diet of sis ba- environmental The (1997) RMV FerreiraMT,Cortes FN, Godinho Environmental BiologyofFishes51:41-51 cies and environmental factors on an Iberian native fish community. Godinho FN, Ferreira MT (1998) The relative influences of exotic spe- Society Symposium8:123-144 Fisheries American degradation. environmental of indicators as ties communi- Fish (1990) PL Angermeier JR, Karr J, Lyons KD, Fausch Marine andFreshwater Research 45(7):1289-1305 of Journal Australian abundance. fish and composition community invertebrate habitat, stream on of effects the and widths buffer riparian between Relationships (1994) M Nelson PE, Davies BioScience 24:631-640 ecosystems. stream of function and Structure (1974) KW Cummins News Books,BlackwellScience,Oxford Fishing 428-438. fisheries, river of ecology and Management (ed). IG Cowx In: incompatible. the river,of Guadiana Portugal:harmony the in schemes development resource water of face the in species Cowx IG, Collares-Pereira MJ (2000) Conservation of endangered fish fishes inCanada.Diversity andDistributions11:299-310 rarefreshwaterand common several of distributions the on change climate of impacts Potential (2005) CK Minns NE, Mandrak C, Chu da ConservaçãoNatureza/Assírio eAlvim,Lisboa (2006) Livro vermelho dos vertebrados de Portugal (2nd ed). Instituto M Santos-Reis L, Rogado AI, Queiroz JM, Palmeirim ME, Oliveira N, Almeida de Ferrand T, Delinger PR, Almeida J, Almeida MJ, Cabral shading. Freshwater Biology39(1):171-178 riparian in by control potential and hydrology stream, lowland tropical and open an morphology channel on macrophytes of Influence invasive (1998) IP Prosser DM, Kellaway PM, Davies SE, Bunn 12:1247-1260 freshwater.for needs societal and ecological Applications Ecological Meeting (2002) AD Steinman BG, Ritcher CA, Johnston RB, Jackson HairstonNG, PH, Gleick CN, Dahm Pl, PoffAngermeier BaronJS, NL, 37:149-161 Biology Freshwater scales. multiple across integrity stream on use land catchment of influence The (1997) J Fay JL, Erickson JD, Allan References , along an Iberian river ba- river Iberian an along salmoides, Micropterus Lepomis gibbosus Lepomis , and , Index. FisheriesManagementandEcology 14:427-439 index for the assessment of fish-based river health in Europe:a the European of Fish Development (2007) C Rogers B, Hugueny D, Pont State, . Hydrobiologia 294:243-251 munity structure in two small tributaries of the Paraná River, Paraná com- and diversity Fish (1994) EK Okada AA, Agostinho T,Penczak Freshwater Biology 29:243-258 watershed. stream Midwestern a in losses nutrient on vegetation riparian of influence The (1993) DA Kovacic LL, Osborne tion. JournalofAppliedEcology40:44-50 OrmerodRestoration(2003) SJ ecology.applied in Editor’s introduc- and Fisheries Aquatic Sciences43:1521-1533 of Journal Canadian streams. Alaskan In salmonids. juvenile on strips buffer without or with logging clear-cut of fects Ef- (1986) JF Thedinga KV, KoskiSW, Johnson J, Heifitz ML, Murphy ichthyology to (third edition).Prentice Hall introduction an Fishes: (1996) CC Cech PB, Moyle Management 31:504-517 structure.try,Environmentalcommunity fish and condition riparian physicochemis- water use, land among relations scales: geographic large at quality water Assessing (2003) RM Goldstein MR, Meador drying seasonally of Mediterranean streams Freshwater Biology52:1494-1510 assemblages fish on droughts multi-year of MF,Magalhães P,Beja Collares-PereiraI, Schlosser (2007)MJ Effects tions oftheAmericanFisheriesSociety127:718-728 Transac- population. trout brown a in Rate growth on temperature Lobon-Cervia J, Rincón P (1998) Field assessment of the influence of Environmental Management 23:257-270 macroinvertebrates. and fish on on use/cover structure land of habitat influence the measuring in scale of effects streams: of integrity biotic Assessing (1999) JD Allan M, Lammert 12:1-59 FreshwaterFish of Ecology histories. life their of aspects reviewof a browntrout N, salmon Atlantic Jonsson (2003) E B, Mortensen MF, Jonsson O’Connell JB, Dempson PA, Amundsen A, Klemetsen 51:299-316 Assessment and Monitoring Environmental Biota. and Habi- Quality Stream tat on Stresses Anthropogenic of Impact the Assess to ProgramJ Agency State A StreamSurvey: Biological Maryland (1998) Chaillou N, Roth M, Southerland S, Stranko P, Kazyak R, Klauda terface. Science201:229-234 In- Land-Water the and Resources Water (1978) IJ Schlosser J, Karr Appalachian southern in streams. ConservationBiology13:1454-1465 assemblages fish on removal forest ian Jones EB, Helfman GS, Harper JO, Bolstad PV (1999) Effects of ripar- tions oftheAmericanFisheriesSociety133:1497-1515 Transac-Washington. and Oregon western of streams coldwater for Hughes RM, Howlin S, Kaufmann PR (2004) A biointegrity index (IBI) Salvelinus alpinus Salvelinus Arcticcharr and L. trutta Salmo L., salar Salmo (L.):

99 The influence of riparian vegetation on freshwater fish Van Van Sickle J, Baker J, Herlihy streams of condition A, biological the Projecting (2004) J Bayley Li P, Ashkenas P, Gregory S, Haggerty P, under alternative scenarios of human land use. Ecological Applica- tions 14:368-380 Wang L, Lyons J, Kanehl P (1997) Influences of watershed land use on habitat system rating for Wisconsin low-gradient North streams. Management 18:477-485 American Journal of Fisheries Wang L, Lyons J, Kanehl P, Bannerman R, Emmons E (2000) Water- shed and changes in fish communities Wisconsin southeastern streams. Journal of the American Water Resources Asso- ciation 36:1173-1189 Weatherly NS, Ormerod SJ (1990) The assemblages constancy in soft-water of streams: implications invertebrate for the prediction and detection of environmental change. Journal of Applied Ecology 27:952-964 Zalewski M, Thorpe JE, Naiman RJ Fish (2001) and riparian ecotones 1:11-24 and – a hypothesis. Pusey BJ, Arthington AH (2003) Importance of the riparian zone to Ma- review. a fish: freshwater of management and conservation the 54:1-16 Research rine and Freshwater Ross MR (1997) Fisheries conservation and management. Prentice Hall, New Jersey Roth NE, Allan JD, Landscape scales. spatrial Erickson multiple at assessed integrity biotic stream DE (1996) Landscape influences on Ecology 11:141-156 Schleiger SL (2000) Use of an index of biotic integrity to detect ef- Geor- West-Central in communities fish stream on uses land of fects of the American Fisheries Society 129:1118-1133 gia. Transactions University Oxford Egypt. ancient of history Oxford The (2003) I Shaw UK Oxford, Press, Steedman RJ (1988) Modification abd assessment of an index of bi- otic integrity to quantify quality stream in Southern Ontario. Cana- dian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 45:492-501 CE, Price DM, Torgersen Li McIntosh HW, BA (1999) Multiscale ther- mal refugia and stream habitat associations of chinook salmon in Applications 9:301-319 Ecological northeastern Oregon.

The influence of riparian vegetation on freshwater fish 100 in aquatic habitats (newts and frogs) or in suitable in individuals or frogs) and (newts habitats aquatic adult in either activity species, of period However, their spend each predominately place. on takes depending development larval occurs spawning and when season mating starts the often during that phase aquatic compulsory a has amphibians of cycle life The . 1996) Griffiths, 2003; tailless the and differented two tailed the groups: comprise amphibians European is often available in the flood margins of small riverssmall marginsof flood the in available often is pond of type this and waters, standing prefer clearly genera the of newts Many rare The waters. running slowly in also but stagnant in only not reproduces species the range its of south the in but Europe, in widespread is dalmatina Rana water. oxygenated highly Several Brown Frogs with rapidly streams permanent in flowing crevices and holes small in or stones between hidden live larvae Its 1999). al., (Barbadillo rocks moss-covered and vegetation overhanging with streams of borders the along lives Iberian The salamander woodland. lungless or macchia wasteland, in habitat is always situated close to the water, terrestrial whether Their bushes. and trees of zone root the be may and newts found under stones or felled trees, but mainly inhabit These rivers waters. mountain running small unpolluted in exclusively living Sardinian muddy avoids and Corsican The waters. substrates rocky uses asper, Newt, Pyrenean The ponds areas. mountain or in lakes streams, oxygen-rich clear, genera prefer the of Newts Brook Ponds created inthemargins ofsmallrivers andstreams inthelowlands Limpid, oxygenated cold streams andcool smallrivers Amphibians s muti sra dweller stream mountain a is pyrenaica Rana have an aquatic lifestyle, aquatic an have platycephalus E. Anura (salamanders and newts) and (salamanders Caudata (Rana) are found in cold streams. usually lusitanica Chioglossa n the and montanus Euproctus tas n fos (Arnold, frogs) and (toads Triturus Calotriton/Euproctus and Paulo SáSousa Lissotriton Calotriton et

mhbas r gopd ee eo it the into lowland rivers andtemporary streams. in below ponds streams, mountain types: here three following grouped are amphibians European by preferred be may that wetlands linear various the However, amphibians. most for habitats aquatic common are bodies eat freshwater temporary often Thus, larvae/tadpoles). which and (eggs fish, amphibian freshwater with overlap In aquatic toads). avoid to tend amphibians and terms, ecological (salamanders habitats terrestrial population extinctions. vison) also constitute a severe threat, leading to local (Mustela mammals exotic and fish non-native other mountain in areas. The introduction of development predatory trout (salmonids), tourism-related from pressure and projects) (hydroelectric development are species aquatic these habitat loss or all damage through infrastructure affect that threats main The hilly andmountainousvalleys(Gasc in also but forests, mixed and deciduous in mostly located year, whole the during water running have that rivers small and springs streams, clear inhabits Balkanian The . southern Italy to northern from rivers, slow-moving including sometimes areas, wooded in water temporary and vegetation. some and substraterocky a have that streams flowing fast R. with associated species Apennine montane mostly a The is italica with vegetation. places riparian for preference abundant a with Iberia, NW in rivers small and streams cold in found usually also lakes. or ponds inhabit not does which lcs uh s ne ros soe, os n trees, and moss stones, roots, under shady as and such places humid in hiding ponds, near found be can newts stage terrestrial their During streams. and SEMI-AQUATIC REPTILES Rana latastei Rana AMPHIBIANS AND breeds in permanent in breeds et al.,1997). is iberica R. . graeca R.

101 Amphibians and semi-aquatic reptiles ), ) Pelophylax alocthonous (Pelophylax (Pelophylax (ex- Pelophylax Pelophylax (ex- Rana) perezi Rana catesbeiana, P. ridibunda) and are P. often highly Figure Figure 2.3.2 The Iberian Green frog Caetano). (Photo: Marco the Louisiana crayfish (Procambarus large clarkii ) frogs (exotic and Pelophylax ridibunda/esculenta) constitutes another severe threat. In some European regions, commercial capture for food (frog-leg trade with or pets (Lissotriton, Triturus, Hyla), can potentially local populations. threaten The major threats to all these species are drainage or canalization of waterbodies for building, tourism and agricultural intensification, and or industrial agrochemical pollution of breeding by invasive Predation species, like fishes (Esox lucius, waterbodies. Lepomis gibbosus, Macropterus salmonoides vegetation; they are also found in landscapes anthropogenic like gardens, vineyards, orchards, parks and shores. Dark, dense Spawning forests are and avoided. larval development stagnant take waters such as place lakes, ponds, in swamps and reservoirs, in slow flowing brooks and sometimes in ditches and . Green Frogs Rana) bergeri, P. epeirotica, P. esculenta, P. grafi, P. perezi lessonae, P. opportunistic and abundant anurans, being semi- or 2.3.2). quasi-aquatic species (figure They inhabit (and breed temporary and permanent in) waterbodies (pools, slow a wide moving variety rivers, streams, of brooks, ditches, canals, reservoirs, and marshes irrigation etc.), often with rich vegetation at the edges, since open, these well-warmed areas with abundant herbaceous frogs prefer vegetation. , may (Photo: L. vulgaris L. S. salamandra salamandra S. is an endemic an is italicus Lissotriton T. pygmaeus) T. are found in aquatic and prefers small shallow ponds shallow small prefers boscai Lissotriton H. ) sarda are found within the vicinity of pools, Tree Tree Frogs (Hyla arborea, H. intermedia, H. savignyi and ponds and streams, generally associated with open, well-illuminated broadleaved and bush mixed and forests, , meadows and low riparian stone walls and logs. Newts must migrate across land across migrate must Newts logs. and walls stone on rainy days to find new aquatic living sites. Iberian The helveticus L. Europe, Atlantic In vegetation. with may as rivers, of margins forested in occur species. eurytopic a occurs too it and Italy southern and central of species shallower the in lives it where streams, moving slow in parts of the water to T. karelinii, avoid T. dobrogicus, newts cristatus, (Triturus T. predation. The great marmoratus, habitats near coniferous, forests, in mixed their glades and edges and and in bushlands, deciduous flooded meadows and swamps, including those in river valleys overgrown with large herbaceous and brush vegetation. Aquatic habitats used for breeding and larval development include traditional farmland , (i.e. habitats modified slightly other and areas irrigation ponds and channels, troughs, wells, oxbows and abandoned quarries). The ditches, drinking ) salamandra (Salamandra Salamander Fire Eurasiatic (figure 2.3.1) takes a variety of forms and is widely distributed through Europe. The terrestrial mainly adults inhabit deciduous and typically is species The forests. conifer also mixed sometimes forests and viviparous, and the female releases the young into usually in shallow brooks. water, The Euroasiatic fire salamander fire Euroasiatic The 2.3.1 Figure Marco Caetano). Marco

Amphibians and semi-aquatic reptiles 102 r rsrce t te yrein area, Tyrrhenian the to particularly theCorsican andSardinian archipelagos. restricted are sardus D. and montalentii D. Both Guadalquivir. River the by jeanneae D. and even brackish waters. streams mountain lands, swampy waters, stagnant are mostly found in or in the direct vicinity of water: over-winter in the water. Painted Frogs often (Discoglossus tadpoles their and spawn they where waters, creeks which are not too fast-running and and permanent streams temporary of vicinity the in live toads these all generalTramontana SierraIn (Majorca). the in /ponds mountain some in persists barely are preferred. The critically endangered vegetation sparse with normally sand, or slabs stone stones, small many with embankments walls, slopes, streamterrestrialits in near lives breedingsites sites: European Western The stones. under usually observed on eroded soils near water or found Mediterranean xeric open with associated being 2.3.3) terrestrial, clearly are (Alytes) toads Midwife endemic. being them of two region, (EurasianPelobatesthis Pelobatidaespadefoots, in occur also sp.) the of members four All endemic. are two of and the three species of region, Mediterranean the to endemic almost Discoglossidae large in regionthe of (Cox parts predominate habitats semi-arid which and to extent arid the of reflection a largely being this Europe, Atlantic-influenced in than lower much is basin Mediterranean the in diversity Amphibian 3.3.4), the Southwestern Balkan M. rivulata and the and rivulata M. Balkan Southwestern the 3.3.4), (figure leprosa M. Ibero-Maghrebian the vegetation. – terrapins riparian and dense streams with in rivers water slow-flowing around and like terrapins) (or turtles freshwater Palearctic edges. riparian the of visitors are some only and residents stream are reptiles Few Semi-aquatic reptiles Temporary streams thatfrequently recede insummer oet. dls of Adults forests. Quercus r bt Iein neis separated endemics, Iberian both are (painted frogs and midwife toads), is toads), midwife and frogs (painted ., 2006). One family,One 2006). al., et the Discoglossus galganoi and Pelodytidae (parsley frogs) ie in live orbicularis Emys . cisternasii A. are dickhelleni A. A. obstetricans A. A. muletensis Mauremys (figure ) also significantforsomespecies. areAlytes) (i.e. susceptibility disease and disturbance human disasters, Natural impact. next-largest the have species alien Invasive threatened). are species amphibian Mediterranean the of (25.5% threat of water-dependent unsustainable farming are concomitantly responsable for a intensive, high level more with combined rainfall low Nowadays, agriculture. extensive traditional the by reservoirs)supplied were (i.e. amphibians for are suitable that bodies water artificial Many amphibians. for implications with Greece) in 65% (e.g. diversion throughdrainagelost and been have wetlands Many agriculture. for used is water Mediterranean of 70% Some activities. amphibian of pattern the constrains rainfallMediterranean annual the of irregularity The factor. occurrencecan bealimiting basking sites of suitable sunny exposed, basking need for places also They bodies. water on only feed in water, so they are completely dependent can turtles These reservoirs. or riversides open more Balkan/Caspian Southwestern Marco Caetano). toad Midwife Iberian The 2.3.3 Figure edod r hrs s the so shores, or deadwood e.g. inhabit – caspica M. al togs wells, troughs, catle Alytes cisternasii Alytes (Photo:

103 Amphibians and semi-aquatic reptiles A. A. marchi Pseudemys N. natrix, may be and the Balkan is endemic to Corsica A. fitzingeri Anguis fragilis A. nigropunctatus spreads around the Natrix maura and Gasc JP, Cabela A, Crnobrnja Gasc Isailovic JP, J, Dolmen D, K, Grossenbacher Maurin H, Oliveira J, Martens H, Martínez Lescure Rica JP, Haffner P, Amphibians of Atlas (1997) A Zuiderwijk M, Veith TS, Sofianidou ME, and Reptiles in Europe. Societas Europaea Herpetologica and Musée (IEGB/SPN), Paris. Naturelle National d’Histoire Griffiths RA (1996) Newts and Salamanders of Press. University Europe. Princeton valleys, where they can be found close to water on rocks, tree trunks and cliffs. The Spanish is restricted to the mountain Alcaraz, ranges; Cazorla and Segura and Sardinia; endemic is moreoticus A. and Adriatic eastern coastal to the Peloponnese (Greece). Two limbless the , European cephalonnica, are visitors of hedgerows and wooded stream sides, where they tend to take refuge under stones, planks of wood, etc. Two snakes, found close to or within almost Europe; Western all in ponds, types and streams of as such water bodies, than at watersides N. natrix is less frequent however, N. maura and often occurs at a distance from the water body. nearest habitat by caused are reptiles these for threats Major loss, largely through deforestation, erosion, water stream abstraction bank and forest exotic fires. terrapins Some (Trachemys autochthonous the scripta of displacers or competitive are picta) turtles. freshwater leprosa

Lacerta Mauremys

can also be found close to streams streams to close found be also can inhabits river and stream sides and the Algyroides are found in forested areas of L. trilineata L. References sparse sparse grass and rocky habitats near stream/river scheiberi Greek and ditches. The four species of the secretive Uni- Princeton Europe. of Amphibians and Reptiles (2003) EN Arnold Press. versity Barbadillo LJ, Lacomba JI, Pérez-Mellado V, Sancho V, López-Jurado LF (1999) Anfibios y Reptiles de la Península Ibérica, Baleares y Ca- narias. Geoplaneta, Barcelona Cox N, Chanson J, Stuart S (2006) The Status Reptiles and and Distribution Amphibians of of the Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland http://www.iucn.org/ URL: (Online (UK) Cambridge and (Switzerland) places/medoffice/cd_rep_amp/) Figure Figure 2.3.4 The Ibero-Maghrebian terrapin Among the Green Lizards, the Iberian (Photo: Marco Caetano). (Photo: Marco

Amphibians and semi-aquatic reptiles 104 aecuss per n pthok f terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Because they are of highly mobile, patchwork a in appear watercourses and landscape a as environment the perceive Birds gravel banks(Photo: JeanRoché). Figure 2.4.1LittleRingedPlover, Charadrius dubius, in winter, whenmanyare underwater. Sandpiper interest less hold Green They etc.). Egret,ochropus(Tringa ), hypoleucos), (Actitis (Common food Sandpiper find and rest to post staging a as them use that species wading of number a attract revives can margins these rain watercourses, Mediterranean the when autumn in migration particularly the period, better During for predators. water from by protection surrounded spots or levels, water high normal the and above banks extensive prefer ground the on nest They spaces. bare require species These hirundo). (Sterna Tern Common and albifrons) (Sterna Tern Little oedicnemus), (Burhinus Curlew Stone frequently less 2.4.1), (figure dubius) (Charadrius Plover Ringed Little essentially them: on nest species Few bed. watercourse the of part large a cover banks gravel and sand rainfall that means uneven pattern the region, Mediterranean the In Flat banks Bird communities habitats indifferent Riparian landscapes andbird communities Bernard Frochot Jean Roché breeds on (Passer sparrows or monedula ), ( Jackdaw (Athene noctua), Owl Little nest-holes: own their excavate not do that species other by occupied be may holes and European Bee-eater (Merops ) riparia apiaster). Old or unused (Riparia Martin Sand atthis), (Alcedo Kingfisher them: in burrows their hole-dwelling dig several that species to sites bank nesting the offer soft, sides sufficiently is sediment the dynamics. When fluvial active with associated are These Steep banks Cettia cetti, Cettia Warbler (Cetti’s inhabitants year-round typical some clearings that increase the ‘internal edges’. Apart from have often freshetsreshapedand by less are moreor the and woodland woodlands other.Additionally,riparian the the on valley and side one on river the and woodland the between interface the increases habitat this of form linear is The represented. and better species edge of composed is group second The species. resident on based mostly is group). major This ( Dendrocopos Woodpecker Spotted Great and brachydactyla) (Certhia Treecreeper Short-toed (Parus caeruleus), Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus), Tit Blue ), major (Parus Tit Great are species frequent most The latitudes. these in abundant rarelyare and feed in the riparian forest. They are not and very live numerous that species woodland of composed is first The groups. three into divided be can communities same is true of riparian woodland birds. Riparian bird of those temperateThe the regionsEurope1990). of (Blondel, to species different of composed largely is forests Mediterranean in avifauna breeding The Riparian woodlands birds duringthemigration andwinterperiods. (sand martins, bee-eaters). This habitat is deserted by attractive for nesting, particularly for colonial species their life-cycle. throughout but season nesting the during only not system river the of parts different the use can birds spp.). Length and height make the bank more figure 2.4.4), the breeding birds include birds breeding the 2.4.4), figure RIPARIAN BIRDS

105 Riparian zone birds ). (figure (figure Vanellus Vanellus Motacilla flava Emberiza Buntings Reed spp., ). During migration periods and in Alauda arvensis, Lapwing Galerida cristata, Zitting Cisticola Acrocephalus Acrocephalus Figure Figure 2.4.3 Flooded grasslands near rivers provide open areas for Frochot). Motacilla flava (Photo: Bernard Wagtail, the Yellow Wetlands Wetlands can contribute to the security of riparian forests not only by making but also access because they may favour the occurrence more of difficult disturbance human to sensitive very are which species (birds of prey, heron colonies). Depending on their water level and the amount of aquatic vegetation, wetlands can provide marshland and dwellers migrating stopover sites to (warblers several schoeniclus) and to winter a of food range resources etc.). (ducks, herons, water birds are also are of to interest woodland because birds of the abundance of invertebrates and also because of the amount of dead wood accumulated if the woodland is not managed. Those which are fringed by willows and by large heliophytes can harbour Tit typical (Remiz species: pendulinus the Penduline a rare, yet Grasslands grasslands are birds for habitats remarkable most The that flood. While infrequent in the Mediterranean region, here and there they provide a less disturbed with associated species bird to farmland than habitat open areas (Yellow Wagtail 2.4.3), Skylark They frequent. vanellus). are more Dry are grasslands affinities southern with passerines some by populated (Crested Lark Cisticola juncidis also can passerines small other of multitude a winter, swallows, wagtails, pipits, etc.). be seen (wheatears, , a Oriolus Ciconia Fulica atra Anser albifrons, Sylvia atricapilla Erithacus rubecula, Hippolais , polyglotta and Golden Oriole (Fringillidae, Sylviidae, ) Turdidae Anas platyrhynchos). These habitats Luscinia megarhynchos Greenfinch Gallinula , chloropus Coot, Phylloscopus collybita, Wren Troglodytes Turdus Turdus merula, Robin ). The last group is made up of water birds that birds water of up made is group last The ). Serinus serinus and Mallard, Figure Figure 2.4.2 The Greater White-fronted Goose, Nightingale Mediterranean with some including chloris), Carduelis affinities (Melodious Warbler Serin Wetlands When they do not nesting places dry for birds that prefer out, standing waters wetlands are (Moorhen, good cosmopolitan wetlands visitor (Photo: Mats Björklund). oriolus sites nesting as edges and woodlands riparian the use but range further to feed, along the water course, in its oxbows or on other water bodies in the valley. Most are large species (Black Kite Milvus ), migrans often colonial (tree-dwelling herons, storks numerous numerous migrants (Blackcap spp.), which despite their vast range show a liking for riparian woodlands surrounded as they by provide a certain wetlands, measure of taken be can security that nearby food of and, sources particularly, with little expenditure of energy (figure proportion greater a acquire 2.4.5). woods riverside autumn, In of migrating birds which take advantage of the availability of etc.). berries Hawthorns, Trees, Spindle Dogwoods, Trees, (Bay has community bird the of composition the winter, In that species because affinity, northern clearly more a are scarce during the breeding season move south (Blackbird Chiffchaff ). troglodytes

Riparian zone birds 106 community. ornithological its for importance some of factor a is stands, tree the of age the and community bird typical own its has forest the of development succession. the in woodland stage Each the in stage particular a at find only can it that environment an entailing nest, its install to site precise very a chooses species each requirements:breeding by joined are needs everyday these spring, In on. so and branches, the of end the on the ground, others climb trees, yet others perch at move ever only species some move: they way the in specialised have may they species, the on Depending shapes, they are particularly demanding in this regard. and sizes plant specific to adapted have birds when greatly during successions? The main reason so is specialisation: change population avian the does Why plantations. poplar or conifer in found also is pattern same the speaking, Generally 1990). Frochot, and Ferry 1995; woodpeckers, coelebs, Parus (tits, birds forest old Dove Turtlethen bushes, thick in megarhynchos) (Luscinia Nightingale or borin) (Sylvia WarblerGarden bushes, (Hippolais Warblers Melodious or cannabina) (Carduelis Linnet stages, herbaceous the in communis) (Sylvia Whitethroat Common or naevia) are(Locustella Warbler Grasshopper by replaced and disappear species bird pioneering the community: in transformations is new by succession accompanied vegetation years, the subsequent of In development the 1970). Frochot, and (Ferry removed are trees the all if % and 90 exceed considerable even can is avifauna the of ground turnover The bare for Wagtail looking (White species of composed initially community, ornithological new a acquires rapidlyarea open resultingHowever, the it. abandon disturbance such as a fire, a storm a or felling, its birds immediately by destroyed of is forest ancient result an of a as radically population tree the When succession. environmental alter populations bird formations, forest all in that fact known well a is It Bird communities andthedynamics ofriparian woodlands ), etc. before the return of return the before etc. turtur), (Streptopelia i.e. the years since the last major disturbance, lrs ppt, etc.). pipits, larks, alba, Motacilla Dendrocopos spp., Chaffinch, spp.,

i low in polyglotta) ...) (Blondel, ...) spp. Fringilla a verygreat diversity ofplants andbirds. patchwork of all the stages of forest succession, with a becomes then forest riparian the reach, segment river a river or a scale, smaller a On forest. ageing of clumps behind leaving or effect, opposite down, the have bring they sediment the on new successions they starting disturbances: populations, tree of the rejuvenate cause can major a are Floods the age and spatial layout of the tree species. above all by the physiognomy of the vegetation, et al. dynamics,to those of other broadleaf forests (Frochot and composition their regards as communities, similar bird harbour woodlands riparian Consequently, the from floristic compositionoftheforest. independence of degree certain a gives them This invertebrates. of variety wide a and on feed (omnivores) consumers secondary mainly are is true that they eat little food of plant origin as they indiscriminately.treesbroadleafHowever, other it or botanists’ ‘poor in that are they birds inhabit Europeanoaks, beeches, most hand, other the On tn bedn brs n eierna rpra crios (Photo: Jean Roché). corridors. riparian Mediterranean in birds breeding stant Warbler,Cetti’s 2.4.4 Figure , 2003). Locally, these communities are determined is one of the more con- more the of one is cetti Cettia i.e. , by

107 Riparian zone birds Egretta Egretta garzetta (Luscinia svecica), Rallidae, Anatidae or Snipe ). spp.) in order to prevent disturbance Sterna Figure Figure 2.4.5 Wide riparian forests of great surrounded interest by for herons wetlands like are the Little Egret, (Photo: Jean Roché). by visitors in springtime. In riparian woodlands, the ideal is to preserve a patchwork of all the stages of can watercourse the large, is habitat the If succession. through itself by diversity this maintain to trusted be the free play of erosion and deposition. If it is small, as in residual strips of riparian forest, or if the river dynamics have been weakened, localized and early between balance a maintain to used planting be can paid be then could attention Particular stages. mature to conserving dead trees that provide many species terns, In earlier stages, pioneering where bushes herbaceous are dominant plants and soil and the is moister accompanied by hygrophilous vegetation, a less common avian fauna may be found: Whinchat (Saxicola ), rubetra Bluethroat Reed Bunting (Emberiza ) schoeniclus Warbler, and sometimes and Cetti’s (Gallinago gallinago , Riparia riparia Coracias garrulus Coracias Alcedo atthis, Bee- have suitable breeding breeding suitable have noctua Athene ), Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos Merops Merops , apiaster Sand Martin, Riparian bird conservation conservation bird Riparian and Little Owl, Little and on watch a keeping even and protecting and locations) (particularly nest colonies where islets and banks flat Which species have heritage value? The mature stages of often riverside associated with exuberant primary vegetation, woodlands, while do not in fact harbour any particular avian species. Nonetheless, there is usually of a some great species, abundance including Golden Oriole oriolus (Oriolus the are willow groves Locally, minor) and flycatchers. habitat of Willow Tit ) montanus (Parus or Penduline Tit (Remiz pendulinus). What bird needed? conservation measures are Riparian bird communities owe their richness and abundance to natural river dynamics. Through the processes of alluvial erosion watercourse and maintains deposition, and the conservation renews first The depend. birds the which on habitats numerous measure, therefore, should be necessary to restore these dynamics protect by protecting and the if and water the of quality the and regime flow natural construction. of hard by keeping the channel free More locally, complementary measures at specific points are useful for protecting river channel bird breeding grounds, such as keeping steep banks soft and open (so that Kingfisher, eater, At least 11 woodland species and 8 aquatic species listed in Annex I of the EC riverside Bird habitats. Directive In nest in France, moreover, two-thirds of the 34 species listed in the of national Endangered Red Book Species that nest can in that inhabit country riparian Nonetheless, woodlands it mainly (Roché, are basin Mediterranean should the in birds woodland 2002). be noted noteworthy really are few a only and species common that riparian Roller as (such environment this in Penduline Tit, storks or shrikes Lanius spp.). Penduline

Riparian zone birds 108 h ha o te acmn ad hs o te plain the of those and catchment the of head the riparian of lines forestsat the corridorsbetween ecological forestsas of role the scale, landscape a At of woodlandsuccession,assistingnumerous species. and can contribute to maintaining the various stages fauna entomological diverse and rich a support to helps grazing however, land, open On nest. dwellers scrub- many where undergrowth the destroys it as is sometimes practised but is not helpful for the birds, woodlands riparian in Grazing fish. or hunt to which from perches or food of sources holes, nesting with hns éocls n oron. td d du successions deux de Étude Bourgogne. écologiques. LaTerre etlaVie24:153-251 en de forêt pédonculés d’une nidificatrice chênes L’avifaune (1970) B Frochot C, Ferry Blondel J(1995)Biogéographie etécologie.Masson,Paris Hague, Netherlands The Publishing, Academic SPB 95-107. communities, bird forest of Mediterraneanthe KeastIn: Biogeographyzone. (ed). A ecology and in fauna bird forest of history and Biogeography (1990) J Blondel References remain floodable. to them border often that woodlands the helps also or maintain to restore their connectivity with the river channel. This is recommendation the birds, for strata. As regards wetlands, an important food source vertical several of composed structure vegetation a have they if and trees) (with high and continuous even better for birds if they are several dozen be meters long, will corridors these Obviously, woodland. of strips narrow just even or bands reconstructing by restored necessary if and preserved be to needs rivière. Agencedel’eauLoire-Bretagne de boisements les dans oiseaux les pour place Une (2002) J Roché d’eau, 156-168.IDF riverainesPautouforêts coursH, Les des Piegay (eds). C Ruffinoni G, In: ripisylve. la dans oiseaux Des (2003) J Roché B, Faivre B, Frochot Academic SPB Publishing, TheHague,Netherlands 183-195. communities, bird forest of ecology and Biogeography (ed). A Keast In: France). (Eastern Jura the and gundy Bur- of forests the of communities Bird (1990) B Frochot C, Ferry

109 Riparian zone birds , the Mediterranean species, Mediterranean the sapidus, Arvicola Figure 2.5.1 Figure The Otter: an important species wetlands of European Caetano). (Photo: Marco António Mira The lives in densely vegetated banks of rivers, streams and marshlands and is rarely seen away from freshwater environments. It is one of the as classified being mammals, European threaten most Union. (CR) in the European Critically Endangered The Otter and the European Mink are annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive. included in For all the species mentioned riparian habitats due to above, anthropogenic activities are changes in declines. population global or local of cause main the Habitat loss and degradation resulting from clearing vegetation to channelize streams, water extraction, diffuse pollution from agriculture and acute water quality degradation from industry and other human activities are the major factors acting negatively on the populations of mammals. semi-aquatic European is decreasing. The Otter (figure 2.5.1) is a semi-aquatic carnivore that occupies a variety of including aquatic lakes, environments, marshes, rocky coastal rivers. areas However, and in most parts is occurrence dependent on of the existence of riparian its range otter vegetation. In these areas, otter breeding sites are often associated with the presence of dead trunks and cavities among tree roots, and the availability of these may be a occupation and breeding. limiting factor for riverbank cover, cover, food and nesting sites. The global population of trend et and presents presents N. fodiens N. N. fodiens), Eurasian et al., 1993). This significance is N. anomalus, a species with a more a wide distribution and stable population trend in However Europe. some in declining be may distribution, Mediterranean of its range. areas Many European populations of the Eurasian Beaver are now increasing due to the implementation conservation of programmes in several parts of their range. can occupy many kinds of freshwater environments; however, they usually prefer aquatic they habitats embedded in a woodland matrix where or lodges. can construct their burrows Water voles inhabit a wide habitats, including streams, rivers, irrigation ditches, range of freshwater at their presence ponds, lakes However, and marshes. these sites depends on the existence of a tall, dense grassy layer and/or shrubs in the margins, to provide Riparian zones are habitats of huge importance for most European mammal species (Mitchell-Jones al., 1999; O’Conell strengthened in Mediterranean environments, where hot and dry summers put the survival strategies of to the test. these regions mammals occurring in For species with a semi-aquatic way of life, like the ), lutra (Lutra Otter ), lutreola (Mustela Mink European Iberian Desman (Galemys ), pyrenaicus water shrews (Neomys anomalus and (Castor fiber) and water voles (Arvicola sapidus A. amphibious), riparian areas are key habitats. and them on breed and feed often species these fact, In along riparian corridors. move for preference The Iberian Desman mainly inhabits small mountain rivers with clean, associated oxygenated with riparian waters, vegetation generally that shelter and provides nesting places. Its global population is decreasing, the main cause being habitat loss and and degradation (Palomo Gisbert, 2002). In Europe it has recently been classified as Near Threatened (NT) in with accordance the IUCN Red List Categories and is legally protected, figuring in annexes II and IV of (92/43/CEE). the Habitats Directive Water shrews occur in a broad habitats, range of both wetland freshwater and riparian woodlands are among coastal. the most significant However, for both species, which often live their environment. of kind this in cycle entire life MAMMALS

Mammals 110 rmt te ped f iess ie myxomatosis main the are diseases fever. like These haemorrhagic and diseases of spread the promote besides conditions fact, these rabbits for poor In ecologically being zones. riparian in rabbit establishment wild for factor limiting a be may insects of Nonetheless, the higher humidity and high abundance areas. riparian to foxes and genets polecats, weasels, like predators attracting sites, these at concentrate they shrew, can take advantage of these extra resources, common so the and mouse Algerian the mouse, wood the including species, mammal small Many biomass. and diversity insect and plant higher promote that water of microclimates and presencemicrohabitats provide shade the and fact, In cycle. this of part facilitate to least, or,at cycles life their complete to zones riparian on depend also may habitat of types different in living species mammal other However, trends. to needs population negative the invert orderto in place that take action major a is recovery corridor riparian through populations fragmented connectivity between Restoring populations. small already species for problem some promotesof it isolation since the conservation, major a also is construction reservoir and dam through fragmentation Habitat SECEMU, Madrid Naturaleza-SECEM- la de Conservación de General Dirección paña. Es- Terrestresde Mamíferos los de Atlas (2002) J Gisbert LJ, Palomo riparian habitats: aliterature review. of Timber, Fish&Wildlife use Wildlife (1993) SD West JG, Hallett MA, O’Connell J Zima V, Vohralík (1999) TheAtlasofEuropean Mammals.AcademicPress, London JBM, Thissen M, Stubbe F, Spitzenberger PJH, Reijinders B, Krystufek W, Bogdanowicz G, Amori AJ, Mitchell-Jones References levels. all at conservation biodiversity for value ecological of incomparable of routes is populations as among connectivity role their Consequently, exchange. genetic of paths main the and most species mammalian of make dispersion the areas for corridors riparian natural of them forms linear usually The concentrate intheseareas insummer. in regions with a Mediterranean climate they tend to undergroundand their galleries construct to enough semi- and voles (Microtus (Talpa and moles places some fossorial In species. for fossorial conditions offers litter soil and suitable sediments of accumulation The these habitatsintensively. use to tend which mammals, carnivorous and bats them good areas to rest make and shelter for debris) some arboreal and wood dead stones, roots; among the availability of refuges (hollows in tree trunks and and summer) Mediterranean the during important compared with the surrounding habitats (particularly The milder climate conditions of riparian zones when of Europe. parts many in decline rabbit to contributing factor index.htm http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/ema/ European MammalAssessment(consultedon25thJuly2007) Webpages: spp.) find soft soil with depth spp.)

111 Mammals 112 3 Assessing the Ecological Quality of Riverine Landscapes of water; seven times 3 et al., 2005). Henri Décamps J. Naiman Robert Michael M. McClain m high (GWSP, 2004), at least 800,000 slightly smaller slightly 800,000 least at 2004), (GWSP, high m such diversions “minor” of millions literally and dams, as artificial ponds and roof catchments. The world’s dams alone store 10,000 km stabilization isolate rivers from diversions their either floodplains, de-water rivers or add rivers water (e.g. interbasin to transfers), thereby modifying regimes. moisture natural As a result, the physical of the and riparian biological systems have diversity declined river along networks. most We summarize here the effects anthropogenic stresses on of riparian systems after our book “Riparia” (Naiman longer exists for many large rivers in North America and Europe and is rapidly continents. disappearing Particularly in on Europe, rivers other have been nearly for uses numerous for managed and harnessed a thousand years. Some of the first were modifications for waterpower and navigation in and the 12th 13th centuries (table channelization, and 3.1.1). land reclamation Flood followed control, ca. by 1500 AD, and the construction of water supply dams followed by ca. 1600 AD. Concomitant impacts included artisan fisheries and severe pollution, addition to in large woody debris removal from river these Collectively, 1994). Sedell, and (Maser channels greatly uplands and rivers to modifications other and modified riparian communities (table 3.2.2). more than the total volume more of and water in all rivers equivalent to a 10 cm layer spread over the world’s 1988). During the 19th the During 1988). al., et A worldwide view of flow regulation view of flow A worldwide Flow regulation Flow An historical approach of riparian alterations of riparian approach An historical Massive hydrological alterations – to ensure water and energy for agricultural, industrial, and domestic purposes or for flood protection – riparian have characteristics changed throughout the world. estimated two-thirds An of the flowing to the oceans is obstructed by ~45,000 large dams >15 The main responses regulation of depend on the type of regulation riparian – dam zones characteristics, dikes, to and diversion – flow and the local geology and climate. Dams alter fluxes of nutrients and migrations of organisms, dikes and bank Human attitudes toward riparian zones have changed have zones riparian toward attitudes Human rather were zones riparian first, At centuries. the over fearful places, made up of inextricable thickets and they that wetlands the of because unhealthy deemed included. They have been transformed and exploited as fertile fields and as pastures, deprived vegetation to facilitate of towing of boats by their ropes, or planted with flexible willows that were cut regularly (Décamps uses local for Riparian zones have been anthropogenic stresses, including affected flow by regulation, multiple land use and . fragmented These floodplains, their from rivers the isolated stresses have forest covers, and favored the expansion of species formerly restricted to the terrace or the uplands. century, riparian zones were marginalized by dam constructions and river embankments (Petts, 1989). being as recognized zones riparian were recently Only worthy of conservation or restoration. As a general consequence, the natural relationship between floodplains and the main channels no RIPARIAN SYSTEMS AS AS SYSTEMS RIPARIAN PERVASIVE OF ZONES STRESS ANTHROPOGENIC

Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress 114 ttos n 20 ml ad ag reservoirs large and small km 26,000 200 (inundating and stations hydropower large eleven catchment, River the Danube occupy reservoirs 200 almost dams, large 194 contain Canada and States United the in tributaries massive be (Rosenberg can catchment single a on regulation flow associated and construction dam of extent The than more63,000 kmofcanalshavebeenconstructed. and worldwide, navigation for altered dikes. More than 500,000 km of waterways have been and levees artificial by constrained further arerivers dry land surface. Additionally, long stretches of many a a hrceitc lw eie ht redistributes that regime flow characteristic a has river Every processes. ecological and communities plant riparian of dynamics the determining riparian zones, of integrity ecological the of “driver” key natural a is regime flow The 2002). Svedmark, and (Naiman their floodplains associated and rivers of sustainability threat ecological serious the to a is regimes flow of alteration The stability environmental of conditions upland enhanced productive less artificially under floodplain the by invade that species replaced be to tend its undermines natural ecological vitality. that Productive pioneer species process a undergoes “terrestrialization” zone riparian Stanford, the and Essentially, (Ward 1995). habitats new of formation the stopping and modifying succession, plant of processes and the accelerating materials, and water of fluxes lateral reducing tables, water lowering by Flow regulation affects the integrity of riparian zones xmls f h efcs f lw leain on Aswan floodplain the of closure After pervasive. are inundation of alterations frequency and flow duration, of extent, the effects the of Examples Don River the catchment (inundating5,500km on built been have reservoirs than 130 more and catchment, River Volga-Kama the Ecological sustainability The “terrestrialization“ process 2000). The Columbia River and its and River Columbia The 2000). al., et 2 of land) have been built on built been have land) of 2002; Nilsson 2002; al., et 2 ). term (RichterandRichter, 2000). long the for systems riparian of services and goods the maintain to order in regimes flow characteristic the to of framework the within is resources water utilize management riparian for challenge major a Therefore, zones. riparian influencing the in communities thus plant material, inorganic and organic the or dewatering ofstreams. bottoms valley of inundation the through fauna associated the affect also flow in Alterations 2000). Auble, and (Friedman species non-native of and and willows (Rood establishment, recruitment, survival of many riparian tree species such as poplars the affecting thus communities, non-equilibrium on conditions equilibrium impose to is floodplains on regulation (Décamps, 1993). In essence, the overall effect of flow India (Postel, 1997and2000). valley,of portions major China’sand plains, northern plagues the central United States, California’s central and Yellow Dar’ya, rivers, and over-pumping of Syr ground water Dar’ya, Amu Ganges, Nile, the affected has floods shifted of from spring to timing late summer. the Similar fates have and days, of matter a to months two fromdecreased has floodplains fringing the on duration flood sea, the into flow natural its of percent 36 only discharges now Australia in River of the reaches the mouth. The Murray flow natural the of percent 1 than less and flow, to ceases frequently now River Senegal the season, dry the During inundation. floodplain on consequences far-reaching with 2:1, to 12:1 from decreased ratio the flood peak. The maximum-to-minimum discharge of timing the in months several of shift a and rates, flow base higher floods, annual truncated discharge, annual reduced a showed River Nile the dam, high et al., 2003) or favoring the spread

115 Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress ), and 2+ 1996, Hood and Hood 1996, al., et ), magnesium (Mg 2+ ). Thus, the human modification of the + ) and tamarisks (Tamarix spp.) (Cleverly species along the Adour River is similar to rivers along rivers to similar is River Adour the along species the Pacific Coast of the United States and to South (Planty-Tabacchi rivers African Naiman, 2000). In the southwestern United States, as a result of widespread human-induced changes in hydrology and land use, native cottonwood and willow stands are being woody replaced species by non-native such as angustifolia Russian Olive (Eleagnus et al., 1997). temperature temperature regimes, nutrient invasive plants. enrichment, and and June daily variations increased by 6°C. Stream temperatures gradually returned better after as recovered, 15 the regimes years forest to pre-harvest conduction heat and radiation short-wave regulating soils. terrestrial from soil. The buildup of enhances highly of leaching encourages also and emissions oxides nitrous of water-soluble nitrate into streams and groundwater. As these negatively charged they away, carry with them positively charged alkaline minerals such as calcium (Ca potassium (K nitrogen nitrogen cycle not only increases N losses from the riparian soils, it also accelerates the loss of Ca and vital for plant growth. other nutrients that are et al., Species invasion Species Nutrient enrichment Nutrient Land use change Land use regimes Temperature Riparian zones are particularly vulnerable to species invasion, and frequently disturbed sites active near channel contain the generally high percentages of non-native species (DeFerrari and Naiman, 1994; Pyšek and Prach, 1994). Along France’s Adour River, plant invaders account for one-quarter of the total species richness of 1,558 species constitute up and to 40 locally percent of all can species (Tabacchi 2000). and Planty-Tabacchi, in Despite differences climate, great species richness, and land use history, the proportion of invasive 1994). As ammonium builds up in riparian soils, it is action, microbial by nitrate to converted increasingly a process that releases hydrogen ions, acidifying the Alterations Alterations to the global N and P cycles result in a or one retain to zones riparian of capacity decreasing more elements, with attendant downstream effects, harmful algal blooms, coastal kills (NRC, 2000). , Nutrients added to and the inflowing fish water influence productivity the of floodplain organisms (Hanson species composition and Land use change has pervasive riparian consequences for zones, particularly through effects on temperatures, stream influence clearly zones Riparian with consequences on their biology as shown along Forest Experimental Andrews H.J. the In streams. many in Oregon, forest harvesting stream increased temperatures maximum by 7°C (Johnson summer, the in earlier occurred maximum This 2000). and Jones,

Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress 116 vns oal ad einly r epce with expected are regionally and locally events from one area to the next. More drasticallyviolent precipitation varying but average on rain and clouds substantial more produce would climate Earth’s that the of warming consensus increasing an is There For example, successful reproduction by cottonwood reproductionby successful example, For flows. spring high predictable of advantage take or avoid to evolved have species riparian and aquatic both of strategies) reproductive (e.g. characteristics Meyer 1997; (Poff process this in central are flooding of magnitude and timing the productivityand system – and composition riparian alter will change climate responseto in runoff of pattern seasonal modified A for riparianzones(Sweeneyetal.,1992). consequences serious with km, 680 about regimes thermal of in shift latitudinal northward a represent temperatures by 4°C in present-day ecosystems would 2002). It has been suggested that suitable a warming of water of (Poff corridors dispersal presence of as well as habitats the on depending mountain in regions, elevations higher to or species north, the of to ranges geographic potential the shifts for many species. In addition, global warming already reproduction and growth alter change) temperature extreme of rates (e.g., seasonal and duration, regimes their temperatures, temperature in Changes physiological and characteristics history life the has pool species available the of percentage small very a Only predict. to impossible probably is introduction particular any of outcome ecological the However, Changes regimes inprecipitation andrunoff Changes intemperature regimes Climate change 99. ay f h lf history life the of Many 1999). al., et t al., et et al., et rsue o araysrse rvr n riparian and river systems. already-stressed on pressures additional place will changes projected These 2002). (Milly locations many in occur also will soils aggravated risk of flooding, whereas severe drying of n oten aiue bcue xes precipitation excess because latitudes increases northern precipitation in winter if even expected This is summer. late in discharge of reduction the is basins northern in or fromelevations high rainat to snow shifting of consequence significant Another Mahoney, 1990;Auble etal.,1994). and (Rood habitat floodplain the inundating flows spring high creates that snowmelt on depends trees species (Poff cool-adapted of invasion allowing and permafrost, and cover ice extensive eliminating Celsius, degrees several by increase to likely are temperatures water winter regions, Northern In further. species riparian affecting warm, will groundwater even time, (Dang nutrient Over soils increase riparian in may availability of which decomposition of material, rate organic the thus and activity microbial of rate the increase temperatures Higher large by variance andexceptions. characterized are patterns All colonization colonization. successful for needed tolerances et al.,2002). 2007). al., et et al., et

117 Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress result result in lower summer discharge in many areas. In addition, some areas could become generally drier and thereby become particularly stressful for river and riparian systems. Many aquatic in large communities rivers are partially dependent on floodplains, either habitat as for a fish nursery or for riparian wetlands floodplain from nutrients of export seasonal disconnected become floodplains these If river. the to from the main rivers because of reduced discharge, it is obvious that aquatic productivity and diversity would decline. ecosystems by diversion, and groundwater the building pumping, of dikes, These levees, changes and reservoirs. have and modified fragmented natural the processes dispersal aquatic between landscape, ecosystems making more increasing difficult system and vulnerability to stresses associated with the climate change. Sustainable additional management, conservation and restoration of rivers and their riparian environments is a major challenge for this century. et et al., et 1996; Scott 1996; al., et et al., 2000, 2004, GWSP, Kabat Conclusion Human intervention in through land the cover change, urbanization, industrial global water development, and water resources cycle management has hydrological impacts beyond the greenhouse effect alone (Rosenberg will not be stored as snow, which provides a source of runoff to sustain late summer base-flow in arid highlands. Less water in the stream channel means less water flowing into tables, which are streamside important for groundwater sustaining riparian (Stromberg communities tree 1999). As a consequence, riparian communities are likely to experience conspicuous changes in species composition and productivity. frequency, and magnitude in increases flooding if Even earlier snowmelt and higher temperatures could still al., 2004). The cumulative impact of these is factors certainly important, and one critical uncertainty in projecting future aquatic to a ecosystem changing climate is response how humans will interact with changing river and riparian conditions. Human activities have changed many aquatic and riparian

Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress 118 Table 3.1.1DevelopmentofRiverRegulationinEurope (from Petts, 1989). ■ SignificantDevelopments ■ Historical Sequence Year ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1250 1900 1850 1750 1500 rivers established ■ reclamation ■ navigation ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ damsspread ■ reclamation ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Science ofregulating Flood-control andland River improvements for Weirs forwaterpower Impounded rivers River regulation dams Hydroelectricity dams Water supply Extensive floodplain ■ (262mhigh) ■ Switzerland(237mhigh) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ along230kmreach ■ 12.5x106ha reclaimed ■ AlpineRhône) ■ catchments ■ (40percent) ■ ■ approach toriverregulation ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ by1561 ■ ■ riverauthorities Verona (R.Adige)andFlorence (R.Arno)established ■ ■ ■ andEngland ■ R.Volga (25,400x106 m R.Volga (58,000x106 m R.Volga (1,120x106 m ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1962 Grand Dixence 285mhighdam,Switzerland 1961 First 250mhighdam:Vaiout dam, Italy 1957 First 200mhighdam:Mauvoisindam, 1955 First 50,000x106 m 1950 First 150mhighdam:Noce-Aldigo,Italy 1941 First 25,000x106 m 1937 First 1,000x106 m 1898 Hydroelectric powerdamatRheinfelden Masonary headwatersupplydams(50mhigh)common 1849 R.Danube4x106 hafloodplainreclaimed 1845 R.Tisza(Theisz)shortenedby340km, Major rivers channelized(e.g.,AlsatianRhineand Earth bankwater-supplydamsspread inheadwater R. Guadalquivir:lengthtoSevillereduced by50km Large rivers channelized(e.g.,R.Oder) Guglielmini (1697)andBaratteri (1699)scientific 1692 CompletionofLanguedoccanal 1594 Alicantedam(41 m-highmasonry) 1577–1643 Castelli(Founderofmodernhydraulics) Small rivers channelized(e.g.,Yevre andHavel) Pound lockswidespread Dredging usingendlesschaintechnologydeveloped 1550 Lupicinidesignedflood-defencesforR.Po 1497 Leonardo designedpound-lockwithmitre-gates 1400 BertoladesignedchannelizationofR.Adda 1398 First summitcanal(R.Stecknitz) Stanches widespread inFlanders, Germany, France, Italy, 3 ) 3 3 3 reservoir: Ivankovo, ) ) 3 3 reservoir: Rybinsk, reservoir: V.I.Lenindam, Other Impacts pollutionproblems ■ ■ ■ ■ widespread ■ ■ severely polluted ■ ■ artisanalfishery ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1616 R.Thames Artisanal fishery Artisanal fishery Conservation Severe pollution Overfishing River Thames Pollution Commercial and

119 Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress sity DeFerrari DeFerrari C, Naiman RJ (1994) A multi-scale assessment of Vegetation of Journal Washington. exotic Peninsula, Olympic the on plants Science 5:247–258. Friedman JM, Auble GT (2000) Floods, flood control, and bottom- land vegetation. In: Wohl EE (ed). Inland Flood and Hazards: Riparian Aquatic Communities, 219–237. Cambridge University Cambridge Press, GWSP (Framing Committee of the GWSP) (2004) The Global Water System Project: Science Framework and Implementation Activities. Earth System Science Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden (Online URL: http://www.gwsp.org) Hanson GC, Groffman PM, Gold AJ (1994) Symptoms of in a riparian wetland. Ecological Applications 4:750–756 saturation nitrogen Naiman of RJ Hood riparian (2000) GW, zones Vulnerability to inva- sion by exotic vascular plants. Plant Ecology 148:105–114 Introgression and hybridization; increased competition for space and resources; for space and resources; competition and hybridization; increased Introgression and community composition trajectories successional Usually alters water exchanges, and groundwater-surface flow regime, Modifies entire changed are Spatial patterns and phenology of riparian species Alters community composition and successional processes; loss of life history cues loss community composition and successional processes; Alters nutrient, sediment, and flow, above dam; altered Lotic to lentic; inundation alluvial aquifer recharge; decreases flow regime; water table; alters Lowers and causing terrestrialization riparian forest water table; desiccates Lowers connectivity hydraulic reducing floodplain, thereby Isolates river from and local microclimate Modifies albedo and feedbacks to climate; changes ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ biodiversity may reduce ■ ■ cues channel morphology and stability; loss of life history ■ ■ ■ below dams regimes temperature ■ system simplification ■ in biodiver change in community composition; possible decline ■ riparian alters channel migration; Constrains and vertically. laterally successional trajectories ■ successional trajectories Precipitation Temperature Levees Cover Vegetative Invasive Species Management Resource Flow Regime Dams Withdrawals Channelization & ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Dredging References Land Use Flow Regulation Flow Regulation ■ ■ ■

■ ■ Environmental Change on Riparian zones Principal Effects Change Environmental ■ Auble GT, Friedman JM, Scott ML etation to (1994) present and future Relating streamflows. Ecological Applications riparian veg- 4:544–554. Cleverly JR, Smith SD, Sala A, Devitt DA (1997) Invasive capacity of Tamarix ramosissima in the Mojave Desert floodplain: The role Oecologia 111:12–18 drought. of Dang CK, Chauvet E, Gessner MO (2007) Diel temperature oscilla- tions amplify effects on litter decomposition in stream microcosms. submitted Ecology, Décamps H, (1993) River margins and environmental change. Eco- logical Applications 3:441–445 influence Historical (1988) G Pauto F, Gazelle M, Fortune H, Décamps of man on the riparian dynamics of a fluvial landscape. Landscape Ecology 1:163-173 Major Types of anthropogenic environmental change and their principal effects on riparian systems (from Naiman et al., 2005). and their principal effects on riparian systems (from change environmental of anthropogenic 3.1.2 Major Types Table

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121 Riparian systems as zones of pervasive anthropogenic stress Teresa Pinto-Correia Teresa and Godron, 1986; material more Naveh the besides However, 1990). Zonneveld, and Lieberman, 1994; or objective characteristics, the landscape also has a subjective component, more connected with the observer and his or her impressions 1997; (Nassauer, understanding holistic the and 2003), Fry, and Palang of the landscape also includes the perceptive aspect 1999). The landscape combines both natural (Antrop, time same the at and expressing aspects, cultural and supporting the spatial and temporal interaction of and in humans all with its the diversity environment, 2000). 2000; Wolters, (Green, creativity In analytical terms, it different dimensions is and to important differentiate between to them (Brandt, consider 1998; Lorzing, 2001), as expressed in figure 3.2.1: (a) the potential landscape, related to natural biophysical characteristics; (b) the landscape systems use land with connected activities, human of and options; and (c) the and landscape interests, of the the “mindscape”. Even mind though should all they be integrated in landscape management, the case it is often considering its multifunctionality, that each discipline focuses on just dimensions. one of these Introduction: understanding the role and the concept of landscape and the concept the role understanding Introduction: The concept of landscape: different dimensions and levels of approach (adapted from Brandt, 1998). Brandt, (adapted from dimensions and levels of approach 3.2.1 The concept of landscape: different Figure The need to assess and landscapes manage from the perspective of both Europe’s the natural specific and the cultural heritage has been pointed out since the beginning of the Bourdeau, 1990’s in and strategic documents (Stanners Assessment Dobris the as such 1995), the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (Council of Europe, Action Plan 1996), for European the Landscapes (ECNC, 1997) and the European Landscape Convention (Council of Europe, 2000). Recently, the need to and respect recognise the character of the landscape in each specific place has in been combination stressed, with the need to involve local actors objectives and at different levels in to order to maintain or integrate create multifunctional landscapes (O’Riordan 2000). 1998; Council of Europe, Voisey, and The concept of landscape is considered in different ways depending on the many different disciplines and that approaches deal with it. Landscape ecology, as an integrated approach, considers the landscape as a complex, permanently dynamic system where different natural and each cultural other and change over factors time, determining and influence being determined by a global structure (Forman ANALYSING THE LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE THE ANALYSING ROLE THE STRUCTURING AND CORRIDORS OF RIPARIAN

Analysing the landscape and the structuring role of riparian corridors 122 te cmlx adcps hc dpr fo this from depart which landscapes complex other Europe,northwest and Mediterraneanthe in not and America North in use land specialised intensive, with landscapes agricultural of studies on based mainly are concepts These 2005). Cushman, and (McGarigal paradigm this to according constructed are ecology landscape of methods and tools ideas, fundamental the of Many corridors. networks, of collections 2) of consisting and patches, discrete of collections of consisting mosaics, 1) of constructed left) 3.2.2, arerepresentedlandscapes (figure 1995), matrices as Forman, 1986; Godron, patch-corridor- and (Forman widely-adopted model matrix the In use. through land landscape the of materiality the shaping activities, human expresses and dynamic highly is it as fundamental interesting is is cover Land pattern 2005). (Haines-Young, of understanding an so consequences, and causes its the including of cover, land arrangement spatial and dynamics the on focused often very is analysis ecology, landscape In the mosaichaveunclearborders andhavetobeidentifiedthrough analysiswithpre-defined criteria(right). defined well a and matrix borders of clear patches and with corridors landscapes (left) and use extensive, fuzzy land land specialised use system intensive, landscapes between where differencesthe matrix description: is not Landscape clear and the patches composing 3.2.2 Figure Analysing thelandscape andits components eeal uaalbe r o yt el developed well yet (Haines-Young, 2005). not or are unavailable cover land generally mapping for approach gradient a of adoption the for tools but 2005), Cushman, and of the true heterogeneity of the landscape (McGarigal classes of land cover risks being a poor representation categorical of delineation the Here, 2007). Correia, methodology restrictive based on objective parameters (van Doorn and Pinto- a of and than judgement interpretation of matter a discrete more is a classification through patches defining right), 3.2.2, (figure Peninsula Iberian the of landscapes pastoral continuous with cover,land of terms in gradients landscapes fuzzier in However, through visualinterpretation ofaerialphotographs. corridors, and and patches as classes accordingly, it delineating cover land discrete maps, into categorical it using classifying mapped usually is cover Land 2005). (Haines-Young, structure simple more AND THESTRUCTURINGROLE ANALYSING THELANDSCAPE OF RIPARIAN CORRIDORS the agro-silvo- the e.g.

123 Analysing the landscape and the structuring role of riparian corridors At different scales, these are corridors that and shape structure the landscape important and fluxes of through energy, matter and which species are 1999). (Saraiva, processed has shown that the higher the fragmentation, Baudry, and (Burel corridors of the role the relevant more 1999). However, it must be pointed out that there is still a need for the exact greater role of corridors in knowledge terms of reducing concerning the effects of fragmentation patterns, in particularly fuzzy patterns, where gradient different landscape for species behaviour relevant may than be the more distribution of patches and the connecting corridors landscape above, mentioned As 2005). (Haines-Young, patches including pattern, consider should ecologists and corridors, more as an explanatory variable and start its analysis by considering ecological processes (Wu and Hobbs, 2000). Even with these limitations, the however, role of riparian corridors has proved to be relevant to the behaviour of many species, both as a habitat and as a connecting element (Burel and 1999). Baudry, From another perspective, riparian secure corridors also a multitude functions, of as classified information by and de have Groot carrier an (2006): they aesthetic, ethical they contribute, and often in a social remarkable way, to role the beauty since and diversity of the landscape and, in way, this to its appreciation by several types they of users; are also involved in and education used for recreation and in many ways training (Bastian and Steinhard, 2002). Especially in open and semi-open rural landscapes, the presence of a well constituted mosaic the of diversity the increases corridor riparian landscape improves that element structuring a is and attractiveness. This applies not only to agricultural landscapes, but also, clearly, to urban-dominated Riparian corridors as diversifying and structuring landscape elements landscape and structuring diversifying as corridors Riparian Different Different types of associated watercourses, riparian together corridors, with important have regulation, a functions series habitat of in and the particularly for drainage, water production retention, landscape transport (de and storage Groot, of 2006), matter, energy providing self-cleaning, resources, genetic of support storage and flow, habitats and helping differences (Bastian and Steinhardt, 2002). The more to balance significant the water body and out the riparian corridor, climatic the more significant these functions are as well. A comprehensive landscape ecology analysis of a starts with the source and catchment areas influences, its all with course entire the examines and involving both biotic and non-biotic elements. Furthermore, as watercourses are structured network, as a they animal contribute all almost for relevant is to which level, landscape connectivity at the riparian preserved, and developed well When species. corridors have a diversified structure, an inner and outer part and several components, including presence the of water, which all in all ecological interest increases and contribution to their connectivity, compared to simpler corridors such as hedgerows. Corridor efficiency depends first and foremost the species on concerned but in general, the vegetation structure (herb, shrub and all are composition species and structure edge width, tree layers), of number the and corridor corridors of density The important. of independently relevant, highly also is intersections the landscape context. Nevertheless, the importance of corridors is more easily patch-corridor assessed mosaic in type a and matrix- previous research In all types of landscape patterns, both those with clear boundaries and riparian corridors are those always recognisable elements, which shape their by are surroundings their from differentiated fuzzier, and texture and their overall structure as a network.

Analysing the landscape and the structuring role of riparian corridors 124 relief and morphology and to land capability and the use, to related closely structure network their with corridors, riparian their and Watercourses remains. often that elements is natural previous the corridor of one only of the kind this where landscapes, through social demand for these differentfunctions, these for demand throughsocial way, this In 2006). Groot, (de society and by valued sense, are broad a in expectations, and demands needs, human fulfil which landscape providedthe by removable) (non services and (removable) goods the as summarized be separately,can or combination in units, arespatial securedvarious which by functions, These acknowledged. now also are identity maintaining cultural and activities recreational for spaces quality,water offering and biodiversitypreserving as in such developed functions other and society, of have sectors several landscapes rural concerning expectations increasing live, to population rural the for place a and production fibre and traditional food of the roles to addition In areas. consumption Rural 2000). into areas production (Wilson, from turned have landscapes environment rural the understanding of post-productivist a from a transition to the productivist reflects It years. concept recent key in a as emerged has Multifunctionality Concluding remarks: challenge in integratedthe multifunctionality landscape management to itsaestheticquality. contributing besides landscape, the understand and different types of contexts helps the observer to read in vegetation riparian the of presence the way, this In landscape. the of backbones the as seen be can 1999). (Saraiva, way integrated an in variations temporal considering all their dimensions and their spatial and corridors, riparian to attention particular pay should multifunctionality landscape for aim that strategies increased management integrated for such, As multifunctionality. main factors the relevant both are are quality concerns, water and continuity and diversity structure, vegetation where corridor, the of state the and density network The landscape. the of functions above-mentioned the of majority the to contribution positive a make corridors Riparian mentioned intheresearch explicitly (OECD,2001). rarely is two the between relation the if more even sustainability, of higher be will multifunctionality result the that assumption often the on management, based and strategies landscape for paradigm new a as emerged has multifunctionality

125 Analysing the landscape and the structuring role of riparian corridors Nassauer J (ed) (1997) Placing nature. Culture and Landscape Ecol- Culture nature. Nassauer J (ed) (1997) Placing California Island Press, ogy. Landscape Ecology - Theory and Ap- Naveh Z, Lieberman A (1994) New York plication. Springer-Verlag, and Development (OECD) Cooperation for Economic Organization OECD an Analytical Framework. Towards Multifunctionality, (2001) (Online URL: http://www.oecd.org/datao- Publication Service, Paris ecd/62/38/40782727.pdf) The to Sustainability, H (1998) The Transition Voisey T, O’Riordan Earthscan, London in Europe. of Agenda 21 Politics heritage in H, Fry G (2003) Landscape Interfaces. Cultural Palang Publish-Changing Landscapes. Landscape Series, Kluwer Academic London ers, de Universitários Textos Rio como Paisagem. G (1999) O Saraiva Lisboa Ciências Sociais e Humanas. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, The Environment. P (eds) (1995) Europe’s D, Bourdeau Stanners Copenhagen Agency, Environment Dobris Assessment. European Map- Finding a way to reality T (2007) Doorn A, Pinto-Correia Van landscapes of the Medi- pastoral ping land cover in the agro-silvo Systems Agroforestry South Portugal. from reflections terranean: (accepted August 06) to post-productivism... productivism Wilson GA (2000) From and mental and back again? Exploring the (un)changed natural of the Institute of Transactions agriculture. landscapes of European 26:77-102 British Geographers landscapes; a chal- AR (2000) The action plan for European Wolters Landscape W (eds). From In: Klijn J, Vos lenge for science and policy. Ecology to Landscape Science, 129-137. Kluwer Academic Publish- Boston/London Dordrecht, ers. Priorities in issues and Research J, Hobbs R (2000) Key Wu synthesis. Landscape Ecology landscape Ecology: an idiosyncratic 17:355-365 Zonneveld IS (1990) Scope and concepts of Landscape Ecology as Zonneveld IS (eds). Changing science. In: Forman F, an emerging New York Springer-Verlag. Landscapes: An Ecological Perspective. References Antrop M (1999) Background Concepts for Integrated Landscape Landscape Concepts for Integrated M (1999) Background Antrop 77:17-28 Ecosystems and the Environment Analysis. Agriculture, Development and Perspectives U (eds) (2002) Steinhardt Bastian O, London Academic Publishers, Kluwer of Landscape Ecology. In: Pinto- for Landscape Ecology. perspectives J (1998) New Brandt M (eds). Challenges for Mediterranean d’Abreu Cancela T, Correia Landscapes – examples of Cultural Landscape Ecology: the Future of the I National Landscape Proceedings the Alentejo region. from Montemor-o-Novo, Portugal (APED), Ecology Workshop J (1999) Ecologie du paysage. Concepts, Méthodes Baudry F, Burel et Applications. Editions TEC&DOC, Paris Biological (1996) The Pan-European (UNEP/ECNC) Council of Europe Natural A Vision of Europe’s Strategy. and Landscape Diversity Heritage. The Netherlands Landscape Convention, T-Land (2000) European Council of Europe (2000) 6, Strasbourg and valuation as a tool to as- R (2006) Function-analysis De Groot sess land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multi-functional landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 75:175-186 Conservation (ECNC) (1997) Action for Nature Centre European Action Plan for European Landscapes. Draft Theme 4: European Landscapes, ECNC, Tilburg and Forman RTT (1995) Land mosaics, the ecology of landscapes Cambridge press, university Cambridge regions. John Wiley and M (1986) Landscape Ecology. Godron Forman RTT, Sons. New York planning and management initiatives in BH (2000) Policy, Green W (eds). In: Klijn J, Vos landscape conservation. cultural European Landscape Ecology to Landscape Science, 57-72. Kluwer From Boston/London Dordrecht, Academic Publishers. In: context and process. R (2005) Landscape Pattern: Haines-Young in Landscape Ecology, Wiens J, Moss M (eds). Issues and perspectives Press Cambridge University 103-111. Quest. 010 of landscape. A Personal The Nature Lorzing H (2001) Rotterdam Publishers, concept of landscape McGarigal K, Cushman SA (2005) The gradient in In: Wiens J, Moss M (eds). Issues and perspectives structure. Press Cambridge University 112-119. Landscape Ecology,

Analysing the landscape and the structuring role of riparian corridors 126 ehius eal h sadrie poeue for procedures techniques standardized the many detail techniques decades two encompassing rapid field surveys have evolved. These past the Over over time. impact anthropogenic and and variability attributes natural conservation in trends track to needed often are schemes monitoring Consequently, zones. reflect the not dynamic features characteristic do of riparian and data of compilations static are studies areas area specific Also, riparian discounted. their values conservation and managed, many poorly and unstudied hence remain areas; outside are protected often that networks linear cover may extensive zones riparian But focusing areas. protected particularly on information, such map collect and to conducted been have studies field term long- Traditionally, etc. alterations anthropogenic richness, or species structure, reaches forest as such corridor segments river particular of attributes the on data to refers information Site-based 2005). (Palmer management place take most activities restoration where and site, of corridor scale river the the at systems these about information ecological relevant of lack the is areas riparian and river protecting in encounteredproblems the of One and Kaika, 2003). (Pagetools governance these limit often institutions knowledge interests, ineffective policies, inadequate and inefficient infrastructure competing and ecology, corridor systems, river about river that impact activities human those regulate scale to endeavor in appropriate (Verdonschot, 2000). efforts While current laws and practices management and the in complex requirewill assessment 2002)and future(Simonovic, more become to resource likely riparian are issues and water Ringold Additionally, 1978; 1996). (Holling, systems these of condition the on information concise and accurate management (Gordon effective on depends zones riparian Baron 1998; (Postel, integrity ecological corridors and their assess biodiversity to river need the on of attention focused has deterioration continued The Introduction 02. rtcin f ies n their and rivers of Protection 2002). al., et 04, hc i tr rle on relies turn in which 2004), al., et Panayotis Dimopoulos Sofia Giakoumi,AlcibiadesN.Economou Rhema H.Bjorkland,Yorgos Chatzinikolaou Stamatis Zogaris,RonaldBjorkland t al., et t al., et ) rtcl ein ad ) aa aaeet and management communication approaches. data d) and design; protocol c) monitoring; b) ecological information categorization; and aspects assessment rapid of definitions a) following discussed: are The site. or reach corridor river of scale the at visits site employ and ground, the on confined to procedures that can be undertaken rapidly, procedures for monitoring riparian systems. These are This chapter reviews some aspects of rapid assessment 2002; GibbonsandFreudenberger, 2006). protection, or restoration actions (Greenwood-Smith, management, specific require that reaches corridor river prioritize help to information relevant provide can conditions riparian of assessments rapid based Palmer 2001; Middleton, 2001; (Newton, campaigns conservation in role important for volunteers monitoring, education, citizen and public awareness plays an trained and organizations non-government by protocols assessment rapid use Bjorkland 1997; al., (Growns public general the and makers, decision managers, resource by understood readily more are provide protocolsbasic site-based information and generalizations that assessment rapid Furthermore, techniques. analysis spatial or studies desk sensing, unmet information needs critical that on cannot be focus gleaned and from remote questions assessment conservation-related address to attempt protocols Sayer 1995; al., Barbour,and Lenat 1993; Jackson, and Resh 1993; (Resh mechanism cost-saving and easy-to-use an as primarily developed were methods assessment visual rapid applications, research for information depth in- providing for limitations their recognizing While 1991;Norris andThoms,1999). (Goldsmith, assessments regional multi-site monitoring focus from intensive area studies to wider the shift rapid helped has proceduresprobably assessment of use fact, In surveys. monitoring repeated for and project reconnaissance useful one-time a for are both protocols assessment trained Rapid by personnel. measurements and estimations of use visual the through data biological and chemical, physical, relevant of compilation and acquisition the PROTOCOLS FORMONITORING RAPID VISUALASSESSMENT 2000). Most rapid assessment rapid Most 2000). al., et 2001). The use of easy-to- of use 2001).The al., et IN RIPARIANZONES 05. Site- 2005). al., et et et

127 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 2006). Therefore, Therefore, 2006). al., et et al., 2006). 2002). Knowledge of reference reference of Knowledge 2002). al., et or semi-quantitative descriptor (or (Winger system river and/or riparian the of condition score) of the et al., 2005; Sutula Visually-based rapid assessment methodologies use levels quality characterize to (references) benchmarks assumed is It conditions. riparian evaluate to order in conditions ecological visible of measures specific that can be evaluated in relation to a specified standard (Sutula condition reference or baseline condition requires approach” this “reference information on the structure and different functioning types of of riparian minimally- zones exist, not in do zones riparian their natural If “natural” state. disturbed and near-natural riparian systems provide reference conditions. Reference-based assessment procedures systematically aggregate variables into a scoring system, calibrated to an upper near- the boundary characterizes that condition) reference (the natural or best attainable condition of a particular (Ferreira system conditions is therefore a prerequisite for employing benchmarks in indicator-based assessments. Rapid assessment protocols differ in their focus on the geographic domain and features of interest. For example, some protocols focus only on the riparian vegetation while evaluate others both and in-stream riparian characteristics in order to provide a general visual rapid All health. corridor’s river the of summary assessment procedures involve site data collection, during which visual estimates and are measurements made along a pre-selected to next point particular a reach is site assessed The corridor. of the river the river or a longitudinal plot (or and transect) may range from 50 meters to 500 meters in length. Most field assessments can be completed within 20 to 50 minutes per site. Visual assessments often semi-quantitative involve estimations instead subjective measurements. of or Relative precise to measurement other procedures, more rapid detailed assessments be less may precise or may sacrifice detailed ecological information; nevertheless, they are effective usually for detecting more conditions or trends within Rapid visual assessment in riparian systems in riparian assessment visual Rapid Studies of riparian areas may include collecting data on the physical, chemical, and biological properties to describe biological composition and communities, processes, ecological relationships, geomorphic and the impact of anthropic influences. systematic However, studies of these areas are by complicated core factors that influence their structure function: and spatial and systems; these of nature temporal dynamic the scales; multiple heterogeneity at and the influence of extrinsic or external processes, often at a broader scale (Odum, 1990). As a result, site-specific information is management decisions that often affect riparian lacking health and integrity and are made in ecological the data; absence this situation of is sound particularly acute outside protected riparian areas et al., 2004). Munné et al., 2003; Gordon (Petersen, 1992; Rapid assessments can provide condition snapshots of the of environment, often the with minimal resource commitment, and obtaining information from site visits is very important even thorough if or it includes is only not a few key system parts of (e.g., the alien species buffer species composition, or disturbance occurrence, regimes). woodland While remote sensing and Geographic Information capture to nowadays used routinely are (GIS) Systems facilitate to and interest of area the of view synoptic a the analysis and communication of the information, site-specific information general can environmental data on conservation values greatly that augment cannot be assessed solely through the use 2001). these tools (Feinsinger, of Use of trained “expert judgment” is central to many aspects of rapid assessments, and specific indicators form visual the basis of cues this judgment- of based assessment procedure. on visual Assessments cues differ in three ways from based other site- based methods that focus measurements. First, only these assessments on tend to quantitative be comprehensive, incorporating many riparian or and/ river attributes. Second, and standardized they over a wide are range of systematic and conditions environments. Third, the data aggregated is so consistently that it can produce a qualitative

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 128 Table 3.3.1Simplecategorizationofpopularrapid assessmentprotocols. they because areas riparian monitoring for tools Rapid assessments provide some of the most valuable (Ward approaches study in-depth other than area geographic wider a ipiy h dfeet oioig eiiin, two definitions, monitoring different the simplify help To 2004). Irvine, 1991; (Spellerberg, literature policy management and conservation in especially confusion, created have monitoring of definitions different many the However, procedure. assessment rapid a to extension natural a as of thought be may and 2000) (Brown, dimension temporal and spatial a both involving scheme assessment an is Monitoring ■ Types ■ Assessments ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Hybrid Assessment Hydrogeomorphic Bioassessment Inventory surveys Monitoring: definitions 2003; Winger 2003; al., et protocols ■ abioticprotocols inventory/Index-based ■ bioassessment ■ inventory ■ hrceitc plcto xmlsReferences Applicationexamples Characteristics ■ ■ ■ ■ Index-based hybrid Abiotic attributes Index-based Biotic attributes , 2005). al., et conditionsurveys ■ bankerosion surveys inventories/stream ■ ■ inventories ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ riparian andaquatic fluvial geomorphic indices ofbioticintegrity e.g. speciesassemblage conservative inresource requirements. riparian of and simple, structurally types standardized, environments, different many to portable are uvilne n rglr r reua bss carried basis irregular or regular a on surveillance by articulated “intermittent as monitoring defines (1991) Hellewell definition narrower and stricter contrast, a In monitoring. surveillance called is this Comiskey 1991; (Roberts, object or process a of observations or measurement periodic The broad definition is loosely used to describe simple general “categories” of monitoring can be considered. 2000); Ellenberg 1974;Brown

Protocol Environmental Inventory ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2002) Chu1999) (RCE)(Petersen 1992) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

conditions(Ferreira etal. (Mueller-Domboisand (HGM)(Brinson1996) Wetland IndexofBioticIntegrity Riparian reference Vegetation sampling Stream VisualAssessment Riparian Forest Quality River HabitatSurvey Riparian, Channeland Hydrogeomorphic Assessment (SVAP) (Bjorkland (QBR) (Munné (RHS) (Raven (IBI) (USEPA 1998;Karr and et al.1998) et al.2003) et al.2001) 1999); al., et

129 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones et ecological understanding (e.g., change Long-term of species assemblage, natural variability). of species assemblage, natural

4) These four reasons are not mutually exclusive. When clear goals and objectives tasks are will have established, a higher some importance or value others, than even in the light of differences in among scientists and opinion stakeholders (Goldmith, 1991). Monitoring objectives and developed through the strategies participatory involvement of should be all major stakeholders and should have short-term and long term value (Nichols, 1991). monitoring (Goldmith, moreover, they 1991; often refer to all other monitoring- Hellewell, like 1991); schemes as “survey” dichotomy is artificial because and repeated surveys can “surveillance”. This provide data to detect patterns and changes time, over and both monitoring categories or use identical similar data-gathering procedures (Elzinga al., 2001). However, making the distinction between surveillance monitoring and compliance monitoring is useful; for example, prevent when a it monitoring is project necessary policy-relevant compliance from expanding which its to data focuses on collection far beyond its specific purpose (Feinsinger, 2001). In contrast surveillance monitoring is usually to much simpler; it compliance can be employed within a variety of data monitoring, gathering wider a collect help to used usually is and procedures of information, array environmental such as baseline biological information. Rapid assessment methods can support both monitoring data needs. surveillance and compliance of performance, functioning or of the effectiveness of policy or of change; monitoring of early warning Why Monitor? Monitor? Why signals (e.g., ecological degradation) Assessment value) legislation (e.g., restoration Assessment Detection condition (e.g., condition of a habitat)

2) Monitoring should be conservation management an because of important the information it provides. The success of a timely monitoring part of effort depends on a goal clear understanding and of strategic specific its objectives planning, Reasons for monitoring include: (Johnson, and 1999), appropriate design. 1) 3) out to determine the extent of compliance with a predetermined standard or the degree involves of definition latter deviation This norm”. expected an from a hypothesis-driven research approach that imposes since it is of discipline and structure, a higher degree monitoring against a pre-determined standard, and is commonly referred to as compliance monitoring (Brown, 2000). For example, bird counts in riparian forests are a type of surveillance monitoring, while a hypothesis-driven bird count scheme designed to is use habitat bird through restoration riparian assess does monitoring Compliance monitoring. compliance not always reveal the exact value of measured; the it often features only indicates if a standard has been met. already one that presupposes monitoring Compliance has an idea of the possible output data and a good base-line reference in order results. to gauge sampling Some researchers regard compliance monitoring as “the norm” and the only true form of scientific

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 130 grated levelofecologicalinformationforevaluationandinterpretation (Adaptedfrom Innisetal.,2000andHeywood,1997). “Assessment” level. higher inte- next most representsthe highest, of the development the for information of type necessary providesa level Figure3.3.1 3) 2) 1) questions six following (Goldsmith, 1991; Noss,1999;Sayer the address should plan management a of part become will that programs Monitoring schemes. design monitoring the guide help will needs competing these to Carefulattention decisions. conservation and management make to order in concurrently needed often are information address multiple and competing to needs. Many types of have frequently conservationists and Managers

achieved? of themonitoringeffort? Analysis: howwillthedatabehandled? Method: Purpose: Defining monitoring objectives and“ecological informationtypes” “Ecological information pyramid” showing a hierarchical relationship among five forms of “ecologicalof types”.forms hierarchicalinformation five a relationshipamong pyramid”showing information “Ecological Each what are the specific goals and objectives o cn hs gas n ojcie be objectives and goals these can how et al.,2000): 6) 5) category isdescribedbelow. “ecological information types”, and each information relevant of types five of relationship hierarchical a for shows 3.3.1 protocol Figure gathering. effective information an relevant create to important is categories information different An task. of simple understanding a to not is it information use to how what and collect deciding of challenge The 4)

Fulfillment: communicated? Dissemination: Interpr objectives havebeenmet? etation: howwillthedatabeused? what are the signals that the goals and o wl te eut be results the will how

131 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones et et al., et al., (1994) or monitoring schemes. well-structured a variation, Because natural high riparian very a exhibit systems sites is necessary to compare classification procedure within similar riparian types. O’Keeffe such as “historical” reference conditions, type habitat- definitions, requirements, habitat species distributions, rarity, and species population other trends, Natural history region-specific information may be compiled while ecological assessment rapid a within datasheets field completing patterns. the in fields data special including by (i.e., framework formal protocol for pertinent natural history data such as rare species occurrence, alien species, etc). These field observations and interviews be systematized can and analyzed later to provide important conservation-relevant knowledge baselines (Bibby organized in databases and on maps. An example of the inventories are to biodiversity approach a “rapid” methods used to collect plot-based vegetation and have methods these systematically; data type habitat (Mueller- time long a for successfully employed been Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; 2005). Dimpoulos Most assessment procedures or monitoring efforts require a knowledge-base with which future change may be compared, and inventories may help develop these baselines. al., 1998). the species’ migratory et al., 2000). Inventory results et al., 2000). Some system of classification or Classification Natural history knowledge Natural Inventory Classification groups ecological information based on common environmental (Innis or biotic attributes stratification of inventoried sites is vital in survey An inventory is a systematic form of ecological and natural history data compilation in which occurrences or lists observations of interest are recorded. of Inventories catalogue observable features, including physical, chemical, biological, habitat and landscape elements (Innis usually apply to the cataloguing data collected as a of “snapshot in Standardized time”. quantitative inventory procedures are easily a are data These bases. knowledge history natural natural extension of Many conservation biologists emphasize the need for need the emphasize biologists conservation Many base-line natural history knowledge as a framework 1997; Gámez, and (Janzen assessments ecosystem for Rivas, 1997; Futuyma, 1998; Karr and Chu, Even 1999). incidental natural history establish a knowledge base which from details a conceptual may help framework of ecosystem patterns and processes can begin to evolve. Incidental biodiversity biophysical key concerning baselines important build data may attributes of systems (e.g. patterns). This type of data important sources gathering of may information about help elements produce

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 132 a) of indicators include: selection the in important are which Characteristics Comiskey conservation 1995; Butterworth, 1991; with Fuchs, and (Boháč incompatible goals is that making use of inappropriate indicators can support decision- scenario, worst-case the In Beyeler,2001). and (Dale structure, interest of system the the of composition and function, represent adequately they to and ensure indicators proper the of use the and to selection given be must attention tool, a quantitative as role legitimate a fulfill to indices for order In of multipleindicators (Karr andChu,1999). weights relative the simplify to tools quantitative as used be may and metrics individual of responses the of sum the comprise therefore, indices, Multimetric composite single (Williamson index or a score assessment provide to combined be may metrics) (or indicators related more or one of values detect changes (Comiskey and conditions environmental evaluate to used are Indicators are discrete biotic or abiotic parameters that tp oad ognzn ifrain n their and information organizing towards step important an are (Gordon schemes Classification identified 2004). al., purpose and user end the with selected be should elements or groups among varied sites, and the criteria used to show differences among differences clarifies system classification A systems. complex of understanding and organization demonstrated that classification greatly assists in the

cetfcly on assmns f h key detect, suchasdisturbanceorsources ofstress. the of or measure to selected are they factors ecological assessments sound scientifically Ecological Indicators andindices 99 Dl ad eee, 2001). Beyeler, and Dale 1999; al., et eeac - niaos ut provide must indicators - relevance et al., 1999). Measurement et al., et 1982). et 2006). environmentaland ecologic conditions of interest the (Keith and Gorrod, about data reliable produce to requires index the turn, of standardization and validation testing, in this, of indicators; use region-specific necessitate may environments riparian of terrestrial 2001). The unique spatial and temporal heterogeneity and riparian in systems has been more challenging (Andreasen et al., use their streams, to of Biotic Integrity (IBI) have been applied successfully Although many versions of the widely replicated Index f) e) d) c) b) odtos clbaig n aatn idcs and indices applying assessmentprocedures. adapting and calibrating conditions, reference a type-specific developing usually for are prerequisite systems classification example, For purpose. specific a by guided be must development

Cost-effectiveness Easy-to-under Measur Speed Sensitivity to obtainresults. application andminimalcommitment of resources unambiguous results. range ofenvironments. wide a in measure and detect to easy be should promptly tochangesinkeyecologicalfactors. changes inkeyecologicalfactors. blt ad tnadzto - indicators - standardization and ability idctr ms b al t respond to able be must indicators - - indicators must be sensitive to subtle to sensitive be must indicators - tn - niaos hud provide should indicators - stand icue rltv es of ease relative includes -

133 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones et al., et al., 1996) that should s are to be monitored? s are protocols protocols already exist and what modifica- What indicator How will the information be used? What the to applicable them make to necessary are tions of interest? conditions and needs of the area

3) 4) 5) There are many good examples of available protocol designs complete with sample and field guidelines data for sheets data Therefore, collection in the and interest analysis. of existing protocol economy models of should be effort, reviewed. suitable If one a is identified, a pilot project determine can if it help can be adapted to meet the specific serve also may exercise this conditions; site and needs as an important learning activity for technical and management staff. Other considerations 2005; BCMOF, 2002; Vives (USEPA, include: developing a protocol be entertained before Reference Reference conditions or central to assessments; they standard represent the collective baselines are set of conditions that are to absence be of expected anthropogenic in impact the (Nijboer 2004). Reference conditions serve as against which to measure benchmarks the extent of impairment human of result a as habitats or systems ecological of activities. Although there are many methodologies used to establish reference conditions, common practice is to the develop a spatial most framework using natural undisturbed or study minimally-disturbed sites that are representative of the ecosystem types under consideration and where the biological known. attributes are and environmental are are the objectives of the assessment Designing, developing or adapting a rapid assessment protocol assessment a rapid or adapting developing Designing, Assessment there a hierarchy of objectives? If yes, what is it? is what yes, If objectives? of hierarchy a there program? program? What Is

2) Strategic Strategic design of a rapid assessment protocol fundamental is to obtaining useful and high quality information for conservation, policy compliance, or other management needs. In the absence of careful planning, inadequately specificity or designed precision lacks that information provide protocols may or information that leads to inaccurate conclusions 2001). 1999; Dale and Beyeler, (Droege, Protocols that are not time, effort, and other resources and well may delay the thought-out waste start-up of conservation activities. Therefore, before initiating development or adaptation of an existing protocol, the following preliminary questions should be addressed: 1) Assessments that provide ecological are the most integrated information level of information about statements integrated represent They systems. natural about the current state of a system and the factors that contribute to that state (Innis et al., 2000). They must be based on knowledge of the ecology site and of consideration of a its physical, chemical and biological properties and their inter-relationships in 2007). space and time (Mattson and Angermeier, Drawing on the analogy of preventative medicine, Irvine (2004) compares assessments to health occasional check-ups. Assessments can identify bodies water at risk of criteria. failure Like to medical meet check-ups, predetermined some they degree on depend expert judgment and to well-defined indicators.

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 134 2) 1) steps include,butare notlimited to: Sutula 2004; al., et the (Somerville guidance project of the during collected information quality has the management improve help design significantly basic can or completed, adaptation been protocol the Once l) k) i) g) e) d) c) b) a) j) h) f)

protocol applications involved withtheproject material, logisticandprogrammatic covariates tobeassessed bias, representativeness, comparability anddetectionlimits) precision, (accuracy, (informational, temporal, spatial) Data environmental conditions) bias (applicability universalto a wide range of physiographic and or region) specific a to (targeted Scope ofthepr Repeated T Resour T Pr Data management Data qualityassur Methods employedforanalyzingsamples Sampling Timing orschedulingofassessments Field P raining and review of protocol for all personnel all for protocol of review and raining raining ofpersonnel inprotocol application romne rtra o dt acceptability data for criteria erformance oject leadership andsupervision esrmns n ohr aaees or parameters other and measurements ce availability, including financial, personnel, eiw n ietfcto o gaps of identification and review network design (targeted or probabilistic) visits to the same sites to test different test to sites same the to visits otocol: should it haveregionalotocol: should bias ance andqualitycontrol plans 06. hs additional These 2006). al., et b) d) c) a) four majorstages,asoutlinedinfigure 3.3.2. monitoring and protocol assessment development can be characterized as having rapid conclusion, In well asbythescientificneeds. as costs by guided be should therefore, indicators, requirements. Use of the appropriate set of ecological resource its and scheme, management overall the in placement its assessment, rapid the of importance relative the of evaluation an necessitating thereby monitoring), WFD EU (e.g., procedures assessment protocols may follow or be used in tandem with rapid robust” “more other Additionally,2001).Oakley, and not are often recognized and costs are grossly underestimated (Caughlan assessment of range full The be must expenses, factored intothedesign. indirect and direct including for challenge major rapid assessment projects, and resource a commitment, usually is funding Limited 3) 4)

of riparianarea? metrics tobeemployed) anthropogenic ornatural impactsofinterest) dissemination inliterature andothermedia. T Rigor fine-tuning theprotocol). Pr Field Purpose-based Baseline precision of levels among landscapesandfieldpersonnel. similar with repeatable are asaec i mtoooy n dt through data and methodology in ransparency , field testing, validation, testing, field (e.g., finalization otocol ous field-testing to ensure that measurements seii idctr or indicators specific (e.g., design protocol study and information needs (e.g., needs information and study seset usin (e.g., questions assessment extent

135 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones are are the best or most appropriate methods are are the conclusions checked for accuracy, the information be available in a timely e the requirements of the assessment or What to use for assessment or these procedures monitoring, create secondary problems and (e.g. will damage to habitats and species; loss of information)? critical How precision, and applicability to the issues and areas of interest? Ar monitoring program administrative and logistics guidelines and means within of the sponsoring agency? the financial, Will fashion to support decision-making or does the immediate intervention? situation require

c) d) e) Rapid assessment and monitoring programs can be viewed as a type of applied ecological study (Pickett et al., 1997), and as rigorous standards in all their phases, including field such they must adhere operation, sample to handling and data management. They should be designed with a priori knowledge of (Elzinga used tests statistical and analysis of type the et al., 2001), and implemented by trained personnel. Finally, it should be stressed that rapid assessments and monitoring should not be a substitute for in- b) et al., 2000; Gibbons and et al., 2003). The output are are the “best” or most “meaningful” Simplified scheme for rapid assessment protocol development. A: Information needs; B: Purpose; C: Protocol design; D: Finaliza- D: design; Protocol C: Purpose; B: needs; Information A: development. protocol assessment rapid for scheme Simplified Considerations in the use of rapid assessment and monitoring and monitoring assessment of rapid in the use Considerations What attributes to monitor?

Freundenberger, 2006). Freundenberger, Although a wide range of biological and ecological attributes can be collected and evaluated by visual assessment procedures, only a limited number have proven useful in providing systems biological information on actives about anthropogenic of impact the or in addressing (Goldsmith, 1991; specific Ward monitoring from assessment questions and monitoring efforts constitutes key ingredients in reflect specific decision-making conservation management priorities and the that ensure to order In 1997). should Rieger, and (Clewell compatible is component monitoring and assessment with the conservation and management goals, the following generic questions should be and Rowell, 1997): (Brown considered a) Despite the availability assessment of a protocols suite wetland of for environments, different most are not riparian, widely Additionally, used. the river failure of many and monitoring assessment and projects to readily useable provide information has promoted applicable the use of ad and hoc approaches to acquire information about these environments (Innis Figure 3.3.2 3.3.2 Figure 2003). Catsadorakis, tion (adapted from

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 136 depth ecological research, which often is needed to Finally, management decisions may require understand the structure and function of the natural information on a spatial and temporal scale that systems of interest. cannot be achieved by short-term or site-specific rapid assessment activities alone. Information from Much of the success of rapid assessment programs broader scales, using remote sensing and spatial rests on expert judgment: selection of appropriate modeling is increasingly utilized effectively. The indicators; development of metrics; scoring and data ultimate challenge is to integrate these multiple interpretation; and evaluation and weighting of the layers of research into a holistic framework that results (Karr and Chu, 1999). Expert judgment, in provides relevant information efficiently and turn, is dependent in part on an understanding of economically. Rapid, site-based assessment and the natural history of the area including its inherent monitoring methods are a part of this larger network variability of conditions and community composition of information inputs. We must not ignore the (Futuyma, 1998; Andreason et al., 2001) of the outputs and dissemination of this work. organisms.

Data management

Integration of assessment and monitoring data into for analysis and secure, and that it has flexibility to policy-relevant conservation action is in large part accommodate future uses (Jenkinson et al., 2006). an exercise in information management (Janzen Application of GIS and simple databases facilitates and Gomez, 1997). All phases of information the analysis and storage of the data (Sayer et al., management, including data-entry, quality 2000). assessment, archiving, and documentation carry risks of error (Michener and Brunt, 2000). Nevertheless, The costs of proper data management are often control checks can be incorporated into the program’s underestimated or not accounted for in many design to protect against mechanical (e.g., inaccurate assessment and monitoring projects (Caughlan and or incomplete information) or judgment errors. Oakley, 2001). Planners must incorporate all data Effective information management procedures will management costs into the budgets, including also help guide the efficient and appropriate use of expenses to support quality assurance. This the information to achieve conservation goals. Major investment will increase the overall cost-effectiveness potential sources of error include initial recording of a project since quality assurance will eliminate or of data, the transfer of information from field data minimize the amount of information lost or the need sheets to the computer database, and inappropriate to repeat data management steps (Shampine, 1993). statistical analysis. Quality checks may include In order to maximize the effectiveness and economy instrument calibration, checklists, or computer of the information management component, double-entry procedures (Shampine, 1993; Barbour expertise in this area should be included at the start et al., 1999). The data should be organized in a of the program. format that ensures it is readily retrievable, accessible

Basic communications

Clear, concise and unambiguous communication Naiman et al., 2005). Most rapid assessment protocols is central to the success of riparian conservation are designed to promote an exchange of information activities (Bell and Morse, 1999; Baron et al., 2002; between field investigators and the general public Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones Rapid visual assessment protocols 137 , 1998). al., et Clear verbal attitude and respectful Tactful Openness; participatory approach. / fact sheet / popular release Press tools (training Specialized outreach Good diplomacy Clear and simple written reporting Scientific publication Unpublished report data Archived ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ article to local media ■ manuals, field-guides etc) courses, ■ ■ suitable to particular needs ■ ■ ■ Delivery communication. Riparian zones are complex systems complex are zones Riparian communication. landscape; the over networks linear extensive covering often heterogeneity and distribution widespread their the broader community risks alienating of the segments community and ultimately may contribute to the deterioration of social networks which support conservation and research. and Successful education programmes outreach depend integration on of effective science, transparent deliberate, on rely turn, in which making, education and decision- and organized communication between and other stakeholders. scientists, managers, makers, decision- this end, To a well conceived and easily applied rapid community important an be can protocol assessment employed When itself. in tool outreach and education by volunteer groups through an organized program initiatives, “adopt-a-stream” or caretaker” “site a such simple assessment allow protocols the community to assume stewardship of the area of interest and help to foster a better understanding and appreciation of the natural history and its linkage to the cultural Middleton, 2001). heritage (Newton, 2001; Here is a report on a recent rapid rapid on a recent is a report Here We are interested in this area because… in this area interested are We to you because… not a threat are Our interests a riparian area in “adopting” you interested Are is some information that you may Here and This assessment is policy-relevant ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ assessment of… ■ ■ ■ as a local caretaker? ■ find useful... ■ proposes… Message et al., 1998; Gibbons and Freudenberger, Simple communications matrix for maximizing the impact of assessment monitoring or surveys (modified from Bibby from (modified surveys or monitoring assessment of impact the maximizing for matrix communications Simple Conclusion Scientific – NGO or Scientific – NGO or Local Communities Regional and national ■ ■ ■ ■ government, national or international Audiences ■ ■ technical Successful rapid assessment and monitoring efforts must be relevant to ecological theory, effective promote to statistically able and cost-effective, reliable, Table 3.3.2 3.3.2 Table (Bjorkland 2006). Researchers need to articulate the results of relevance, conservation their and projects assessment and to identify areas where data or there are is a insufficient lack of understanding. The success of conservation efforts ultimately depends on the local community, not just on the scientists and managers who have a professional investment in the resources or the area. The prospects of success of the conservation efforts are enhanced when scientists and a managers proactive take approach in their communication and provide the communities with useful the need to disseminate Currently, 2001). (Feinsinger, information and popularize scientific environmental information EU-WFD the example, for important; very become has interested with consultation “effective requires policy parties and stakeholders” (Irvine, 2004). Failure to effectively communicate to decision-makers and

Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones 138 used successfully. been Rapid assessments are usually cost- have areas riparian for protocols assessment Gomez, and rapid gap, information (Janzen this bridge to order In 1997). planning conservation for even lacking, frequently are though such information is an interest important requirement of area an impacting events anthropogenic or natural site- specific on data Additionally, studies. environmental “crisis and ecological a in-depth accommodate to resources as described discipline” that usually does been not have enough time or has Conservation at thisspatialscale. most management and restoration actions take place riparian because needed are assessing site-scale the at environments and classifying for proceduresinventorying, survey field rigorous scientifically and Simple important. is systems the of conditions environmental the and attributes ecological the on riparian zones, adequate and appropriate information for decision-makers to be more effective in managing confound conservation and restoration plans. In order and Assessment68:99-125 Monitoring Environmental landowners. riparian for (SVAP) protocol assessment visual stream (2001)A B Newton C, Pringle R, Bjorkland Natural Resources ConservationService,Washington, D.C.USA course.Trainer’sassessment Agriculture, logical of Dept. US Manual. Bjorkland R, Pringle C, Newton B (1998) Introduction to stream eco- London, UK Techniques: Society,Geographic Field Royal Centre/ Advisory Expedition Surveys. Bird Expedition (1998) S Marsden M, Jones C, Bibby measurable? EarthscanPublicationsLtd.,London,UK im- the measuring Indicators: Sustainability (1999) S Morse S, Bell 12:1247-1260 freshwater.for needs societal and ecological Applications Ecological Meeting (2002) AD Steinman BD, Richter CA, Johnston RB, Jackson BaronJS, Poff PH, HairstonGleick Dahm CN, PL, Angermeier NL, NG, Water, of Office Washington, D.C.,USA Agency, Protection Environmental U.S. edition. Second 841-B-99-002. EPA Fish. and Macroinvertebrates, Benthic ment ProtocolsStreamsfor Usein andWadeableRivers: Periphyton, Barbour MT, Gerritsen J, Snyder BD, Stribling JB (1999) Rapid Assess- integrity. Ecological Indicators ecological 1:21-35 of index terrestrial a of development the for Considerations (2001) NC Slosser R, Noss RV, O’Neill JK, Andreasen References otne o ly n motn rl i addressing in riparian conservationchallenges. role important an play to continue and use should procedures assessment rapid of development The decision-making. activities environmental conservation that or specific information in utilized practical be and can useful also data but scientific good only not provide to endeavor this for important is It protocols. assessment rapid to invest the resources needed to employ appropriate willing are they if growth, for opportunities unique face both and groups environmental non-governmental organization Research protocols. assessment rapid simple using by systems ecological and about learn contribute can Citizens role. stewardship a in public the involve to means important an as can serve and tools, mapping and protocols assessment morerigorousparallelwith in used be can they Also, assessment andmonitoringschemes. first-tierpreliminaryapproachor in a as used be can that snap-shot preliminary a provide they effective; logical monitoring.EcologicalIndicators 1:123-134 Caughlan L, Oakley KL (2001) Cost considerations for long-term eco- York, USA tors ofEnvironmental Change:AHandbook,1-8.PlenumPress, New Indica- as Biomarkers and Biomonitors (eds). J Guzman-Rincon LD, Corkum FM, Butterworth In: environmentalchange. indicatorsof as biomarkersbiomonitorsand Introductionto (1995) FM Butterworth Management. Environmental Academic Press, Sandiego,California,USA and Bioindicators (eds). B, Madden DW, Jeffrey In: 165-178. deterioration as landscape communities of animal bioindicators of structure The (1991) R Fuchs J, Boháč Landschaft 72:502-506 und Natur principles. some conservation: nature for planning ment manage- with monitoring Integrating (1997) TA Rowell A, Brown Wales. in CCW sites 2000 Nature on practice good of demonstration a Life95 no. NAT/UK/000821 Project Integrating monitoring with Life-Nature management planning: Guide. Technical 3: reporting, and management conservation for monitoring Habitat (2000) A Brown tional Wetlands Newsletter18:10-16 Na- HGM. using functions wetland Assessing (1996). MM Brinson htm) http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/range/range.URL: (Online 1. Brochure Health Rangeland areas. riparian and upland Assessing 2002. MOF). (BC- Branch Practices Forest Forests. of Ministry Columbia. British

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141 Rapid visual assessment protocols for monitoring in riparian zones Maria da Graça Saraiva Maria da Graça provision. This target becomes even more demanding more even becomes target This provision. in the case of Mediterranean dryness of the climate during part of the year causes regions, where the irregularity in flow magnitudes and high variability non- and biotic the affecting regimes, hydrological in biotic components of the landscape, increasing its its resilience. and reducing fragility Several approaches, methodologies to cognitive assessments as well ranging as public preference studies, have tried to identify the from most representative parameters that influence river expert landscape quality and its Since social the perception. Aesthetic values and be their assessed that social approaches several through literature, the In motivations. esteem different can approaches take the expert and or professional point of view can be identified, addressing technical aims and integration into the planning and design process. Others spring from the social psychology, sciences, including mainly behavioural studies environmental to related public perception and scenic and aesthetic public values. A further group, largely preferences concerned for more are phenomenological, or humanistic of aspects emotional and sensory intangible, the with landscape appreciation. The underlying paradigms of these approaches were reviewed at the beginning of the eighties, an important stage for synthesizing the motivations and methods underpinning the complex (Zube, evaluation scenic and landscape of framework 1982). 1984; Daniel and Vining, 1982; Porteous, Recent developments in this field show the need to combine and integrate these different approaches in order to approximation to the complexity and subjectivity attempt of as has methodologies mixed of use The values. aesthetic close as possible been recommended, an combining expert approaches with others involving public surveys and measurable parameters with subjective, intangible assessment 1999). 1996; Saraiva, Porteous, (Bell et al., 2001; et Breackwell, 1992). This e.g. River Landscapes aesthetic evaluation – a review evaluation aesthetic Landscapes River Introduction. Landscape aesthetic assessment and evaluation assessment aesthetic Landscape Introduction. River landscapes are generally more appreciated by the majority of the public than other scenic features of the landscape. The attraction water in and landscape interest appreciation has of been pointed out by several authors in the on literature landscape perception and assessment (Herzog, 1985; Litton al., 1974; Lee, 1979; Pitt, 1989; Gonzalez Bernaldez, 1999). 1988; Saraiva, Nowadays, the search for a sustainable management of river landscapes requires consideration of public perceptions and values, tools to promote adequate functioning of the ecosystem and healthy, resource Aesthetic appreciation and evaluation has become an important concern in the field of environmental awareness and planning. natural and The human environments has balance always been a between field of interest in human societies, beauty, delight which and an seek equilibrium between human works and their environment. As a result, environmental aesthetics is an becominginterdisciplinary field of research, incorporating disciplines as diverse landscape architecture, psychology and asphilosophy, geography, among planning, others ( LANDSCAPE AESTHETICS: AESTHETICS: LANDSCAPE SOCIAL PERCEPTION ASSESSING recognition shows that environment aesthetic are a growing values issue, as in an important complementresearch thesustainablesuchofareasas to development, planning and resource management (Berleant, 1997). Physical settings influence human inhabitants and while satisfaction, and well-being their to contribute their shape humans of attitudes and values beliefs, the environment and their degree of satisfaction with it. landscapes river and landscape the of perception Public and public involvement in the management process are critical issues when considering sustainability as a for target river and rehabilitation for riparian zone management.

Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception 142 Table 3.4.1-Synthesisofmainfactors orcriteriausedforaestheticevaluationofriverlandscapes. among (1985), Herzog and (1979) Lee Kaplan(1978), and Marchand (1968), Litton Leopold include references Classic participation. and processes and together with increased, effective resourcespublic involvement natural of better seeking management and process assessment whole the into evaluation aesthetic incorporate to trying aim, this on focused have studies many sixties, the of end Author (2004) ■ ■ (1991) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ (1978) ■ ■ ■ ■ Marchand (1968) ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Saraiva andMonteiro Saraiva (1999) House andSangster Pitt (1989) Herzog (1985) Ulrich (1983) Lee (1979) Dunne eLeopold Jones etal.(1975) Litton etal.(1974) Nighswonger (1970) Leopold and prahCriteriaforevaluationandpreference ofriverlandscapes Approach ■ ■ ■ ■ Survey ■ Survey ■ Survey ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Public perception Public perception Public perception Expert assessment Expert assessment Expert assessment Expert assessment Expert assessment et al. (1974), Kaplan and ■ heterogeneity, disturbance. characteristics, such asdiversity, contrast, texture, spatialdefinition, ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ factors –landuse,views,presence ofriffles,etc. widthanddepth,valleyslopeonhumaninterest ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ degree ofdevelopment,etc. ■ ■ speed,valleyandfloodplainwidth,order, basinarea, etc. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Compilation ofanindexconsidering these variables Relations between the criteria described above with visual and scenic Coherence, legibility, complexity, mystery Unity/ uniqueness,variety, vividness,integrity Degree ofhumanimpactandlandmarkpresence River andriparianbuffermorphologydiversity (landscape units) Vegetation diversity andNaturalness Attractiveness Quality ofwater Complexity andMultiplespatialorganization Naturalness Symbolism andMystery Mystery andTexture Spaciousness andComplexity Coherence Identifiability Absence ofperceptible risk Depth andTexture Focal incidenceandcomposition Complexity Distinctive elementsandDisturbancefactors Spatial definitionandMystery Complexity Legibility Assessment oflandscape,basedonphysicalfactors –riverbed Vividness andIntegrity Variety andVividness Contrast andDiversity Index ofuniquecharacter Factors ofuseandhumaninterest -aestheticinterest, accessibility, Biological factors– diversity, presence offaunaandvegetation,etc. Physical andchemicalfactors– width,depthandbedslope,flow www.urbem.net), a method for Methods, assessing the Enhancement aesthetic Basin River (Urban project of evaluation urban rivers conducted aesthetic as part of the the URBEM research on research recent In of riverlandscapesintheliterature. main the factorsevaluation aesthetic the to applied criteria or of some summarizes 3.4.1 Table others.

143 Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception i.e. the users, et al., 2004, 2005). is selected and organized according to these three dimensions. The partial conclusions for each point of view are assessed through a chosen set of indicators (Silva and descriptors the in described are indicators and view of points The reports cited, as is the methodology for integrating the criteria, which aims to establish an performance profile” “aesthetic of each river landscape which can then be compared with the situation “before” or the scheme rehabilitation or “after” with other rivers in a similar ecological or geographical situation. It can also show which dimension – town/city river, or people’s perceptions or values – can be enhanced or by a rehabilitation improved geomorphologic, hydrological and ecological factors that influence the river’s behaviour and shape environment. its An adequate assessment framework should consider three dimensions of analysis, described as above: in the natural the feature method the – surrounding environment – the the riparian river, buffer, where human disturbances and uses can be or more less evident, and the attitudes values, perceptions, the people, considering social component – the and behaviour of the “social actors”, , 2004, 2005). This method, based on both on based method, This 2005). 2004, al., et Criteria for assessing river landscape aesthetics from a social perspective from aesthetics landscape river assessing for Criteria et al., 2004). Moreira river basin to local context (adapted from – from 3.4.1 Scale of river landscape assessment approach Figure For more generic river landscapes, a criteria based large on set the approaches of mentioned above can be adapted, expanded, specific context. and applied to each One important aspect to consider is the scale of the point top-bottom a from seen be can which approach, landscape basin/watershed, river eco-region, – view of unit, reach/stretch, section/habitat on the – spatial context of depending the area assessed (figure 3.4.1). It is very important to consider this context and spatial take into account the interrelation of values of rivers in an urban context was developed (Silva expert assessments and public surveys, is intended for inclusion in the wider framework of a decision- making support system for river is rehabilitation. designed It to incorporate the specific context rehabilitating of rivers in urban locations, a based three-dimensional on approach that considers interrelation of the the main components concerned - and it surrounds that city or town the itself, river the the people that experience these two environments and influence them with their values, perceptions, attitudes and A behaviour. list of different points of view that potentially contribute to the perception of aesthetic quality in rivers running through cities

Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception 144 f hs dsrpos eurs h ue f multiple of use the requires descriptors these of Integration usually interviews. and dimension surveys public requires “People” The through methods. mainly expert assessed be can buffer” values “riparian aesthetic and “River” of resources. availability and the data on depending extent greater a lesser to or used be all can they and framework this to adapted or added be can parameters Other assessed according toitsowncharacter andcontext. be to needs and unique is each as situation, or case each suit to chosen be can criteria of set applicable The evaluation. and perception aesthetic influence that factorsattributes main or the identify to tries it reviewed. literaturechecklist, complete a as intended are being than the Rather that to criteria the according of applicable list a shows 3.4.2 Table according toitsphysicalandhuman setting. river landscape can be selected for each specific case, each of experience and value aesthetic the influence (figure 3.4.2). Within this framework, the public criteria that general the and decision-makers managers, eteia eauto, n ok akg 4 o the for 4 Package Work in evaluation, aesthetical about developed research the at partners B. as Jorge Silva, and Bernardo Fátima Ramos, L. Isabel To that surveys public from inputs also but indicators, measurable and biophysical only not incorporate to attempt They literature. the in reviewed approaches framework and concepts main the areon above based described assessment the and criteria of list The of level high the subjectivity thatthisprocess demands. showing landscapes, river and rivers of evaluation aesthetic for used are indicators and parameters criteria, methods, of array wide A Acnowledgements Discussion andfinal comments conditions. pristine or natural to more others context, cultural or social a to more related be can Some landscape. surrounding its and river each of characteristics of diversity the reveal to able is approach of kind This (Silva profile aesthetical as an such building techniques, evaluation or methodologies suggestions forthismanuscript. and comments their for as well as project, URBEM sustainable relationship between societyandnature. strengthena to help comprehensiveapproachesmay of attitudes social groups concerning their river landscapes, and these views the of knowledge better a providing By participation. and public involvement surveys, with assessments expert of integration the Nowadays, aesthetic evaluation of landscape requires of and values social people’s perceptions, motivationsandviews. of understanding an allow Adapted from Silvaetal.,2003. Figure 3.4.2Framework forassessingriverlandscapeaesthetics. 2004). al., et

145 Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception

et al., 2003). om Silva Extent, Compatibility. Extent, Compatibility. Riparian vegetation in river banks – width, composition, distribution, Riparian vegetation in river banks – width, composition, / Diversity, Typology of disturbance Degree activities, and riverfront of riparian fringe Attractiveness leisure, Recreation, of disturbance. Degree Visual permeability, Intensity of development. belvederes). heritage (landmarks, Cultural (bridges), River crossing and bike tracks, Walkways Surface of parking, Public transport, places, Navigability. Anchorage Pollution. visibility, Trash pattern, texture, contrast, Colour, vividness, integrity, Unity/ uniqueness, , variety, spatial definition, etc. Diversity, legibility, Coherence, mystery. Complexity, Self-esteem, Continuity, Distinctiveness. Self-efficacy, Fascination, Being away, River dimensions (width, depth, slope, etc.), River dimensions (width, and floodplain morphology, Valley dynamics, Disturbance of the natural of Bank Shape, ; Type channel (pools and riffles, etc.). of elements in the Presence speed. Flow regime, reflexion, Colour, or pollution Visibility of trash Flood vulnerability, landslide risk. Bank erosion, Biodiversity, ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ diversity. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Preference pattern Preference 1992) Place Identity (Breakwell, 1995) Capacity (Kaplan, Restorative Symbolism Space Quality Heritage Cultural Accessibility Pollution/Trash Formal Attributes Natural and Technological Hazards and Technological Natural Riparian Vegetation/Biodiversity Land Uses Activities Morphology Hydrology Quality/Pollution Water ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1978) and Kaplan, (Kaplan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ People People River ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ River landscape aesthetic evaluation River landscape aesthetic ■ List of criteria for aesthetic evaluation of river landscapes (Adapted fr 3.4.2 - List of criteria for aesthetic Table

Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception 146 ter InformationCenter, NewYork Architecture,Landscape of Department UniversityCalifornia/Wa- of scape. An Aesthetic Overview of the Role of Water in the Landscape. Land- and Water (1974) RA Beatty J, Sorensen RJ, Tetlow RB, Litton the Landscape.Water Resources Research 4(4):709-717 Leopold LB, Marchand MOB (1968) On the Quantitative Inventory of Southwest Forest and PacificRange Experiment Station, Berkeley, USDA, California Nebraska. Village, Incline 1979, 23-25, April source, Re- Visual the of Management and on Analysis for Techniques Applied Conference A Landscape”, National “Our RC of Proceedings Smardon (eds). GH, Elsner In: Study. Methodological A Landscapes: River Louisiana of Assessment Preference Landscape (1979) MS Lee 182 15:169- Psychology Environmental of Journal Framework. tegrative In- an Toward nature: of benefits restorative The (1995) S Kaplan Buxbury Press, Belmont,California People. for Environments Humanscape: (1978) R Kaplan S, Kaplan Technology Nuclear Making. 25:682-713 Decision Environmental for Values GR Jones Management 5(3):312-317 Management. Journal of the Institution of Water and Environmental River-Corridor of Perception Public (1991) EK Sangster MA, House Journal ofEnvironmental Psychology5:225-241 Herzog TR (1985) A Cognitive Analysis of Preference for Waterscapes. sibilities andLimitations.LandscapeUrbanPlanning16:69-79 Pos- Madrid: in Landscape and Water (1988) F Bernáldez González Freeman, SanFrancisco W.H. Planning. Environmental in Water (1978) LB Leopold T, Dunne Press, NewYork Plenum Environment. and Behaviour Human Environment: Natural the and Behaviour (eds). J Wohlwill I, Altman Quality.In: Landscape T,Daniel of Assessment the in Issues Methodological (1982) J Vining Press, London Academic Psychology). Social in Seminars (Surrey Self-concept the trangement. In: Breakwell GM (ed). Social Psychology of Identity and es- and efficacy self-evaluation: of Processes (1992) GM Breakwell the Environment. University Press of Kansas of Aesthetic an Towards Landscape. the in Living (1997) A Berleant ogy (5thed).PsychologyPress. Belmont Bell PA, Greene TC, Fisher JD, Baum A (2001) Environmental psychol- References (1975) A Method for the Quantification of Aesthetic of Quantification the for Method A (1975) al. et Journal 3(2):104-110 Theory.Landscape Assessment Landscape in Themes (1984) EH Zube Plenum Press, NewYork Environment):85-125. Natural and (Behaviour 6 and vol. Environment, Behaviour Human (eds). JF Wohlwill I, Altman In: vironment. En- Natural to Response Affective and Aesthetic (1983) RS Ulrich Dresden Development, Regional and Ecological of 113-121.Institute Leibniz 2005, URRC Rehabilitation River Urban on Conference ternational In- the of Proceedings Rehabilitation. River Urban (eds). JT,J Schanze Tourbier In: context. urban Methodology in rivers (2005) of evaluation F aesthetic Bernardo of IL, Ramos MG, Saraiva JB, Silva Project, CESUR,IST, Lisbon (WorkPackageers.Methodology URBEM Project Deliverable 4-2, 4). C Câmara F, Monteiro (2004) Classification F,of the aesthetic value of Bernardo the selected urban riv- IL, Ramos MG, Saraiva J, Silva bacia hidrográfica dorioSado,375-390.ISAPress, Lisboa à Aplicação fluviais, sistemas de ambiental Gestão (eds) FN Correia MoreiraSaraivaIn: MG, I, Sado. rio hidrográficado bacia na fluviais corridores dos Valorespaisagísticos (2004) FP Monteiro MG, Saraiva ouste GulbenkianeFundaçãopara aCiênciaeTecnologia, Lisboa Cal- Fundação Humanas, e Sociais Ciências de Universitários Textos Landscape) a as River Paisagem(The como Rio O (1999) MG Saraiva planning, Routledge,London and politics ideas, – Aesthetics Environmental (1996) JD Porteous of Environmental Psychology2:53-66 Porteous D(1982)Approaches toEnvironmental Aesthetics.Journal Hu- es):217-254. PlenumPress, NewYork (eds). Spac- and EH Places (Public 10 Zube vol. Environment, I, and Behaviour Altman man In: Places. Recreation Outdoor as Environments Aquatic of Use and Attractiveness The (1989) DG Pitt Streams. Kansas Dep.Econ.Dev., Plann.Div. Rep.32,Topeka, KansasKansas of Value Recreational related and Quality Scenic the ating Evalu- and Inventorying for Methodology A (1970) J Nighswonger do rioSado,415-430. ISAPress, Lisboa (eds). Gestão ambiental de FN sistemas fluviais, aplicação à bacia hidrográficaCorreia MG, Saraiva I, Moreira In: Sado. rio do rográfica global do estado de conservação de corredores fluviais na bacia hid- Moreira I, Saraiva MG, Ferreira MT, Pinto P, Ramos IL (2004) Avaliação

147 Landscape aesthetics: assessing social perception , 2008). 2008). al., et et al., 1997). et al., 2008). The Adélia Maria Oliveira de Sousa Maria Oliveira Adélia Johansen Kasper main applications of Landsat MSS images have been in agriculture, environmental monitoring, forestry and land use planning (Lillesand most recent of the series is Landsat-7, launched which in April 1999 was with the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor onboard. This sensor has seven multi-spectral bands, three in the visible, one in the near-infrared, two in the The spectrum. the of part mid-infrared infrared thermal the in one and sensor of collects 30 data m with a spatial resolution in the visible and short-wave infrared bands and it landscape and is used for and inventory, change monitoring, detection analysis and of natural environmental resources (Narumalani To produce maps of riparian remotely sensed zone images, field features survey data from obtained coincidently with the image capture are required to build relationships and models between quantitative field measurements and the and to validate spectral the map outputs. These spatial reflectance data can be incorporated into a geographic information system (GIS), which facilitates the management of water resources, land use and land cover as well as urban planning (Rowlinson et al., 1999). Remote sensing has made significant in progress the last decade. The use of remote sensing imagery has increased, mainly caused by development of techniques new for image information extraction, also but because of advances in commercially available airborne and (Lillesand m) 4 x satellite m 4 < (pixels resolutions imagery at high spatial In the last few decades, a number of studies have used have studies of number a decades, few last the In cover land obtaining of aim the with images satellite buffer riparian of management the for mapping type areas. Recent advances in remote sensing have the potential to aid riparian management substantially. High spatial resolution imagery provides a basis for consistent assessments for regularly, accurately, and cost-effectively mapping and monitoring riparian (Congalton et al., 2002). areas et et al., 1999). This Mapping riparian zones from moderate spatial resolution imagery resolution spatial moderate from zones Mapping riparian Introduction The Landsat (http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov) project The is Landsat a (http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov) project Space and Aeronautics National the of initiative joint Survey Geological U.S. the and (NASA) Administration (USGS). The of first the Landsat (Land satellite) series was Landsat-1, launched in 1972 with the spectral Scanner Sensor Multi- (MSS), which was also used four had sensor This 3. and Landsat-2 on subsequently near- the in two and visible the in two bands, spectral resolution spatial a with spectrum, the of part infrared of 68 m x 83 m, usually resampled to approximately The km. 185 x km 185 is image each of size The m. 60 Riparian buffer areas important have landscape been features that recognized provide unique habitats as for many al., wildlife 2001). Riparian species vegetation, including floodplain (Iverson forests that as well as of rivers, is recognised as an important part of river is ecosystems an and there increasing restoration conservation, in demand assessed be to parameters for riparian vegetation and management projects management of these areas (Muller, is a field of 1997). increasing relevance, as human The modification of the landscape continues unabated (Goetz, are needed for 2006). mapping biophysical Approaches properties riparian areas, monitoring the in changes taking place, targeting restoration activities and success assessing of previous the management actions. For large spatial km extents of (> length) stream 100 it can be traditional the using targets these achieve to difficult analogue of interpretation visual on based techniques and field visits. aerial photographs Remote sensing is the observation of features objects without any contact and and includes mapping and digital image processing techniques using aerial photography and satellite images. Remote sensing provides up-to-date, detailed land information condition and about land images use, produce and to satellites uses and instruments airplanes on mounted of the Earth’s surface (Rowlinson technique provides a different view of the terrestrial REMOTE SENSING SENSING REMOTE IN APPLICATION AREAS RIPARIAN

Remote sensing application in riparian areas 148 h rsosblt o te ete ainl d’Études National Centre the of responsibility under the 1, SPOT 1986 satellite in Franco-European the began with programme SPOT The http://www. spot.com). (SPOT: Terre la de l’Observation Pour Systeme the is studies LCLU in used satellite Another zones, andothers. detection of three land cover types, the in 80% of accuracy overall an had classification the Yakima River of central Washington. The resultant riparian areas associated with rivers, map lakes and wetlands along to data TM Landsat used also (1990) Hewitt preservation. and rehabilitation for segments stream prioritising and identifying for particularly areas, these of management the for useful be structure can landscape the about Information study. changed significantly during the 24-year period under had landscape riparian the that concluded they and mapping Their vegetation, data. riparian the in changes identified results field of lack the of because detection change did the of paper accuracy the this validate not However, images. 1997 and 1973 the between use land in changes of combinations possible the all depicting to map GIS thematic a in develop overlay map a created and techniques, classification supervised and masking spatial used post- a adopting by method This method. detection change classification images 1997 and classified 1973 the and biomass, and relative greenness the quantify vegetation help to image (NDVI) index (1997). They used a normalised difference vegetation TM Landsat from another and (1973) MSS Landsat from one Australia: Queensland, in Valley Locker the of images two using areas riparian of map LCLU a Apan impossible. results of comparison making interpretation, their during considered rarely are method processing the in employed and images the of source the but frequently studies, watershed are data (LCLU) use land / cover Land years. recent in used been often have and 2006) (Goetz, zones riparian within types cover different of amount the estimating in application wide a also have images of types cover These maps. land type of development the been has Landsat imagery of applications common most the of One a fullscenecovers 185kmx km. has a revisit cycle of 16 days. As with the MSS sensor, et al. et (2002) developed a method to produce to method a developed (2002) i.e. water, riparian resolution imagerytobeused. spatial requirestructurehigher and types vegetation of riparian terrain, more detailed mapping of riparian SPOT multi-spectral data and the complex topography of resolution spatial and spectral limited of because (Arbuckle scale landscape a at types vegetation broad mapping accurately for data SPOT multi-spectral imagery clearly provides adequate total pathogenconcentrations. and indices quality water of variability the explain can zones riparian in LCLU that found was It band). (panchromatic m 2.5 and bands) (multi-spectral m the 10 of resolution spatial from a at images satellite SPOT-5 extracted was LCLU about information and and 100 considered were river 50, the along 30, widths m 20, 200 of pathogenic strips Buffer and organisms. compounds; organic of content ; of dispersion and transport parameters: representative three using by and water of zones quality riparian the in LCLU between relation the analyze to was approach this of aim The images. 5 SPOT- using Brazil south in River Concordia the of Pinheiro resolution. spatial higher its of because properties forest and erosion,environments,soil urban vegetation, as such features small of multitude a map to used been has imagery multi-spectral SPOT pixels. m 10 of bands multi-spectral and mode panchromatic in m) 10 of (instead m 2.5 and m resolution5 spatial of high the is generations previous the with compared sensors 5 was which launched 5, in SPOTMay 2002. is The main series difference the in the in SPOT sensor satellite recent most The generation. previous the of sensors HRV the to similar very are which sensors, (HRVIR) March 1998, has Visible and Infrared High-Resolution in launched 4, SPOT km. 60 is width swath the and panchromatic mode and 20 m in multi-spectral mode the in of m 10 is size parts pixel The infraredspectrum). electromagnetic and red, green, - (XS mode multi-spectral or spectrum) the of part visible the in band (one mode panchromatic in images acquires sensor This (HRV). sensor High-Resolution Visible a carry satellites three These year. a after failed latter January 1990 and SPOT 3 in November 1993, but the in launched was 2 SPOT France. in (CNES) Spatiales et al. (2008) classified LCLU in riparian zones , 1999). However,1999). al., et

149 Remote sensing application in riparian areas (1999) conducted a survey to identify identify to survey a conducted (1999) al. et (> 4 m x 4 m) may be inadequate for the detection and analysis of riparian zones since areas, the these of dimensions physical the exceeds often pixel size prevents analysis of individual features, and reduces specifically commissioned for the study of riparian buffer areas Willamette of Valley. They concluded that finer spatial the resolution data watersheds (aerial photographs) provided better of mapping Oregon’s precision of narrow adjacent riparian vegetation to agricultural lands, TM data. than The multi-temporal the TM data coarser were better for distinguishing row crops adjacent zones. to Human riparian induced activities and in areas disturbance adjacent to riparian zones to are map, as they important may provide an indication of water quality, because of potential sediment, nutrient and pollutant inputs caused by runoff. Despite their very different nature, the Landsat images and the aerial when tools analytical good be to proved photographs correlating LCLU types with selected stream quality Biotic of Index fish the as such indicators assessment contents. Integrity or water nitrate Rowlinson that sources data sensing remote different assess and riparian in vegetation alien mapping to applicable are areas using aerial videography, aerial photography and satellite imagery for a area in the KwaZulu-Natal midlands in South Africa. small sub-catchment Aerial videography is a been new incorporated technique into that traditional remote has sensing techniques in order to reduce the time required for data processing. The results of this that study showed manual techniques identification fine from spatial scale black for and white riparian vegetation aerial photographs produced the most accurate and cost-effective results, whereas analysis videography and of Landsat aerial TM lowest mapping accuracy. data produced the

al. (2004) compared Landsat derived et al. (2001) conducted a survey of the et Mapping riparian zones from high spatial resolution satellite imagery satellite resolution high spatial from zones Mapping riparian Integration of multiple image datasets for mapping riparian zones riparian mapping for datasets of multiple image Integration Lattin image maps with colour infrared aerial photographs Most current studies of have been relatively remote coarse in spatial resolution (e.g. sensing (20 multi-spectral systems HRV SPOT pixels); m (30 TM Landsat m pixels)). Sensors with moderate spatial resolution Several Several studies have used multiple types of image data to analyse and and map Lancaster riparian (1996) investigated zones. the Mouat relationship between LCLU data derived from aerial photographs parameters, quality water and imagery TM Landsat and but they did not provide a formal the two comparison data sources. of When comparing these data, a number of factors have to be considered (Turner, 1989; Collins and (a) Woodcock, spatial 1996), resolution; (b) including: radiometric spectral resolution; (d) resolution; temporal (c) resolution; (f) spatial extent; (g) methodology of classification; (h) number of LCLU classes; and (i) accuracy assessment methodology. Iverson Vermilion River basin in east central Illinois, They USA. used three data sets to land cover on evaluate either side of 300 the streams: m (i) the US of Geological Survey’s data on land use and cover, (ii) land cover manually digitalized from the National Landsat (iii) and program, Photography Altitude High TM data classified as land cover using unsupervised information was assessed classification. The resulting for spatial distribution and, with the aid photographs of aerial and quadrangular maps, assigned land to cover types. In most cases, many clusters were grouped together to represent one land cover type. TM data proved to provide reliable information for this purpose. TM and other readily available satellite data, once classified, can be easily processed for this ranking scheme. The authors compared for useful be can data TM that concluded and the results three inventorying riparian forests.

Remote sensing application in riparian areas 150 of Nova Esperança, Paraná, Brazil with the purpose of The site tested was an agricultural area near the town classification. change context and semantic selective network, assessed: were approaches classification of land-cover classes in relation to each other. location Different and sub-objects, and objects between through rules fuzzy on contextual based descriptors such was as shape, texture, (2003) relations al. et Antunes by classification The objects. into pixels the reflectance of level of mergingthrough features individual of variability the reduces analysis image to ability successfully map individual features. Object-oriented the reduces variability This reflectance. spectral in variation large exhibit may crown, tree a feature, a up making larger pixels The pixels. the than are features individual imagery, resolution spatial high In mapping. zone riparian for suitable resolution spatial high with imagery of analysis for feasible proved has analysis image Object-oriented imagery.IKONOS the using objects homogenous into pixels adjacent of merging through multi-resolution segmentation from produced were objects The classification based on object-oriented image analysis. et al. (2003) presented a high spatial resolution image of environmental studies. Using these images, Antunes sensor can provide relevant data for nearly all aspects (Dial respectively m 4 < and m 1 < providing satellite panchromatic and multi-spectral imagery with pixels owned commercially first the was IKONOS GeoEye. by operated system resolution spatial high a is sensor satellite IKONOS The areas. buffer riparian including applications, management resource many for useful is sensor satellite IKONOS Phinn, the and from imagery resolution spatial high The (Johansen 2008). sensors moderate resolution than zones spatial riparian of characteristics landform and biophysical mapping for feasible more proved have which (http://www.digitalglobe.com), Quickbird and (http://www.geoeye.com) IKONOS are resolution spatial high improved with satellites Two vegetation, on waterresources. streamside the pollution source non-point of impact and landform, frequent, of for studies source data detailed invaluable an be will sensing remote improves, systems sensor satellite of pixels. resolution resolution spatial the as that expected spatial is However,it moderate than scale a smaller at nature heterogeneous their of because zones riparian within present variability of level the , 2003). This 2003). al., et e.g. derived from these two approaches were compared were approaches two these from derived measurements The 3.5.1). (figure scheme monitoring savannah, and an image based on a riparian condition the of areas riparian of condition environmental the method, developed approaches, for Condition rapid on-ground Riparian assessment of of assessment Appraisal Rapid Tropical the condition riparian two Johansen 2008). Phinn, and (Johansen maintaining environments these for responsible agencies government national and state, local, by investigated being are environments riparian of condition and the measuring monitoring for methods suitable Australia, In (Johansen andPhinn,2008;Johansen functions overlay precise for data of types two georeference the correctly to used be can data image and field recognisablethe easily both classes in LCLU between areas transition or points control ground of identification as such approaches New receivers. (GPS) system positioning global conventional from obtained be not generally can data image resolution required accuracyfor integrating the field and the high geometric spatial of level The sources. data two these of co-registration accurate of challenge the identified have resolutionimagery spatial high using studies Several results. mapping the validating for and zones riparian of properties biophysical explain data is important for the development of models that image sensed remotely and field of integration The all ofwhichare related totheconditionofstreams. buffers, riparian and cover tree surfaces, impervious mapping for particularly imagery, IKONOS of utility resolution practical coarserthe shows study This Landsat). (e.g. imagery using surfaces impervious and these data to train sub-pixel algorithms of tree cover impervious of surface areas. Related applications include the use of intensification and residential particularly development use, land in occurred had that changes map to as the well as map, update lands forested to photographs aerial interpreting to Goetz by Another study using IKONOS imagery was carried out building upspatialrelations. to be well suited to generating images of objects and found was segmentation multi-resolution swamps vegetation structures riparian forest, eucalyptus and different the and complexity the Considering River. Porecatú the along vegetation riparian the mapping (2003), who developed an alternative an developed who (2003), al. et 20) compared (2007) al. et 2007;Johansen al., et et al.,2008).

151 Remote sensing application in riparian areas Sketch, pan-sharpened QuickBird image subset, and photos of the different stream bank sections identified along the Daly River, River, Daly the along identified sections bank stream different the of photos and subset, image QuickBird pan-sharpened Sketch, 3.5.1 Figure widths Characteristic Australia. of this Northern river Territory, riparian system’s subzones shown are on the image subset. Johansen Source: et al., 2007; Symbols for diagrams courtesy of the Integration and Application Network, University of Maryland, Centre for Environmental Science (http://ian.umces. edu/symbols/).

Remote sensing application in riparian areas 152 and correlated. The satellite data used included two were used, including NDVI, the Enhanced Vegetation 2.4m pixel multi-spectral QuickBird images, captured Index (EVI), and the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index one year apart. The QuickBird sensor is a high (SAVI), calculated and converted to percentage spatial resolution satellite owned and operated by canopy cover and organic litter based on best-fit DigitalGlobe. These satellite images are an excellent regression models between field measurements and source of environmental data, useful for analyses corresponding spectral vegetation index values. The of changes in land use, agricultural and forest. The authors found that stream order, width of the riparian field measurements of percentage canopy cover and area, spatial variation in riparian condition, shape canopy gap distribution were derived from upward of the river system, and accessibility are important looking field photos taken with a digital camera, factors for determining the benefits of the field while organic litter was measured on the ground. versus image based approaches. The multi-temporal These field measurements were used to calibrate analysis was more accurate and cost-effective for and train the image-derived measurements and to stream lengths > 200 km using the image based validate image classifications. In this study, spectral method due its higher precision compared to field vegetation indices suited to riparian environments based visual assessment.

Mapping riparian zones from airborne sensors

Remote sensing has been used, to a limited extent, size of tree crowns, canopy roughness, number of to map and monitor characteristics of riparian areas, species within the types of vegetation, shape and with classification of dominant vegetation species extent of patches in a type of forest, spectral contrast and mapping vegetation structural parameters as the with the matrix around the forest, and heterogeneity main focus (Nagler et al., 2001; Davis et al., 2002; produced by patchiness within the forest (Muller, Dowling and Accad, 2003; Johansen and Phinn, 1997). 2006). The spatial resolution of the data indicates the minimum potential mapping unit. Airborne image Bryant and Gilvear (1999), Ferreira et al. (2005) and data usually have higher spatial resolution than even Milton et al. (1995) used multi-temporal remotely the latest high spatial resolution satellite imagery sensed data for change detection purposes of available to the public (e.g., IKONOS and Geoeye-1, riparian zones. These studies used multi-date aerial Geoeye, and QuickBird, Digital Globe). With this level imagery or photography. With an expanding market of detail available from airborne imaging systems, for airborne digital sensors providing very high riparian zone metrics, beyond general classification spatial resolution (< 0.5m x 0.5 m pixels), these of vegetation, can be assessed. These types of metrics image data are likely to be used for riparian mapping may include assessment of large woody debris, bank and monitoring. Johansen et al. (2008) highlighted stability, and stream properties. advances of digital airborne sensors such as the Vexcel Ultracam, Leica ADS, and Intergraph DMC The scale factor is of significant importance for sensors over satellite derived data. These included the studying riparian vegetation. The spatial resolution ability to mobilize quickly at opportunistic times and of the remote sensing data imposes a scale for at user-specified locations, increasing the likelihood analysing the vegetation. In forest studies, White and of obtaining cloud-free images. Recently, airborne Mac Kenzie (1986) considered that the main target digital sensors have become increasingly competitive was to find a scale at which one pixel integrates the to satellite imagery in terms of costs, accuracy, and relevant heterogeneity within a unit to be mapped flexibility of use. without causing any blurring across boundaries of major cover types. They considered that the optimum To obtain more detailed information, a new approach spatial resolution depends on the target of the study that considers the sub-pixel information in order to and on inherent characteristics of the landscape, i.e. obtain land cover maps has emerged. It considers Remote sensing application in riparian areas 153 Figure 3.5.2 Standard LIDAR derived raster products and examples of associated riparian biophysical and landform maps derived from an

Remote sensing application in riparian areas Australian tropical environment (Adapted from Johansen et al., (in review)).

the proportion of each pixel occupied by any given Another type of remote sensing data used in recent land cover type. This information is mainly obtained years is light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems using a tree algorithm type of classification that (Lefsky et al., 2002). These systems have been used outputs continuous estimations of a given land in development and research applications for many cover type (Hansen et al., 2002). A decision tree years. Airborne LiDAR sensors derive information analysis is a non-parametric classifier that divides on the elevation and reflectance of terrain and an image into regions (Oliver and Hand, 1996), by vegetation from a pulse or continuous wave laser fired constantly dividing the image data into increasingly from an airborne transmitter, for which its position homogeneous regions using rules. Laser-based remote is precisely and accurately measured. Processing sensing is an advance in this field, providing even of the reflected LiDAR signal provides an accurate more detailed information about the properties of measure of distance between the transmitter and buffer areas, such as refined topographic derivatives reflecting surfaces based on the time of travel of and multidimensional vegetation structure. the laser and position of the sensor (Lefsky et al., 154 2002). LiDAR data can provide detailed information in France with accuracies between 66% and 98% on the heights of riparian canopy and understorey using elevation and intensity information derived surfaces with vertical and horizontal accuracy within from LiDAR data. Frontier technologies for mapping a few centimetres. LiDAR products provide improved riparian zones will show how LiDAR data, in particular definition of stream networks and catchments full waveform data, can be used to quantify through elevation grids, while topographic definition biophysical and landform parameters from elevation within buffer areas can be derived and used with and intensity information and assess multi-temporal associated vegetation information for improved changes in two and three dimensions. Other leaps characterisation of the physical properties of buffers likely to occur in the future is the use of high spatial (figure 3.5.2). resolution imagery for partial automation of mapping riparian biophysical and landform parameters to Antonarakis et al. (2008) classified five types of generate more consistent maps suitable for planning riparian forest along three meanders of two rivers and natural resource management.

Concluding remarks

Remote sensing is a cost- and time-effective increasing spatial resolution imagery available from technique to identify different types of vegetation airborne and satellite sensors (Johansen et al., 2008), in riparian areas and the remote sensing data can be object-oriented image analysis using fuzzy rules has incorporated into a GIS which can be used as a tool become a more appropriate approach for reducing for the management of riparian areas. To date, the the within-feature reflectance variability, but still main application of remote sensing data in riparian achieve the high level of detail required for riparian areas has been the mapping of land-cover classes. zone mapping. This progress is likely to expand rapidly These are used mainly to manage riparian areas. in the near future, especially with the increasing The traditional methods of land-cover classification availability of full waveform small footprint LiDAR with remote sensing data used in riparian areas are sensors and software packages currently being pixel based supervised and unsupervised algorithms, developed for multi-temporal three dimensional decision tree analysis, and thresholding of vegetation assessment of LiDAR data and for partial automation indices. In recent years, high spatial resolution remote of mapping routines. Future research of mapping sensing imagery has become more readily available riparian zones is also likely to take advantage of the from airborne and satellite sensors, providing increasing data dimensionality through integration imagery more suited for detailed assessment of and combined processing of different image datasets riparian biophysical and landform characteristics. such as high spatial resolution satellite/airborne This has allowed improved characterisation of imagery and airborne LiDAR data. the properties of riparian areas than before. With

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Remote sensing application in riparian areas 156 Additionally, birds are frequently used as indicators as used frequently are birds Additionally, reactors. faster are and changes environmental to (Tucker numbersSeveral1994). Heath, areand species rather sensitive large in occur usually and globe the over all habitats of number large a occupy Birds depending onthegoalsconsidered. 2002), (Delbaere, European to regional from global, to local from scales, geographical different be at used can They interest. of areas particular of trends simplify, and changes to state, the used communicate and generally quantify are They trends. and status diversity biological overall indicate to issues Indicators summarize data on complex environmental a particularstateofhabitat/ecosystemsituations. bio-indicators must be both reliable and goal, indicative of their achieve to order In involved. organisms different assessment methods depending on the employing range and the sciences, environmental and biology of fields different in used be can Bio- indicators conditions. ecosystem or habitats in changes environmental monitor to used guilds) communities, (e.g. organisms of clusters or organisms as defined be can sense broader its in bio-indicator term The territory and use can land on constraints This several create citizens. by understood fully and being concepts their these of framework theoretical the between gap a often is there However, public. the among known widely becoming are and media the in on focused increasingly been have bio-indicators and conservation nature development, sustainable biodiversity, like Concepts http://www.cbd.int). (see entry Diversity Biological on Convention the the of force following into decade, increasing last the received in attention has biodiversity Monitoring Gregory Burnett (e.g. bio-indicators as used been often have birds vertebrates, terrestrial Among Birds as bio-indicators isWhat abio-indicator? 20; Padoa-Schioppa 2005; al., et Carlos Godinho Joao Rabaça 2005; al., et 2006). al., et n dt bss f rns r aalbe Compared available. are trends of bases data and for which extensive nationwide or continental atlases group only the are areMoreover, birds known. currently species of clusters or species several of trends information population and of distribution in shifts amount The available. the considering biological group, best-known the are birds Furthermore, of changes in other groups (Tucker and Heath, 1994). tp o te aa rdcin rcs sc as such is notalwayseasytoapplyscienceinapolicyworld. process it Nevertheless, production management. data and data monitoring the of steps essential stronglyinfluences it indicators,as best the obtaining for fundamental is implementation policy practical to science from getting (2002),Delbaere by and Villard, 2001; Gregory Carignan (e.g. analysis to susceptible and collect realistic to understood, easily credible, changes, scientifically to responsive policy, to relevant driven, user simplifying, quantitative, be must indicator An be given to selecting the appropriate set of indicators. must attention considerablesuccessfully, used be to in biodiversity (Gregory species loss or gain to estimate or measure the trends often, using diversity measure to Most is procedure an common the wildlife. the generating of state to the of approachesindicator several are There a riverstretch. procedure stepwise for assessment of the birds a associated with suggest (3) and birds to bio-indicator reference examples few with a a give (2) what us, tell can clarify it what and to is try (1) will and the use of riparian and aquatic birds as bio-indicators on focus brief a provides chapter This work. field to theory from step the take to how is then, question, The involved. are makers decision and technicians management, particularly if local, regional or national OF RIPARIANECOSYSTEMS BIRDS ASBIO-INDICATORS et al., 2003). For this approach et al., 2003). As mentioned

157 Birds as bio-indicators of riparian ecosystems have been developed for fishes, different taxa, namely macro-invertebrates, diatoms. So macrophytes far as birds and are concerned, several provides provides a reasonable approach to population trends in farmland birds (figure 3.6.1) and that clearly shows in Europe’s agricultural landscapes, decades. recent have declined over farmland birds common However, certain drawbacks environmental monitoring for panacea a constituting prevent birds from changes or ecosystem disadvantages include their which mobility, conditions. makes it Their various difficult to establish site-specific causes when high mortality levels or could a involved factors rapid the since decrease detected, are in numbers population geographic different in (even elsewhere operating be areas where migratory species are order concerned). to In mitigate the effects suggested posed often have ornithologists by birds, of the volatility spatial that their quantitative study should constancy spatial focus relative the to due season, breeding on the territorial by imposed and species most in recognized have types territory different (nonetheless, behaviour process). tricky a this making birds, in described been Application to aquatic ecosystems to Application Population trends of common farmland birds (European Bird Population Index) for the period 1980-2005 (Source: http:// Index) for the period 1980-2005 (Source: Population Bird (European of common farmland birds trends 3.6.1 Population Figure www.ebcc.info/index.php?ID=299). The use of aquatic organisms to assess integrity the biotic of riparian common ecosystems procedure in recent has years. Several indices become a with other terrestrial vertebrates, bird numbers are relatively easy to gather and can a systematic be way over recorded time, in so it is rather obtain easy to temporal series. of Another birds is their popularity important among the public trait of all ages, providing a vast body of volunteers who are interested in participating in monitoring programs. Currently, the easiness of monitoring simple survey birds protocols is probably the using main reason why using birds as bio-indicators is Additionally, the so longer life span attractive. of birds compared with other organisms often used as bio-indicators (e.g. diatoms, invertebrates or fish) environment. the increases on impacts cumulative their to sensitivity In the Union European (EU), an outstanding example of the use of birds as bio-indicators is the Farmland Bird Index, which is one of EUROSTAT’s indicators structural for the environment. This based on trend EU data provided by 18 index Member States is annually surveys bird breeding national conduct that under the Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme (see http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat). The index

Birds as bio-indicators of riparian ecosystems 158 hogot h ya, salsig hi territories their territorial establishing year, highly the and throughout monogamous are Dippers fishes (e.g.Cramp andSimmons,1988). small or shrimps insects, of larvae or nymphs the on feed can they where waters clear cold, with areas, upland in often rivers, fast-flowing with associated closely is Europe in distribution species The 3.6.2). (figure underwater swim and dive to ability their in unique rather are which which birds family, freshwater Cinclidae includes the of aquatic an ), cinclus (Cinclus Dipper the is quality water of indicatorsvertebrate best-known the of cit.).One op. Frochot, and (Roché meandering and anastomosis braiding, , as such patterns channel river incorporates that model general a zones, suggesting thus fish previously-described to analogous are zones ornithological these that is authors these by by the Coot (Fulica atra). Another interesting finding Tern Common characterized best the is last the while (Actitis hirundo), (Sterna by Sandpiper third the Common and the hypoleucos) by second the cinclus), (Cinclus Dipper the by illustrated is sector characterizedbirdfirsteach a the mouth, by species: the to headwaters the upstream- from zones four has the model along Their France. in rivers three in gradient zones downstream ornithological of existence the Frochotdocumented and (1993) Roché of assessment on breedingbird count method, point communitiesby a Based vegetation). riverside of structure and density substrate, slope, bank type flow, of quality, (water sampled being stretches river the trophicof features riparian and aquatic with categories) diversity, densities, richness, (species composition, attributes ornithological relate somehow that indices produce to made been have attempts Figure 3.6.2TheDipper( Cinclus cinclus Jean Roché). is commonlyconsidered agoodindicatorofwater quality(photo: ), aspecialistriverinebird, all stagesofriparianvegetation. birds associated with riversides can be used in woodland the study of while channels, river of dynamics waders) and integrity the on and information useful provide can (waterfowl birds ornithological Water from assessment. obtained be can landscapes riparian of traits ecological the on information key some that highlight to important is bio-indicators,it to exercise some advisable caution in using riparian it birds widely as make constraints several Although monitoring toolforassessingriparianintegrity. and management useful a be to appears BII the that assess the condition of river stretches. They concluded to integrity those ornithological of index combined an into selected and indicators as value their for strategies) nesting disturbance, human to tolerance guilds, foraging migrants, long-distance abundance, evaluation of several avian metrics (e.g. richness, total bird surveys. In essence, they carried out a systematic through obtained assemblages bird on information Willamette in Valley (USA) reachesusing a bird integrity index stream (BII) that uses on impacts human surrounding matrix. Bryce vegetation in density and changes type, both in the river corridor and in the to respond birds that fact the on based is This grazing). livestock vegetation and cutting slopes, bank in changes (e.g. activities human by induce modifications featuresand habitat riverside and channel river of indicator an as used often is stretches river with associated assemblages bird of bio-indicator,composition good the a be can species bird particular a why demonstrates example (Sorace indicator bio- good a as to role its reinforcing sensitive pollution, stream also is but time over quality water in changes tracks only not species this authors, the to following degradation of the water quality. According streams few a in Dippers of disappearance the trace to Moreover,streams.able were polluted they the of 93.7% from absent were and reaches unpolluted in occurred Dippers cases the of 93.3% in that found and watercourses pollution. 35 of stream stretches 47 by sampled They affected was Dipper the occurrence of the whether ascertain to Italy central Sorace UK. the in watersstream acidity low and Dippers of occurrence the between association strong a 1991)documented Ormerod river. the along longitudinally ., 2002). Although the above the Although 2002). al., et (2002) conducted a study in study a conducted (2002) al. et et al. (2002) tried to assess . (1987, al. et

159 Birds as bio-indicators of riparian ecosystems et al., 1981) with – In order to evaluate the success of the of success the evaluate to order In – etation of results – bird surveys must rehabilitation procedure, it is necessary to monitor to necessary is it procedure, rehabilitation a employ to important so is it why is This time. over replicable method. Depending on the spatial scale surveys monitoring logistics, the and project the of can be conducted on an annual basis or every two years. or three Interpr provide information on the actions taken, based on bird-habitat associations. Therefore, particular attention must be given to variables the environmental related with surveillance habitat must reflect features. recovery the actions Bird development and of the The measures use undertaken. of environmental variables, bird species richness and abundances make build predictive models that it can be useful to the possible to plan. must The be results used to restoration make adjustments to the restoration plan if necessary and also to undertake public educational activities information and Replicable recommended. This recommended. will allows comparisons future with other works and replication of the surveys in an almost unlimited time span. A point-count methodology (e.g. Blondel limited distance, 25m bandwidth, and a time survey of between 10 and 20 5-minute minutes frames split is into recommended. The adopted bandwidth must be related to the width In area. survey the of throughout consistent and river the www.ripidurable.eu), (see project RIPIDURABLE the two bandwidths (25 and 50m) were used in rivers with a 5-15m wide river channel, increased. be but can bandwidth observation the rivers in larger The number and location of the sampling stations varies in each case. Nevertheless they separated so as to must allow independent observation be (e.g. 250 m apart) and systematically spaced

f) e) et et al., 1988; Corbacho of the initial state – data on birds of survey method and sampling places bird bird assemblages – if possible, a com- et al., 1997; Rottenborn, 1999; Nilsson ol areas – a control area without intervention without area control a – areas ol How to carry out an assessment of bird communities in riparian ecosystems ecosystems in riparian communities of bird carry an assessment to out How Contr in the same watercourse similar habitat or features (possibly in from the another same watershed) with is quite useful in order the effect of the actions to being undertaken. It also evaluate helps to avoid any delusions about the results Definition – the adoption of a standardized method is and habitats must be collected prior to recovery action. Information about potential species must also be gathered. This information is fundamental to action the of place and time the delineating for ecology and distribution the to according taken be of the species and for evaluating the effectiveness rehabilitation of future Choosing munity approach rather than approach is a recommended. single-species In this way, fluctuations in natural single species populations and the misleading effect of other factors than alterations in riparian habitats will be avoided Description

d) b) c) Human pressure in and riparian most of these areas areas are being lost or is modified (Kaufmann increasing al., 2005). The long history of intensive land use and human disturbance (Décamps et al., 2003) underlines the need to speed up actions for their recovery. Considering the of attractiveness and birds the user- section this protocols, survey most of quality friendly suggests a simple stepwise procedure for assessing the bird communities associated with a watercourse reach where recovery may be planned. In time, this will make it possible to detect changes composition and abundances, in and relationships with species habitat features might be established. The necessary as follows: steps are a)

Birds as bio-indicators of riparian ecosystems 160 Biological sciences360(1454):269-288 B, Series London. of Society Royal the of transactions Philosophical birds. European for indicators Developing (2005) DW Gibbons RPB, Gregory RD, van Strien A, Vorisek P, Meyling AWG, Noble DG, Foppen 13:11-24 DW Gibbons biovidersity.12- of Hungarica indicators Ornis as birds M, Using (2003) Raven J, Marchant R, Field D, Noble RD, Gregory Budapest, Hungary COP6. (ECNC Technical report series) ECNC, Tilburg, The Netherlands/ CBD/ at held event side a of Proceedings implementation. towards Moving monitoring: and indicators Biodiversity (2002) B Delbaere Ecology 1:163-173 Landscape landscape. fluvial a of dynamics riparian the on man of Décamps H, Fortune M, Gazelle F, Patou G (1988) Historical influence Vol. V.Oxford University Press, Oxford Thrushes), to Flycatchers (Tyrant Africa, North and East Middle the Cramp S, Simmons KEL (eds) (1988) Handbook of the Birds of Europe, and Environment 95:495-507 cultural landscapes of a Mediterranean area. Agriculture, Ecosystems agri- in vegetation riparian of structural disturbance of human and Patterns complexity (2003) E Costillo JM, Sánchez C, Corbacho ment 78:45-61 ecological integrity: a review. Environmental Monitoring and Assess- Carignan V, Villard MA (2002) Selecting indicator species to monitor PSW-GTR-191 Rep. Gen.Tech. Service Forest USDA Projects. Rehabilitation Stream ing to Guide and Evaluate Riparian Restoration in Salmonid-Focused Monitor- Songbird Using (2005) GR Geupel T, Gardali RD, Burnett dition, Environ. Manage.30:294-310 integrity index: Using bird assemblages as indicators of riparian con- bird a of Development (2002) PR Kaufmann RM, Hughes SA, Bryce tance. StudiesinAvianBiology6:414-420 FrochotC, Ferry J, Blondel (1981)B Point dis- unlimited with counts References bridge conservation Cam- nº3, their Series Conservation Birdlife Europe:International. Birdlife status. in Birds (1994) MF Heath GM, Tucker 118(1):89-96 Pollution Environmental Italy. central in indices biotic and quality bird,dipper,river the (2002)presencea L The of relationwater in to Mancini P,AndreaniC, GramegnaP,A, Formichetti Boano A, Sorace on urbanization riparian bird communities.BiologicalConservation88:289-299 of impacts the Predicting (1999) SC Rottenborn tion. ActaOecologica14(3):415-434 FrochotJ, Roché zona- river to contribution Ornithological (1993) B landscapes. EcologicalIndicators 6:83-93 agricultural in concept species focal the bioindicators: as munities com- Bird (2006) L Bottoni R, Massa M, Baietto E, Padoa-Schioppa upland Wales. Freshwater Biology25:105-116 dipper the bird, river a by prey of Exploitation (1991) SJ Tyler SJ, Ormerod Preservation, Cambridge ICBP Birds. of Value Bird for Council The 191–209.International 6, No. Publication Technical (eds). FL Filion AW, Diamond upland In: in Wales. acidity stream of indicators as cinerea) (Motacilla tails wag- grey and cinclus) (Cinclus Dippers (1987) SJ Tyler SJ, Ormerod 308:405-408 Fragmenta- (2005) Science systems. C river large world’s the of Revenga regulation flow and tion M, Dynesius CA, Reidy C, Nilsson States. Fisheries22:12-24 perspective ecological of riparian and stream restorationAn in the Western United (1997) D Lytjen N, Otting RL, Beschta JB, Kauffman Cinclus cinclus (L.), along acidic and circumneutral streams in

161 Birds as bio-indicators of riparian ecosystems 162 4 Developing and Implementing a Project Gonçalo Leal Gonçalo Mota Campeã da António Ilidio Moreira Saraiva da Graça Maria Ana Mendes Other aspects that are essential for the exhaustive study of situations which require action are listed below. The list indicates some of parameters the that factors need to and be taken into account of this nature: projects in possible to diagnose and assess problems; defining involved reaches of types the defining objectives; the in the restoration project, as shown in the following flow chart: Characterization Introduction Characterization Characterization of the contribute to array the diversity of and fluvial systems the factors is fundamental, making functions it necessary that of to study the various components of these systems. This requires a multidisciplinary approach and the collection of data on a variety of specific parameters in order to analyze the ecological integrity of river. the Flowchart of a fluvial system recuperation project. 4.1.1 Flowchart of a fluvial system recuperation Figure The methodology of a phases project and comprises steps several designed to objectives. attain the The defined collecting sequence the fundamental data for analyzing of and characterizing the present situation, actions which makes it includes PLANNING

Planning 164 D. Fluvialprocesses B. Hydrology A. Characterization ofthereach oslig em s ia. s a a psil, the possible, as should phase characterization far the in involved As team vital. is team consulting considerable and multidisciplinary a of inclusion early expertise The experience. technical requires It implementation. its of viability future the for crucial restorationa projectis of characterizationphase The C. Er 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) 3) 2) 1) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) 4) 3) 2) 1) Definition ofthe technical/scientific team osion andsedimenttransport

ditions) return periods) Degr Width, lengthandothermeasur T Situation withintheriverbasin Channel-forming Bank er Evidence oflandslidesorslippage minimum discharge andbankfullconditions T Substr Channel formanddimension Char Quantification ofsuperficialer Char Catchment formanddimensions Runoff behaviour Minimum flowvalues Flood/spate Seasonal flowvalues Annual flowvalues Pr opographic characterization asesl eain bten hnes in channels between relations ransversal ecipitation data acterization oftorrential erosion acterization oferosion processes ee oflinearity ate composition osion ek (, 0 5 ad 0 year 100 and 50 10, (5, peaks icag (akul con- (bankfull discharge osion ements H. Ecologicalintegrityoftheriversystem G. PlantandAnimalspecies F E. Water quality sediment transport. and geomorphology hydraulics, hydrology, ecology, aquatic and terrestrial of knowledge with engineers phases. The team should comprise both biologists and implementation and design project the in part take . Riverinevegetation 1) 1) 4) 2) 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) 8) 7) 5) 4) 3) 2) 3)

water qualityindicators T Sediments insuspension Chemical OxygenDemand(COD) 5 dayBiologicalOxygenDemand(BOD5) Dissolved oxygen T Colour Conductivity pH T Channel mobility Macr Rar Indigenous vs.exoticspecies Riparian species Aquatic species Degr Degr Distribution ofcommunity ype ofcommunity emperature ypes ofsediment e endemicorendangered species ee ofcontinuity ee ofcoverage oinvertebrates or vertebrates that act as act that vertebrates or oinvertebrates

165 Planning ests in the project. e that local values are taken into account best alternatives for activity development in ovide various points of view and propose ob- Identify the various public inter Identify the various public Pr jectives to decision makers. Ensur implementation. during project Plan interests. parties’ participating all with accordance

of advisory groups, as of the project. requirements well as to the technical c) d) The advisory group must be conscious that its role is to advise and that decision-making power resides with the project initiator. Although group members play an important role implementation, they do not take final decisions. in project planning and During the evaluation and to order in groups diagnostic advisory these involve to phase, important it is guarantee public participation in the whole project. Establishing such groups is Public a announcements good are way of generating often with very institutions to writing advertising, difficult. are as interest, a potential interest or even contacting potentially directly. parties such as landowners cooperative a) b) determining reference conditions and possible future future possible and conditions reference determining concepts these of definition exhaustive An scenarios. and a description of their usefulness in deciding the project objectives are given in Part 1, chapter 2 and 3, chapter 3 of this book. in Part e.g. the definition of ‘restoration’, and Delimitation of the Intervention Area of the Intervention Delimitation Definition of Objectives Evaluation and diagnosis Evaluation The delimitation of the intervention area is always a complex theme, since it is directly related to the definition of objectives and the active participation Following the initial characterization phase, once a general overview of the situation has been aquired, the objectives and scope of the project in should hours few a invest to helpful be can It established. be giving some thought to general restoration ecology concepts, In this phase it is important to involve all interested parties, thereby ensuring the public development engagement of the in project. of The this type real of operation success is highly dependent upon acceptance by and information from all parties with therefore, zone; riparian its and river the in interest an consensus needs to be created between stakeholders (e.g. landowners, local authorities, phase subsequent the users) that so team technical project’s and the takes the needs of all parties into account. It is often important catchment to or (reach intervention of consider limits the as such relevant aspects scale), since these will influence which jurisdiction applies to the project: one might be talking about just one or two landowners or it could also involve government. or even central the local, regional, Consequently, it is important to form an group, which advisory should include private citizens, public interest groups, economic interest groups, official organisations with jurisdiction within the area and environmental and heritage NGOs. should group meet periodically in to: order (FISRWG, This advisory 2001)

Planning 166 t hs on, t ut e tesd ht without such that parties, interested stressed the informed be fully must having it point, this At including publicparticipation. differently in order to attain the proposed objectives, act to necessary be may It river. the bordering land type of landowner and the legislation concerning the are the with vary will measures intervention of type The intervention planned. the where area the in landowners identify to is, also it as limits, their and necessary to identify the priority intervention reaches Once the location of the project has been decided, it is processes influenceriversystems. reflect ecological which through should scales spatial various limits the These relevant processes. of reflection ecological direct a be should are defined which limits geographical the that emphasize to important is it view, of point technical the From are absolutelyclearabouttheproposed objectives. stakeholders all that ensure to also and process, the in participating groups social the all with consensus reach to order in group advisory the by revised be to need limits intervention these phase, second a In objectives. defined previously the characterization following the phase), during collected data analysis the (via of limits intervention geographical define the personnel technical the phase, initial an In EN3/PT.653. ISBN-0-934213-59-3 Restoration Stream Interagency Working Group (FISRWG) PO Item No. 0120-A; FederalSuDocs No. A57.6/2: the By Practices. and Processes, Principles, Restoration: Corridor Stream (2001) FISRWG References b) f) e) d) c) a) 2001) (FISRWG, follows: as defined be may out carried be classification of the land where the intervention is to administrative local or of national and ownership combinations land of types the speaking, Generally viability oftheirduration inthe field. or that do not have public consensus may reduce the previouslymeasuresbeen not agreedhave that upon of information among the local population: imposing lack the to primarly ascribed be participation, can This term. long public the in failure of without risk the run to measures intervention and reach the restored, of users be other and landowners as

park. park A singlelandownerinarur Sever A Sever A singlelandownerinanurbanar Sever single landowner in a protected area or natural or area protected a in landowner single al landowners in a protected area or natural or area protected a in landowners al al landowners inanurbanarea al landowners inarural area al area ea

167 Planning Pedro Brufao Curiel Pedro spaces; potential environmental acquisition of impact land through private transactions studies; or compulsory purchase; relations between different administrative levels; allocation of competences; or the use of such alternative as legal the figures, “river agreements”. The present chapter summarises how national and EU legislation can contribute to the vital effort of recovering our deteriorated The topic fluvial is discussed ecosystems. at forthcoming “Manual length jurídico para in la the restauración author’s de ríos y terrenos ribereños” [“Legal manual for the to areas”], their surrounding and rivers of restoration be made. shall which reference and other public bodies own thousands regimes, juridical of of range wide a under land of miles square one of the most important of which is ownership. communal To make matters more complicated, it is often impossible to determine who the landowner is, since the property is not registered or the also may problems relevant other Many correct. not are details hinder land restoration work: inheritances, concessions (generally public associated with hydraulic and mining activities), and litigation over boundaries or (it projects is not unusual infrastructural for recently or highways new by devastated be to areas reforested urban developments). We reiterate the enormous importance of juridical certainty. To ensure the latter, a good project must have its file, administrative corresponding describing and fluvial relevant the of availability of conditions the to indispensable it makes this Spain, In areas. riverside the Registries, Water and Land; Property, the examine Private Water Catalogue, the Registry of Mines, and the town planning archives, and ascertain potential restrictions in protected natural spaces. Together General considerations General Introduction When a private person or the public administration considers the restoration of a river area, the or first issue a that must wetland be addressed is land ownership. One of the main purposes of the rule of law is to guarantee juridical certainty, which in this case would and apply it to project, an environmental must be totally clear the from outset who the public the what and is, land relevant the of owner private or exact boundaries of that land are. In countries that follow the tradition of Roman law, like Spain, rivers and wetlands are generally public spaces, although riverbeds of regimes various ownership different as specific such apply, conditions may and water rights. Boundaries another are issue, since have or clear, not sometimes are limits property exact serious environmental implications (as when water courses have been channelled to avoid flooding of private land). In addition to ownership issues, legal the circumstances of the property must examined, as the use also of the land might be restricted be or controlled by other owners, such as in the case of servitudes and leases.Furthermore, municipalities The restoration of rivers, riversides and wetlands in Spain has been approached mainly from a technical point of view (including the concession works) of and at most from a public social perspective, aimed at involving local populations. In order to comply Directive, with to the develop Water the by Framework the programmes National Plan envisaged for River Restoration, and to carry out the greatest possible number of and official private activities of fluvial ecosystem recovery, it is necessary to take a series of previous legal and administrative steps to guarantee juridical certainty. of some projects, restoration river with dealing When the legal issues may include: distinguishing private property from public property; expiry and renewal of concession periods; rights land and its legal uses; legislation governing natural affecting adjacent LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGAL RESTORATION FOR THE GUIDELINES AND WETLANDS OF RIVERS

Legal and administrative guidelines for the restoration of rivers and wetlands 168 viaiiy sne t s biu ta n restoration project can be properly carried out without a natural no flow-volume that obvious is essential it since consider availability, must we Lastly, legislation our makes availabletous. that measures administrative and penal relevant the of means by law the enforce to therefore,is taken, be to steps first the of sway.One holds disobedience’ ‘hydrological true of situation a where Spain, in upheld duly being from far is law of and industrial uses. As regards these matters, the rule is often illegal; the same irrigation applies to hydroelectric plants for water surface of use the that and legally,extracted is a undergroundwater of part small only that fact well-known a indeed is It restoration efforts. our of success the hamper may which water,of uses clandestine and illegitimate many the to attention close pay must we analysis, legal with environmental matters, and can therefore carry out carry in therefore can and matters, competent environmental are administrations, municipal and regional the like authorities, river-basin other and the case of Spain, the Hydrographical Confederations such from administrative requirements, are necessary as well. In exemptions official or reports, impact Environmental administrations. territorial other and council local the from also authority,but river-basin the fromsecured be only not easy.Permitsmust not in the area of choice, something which in principle is finding out what agency or official body is competent at aimed be should measure administrative first The agreements withthecompetent authoritiesexist. special unless domains, water public on much so not activities will centre on riverside areas especially, and sales, and permutations, must be borne in and mind, since purchases servitudes, leases, as such measures private initiatives, private from result projects When law, law. administrative private of figures potential under forgetting without coming measures attention our on focus thus will We companies. and individuals private with transactions of cost the of and water administrations, with great savings in terms will land generally owned be carried out by publicly the relevant environmental on projects Restoration Specific legal techniques line atwww.riosconvida.es. on published been have regardingissues books these and reports different The necessary. when used be also must techniques water-treatment available best The for. planned and contemplated duly be should infrastructures that may hydraulichinder restoration objectives and dams of demolition potential the as such work and known, be must quality) or and regime, hydraulic concessions volume, of water terms in of (both authorisations renewal and expiry dates regarding of details end, this To place. take to as clean and natural as possible is clearly necessary for successful restoration is that water of adequate regime an land availability, to property and addition ownership In volumes. flow of maintenance regime acceptable an least at or regime, water 6) 5) 4) 2) 1) can thenbeputtouseare thefollowing: that figures legal main The activities. these to thrust or other bodies to be created in an effort to add public reachedadministrations,consortiums between for or be to agreements for common quite also is paper.It present the in described those as such interventions 3)

Lease, Compulsory pur “Domain Restitution Expiry Administr Wild andScenicRivers Act. the under US the in case the granted,is be as may concessions or authorisations no which to respect domain, orrestitutio inintegrum occupants ofpublicproperty. purposes. mining concessionsandauthorisations. , waiver, or restricted renewal of water and water of renewal restricted or waiver, , sfut r urne fr environmental for surrender or usufruct tv eito: jcmn o illegal of ejectment eviction: ative eevs, r ies n wtad with wetlands and rivers or reserves”, o rgnl tts s ulc water public as status original to chase ofland.

169 Legal and administrative guidelines for the restoration of rivers and wetlands protected. protected. In terms of comparative law we have the great examples of the National Trust in the UK, and of private reserves in the custody and of private foundations NGOs. In Spain, organisations was the Fundación one Territorio y Paisaje of the pioneer [Land and Landscape some riparian Foundation], land. From the which public point restrictions of planning urban of owns made view, be must mention (“non-developable” and “non-developable, specially land) and or protected” conservation protected areas spaces; among the latter, energetic efforts should be put into the creation of a network of protected spaces, along the lines Wild of and the Scenic Rivers above in the mentioned USA. the Together execution of with the Plan Nacional de Restauración de Ríos [National River-Restoration Plan], fluvial protect to indispensable, another is plan “conservation” spaces that are currently under serious threat, since good ecological conditions. in are very few rivers These programmes should not be public sector. limited Private to enterprise can the also similar promote interventions with adequate public support (agroenvironmental measures, for the use instance) of fiscal incentives for riverside landowners and engaged in farming activities. Conservationism certainly not limited to officialdom. is surrender of land in urban development urban in land of surrender in conservation areas and urban agreements: agreements: leasing, civil servitudes and chase of property: donation, purchase and sale, and purchase donation, property: of chase Conclusions permutation and acquisitive prescription (access to (access prescription acquisitive and permutation over time) ownership Use conservation easements, and conditioned private agreements. Compulsory land-plot concentrations. and projects Planning developments. Pur

This paper is but a brief overview of to open are that possibilities the administrative and legal different projects. us when executing river restoration We must also ensure available, that and increase adequate political funding awareness problem, of is since restoration programmes are the in many instances considered mere ‘compensation’ to make urban or infrastructural by caused damage the for up impact. with a high environmental projects 2) One vital issue is the ownership acquisition of of other rights domain with and a view to vast creating areas that are environmentally and legally 7) 8) legal of series comprehensive a offers also law Private are: Some of the most important figures. 1)

Legal and administrative guidelines for the restoration of rivers and wetlands 170 8) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) a numberofdecision-makingprocesses, suchas: 4) 3) 1) on skillsinthefollowingareas: and economics; particular emphasis should be placed interdisciplinary of range experience in engineering, biology, wide the social sciences a with members complex process. The team a should comprise technically-skilled such in involved aspects different very the handling of capable be must project restoration the designing for responsible be will that team The Processes, Principles, Restoration Corridor Stream publication FISRWG’s the on based is chapter This The technicalteamshouldber 7) 6) 5) 2)

in thereal situationonsite implement to difficult becomes solutions original operators andtechnicalpersonnel) machine machinery, involving activities dinating processes suchasobtaininglicences andpermits operational work Monitoring Pr Implementing Pr Adducing Adducing Coor Pr Social sciencesandeconomics Landscape planning Geology Biophysical engineering Hydr For Biology vdn atraie eeis hn n o the of any when remedies alternative oviding bureaucratic necessary the for support oviding ocuring financefortheproject Definition ofthe technical team andthedecision makingprocesses estry engineering dinating publicsessions aulic engineering h sinii bss o te restoration the for bases scientific the h lgl ae fr h poet o be to project the for bases legal the h poet shdln ad coor- and (scheduling project the esponsible for Ana Mendes 4) 1) first the at up meeting drawnand should cover important aspects such as: be should document This progress. in work the monitoring and specifying for taken into consideration is setting out the team rules 6) 3) 5) 3) 2) in thecourse oftheRipidurable project acquired experience the on (2001)and Practices and 8) 7) 5) 4) 2) 1) of chances term project success;thefollowing list isnotexhaustive: long can the body increase consultative the significantly on specialist each of skills initiative.The restoration the of needs specific meet to up set be also should body consultation a team, technical the of creation the with parallel In One

impasses f ulc eain maue, communication measures, between teammembers relations public of decisions delegating advice), and consensus (votes, process up andapproving theminutesofmeeting. place, agenda, identification of a mediator, drawing Meetings: T Land surveyor Sociologist Ar Economist Botanist Micr Lawyer project). the during moments key at decisions makes who with implementation someone project for be responsibility overall must there (N.B. managers Leader Communication Resolving Decision opologist. important aspect of teamwork that needs to be to needs that teamwork of aspect important chaeologist obiologist hp dfnto o dcso mkr and makers decision of definition ship: aig rcs: eiig h decision the defining process: making rbes apocig n resolving and approaching problems: eidct, oploy attendance, compulsory periodicity, n ifrain definition information: and PROJECT DESIGN

171 Project design s adio talk programmes ochures ess-releases Internet websites Local r Br Information bulletins Pr Open sessions Seminar Regular scheduled meetings Study visits

method or to undertake more direct on intervention the system, such techniques, at a as given moment. biophysical Consequently, it is engineering important to analyze the expected objectives with: their relation and 2) 3) 5) 6) 7) 9) It is important to keep the public participation groups groups participation public the keep to important is It informed during the whole to process implementation, from allow them design to share that problems may occur during implementation and ensure information-sharing between them and makers. decision Special As attention margins. river the to adjacent land should with landowners be given an integral part of the process, it restoration may be to private necessary to use restrict of the (e.g. margins increase the area of the riparian loss gallery of agricultural with land, consequent or restrict the passage of cattle or their drinking points) which may result in loss of income for the private landowners. For these reasons, it is fundamental to include landowners in the decision making group. In order to facilitate participation groups, it the is important setting to develop an up effective communication of plan public that seeks to The together following points diverse means of view. bring can be used to publicize the establishment of these groups: 1) 4) 8) oup should select a representative oup should establish decision-making rules procedures should be up documented (drawing procedures Economic analysis versus objectives versus analysis Economic Creating public participation groups public participation Creating eople with communication and data-synthesis Each gr The gr P skills should be chosen the (this is development important of for consciousness, a which collective will temper extreme possibly in group-work result can that dynamics group unfavourable positions) All minutes). and approving

When preparing for a restoration project, the most suitable and economically considered. be to need objectives project viable the meeting techniques for This includes carrying out a feasibility study of the selected techniques in order to determine whether or not it would be more appropriate to use a passive b) c) d) Public participation in restoration projects, it while needs to be role well-managed, to has play an in garnering important and and pooling is knowledge a fundamental element these in initiatives the over time. success The of creation participation of groups public brings scientific and technical know-how together restoration influence all which information, with economic social, political project and management objectives. long term definition of realistic and, indeed, affect be to group the participation public the for important is It the of users and parties interested several of up made area where the initiatives restoration will take place. organizations comprise to tend groups these However, with differing interests and it is important for the group members to decide together upon a series of protocols that will facilitate decision making communication. and Within each interest group, important to take the following into account: it is a)

Project design 172 difficult since medium and long term benefits can be Quantification of probable ecological benefits can be 3) 2) 1) suggested solutions itisnecessaryto: to the of order efficiency Stream economic in the analyze (2001), Interagency Group Federal Working Restoration the to According 3) 2) verify to order in degradation, of causes 1) Table 4.4.1Cost-benefitanalysisofanerosion control action. ■ ■ ■ ■ Technique ■ ■ ■ ■

D C B A objectives tobemet factors shouldalwaysbetakenintoconsideration. economically,these quantify to difficult although the same time meet economic and social suitable objectives; and at techniques and continuity ensurefluvial will that solutions selected up weigh to important is it up, drawn being is which project restorationa influence that impacts human the of region: since it is virtually impossible to act upon all are economicallyadvantageous. that results obtaining of expectation the in used be can techniques and measures mitigation which define to important is it phase this In symptoms. the upon act to possible only is it projects many degradation and re-establish of the system’s natural conditions. In causes the upon act to possible reducing theperturbationfactors. just or removing totally of terms in intervention desired effect. Thus, it is important to weigh up the the having from actions planned the prevent will remain, to allowed if factors, perturbation which The Dr Dr Dr The The aw upalistofprobable costs aw upalistofprobable ecologicalbenefits defined allow that techniques of list a up aw reach / river / corridor / catchment / landscape/ effects of degradation, in cases when it is not is it when cases in degradation, of effects Benefits % ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1000 90 90 80 1) point onarivercouldusethefollowingtechniques: particular a at crossing cattle from resulting to action example, For solution. suitable a of choice correct the for vital are technique each of benefits and cost the of comparison and costs the of quantification exact explicit, and employed data the upon depends analysis economic accurate However, technique. suitable most the of can choice the facilitate analyses higher-cost and graphs benefit Cost 4) 3) 2) 2) 1) rules forclassifyinginefficienttechniques: exact, so it is necessary to consider the following two not are analyses benefit Cost etc. licences purchase, to implementation costs but also to design costs, land only refer not do costs technical probable that note to important is be It costs. land can of terms preventionin for calculated flood terms; of benefit economic the into example, population the upon impact their of benefits the convert to try to be will of reach and basin. In these cases, the ideal approach level spatial the at impacts can as measure, to hard h floig al (al 441 smaie the summarises 4.4.1) benefits andcostofeachcourse of action. (table table following The

obtained forthesameprice planting vegetation using fencingtolimitaccessotherareas. With For T Restricting Restricting Constructing acattlefor otally prohibiting cattlecrossing the same benefit, there is a cheaper alternative nte tcnqe mr bnft cud be could benefits more technique, another cattle to crossing at a single point and point single a at crossing to cattle ate o rsig t snl point, single a at crossing to cattle ■ ■ ■ ■ Cost (euros) ■ ■ ■ ■ 6000 (compensation) 2000 1000 4000 d tominimizetrampling

173 Project design antees ements (general preparation of terrain, planting of of planting terrain, of preparation (general awings al plan al modelling of the terrain (excavations, ological study opographical study opographical Gener Planting plan Detail dr Gener Planting Dismantling work depot Responsibilities and guar T Hydr Altitude measur negative impacts, delineation of intervention area, area, intervention of delineation impacts, negative demolition and removal) borrow) disposal areas, trees, bushes, aquatic vegetation and herbaceous plants)

2) 4) 6) e) 5) An economic analysis can only be considered complete considered be only can analysis economic An if it includes a risk assessment study, examining the possibility that the restoration due to external process factors that were not may quantified or fail cannot be during controlled implementation. project that assumed is it project replanting a in example, For the successfully plants and will it root will be 5 years events. flood resist to capacity the attain they before first the during occurs event flood year 50 a However, 5 years of the project, wiping out all the work that an of importance the shows This out. carried been has risks potential the of manager project the by analysis action. that could occur when implementing a given b) c) d) 3) The following design documents should accompany the list of the tasks to be undertaken: 1) ecent history ology and climate a and fauna Project documents Project oposal (preparatory work, drainage and eparatory work (depot installation, preparation Hydr Flor Intentions and objectives Pr modelling, vegetation) terrain Pr of access and storage areas, measures to minimize Location and r Morphology

6) The works plan should specify all of the following details: a) 2) 3) 4) 5) When drawing up a need project, to be various prepared as documents a basis tasks for allocating to the the various the companies responsible and supervisor to by contractors support responsible ensuring for that carrying out the the in specifications technical necessary the with comply work order to meet the proposed objectives and minimise the negative impacts associated with this type intervention. Thus, an outline of of the work should be up with the following details. drawn 1) The value of this type of analysis is totally dependant dependant totally is analysis of type this of value The on the criteria employed to assess the benefits and on the number of factors this assessed. example For only instance, takes into erosion account control, one so factor, technique B ratio. cost/benefit best the has it will as solution effective be the most globally, evaluated is action of course the if However, factoring in the environmental benefits provided by landscape and environmental the and vegetation the impact of installing as permanent fencing, then structures the cost/benefit ratio such is result. a different produce likely to

Project design 174 igorpia rgo wee h poet s o be carried out and it is often to the case that inappropriate is project the where region biogeographical specific the from ecotypes and species required the of stocks carry not do usually include Nurseries that plantings. projects to paid be should special attention regard, this In impacts. negative minimize to also but succeeds task each that ensure to not only met, be should planting and cutting selective clearing, earth, moving for seasons suitable most the regarding Specifications project. the of success the for vital is underway gets work as implemented be Proper sequencing and scheduling of each activity to 4) 3) 2) 1) be considered: should costs following the speaking, Generally lack offunds. to due objectives implementation meet to failing of chance the minimizing thereby possible, as detailed as are that quotes requested upon possible as much as based be must estimates cost project Restoration

in meetings participate to incentives sociologist, a contracting sub for costs costs, meeting group participation and Definition preparation seminar maintenance for organization websites, costs costs and costs, publication participation pamphlets and of public design of leader, team costs contractual advertisements, hire, room team, participation E bird census,statisticalanalyses) sampling, (fish tasks specific for teams technical Char equipment and board teams, expenses, lodging travel hire, or technical purchase specialized G valuation and diagnosis: setting up a public public a up setting diagnosis: and valuation enerally for each phase: contracting contracting phase: each for enerally Quotes Scheduling ceiain sbcnrcig specialized sub-contracting acterization: of objectives: technical team and public contracted. company the of employment continued and choice affect may the for decisive and important is This timing. project that limitations in any subcontract with must accordance and to adhered is schedule projected the that ensure must manager project The book). this of 4.7 chapter (see schedule propagation plant problem could easily be avoided with a well-designed This planting. of the moment the at available were ones only they because introduced are specimens nue h flimn o poet pcfctos and specifications project of fulfilment To the specifications. ensure to according concluded is work companies with that ensure to order in supervision constant demand Contracts tasks. planned specifications the technical for highly-detailed up draw to advisable is it so work, of type this in specialize a such specialized area in of intervention. skilled Only a are few companies who personnel or machinery implement this type of initiative do not possess heavy out carry particular project to tasks since most organisations that companies contract to essential is It 8) 7) 6) 5)

Monitoring: Implementation: Pr Administr report writing. treatment, and management data construction, of or clearing propagation ofplants. purchase works, and irrigation and cleaning planting site, final works, ction constru- and installation supervisor, works a and environmental impactstudies. about landowners with to implementing theactionsplanned contact necessary and the (licences) establish on procedures advise to administrative solicitor a ting jc dsg: etn ro hrn costs, hiring room meeting design: oject tv ad ea maue: u contrac- sub measures: legal and ative il smln css dt base data costs, sampling field otatn a rjc manager project a contracting

175 Project design elation between works contractor elation between works ation and reporting of activities to be performed Schedule of tasks licences and studies Responsibility for necessary Definition of r and subcontractors Registr - - - - Federal Federal Interagency Working Group (FISRWG) (2001) Stream Corridor Restoration: Practices. Principles, PO Item Processes, No. 0120-A; and SuDocs No. A 57.6/2:EN3/PT.653. ISBN-0-934213-59-3 - - - - riverine of maintenance and development the favour functions. vegetation and its environmental The “Riparian Belt” measure therefore represents an important example of funding for the protection and integrated conservation of rivers and riparian corridors, and its successful implementation will be of great environmental interest. It is important to take the necessary steps to monitor the success of this initiative. Besides this example, Directive the Framework Water (WFD) requires the ecological quality of rivers with low ecological status to be improved by 2015. The new community funding framework offers (2007-2013) EU member to states submit various projects opportunities involving watercourses. There the are reference restoration frameworks not of only for each Member State but also for European- level interregional cooperation projects to carry out exchange restoration, gallery riparian of studies pilot restoration of vision wider a promote and experiences implementation. project act References Funding echnical definition of the tasks Final terms of the contr T - - Direcção-Geral Direcção-Geral do Desenvolvimento Regional (DGDR) (2000) Plano Nacional de Desenvolvimento Regional, Lisboa. Given the expected riparian corridor restoration benefits in terms of of improved ecological and implementing landscape quality, several countries have established mechanisms to compensate farmers for loss of income due to the restrictions imposed on agricultural activities in the areas immediately adjacent to the river. In the past, in Portugal, form for of in compensation the was 2002- provided this 2006 RURIS Programme (Rural Development Plan) agro-environmental package under the 4.2). (measure belt” measure “Riparian “environmental included measure this of objectives The farmer, the for marginal are that areas of management but fundamental as semi natural systems” and “the maintenance of riparian vegetation as an the of conservation element quality, water to contributes that (DGDR, 2000). riverbank and biodiversity” Application of this measure required a management plan for the area of influence of and the watercourse individual management plans on the the part farmers, of with undertakings to implement management of the these areas under conditions that minimize the risks of incorrect execution of tasks by the the contractor, project manager must hold prior field meetings: these are necessary correct comprehension of goals. The contract should for all-round the be safeguarding up following drawn by a lawyer, aspects: - -

Project design 176 areas withsteepslopes. or zones flood potential as well river,as the cross to need the avoid should and distance habitats, sensitive some from at roads, access to close be should which materials, storing for areas and zones access the progress of the work. It is also necessary to define follow to supervisor works the and manager the for easier it make to order in tape coloured and stakes intervention measures should be set out on site using various The implementation. project step restoration on-site in essential first the is preparation Site the riverbed.Thesituationondownstream reaches is velocities and a predominance of coarse substrates in flow higher contents), nutrient (lower quality water control to aquatic necessary vegetation growth, normally as not they have is better it areas headwater In be controlled (seebox4.4.1). to need that problems of swathe a causing invasive, becoming vegetation aquatic of cases also are There (Arundo donax). Reed Giant the and ) altissima (Ailanthus Heaven of Tree the dealbata), (Acacia Mimosa as such acacias include habitats river in situations such of Examples or replacement the in result elimination ofnatural floristic communitydiversity. and ones, native uncontrollably,replacing spread species exotic bodies), these water eutrophized in species nitrophilous (e.g. conditions ecological favourable competitors extremely of or presence the as such mechanisms control natural of absence the In species. exotic of introduction accidental or deliberate the to related basically is phenomena these of origin The habitats. immediate the of alterations chemical and in physical resulting negatively communities, biotic thereby natural affecting and uncontrollably growing Some aquatic or riverine plant species can be invasive, Aquatic andriverine vegetation control Selective cleaning techniques Site preparation Ilídio Moreira Kátia Morgado Carlos Freitas António CampeãdaMota Gonçalo Leal (soil loosening and landscaping) of the affected area. recovery and cleaning general and equipment and materials of removal total the tasks, other amongst include, should structure of kinds these demolishing Dismantling subsequently workshops. and depots like constructions and temporary installing when State, Member each in legislation existing the waste with and accordance in considered, signs be to need management fencing, as such requirements safety transport and environmental Occupational, fetd pce o te pce ta rcvr most recovers that species the or species affected least- (the species single a by clearance invasion subsequent radical facilitates and a ecosystem the impoverishes present method are species several when However, approach. best the fact, in is, this Watermilfoil), ParrotFeather or Hyacinth Water (e.g. species single a by invasion of case the In possible. as vegetation much as remove to tendency natural a is there removal, and cutting plant aquatic During which encourage plantgrowth. temperatures, water higher and sun the to exposure precisely the opposite and can be worsened by greater t

excessive aquaticplantgrowth Box 4.4.1Problems caused byabnormaland Thesedimentsresult inagreater expanseofvegetation •Increased sedimentationcausedbyreduced flow. •Diminished waterflow of native plants, resulting in an impoverished ecosystem Myriophyllumaquaticum)leadstotheelimination Eichhorniacrassipes, andParrot FeatherWatermilfoil, •The dominanceofexoticspecies( oxygen,causingfishandmacroinvertebrate mortality large amountsofaquaticvegetationconsumes •Anoxia –thedestructionanddecompositionof •Diminished waterquality–somealgaerelease toxins SELECTION OFTECHNIQUES e.g. Water Hyacinth,

177 Selection of techniques

rapidly). Clearance operations should adopt the ’little Box 4.4.2 Aquatic plant control methods and often’ approach. •Mechanical – cutting, uprooting and dredging Aquatic plants can be grouped according to their •Chemical – application of herbicides growth behaviour: submerged, floating or emergent. •Biological – fish, insects, grazing The control method should obviously be appropriate •Environmental – shading, increased flow rate, nutrient for the target type(s) of plant(s). The principal control reduction methods can be divided into 4 groups: mechanical, chemical, biological and environmental (box 4.4.2).

Mechanical control

Most submerged, floating and emergent plants carried out using a mechanical digger equipped with are effectively controlled by cutting. Depending a perforated shovel (see figure 4.4.2). on water depth, specially prepared boats or a mechanized cutter/harvester can be used, with or without a collecting receptacle or mowing bucket.

Figure 4.4.2 Perforated shovel that can be used for Water Hya- Lesscinth removal frequently, (Photo: submergedI. Moreira). or floating vegetation can be removed by dredging the riverbed, followed Figure 4.4.1 Water Hyacinths manual removal from margins (Photo: I. Moreira). by removal with a perforated shovel. In other cases, If a mowing bucket is employed, the plants are large scale clearance can be carried out at the same cut and collected in a single operation. Under time by digging with a cleaning shovel. such circumstances work should be carried out in a downstream–upstream direction. Under other The following practices are recommended with the circumstances, operations are carried out in an aim of minimizing impacts caused by mechanical upstream–downstream direction in order to facilitate removal of aquatic vegetation: the collection of cut material. In either case, this should be collected as rapidly as possible in order 1) Work on alternate river reaches or riverbanks, to prevent (i) the spread and recolonisation of the guaranteeing (i) that the water course never

Selection of techniques species to be controlled (ii) blockages in aqueducts becomes completely denuded of vegetation and bridges and culverts and (iii) rotting of plant material, (ii) rapid recolonisation by plants and animals. causing anoxia. 2) Conserve small plots of previously identified In order to avoid these problems and make it easier vegetation, selected for their floristic or structural to collect the cut material, the normal practice is value. to put nets in the infested reaches. Removal is then 178 lhuh ebcd apiain s rpd process, plant die-back rapid can take up a to several weeks. Hydraulic is application herbicide Although restrictions concerning theiruse. any with comply and areas riverine in use for approved been have that substances active the only use services, official to competent the consult taken be should care herbicide, an choosing In followed. be must EU-approveduses the of correctapplication for instructions in label packet and herbicide the cases consulted all thoroughly be should manuals Treatment exist. methods application herbicide of types several site, on situation the upon Depending and modesofapplication. dosage formula, in only differing plants, aquatic and terrestrial for used are substances active same The time and/orrapid absorption. degradation short a with non-persistent, be should When applying directly onto water, the herbicide used and methods needtobetakenintoconsideration. timing frequency, mixing application and hydrodynamic properties by-products, degradation persistence, toxicity, the herbicides, choosing When proved been have unviable. methods alternative all when only considered be should herbicides of use the to by its use. It is important to emphasise that resorting negative effects and maximise the advantages gained including all the restrictions designed to minimise the necessary, is application and characteristics product of knowledge sound a herbicides, use to deciding In the negativeeffectsofthistypeintervention. European and national legislation in order to minimise rivers is highly and restricted and streams it is to important to close consult herbicides of use desirable The eliminate species. also can and selective not are However, infestations. plant aquatic herbicides most eliminating for method alternative an constitute can herbicides of an application the not and method is efficient control mechanical situations many In Chemical control year when herbicides can be applied and it may be of may it time and applied be the can herbicides account when year into take to important is It the from bankside. applied is treatment the when affected not is vegetation riparian that ensure to precautions specific requires species aquatic truly of control The the of portion small infested surfaceistreated. localised a of only series where a applications approach on careful based recommended, a is results Therefore, mortality. interactions fish and complex in margin of safety occurrence limited the a of combination a where to arise may harm situations wildlife, cause other and may fish that concentration the and control infestant for suitable is which concentration thereWhile marginsafety a is herbicide the between the to regional orlocalAgriculture addressed Department. be should products concerning Doubts priority. the a as with watercourse the product, of protection suitable most the choosing aid to an only is herbicides of choice the concerning Advice solution. effective best the as confirmed be first should control chemical of use the cases, all In for and operations tocomplywithcurrent regulations. experienced and trained applying be for to responsible herbicides staff for important is It identified andspecialistadviceshouldbetaken. be should herbicide selected the by affected be may that species rare situation, each In used. be should methods control mechanical that preserve, to wishes category one same If the in situations. species a plant a and is for there infestants recommended of is range herbicide particular of type Each after treatment andcauseanoxia. decompose can vegetation submerged since calculated carefully be must application of period and extent The solution. best the always not is and thought-out carefully be must herbicides of use The become apparent. to time some take therefore will benefits

179 Selection of techniques azing by ducks, geese and swans can give negative factors, particularly trampling riverbed and margins. of the Gr significant beneficial results. However, it can be frequently which animals, these control to difficult plant diversity. in reduced result

2) advantages characteristics, the summarises 4.4.1 Table and disadvantages of each of these techniques. There There are special cases where mechanical is used control in tandem with chemical methods, such as the control of Giant Reed, where autumn springtime and applications of glyphosate more successful on have reeds that had proved previously been cut during the autumn or at the end of the summer, respectively. In the USA, where Giant problem, Reed a proliferation is combined a successfully approach in has situations where been cane are surrounded infestations used by indigenous plants. The method consists of two successive cuts of the stems, the first season growing the during soil the above 30-60cm at and the second when new shoots reach above ground level, followed 60-90cm by a direct application of glyphosate onto the cut section. Applying herbicide at the onset of the autumn has been found to effective. be more and other underwater infestants are or ovine grazing of emergent and floating floating and emergent infestants are Environmental control Environmental Biological control Biological plants. This method depends on the palatability of the plant species, access to the watercourse by cattle and their efficiency in controlling excessive growth. These factors must be weighed against generally treated during the spring or at the onset treated generally of summer. At this time of year, these plants are not yet fully developed and are more susceptible to herbicides. The risk of anoxia is also reduced lower the and temperature water lower the to due levels of total biomass. Bovine Algae Most treated by direct Therefore, treatment application should only be to carried out the once the leaf area has reached a significant stage leaves. of development. Applications made during to mid late summer minimise the disturbance to the fauna, since most birds and insects have already by then. cycle completed their breeding

Environmental Environmental control a such in conditions environmental the manipulating growth. plant to favourable less become they techniques that way comprise The principal techniques are (i) nutrient reduction; (ii) manipulation of watercourse hydraulics and (iii) the shade. increasing Methods include: 1) necessary to wait for the most suitable development stage of the infestants earmarked for eradication. Such suggestions are normally given on the product package label; however, the following precautions recommended: are 1) 2)

Selection of techniques 180 Table 4.4.1Advantagesanddisadvantagesofenvironmental control techniques therefore given. are recommendations some and necessary is plants herbaceous of control selective where situations be mammal, bird and insect species. However, there of may number a of conditions shelter and feeding the improveorderto in vegetation of covering a have to preferableis it view of point environmental an From 2) 1) advantages: following the presents vegetation dykes of bank and inner the on vegetation riverbank of Control ■ ■ Technique ■ rivercross section ■ ■ ■

Nutrient reduction Shading Modification of rdcn te rbblt o fodn ad the and flooding possibility ofdykesbursting). episodes of flood probability following the (reducing level water in drop Minimizes effects ofrunoff erosive the minimising roots, well-developed with Encour Control ofherbaceous vegetation ontheriverbank ages the establishment of vegetation cover vegetation of establishment the ages iebd ogns, aiiig the maximising roughness, riverbed ecito Advantages Description southmargin andtrees onthe ■ sedimentdeposition velocityandreducing increasing flow channelmidsection, ■ intowatercourses effluentdischarges phosphates)from (inparticular ■ ■ ■ ■ Planting ofbushes Deepening ofthe Removal ofnutrients diversity results inincreased habitat ■ ofinfestants(longterm) ■ ■ conditions ■ ■ ■ ofinfestants(longterm) ■ vegetationmats formationofdense proliferation andthe ■ sustainableanddesirable. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Alternating withopenareas Savings intheclassiccontrol Not costly Ideal inlowflowrate Increased habitatdiversity Creates aselfcleaningsystem Savings intheclassiccontrol Reduces invasiveplant Environmentally more f ed ad h tm o ya. pcfc eal of details Specific year. of time the number and heads the of species, results the the especially management, structure, vegetation obtained from grazing obviously depend on livestock of terms In and thepresence ofexcreta. trampling of effects the to due method hazardous in environmentally change an be could grazing abrupt whilst habitat, the is greatest cutting The of disadvantage livestock. no is there where and others vegetation herbaceous cut to practical not is it where spots are There cover. vegetation suitable maintain to used be can remainingmethods two The as aroutine control method. limited to small areas. Herbicides should not be used or be should reeds exceptional applicationsm and species, invasive of exotic control in the in used as such be circumstances, only should Herbicides herbicides. and cutting grazing, are vegetation bank The three methods for controlling the growth of river Disadvantages (duringtree growth phase) ■ onlateral platforms ofexcessivevegetationgrowth ■ thesediments tothepresence ofnutrientsin ■ ■ tonorthbankface ■ theriverbank ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Little shorttermeffect Does notsolvetheproblem Reduced shorttermeffectsdue Costly Maintenance accessislimited Occupies astripoflandon

181 Selection of techniques in rotation, ensuring that no other areas Cut remain uncut for longer than 3 years in order to prevent the development of dominant or brambles scrub which would inhibit the growth species, of other species.

Burning is not an ideal way of controlling vegetation controlling of way ideal an not is Burning reasons: and environmental for both hydraulic •Risk of fire spreading uncontrollably and affecting the riparian gallery possibly •Destruction of bankside and bank face vegetation leading to the risk of erosion cover, indiscriminate the and destruction or damage •Habitat loss of species and plant communities •Soil damage •Release of nutrients into the soil species competitive more of and dominance the to leading watercourse of aquatic species growth and the increased Box 4.4.3 Effect of burning

since they are the principal structural elements in the in elements structural principal the are they since natural and landscape value of cannot easily be substituted. watercourses and When of clearance riparian vegetation on one of the river margins is unavoidable, it is the north margin The south margin is that more should be “sacrificed”. important since it provides contributes shade to and the therefore control of water temperature 2) Cutting areas function requirements in watercourses. It should be alternately remembered that satisfies limited areas in more developed hydraulic stands of vegetation do not have effect any on significant riverbeds over 2 metres materials wide. must be The removed from cut the riverbed and deposited in dry areas, providing food and shelter for insects, reptiles and small mammals. this material is not recommended for environmental Burning (see box 4.4.3). reasons of shelter necessary for animal of seeds and as a food source for source food a as fruits and seeds of stimulation of plant growth, which would Control of shrubs and trees of shrubs and trees Control eserve at least 10% of the area, which will be cut be will which area, the of 10% least at eserve over a longer period of rotation (3-5 years) over a longer period of rotation birds and small mammals birds No made during the spring. occur if cuts were Pr Conservation reproduction Availability

Margins In most cases there is no hydraulic justification for removing shrubs and trees from the margins, since In riverbed. the in place take conditions flow normal the slows margins the on vegetation situations, flood flow and reduces the impact of the flood event. The trees and shrubs that make up the attention, riparian maintenance special gallery of focus the be should 3) Cutting in alternate areas (in substantial rotation) results improvements in in plant habitat structure. diversity Although and the size the zones and which are not cut vary type with each specific of situation, the following guidelines can be followed: 1) 2) these questions exceed the scope of this work, but appropriate livestock management overgrazing. should The principal avoid objective of to allow grazing visual inspection is of the riverbanks, reduce the predominance of some herbaceous species reproduction For and richness. faunal and floral encourage and trampling reasons, bankside grazing should not July. take place before Removal of slope and riverbank vegetation results in a sudden, radical change to the plant communities and to the habitat structure of invertebrates, birds and mammals. The timing, frequency and of cutting must extent be carefully chosen to summer minimize mid its from is timing recommended The impact. are: (after July). The advantages of this procedure 1)

Selection of techniques 182 ae bsd n h lf cce f ah pce (see species each figure 4.4.3). of cycle life the on based rates growth balanced with trees of series a produce to used areas be can latter The other watercourse. same the along with rotation in area an of clearance total (ii) shape; best the with trunk vertical single a selecting of aim the with trees of group (i) a clearing objectives primary two of one has cutting Tree constitute they (fungi, invertebrates, batsandbirds). since place valuable habitats for organisms that need dead in wood remain heaviest themselves should the trees the have although removed, should branches trees dead Standing and possiblyextensivedamage. destruction preventable avoid to into order in goes operation machinery be the before should trees, removed and branches existing cut inconvenient to or next work vulnerable must machines If flood a hazard shouldbecut. constitute that branches non-specialised measure Only by personnel. out routine carried be a not should is but machinery the of which obstruct movement or branches detritus and waterborne accumulate boughs hanging Cutting may affect theperformanceofmachine. spacing metre the 10 although a trees, with between interval work to possible is it speaking, Generally skills. operator’s the and tree the of size to machine and heavy profile of the riverbank, the type of machine, the a height the with varies trees for the around manoeuvre space necessary The left atregular intervals. be should valuable, most and largest the preferably margin, north the on luminosity.However,trees and shrubs andtrees alongthemargins Box 4.4.4Recommendations forthecontrol of •Keep deadtrees iftheyare standing •Leave trees at10 metre intervalsonthecutbank withtheaimofmaintainingshade •Preferably preserve the vegetation under on the south bank, only vegetation exceptionalandjustifiedcircumstances gallery riparian the •Cut approacha: preservation. It is important to evaluate to important is It preservation. approacha: several simplest the require including work, may maintenance of types riverbed the within Shrubs can they impede flowduringspateepisodes. since beneficial be may branches lower the of pruning but capacity flow on impact no has example) meandersfor of inside the (on riverbed the of areas certain in trees of location the Sometimes, risk, sincetheyrarely accumulateflooddetritus. greatflood presentany Normally,not treesdo single operations. cleaning complicate and flooding of risk Dense copses of trees in the watercourse increase the risk ofobstruction. of pruning Regular willows can alsp stop them falling and increasing the diversity. structural encourage to greater order in benefit of be may clearing uniform a Where occurs,species a of population selective example, for shrubs. or trees on maintenance operations in result may factors Environmental obstruct bridgesandotherstructures. or flow the impede can tree a of part or tree a cases extreme In events. spate or flood during level water the increasing resistance, increases watercourse the within shrubs of presence The reasons.hydraulic for necessary is dykes) of face inner the watercourse(or Management of shrubs and trees on banks within the Riverbed andBankfaces Figure 4.4.3Tree cuttingoperations (Photo:I.Moreira).

183 Selection of techniques bear in mind that the priority objective is to is objective priority the that mind in bear intervention must be preceded by a detailed removal removal and disposal of left-over materials Any survey of the state of the out watercourse, carried by a qualified aim technical of defining areas expert, and types with of intervention, the taking into account both physico-hydraulic and ecological aspects. The (especially substrates etc) should pondered. be carefully Burying adjacent areas is material not always in the since these best are themselves lower-lying solution, of ecological interest, providing refuge, food and reproduction areas for plants and animal species. Should doubts arise, an aquatic ecologist should be consulted. The use of deposits excavated from the margins to reinforce marginal dykes should be analyzed in order beforehand to verify whether such a measure would prevent drainage from the catchment into watercourse and the affect the ecological value the margins. of Special attencion should be paid to the removal of substrates that contain remains of invasive plants like Arundo donax. This material must be disposed of in authorized sites. Always symptoms. the address just not and cause the treat This requires a fundamental understanding of the physical processes involved before defining the intervention measures.

•Trees •Trees and branches that disturb marked for removal. flow should be •Cut ‘little and often’. •Pruning should be carried out during the winter. trees. •Never physically uproot riverbed the in out carried be should work •Mechanical itself in to damage order reduce to vegetation along the margins. of woody material. reuse •Encourage

Box 4.4.5 Control of bank face shrubs and trees and trees shrubs of bank face Box 4.4.5 Control recommendations

b) c) it provides refuge for many animal birds. and to small mammals, reptiles invertebrates species, from Some recommendations should be followed during cleaning operations in order to minimise negative effects: a) i.e. felling, selective branch removal the effect of shrub communities on flood flows in the watercourse. In some situations, where has been earth slippage there or widening of the riverbed, side one least at on kept be should vegetation woody of the watercourse. In order to maintain a natural system, composed of shrubs and trees, the ‘little and often’ approach is best. Removing branches that are or could form an obstruction is acceptable. environmentally However, the temptation to remove more than is must be resisted. necessary During tree clearing, it is best to mark the trees or branches in such a way as to indicate the action to be performed, or pruning. This approach non-specialised personnel is are carrying out this task. indispensible when Uprooting trees is not recommended since it causes damage to the bankface. structural Whenever possible, pruning and cutting back should be carried out during the winter periods and period nesting birds’ the avoiding March, period, up until This of is activity. invertebrate greater also the most suitable period for the tree, since growth activity is at a minimum and it makes a better recovery from pruning cuts. Maintenance work carried out in the riverbed with standard machinery, using a boat, allows recovery of the intended flow capacity without affecting the branches lowest the Only watercourse. the of shading of the trees on the margins are cut (at water level). Removal of material is carried out through openings in the “tunnel” of vegetation, spaced approximately apart. metres 100 Woody material that has been deposited removed in carefully-chosen areas. Burning should must be be avoided (see box approach is 4.4.3). to use a wood chipper. The woodchips can be used as mulch or as a The covering for recommended resulting footpaths. Another solution is to use branches as stakes to protect the margins or to make fascines of living/dead woody material. the of cooperation or consent the with cases, many In farmer that owns the land, the woody material can simply be left in piles. As the material decomposes,

Selection of techniques 184 Where there is no difference between the banks, the banks, the between difference no is thereWhere reproduction. account animal for areas and into cover vegetation taking interest, natural least the of be one should reach the along works for selected riverbank the streambed, the from work to possible careful planning. In small watercourses, when it is not habitats. Disposal of the excavated material requires riparian the reducesof substantially disturbance This riverbed. is the from it machinery operate summer,to preferable the during place taking operations negative the clearing flow,with permanent without watercourses sized reducing small/medium In operations: these at of effects aimed earth for movement, recommendations basic some are These there are agricultural or natural areas of interest d) widen it, especially in areas where the natural value natural the where areas in especially it, widen to is riverbed the deepening to alternative good A exclude otheroptions. some restrictionsmay space occupation, human of density with areas or areas surface. semi-urban riverbank in the However, below well be to tend will which levels, lower to fall naturally will level water the since maintained, be will habitats existing guarantee that no the is there if deepened simply example, is For channel floodplain. the and the channel between connectivity the on effects preventing to negative paid be should attention action, flow of bankfull the kind this performing When channel. maintaining the of capacity of aim the with reaches long relatively along riverbed the widen and Transverse reprofiling can comprise actions to deepen

motn t suy h ms cnein access convenient most the study to is important it preservation, merit that floor valley the on If Transverse reprofiling MovementEarth - Substrate removal - Reprofiling ofcurves - Longitudinalreprofiling - Transverse reprofiling following typesofinterventionalongwatercourses: aspects that should be taken into consideration in the on below given are details More out. carried be to work of type the and watercourse the of width the by influenced is dimensions, and power of terms in machinery,of choice The watercourse. the for shade the south riverbank (west) and preserved, since works it provides for used be should bank east) (or north flow and bankfull conditions, thereby guaranteeing thereby conditions, bankfull and flow base both comprise that profiles transverse are create to operations used be should deepening methods combined unavoidable, and widening When erosion. rapid ensure regeneration and protect the bank face against replanting to planned cases, thoroughly be must these operations In measures. fluvial with regulation confused be to not is intervention of kind this be since only circumstances, should exceptional in This cutting done faces. as bank the time of one same back the riverbed out at carry removal to substrate necessary is it Sometimes temporary the elimination ofvegetationalongonebankside. with compatible is margins the of ot t te aecus fr ev machinery. Existing accessroads shouldbegivenpriority. heavy for watercourse the to route

185 Selection of techniques at least some midchannel islands, so long long so islands, midchannel some least at eate suitable section dimensions and appropriate appropriate and dimensions section suitable eate eate suitable riverbed dimensions, taking into ary the slope of the bank face from steep to very ary the slope of the bank steep face to from very V habitat diversity. promoting gentle, thereby Maintain as the dimensions of the section at this point are suitable for avoiding bottlenecks. Cr roughness for tree interventions. future growth for need the reducing thereby on the bank face, Cr and average – conditions flow of variety a account summer base flow – not just those of predictable flood events.

effects of any variation in longitudinal slope should be considered, especially as bed regards stability (see 4.4.5). figure The presence and pattern and riffles of along the pools/deeper riverbed are the areas result of the 3) 4) 5) 6) alternate single margins along each section, each along margins single alternate Longitudinal reprofiling Longitudinal eate a non-uniform, asymmetrical riverbed resulting resulting in greater sinuosity sections. in very straight based on consistent geomorphological principles; the proposed profile can be based in the same watercourse. reaches on exixting Widen Cr

Transverse reprofiling (chapter authors). reprofiling 4.4.4 Transverse Figure Longitudinal reprofiling of a take the river equilibrium between reach channel morphology should and hydraulic characteristics watercourse into must have account. a The longitudinal corresponds to the different hydraulic of parameters slope that The transport. sediment and energy flow like site, the 2) an effective compromise between (i) flow base for levels the within preserved be to values the natural transverse the augment to need the (ii) and conditions section of the river because of the flood events. occurrence of The following recommendations 4.4.4): actions (see figure reprofiling transverse are given for 1)

Selection of techniques 186 habitat diversity, justifyingtheirpreservation. promoteand oviposition) fish for (essential riverbeds ecological gravel of presence the in in resultfeatures these terms, Also, terms. hydraulic in pointless is change following flood events, the removal of these features that sediment features transitory are and these As energy type. flow between interaction Table 4.4.2Characteristics ofpoolsandriffles. Figure 4.4.5Longitudinalreprofilling. ■ ■ ■ gravel, etc.) (Stones,coarse ■ Pool ■ Characteristic ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ LENGTH HEIGHT/DEPTH SPACING MATERIAL LOCATION watecourse ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1-3 timesthewidthof Minimum depth30cm On theoutsideofmeanders tn o sae gons a b ueu fr this for useful be can purpose. groynes staked or Stone 4.4.2). table (see recommended is features recreationthese of cases, such In destroyed. inevitably are substratemorefeaturesremovalpronounced,such is Where riffles. and pools maintain to desirable and possible is it removal, substrate small-scale During atthedownstream endofthemeander ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 30-50 cmabovetheriverbed 6 timesthewaterwidth Similar topre existingriffles Use pre existingmaterials Diagonal totheaxisofwatercourse,

187 Selection of techniques Reprofiling of meanders

Meanders have scenery value and contribute to Advantages: habitat diversity on both their sides. From an • Increased flood flow capacity environmental and conservation point of view, this • Favours the establishment of humid habitats on lotic feature should be preserved. Also, hydraulically the inside of the and the growth of speaking it is not advisable to eliminate meanders plants typically found in such systems. since this alters the hydrogeomorphological equilibrium of the watercourse, increasing the slope Disadvantages: and therefore the erosion and flow rate, especially • None during higher flow episodes. Construction of a by-pass channel In certain cases meanders and bends can become unstable, making it necessary to intervene. When flood defence needs include an increase in By following the correct criteria, however, these watercourse drainage, the creation of a meander by interventions can retain or even improve natural pass channel that comes into operation only during features. They are divided into three types: flood flow events allows flow regimes suitable for river habitats to be maintained. The by pass channel Removal of substrate from the inside of the should slope in a downstream direction and care meander should be taken to protect the by pass opening from erosion during flooding (using coarse substrate, for When substrate accumulation on the inside of the example) in order to prevent it becoming a channel meander reaches considerably greater heights than with permanent flow (see figure 4.4.7). base flow levels, it is advisable to reduce the height, since an increase in the flood flow capacity will Advantages: favour the establishment of more humid habitats. • Increased drainage capacity during flood events. • Favours the creation of new habitats. Substrate removal from the inside of the meander mainly comprises the removal of deposited sediments, resulting in the water level (under normal conditions) Disadvantages being just below ground level (see figure 4.4.6). • Decreases area available for agriculture. Selection of techniques

Figure 4.4.6 Transverse reprofiling (chapter authors). 188 Figure 4.4.7 Transverse reprofiling (chapter authors).

Covering the outside edge of the meander Gabions Gabions are stackable cages made from hexagonal Covering the outside edge of the meander can galvanised steel mesh and filled with stones (10- be considered in cases where the substrate is not 15cm). Typical gabion dimensions are 2.0 x 1.0 x resistant or violent flood flow events destabilize 0.5 m. A variant of this structure, Reno mattresses, the outer bank face. Rip-rap, gabions or wooden are rectangular baskets made of heavily galvanized, stakes can be used. It increases bank face resistance double-twisted woven steel wire mesh measuring 2.0 following fragilisation caused by flood events. x 5.0 m x 15 to 30 cm thick.

Advantages: Gabions provide mechanical resistance and flexibility. • Reinforces the bank face, reducing erosion of the They are easy to place and long-lasting. The wire margins. mesh eventually ruptures, but only after the stones • Allows sediment deposition, increasing the umber have become consolidated with the surrounding soil. of ecological niches. • The use of local materials is more economical. Stakes The vertical bank face is protected by a continuous Disadvantages line of vertical stakes driven into the bed. The stake • Excessive use of these techniques may lead to diameter should be between 5 and 10cm. artificialisation of the riverbank; this technique should be used together with plant cover. Short stakes should be used to prevent slippage of • This process can become prohibitively expensive a steep bank face; the top of the stakes should lie when local materials cannot be used. level with the bank face surface. The recommended density is 2 stakes per square metre of bank face. Rip-rap The bank face is covered with an assortment of The use of live stakes, using native species, results appropriately sized stones. Planting improves rip-rap in replanting of the riverbank and recolonisation of stability. ecological niches. Selection of techniques 189 Consult an environmental specialist on the value of the 1) Consult an environmental local ecosystem. 2) Minimize the volume to be excavated except in the riverbanks, (unprotected systems degraded highly of case etc) and reeds, dominated by brambles except in very degraded bankside vegetation 3) Preserve circumstances and cross 4) Maintain variation in the longitudinal profile subject to intervention section along the reach pools, riffles etc) (meanders, along alternatively, within the river channel or, 5) Work one of the river banks. for depositing removed choose the areas 6) Carefully the river or leaving material material, avoiding crossing in sensitive areas. conditions whenever possible environmental 7) Improve riverbanks or bank face). replanting of still water, (areas for the margins along 8) If it is necessary to cut down trees techniques machinery access, adopt regeneration (pruning, live cuttings, etc) – a practice direction in a downstream–upstream 9) Work for plant and animal recolonisation. which is favourable on the the effects of intervention measures Predict 10) and situated immediately upstream reaches downstream. should be carried out during the appropriate Work 11) time of year. 12) Suitable machinery should be used with the aim of minimizing damage to bankside plant communities. that avoid areas 13) Choose heavy machinery access routes ecological value. of greater Box 4.4.7 Substrate removal – general rules – general removal Box 4.4.7 Substrate

Although the techniques used to clear and unblock nature very their by uniform, be cannot watercourses and due to the types different of situation, are there common rules that should be followed. work Clearance should always be carried out in a downstream maintaining possible wherever direction, upstream to bank stability and avoiding damage to existing trees 6 or 5 to (up rivers and streams narrow In shrubs. and work should metres), be carried out along one of the riverbanks, maintaining the other intact, unless bank collapse or erosion has occurred, in which case that bank must be repaired. In wider rivers, work should be carried out in the river channel of the reach in question.

Substrate removal/dredging removal/dredging Substrate •Comprehend the mechanism that led to the that led to the the mechanism •Comprehend feature. formationof this to flow. in fact an obstruction •Confirm that it is stability •Confirm structure •Evaluate alternatives removal •Partial at this •Widening the section of the watercourse point of the deepening of the branches •Localised of the feature on either side watercourse level of the midchannel island •Lowering the ground flow capacity during flood to give increased episodes. Box 4.4.6 Prior to midchannel island removal Box 4.4.6 Prior to midchannel island It is preferable not to remove substrate totally from the riverbed, since the elimination of fine organic substrates prevents recolonisation. certain cases, However, such as in the maintenance prolonged absence work of accumulation, and spot removal of pronounced substrates may necessary. Partial substrate removal be can substrate include the removal of shallows and intervention mid of types Such channel channel. the obstruct that islands/bars of value ecological high the account into take should midchannel islands and bars, which provide shelter for plants and animals as a result of accessibility. their Such limited features do not always obstruct flow, since the current is generally greater around them. However, in situated other mid channel island/bar cases, can result in an bank collapse immediately unsuitably- downstream. Partial substrate removal normally involves dredging a deeper central channel. in Preferably, order to create hydraulic and habitat diversity (riffles, backwaters), the width of the deepened channel should not be uniform. This waters shallow where useful particularly is technique have resulted in excessive plant growth, since increase the in depth increases flow velocity and helps to control the plants. In the case of a permanent or semi permanent watercourse that is slow-flowing and wide enough for a boat, it is possible to carry out dredging using pumps. It is sometimes necessary to excavate a pit or for depression the mud, dredged spread to sound environmentally always not is it since it along the margins.

Selection of techniques 190 f h rvr n te ere f btuto; three obstruction; of situations canbeconsidered: degree the and river the of width cross-sectional the the as with such using varies workconditions, above work mentioned clearance machinery of the the efficacy with expected The tandem operation. the the in of efficacy removal, the increasing buldozers, work substrate intense should of excavators case the In 3) 2) 1) following sequence: kW) (100 the in succession immediate in out carried be should attachments ripper and bulldozer with equipped tractors (iii) and metres) 8 approximately of reach a and kW (90 diggers mechanical hydraulic Work using the following equipment (i) chainsaws (ii) Table 4.4.3Clearance operations inwatercourses. ■ ■ ■ (width inmetres) of watercourse Transverse section ■ ■ ■

15–30 6–15 3–6 excavators equippedwithshovels by removed are they which from riverbank, the to close areas to transported are substrates watercourse and the of section the in out carried is work removal Substrate available. if pits filling spread substrate on the land adjoining the margins, to appropriate disposalsites. to the riverbank or load it into lorries for transport These machines also remove substrate and deposit destruction. it next or burial subsequent for up it piling or land adjacent in possible whenever it burying shovel, excavation an using bankside the into thereach inquestion. are at risk of falling or that that have already river fallen the in channel and trees at the base of the hanging bank face that branches cut machinery, T Hydr Chainsaws, atr eupe wt bldzr ad rippers and bulldozers with equipped ractors aulic diggers then remove the plant debris to debris plant the remove then diggers aulic dacn i fot f h heavy the of front in advancing ■ ■ ■ Moderate Amountofobstruction ■ ■ ■ 120-150 60–75 25-30 3) 2) 1) ■ ■ ■ Moderate

■ ■ ■ dredged material Box 4.4.8Considerations fordepositing maintenanceherbaceousseedmix? ofcompostorcantheybeseededdirectly withalow • Dotheareas forspreading materialneedacovering preserved? depositingmaterialandotherareas thatshouldbe • Didthepreplanning identifycertainareas for offsite? • Isthere anyadvantageintransporting thematerial landinsteadofspreading italongthemargins? • Canthematerialbeincorporated intoagricultural coveringberms) characteristics fordykeconstruction,compost foraccesstracks, earthwithgoodgeotechnical ( there anypossibilityofitsbeingusedforborrow? • Doesthematerialhavesuitablecharacteristics andis disposedofinsuitablesites) problem? (inthiscasematerialmustbe invasiveplantsthatcouldbeanenvironmental • Doesthematerialcontainremains ofnon-native recolonisation ofthewatercourse? • Canmaterialscontainingplantsbeusedfor

200-300 90-100 35-40 and erosion evident. collapse bank channel, river the within vegetation with branches hangingintheriverchannel. trees collapse, or erosion bank of evidence some branches hangingintheriverchannel. with trees some collapse, or erosion bankside of Sever Medium: Moder e.g. stonesfordykeconstruction,sandorgravel : usata sbtae accumulation, substrate substantial e: ate: some substrate accumulation, no signs no accumulation, substrate some ate: ece wt sbtae accumulation, substrate with reaches ■ ■ ■ Severe ■ ■ ■ 350-550 105-110 35-40

191 Selection of techniques Paola Sangalli Paola discipline that economic and design goals primarily by using pursues living materials technical, such as seeds, plants, parts of plants ecological, and or alone solutions, construction as communities plant combined with inert materials such as stone, earth, taking by achieved are goals These steel. or iron wood, employing and plants of uses many the of advantage construction methods with impact. low environmental combination a in lie Bioengineering Soil of origins The of forestry techniques and traditional engineering methods, developed principally in Central This Europe. discipline does not replace classic engineering but provides a necessary conventional engineering works. complement to assist towards attitudes engineering, hydraulic of field the In watercourses have changed in recent years. Instead of a threat from which people need to be protected, rivers are now seen as assets to be valued. preserved and Consequently, the project design needs to adopt a systemic to approach works in watercourses, based on the realization that a river or stream is not but possible as quickly as flows liquid a where a inert, or living part, every where ecosystem complex a is related to others and the disappearance of a link system. of the entire can imperil the operation and watercourses restore to work bioengineering Soil their banks does not only mean controlling erosion through the use of live plants, it can actions also include to increase the morphological the course or variety the shape of of its section and specialised provide niches for fish or other aquatic flora and fauna. This book highlights the riparian vegetation value in of river restoration, using and could be better than what to native include some examples that show some of their capabilities and possibilities? The methods an described in the following pages provide illustration of this potential. Although many of more some are these nowadays, available are techniques in use. currently the main ones which are o regenerate the habitats. o regenerate : T : To protect the soil from erosion, : To protect the soil from erosion, : To integrate the site into its aim: To integrate the site into its Bioengineering in a fluvial environment Bioengineering echnical aim stabilize it and regenerate its productive capacity its productive stabilize it and regenerate Landscaping Ecological aim T and setting landscape surroundings

b) Establishing permanent plant cover is the best long- plays it as objectives these achieving for solution term an essential part in soil control, erosion stabilization, soil regeneration, visual impact minimization methods of number A landscape. the into integration and for establishing are collectively permanent known as vegetation Bioengineering. Bioengineering or Soil cover Bioengineering comprises a series that use live vegetation of as an engineering material, techniques alone or in combination with inert structures, remediation. environmental Soil Bioengineering and for Biotechnical Engineering are employed in landscape regeneration and restoration, especially in slope and bank consolidation and to control erosion. Another term that is used is Landscape Engineering. The German Ingenieurbiologie. The term Schiechtl, Austrian who professor for is construction considered the as Bioengineering defines H.M. discipline, the Bioengineering father of this is c) Human activities give rise to a number of impacts on the natural environment, instability, such soil as degradation, water, erosion ground and or air pollution, changes in the vegetation, deterioration in the quality or character of the landscape and the destruction of habitats, among others. To preserve natural resources, remedial or restorative measures their minimise or impacts negative avoid to designed need to be adopted. effects on the environment Any restoration programme must make it possible to regenerate the biological potential of the land so that its reuse for other purposes or its integration viable. be will part a is it which of landscape the into In general, every restoration project following aims: pursues the a) BIOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING ENGINEERING BIOPHYSICAL IN RIVER USED TECHNIQUES RESTORATION

Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration 192 will beabovethemeanwaterlevel. it of 1/3 or 1/2 that so placed is fascine the and dug and elaeagnos Salix purpúrea, Salix include used frequently most species The diameter. in cm 50 to 30 and length in m 4 to 3 measuring bundles cylindrical into assembled and cut are cm easy-to-root 3 of diameter minimum woody a with species of Branches Construction: vegetatively. propagated be can that species from made fascines live using lakes, and rivers of banks the repopulate Use: toe oftheembankmentwhentheysprout. edge consisting of fascines or faggots, stabilizing the Description: Figure 4.5.1.2Front viewofalivefascine(Paola Sangalli). Figure 4.5.1.1Sideviewofalivefascine(Paola Sangalli). ehd mlyd o tbls te o and toe the stabilise to employed Method Live Fascines oiotl eeeet ln te river the along revetement Horizontal spp. A shallow trenchshallow is Tamarix A spp. arw h canl s wtr lw pc require- ments needtobetakenintoaccount. space flow bank water so the channel, of the narrow toe the along Fascines Limitations: - - - - Materials: Figure 4.5.1.5Lengthofafascine(Photo:J.Bosch). ture inalogcribwall(Photo:J.Bosch). struc- retention material fine a as serving fascine A 4.5.1.4 Figure P. J. Fernandes). (Photo: twigs willow from fascine a Building 4.5.1.3 Figure - - - - mm andminimumlength60cm Stakes, Stones forbase intervals Galvanized diameter 3cm,minimumlength2m Br nhs f h aoe pce, iiu stem minimum species, above the of anches od r orgtd te, imtr 8-14 diameter steel, corrugated or wood ie daee 23 m a 5 cm 50 at mm, 2-3 diameter wire,

193 Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration Altitude and the weather and soil Sprouted Oleander cuttings at the toe of a riverbank. a of toe the at cuttings Oleander Sprouted 4.5.2.3 Figure Spain (Photo: Daniel Arizpe). River in Valencia, Tuéjar Sangalli). (Photo: Paola riprap 4.5.2.4 Vegetated Figure Figure 4.5.2.5 Reinforced slope with live stakes Barraqueta). (Photo: P. Materials: Cuttings of willow and/or other easy-to- 1 to 1.5 m long species, root Limitations: requirements of the species employed. The various willow species cover a wide range of habitats, from very to suited not are but metres, 2000 to up level sea arid Mediterranean climates, excessively saline soils or too shady alocation, whereas privets, tamarisks or cannot but conditions these for suitable are oleanders be used above 400 m. 1-1.5 m long stakes are cut from Inserting live stakes or cuttings of Live Staking Staking Live Method used on gentle slopes, on river and lake Riprap with live stakes (Paola Sangalli). with live stakes (Paola 4.5.2. 2 Riprap Figure Live staking on a riverbank (Paola Sangalli). 4.5.2.1 Live staking on a riverbank (Paola Figure Description: species that can be propagated such vegetatively, as ground the in oleanders, or tamarisks privets, willows, interstices. riprap or through Use: banks, in riprap, walls or gabions, or netting, as or matting geotextile live natural installing when stakes fascines or wattling. Construction: species that can be propagated vegetatively and are planted in alternate rows in the ground (triangular planting). In riprap, the stakes are inserted into the to the earth behind. through gaps and must reach

Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration 194 is backfilledwithsoiltostopthegaps. fence wattle The ground. the in end its burying first braidedis withies aroundstakes, flexible wooden the long, the of Each ground. the above protruding m spacing them at intervals of stream,maximum 1 m, with or 0.50 river the of edge the to parallel ground Construction: sediment little with transport. speed and volume flow low medium- of courses water by erosion to subjected Use: around woodenstakes. vegetatively propagated be can that species woody Description: Figure 4.5.3.2Wattling: front view(Paola Sangalli). Figure 4.5.3.1Wattling: sideview(Paola Sangalli). tblzto ad eulig f riverbanks of rebuilding and Stabilization Wattling Structure made by weaving withies of withies weaving by made Structure The wooden stakes are driven into the into aredriven stakes wooden The high flowvolumeandspeed Limitations: Galvanized wire or wood stakes,diameter8-15cmandlength1-1.5m Conifer m. 1.5 length minimum and cm 3-4 diameter species, easy-to-root other and/or Materials: Withies (long, flexible branches) of willow Spain (Photo:J.Garcia Purroy). Figure 4.5.3.5Sprouted wattlefence.Tuéjar riverinValencia, in Valencia, Spain(Photo:AntoniBonafont). Figure 4.5.3.4 Wattle fence reinforced with live stakes. Tuéjar river jar RiverinValencia, Spain(Photo:AnaMendes). Figure 4.5.3.3 Weaving live willow withies around living stakes. Tué- Should not be used in watercourses with

195 Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration Watercourses Watercourses with high flow velocities Figure Figure 4.5.4.4 Brush mattress in an alpine stream (Photo: Florin Florineth). Irún in stream Artía stretch. urban an in matress Brush 4.5.4.5 Figure Sangalli). (Guipúzcua, Spain) (Photo: Paola Figure Figure 4.5.4. 3 Brush mattress construction with willow poles and a vegetated fibre roll at the base. Ter river in Salt (Girona, (Photo: J. Bosch). Spain) Poles of Materials: Poles willow and/or other easy-to-root or corrugated steel chestnut species, Stakes of , Galvanized wire , Rocks, Gravel, Limitations: sediment transport. and considerable After reprofiling the river bank, Covering the riverbank with stakes Brush mattress Brush An efficient method for protecting riverbank Figure 4.5.4.2 Figure Side view of a brush on mattress a riverbank (Paola Sangalli). Sketch of a brush mattress on a riverbank (Paola San- (Paola riverbank a on mattress brush a of Sketch 4.5.4.1 Figure galli). Description: and poles of plant species that can be propagated vegetatively. Use: wave caused by erosion surfaces flowing from water, action or rainfall. It creates a continuous, protective flexible covering and encouraging soil, the of balance thermal and balance improves the moisture the growth of both ground level vegetation and the canopy. tree Construction: it is covered with live poles of species that can propagated be vegetatively (Salix, , Tamarix etc.). poles The are placed perpendicularly to of the the water direction flow and are held stretched between metal in pegs or live or dead stakes. place by wires layer of soil. with a fine The brush is covered

Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration 196 Figure 4.5.5.1Sideviewofavegetatedlogcribwall(Paola Sangalli) than theonebelow. back further logs of successively, row longitudinal repeated each is setting pattern This grid. the of cells the rootsinto areadventitious of inserted forming capable are that species of cuttings and grid, a forming lengthwise, placed again is logs of row next acrossset is firstlogs the of The rowit. to nailed and placed is row A in. filled logs and nails metal with together nailed are logs of The edge. row river the to first parallel lengthwise, The made. is slope Construction: or excavationpossibilitiesare limited. walled. The single-walled version is ideal where space double- or single-walled be sediment can Cribwalls transport. medium with even speeds, and flow volumes water medium-high by erosion to subjected Use: with livecuttings Description: (Photo: AntoniBonafont). u-nails steel corrugated with together logs Joining 2 4.5.5. Figure tblzto ad eosrcin f riverbanks of reconstruction and Stabilization Vegetated logcribwall Gravity wall formed by a grid of logs of grid a by formed wall Gravity n xaain ih sih reverse slight a with excavation An rae ta te eitne f h lg al Not wall. log the advisable whenspeedsexceed4m/s of resistance the than greater Limitations: Galvanized wire 12-14 mmindiameter, Rocks, Inertfillingmaterial nails or staples to join the logs, Corrugated steel bars, root species, Logs minimum 20 cm in diameter, Metal easy-to- other and/or willow of Cuttings Materials: iw f h rhblttd rí sra i Irún in stream Artía rehabilitated the of (Guipúzcua, Spain)(Photo:Paola Sangalli). View 4.5.5.5 Figure Artía stream inIrún(Guipúzcua,Spain)(Photo:Paola Sangalli). stretch. urban an in cribwall log a of Construction 4.5.5.4 Figure ered withsoil(Photo:AntoniBonafont). Figureand cov- cells the cribwall cuttings placedin 4.5.5.3 Willow ae sed n sdmn transport sediment and speed Water

197 Biophysical engineering techniques used in river restoration machine consists of an open bucket with can be operated around trees and other The has which material plant collects that bars vertical been cut with cutting a bar hydraulic mounted on the bucket. of the front It bankside access is necessary. obstructions where • • Figure 4.6.1 Mowing bucket (Photo: I. Moreira). Figure Gonçalo Leal Gonçalo Mota Campeã da António Carlos Freitas • • Tools for gathering up material Tools Accumulated material from clearance work can be formed into piles using rakes purposes other for used be and subsequently can material pitchforks; the or destroyed. Strimmer Used for cutting herbaceous vegetation (including aquatic plants). It is composed of a powered by cutting an electric or head petrol motor which drives a circular saw or rotating nylon threads and can be used at any angle. plants for uprooting Tools Trowels and pickaxes can be herbaceous and woody used plants that are infesting the for uprooting soil preparation. riverbank or preventing machinery such as a mechanical digger is

mechanical digger can work on the riverbank. Machinery Hand Tools generally generally used for operating the cleaning bucket, but a hydraulic digger with wheels or treads can also be used, depending on site conditions. A operated hydraulically a via operated is bucket The arm; the reach of size. the arm depends upon its A and removal of bank face vegetation bankside. from the The 4.6.1). both vegetation and sediment (figure Heavy • • mowing bucket carries out both the cutting • cleaning bucket can be used for removing • • • • • Mowing bucket Cleaning bucket Chainsaw A machine equipped with a 2 stroke motor used in cutting back large-diameter vegetation (trees and bushes). Hedge cutter back cut to is cutter hedge a of function principal The unwanted branches. It consists of two interlocking saws from 40 to 80cm in electric length, motor, powered and by can cut an branches up to 17mm thick Cutting tools For cutting back trees and shrubs, hedge chainsaws cutters are and used for branches hanging in the channel. Occasionally, saws and pruning shears are also used. Herbaceous vegetation (including aquatic) a sickle or a scythe is cut using a cutter, MACHINERY MACHINERY

Machinery 198 Moreira). I. (Photo: Golegã da Alverca at operating Harvester 4.6.3 Figure Harvesters • • • • • • a channelbank(Photo:I.Moreira). Figure 4.6.2 Hydraulic digger with a cleaning bucket in operation on • • and cut both which • machines are s • • can be used in conjunction with other mechanical • remove fish,amphibians,birds andotherwildlife. A are they since relatively mobile. watercourses, small relatively The a rolling carpet. on collected are materials the where machine, the of part central the surround that cutters vertical The (figure 4.6.3). water the in used are and material plants collect Harvester W equipment toremove riverbedsediment. It orking speedisestimatedat0.2–0.5km/hour. disadvantage of their use is that they can also can they that is use their of disadvantage machine is made up of one horizontal and two ahns ae en dpe fr s in use for adapted been have machines Reciprocating knifemower substrates. wet by caused saturation to latter sensitive least The the are mowers. flail and mowers rotary bars, cutter two or one with mowers mowers, knife reciprocating motor are types mower recomended The Mowers Rotary mower c) b) a) • • • • • • akie laac uig rtr mwr Poo I. (Photo: mower Moreira). rotary a using clearance Bankside 4.6.4 Figure • • • • • •

Thick orrigidstems:5”40mm suit thetypeofvegetation: The horizontally overafixed,comb-likeguidebar. The ueir efrac ad r ls sniie to sensitive obstacles. less are and performance superior give but expensive more are machines these bars: Some Fine stems:11/2”or38mm. Medium sizedstems:2”or5 depositing itontheground inarow. is in cutting precision: disc mowers do not cut so cut not do mowers disc precision: cutting in is difference The drums. or discs of form the in be V Horizontal Cutting equipmentoper ertical cutters, which rapidly cut the stems, may stems, the cut rapidly which cutters, ertical distance between the teeth can be changed to cutter bar has one or more blades that move that blades more or one has bar cutter reciprocating knife mowers have two cutter two have mowers reciprocatingknife utn bae ct n lcrt grass, lacerate and cut blades cutting ates byrotation. 1 mm

199 Machinery close to the ground, which can be a disadvantage Tractor operation over low lying level areas but advantageous in •• For tractor efficiency and to avoid damage to the more irregular or stony terrain. mower, a minimum distance of 50cm should be kept between the tractor wheel track and the bank Advantages: face edge. For precise mowing, the mower should 1) Better performance be at a minimum angle of 55º to the ground (figure 2) Cutting apparatus less prone to blockage, thereby 4.6.5). needing less maintenance 3) Allows a working speed of 10-15 km/h, without soil saturation

Disadvantages: 1) Requires more power compared to other methods 2) More expensive 3) Difficulty in operating on stony ground, since blades are rapidly blunted and stones are thrown from the machine; a protective guard should be mounted on the mower

Flail mower •• A flail mower is composed of a series of articulated flails that rotate around a horizontal axis mounted on the front of the machine.

•• The flails are curved in the direction of rotation Figure 4.6.5 Tractors operating on the margins (chapter authors). and have a cutting face. The rotor is covered by a front-mounted semi-cylindrical housing with a shear bar on the lower edge.

Chemical control

Jet sprayers •• Mix and spray the product under pressure through spray nozzles using a pump.

Consumption of spray mixture - high: Herbaceous plants: > 700 litres Trees and bushes: > 1000 litres Machinery Figure 4.6.6 Exemple of jet spraier application (Photo: I. Moreira). 200 Mistblowers Granule distributors •• Spray delivered by fan-propelled airstream. •• Granule based formulations have the advantage of eliminating inadvertent drift, which tends to occur Consumption of spray mixture - medium: with spray mixtures. Herbaceous plants: 200 - 700 litres Trees and bushes: 500 - 1000 litres •• Several types of delivery equipment can be found on the market, such as hand- or motor-operated Advantages: backpacks, small trolleys or trailers attached to 1) Less mixture used per hectare, permits a larger area tractors. to be treated and allows penetration of small drops via the airstream.

Pneumatic sprayers or atomizers •• Continuous uniform flow of mixture to spray nozzle, pump operated.

•• Mixture transported under pressure to nozzle where it is mixed with a jet of air from an air pump, forming extremely fine droplets

Consumption of spray mixture - low: Herbaceous plants: 50 - 200 litres Trees and bushes: 200 - 500 litres

Rotary atomizers •• Spray droplets are formed by the centrifugal force of a spinning disc or cup; the grooves carry the mixture to the edge of the disc.

•• The larger the disc and the faster it rotates, the Figure 4.6.7 Application of herbicides from the river channel (Photo: smaller the droplets will be I. Moreira).

Consumption of spray mixture – very low: Herbaceous plants: 5 - 50 litres

Advantages: 1) Very fine droplets are formed and the quantity of mixture used is very low 2) Droplet size is homogenous 3) Facilitates the use and preparation of herbicides in areas with little water

Disadvantages: 1) Herbicide may inadvertently be applied on neighbouring vegetation Figure 4.6.8 Application of herbicides using tractor (Photo: I. Moreira). 2) Penetration difficult in reed beds Machinery 201 201 et al., 1996; King etted width of the water body; the use of year, should be planted with in a rivers permanent year, flow regime whilst Narrow-leaved Ash, which can tolerate drier weather, can be placed in reaches flow regime. with a temporary W emergent rhizomes, for example, can be suitable in suitable be can example, for rhizomes, emergent shallow narrow, in not but waterbodies deep wide, watercourses, since the plants occupy the whole waterbody. can eventually • Domingo Baeza Sanz Baeza Domingo de Jalón-Lastra García Diego Almansa López Juan Carlos Ana Monteiro Marchamalo, Miguel Vizcaino Martínez Pilar Ilidio Moreira, • plant community composition, the social uses of the recovered space and the width of the riparian strip width recommended The account. into taken be must among varies, that factor important an is strip this of others, with the environmental value of the site and the level of anthropogenic pressure derived the uses from of the adjacent land. It is also to consider land tenure important structure and to encourage neighbouring landowners. from cooperation The riparian strip should ideally be made up of three distinct areas, considering its efficacy in controlling diffuse pollution, facilitating infiltration, thus reducing runoff and attenuating the transport of nutrients and sediments. The three areas include a shrub- and bush-covered area, a area tree-covered of herbaceous plants. and an area Species selection must take into account that these woodlands are sometimes structured with different species into occupying different positions strips, on the bank and on the terraces near the river. It is advisable to observe the position of well-preserved groups of natural vegetation, more or less close to the identifying water, the species located in each of describe to used been have models Various bands. the these bands of vegetation (Lara et al., 2000; Lynch and Catterall, 1999) and is currently there some controversy over the terminology geomorphology and position of the reach ecological characteristics of the reach that flow regime, including frequency and duration duration and frequency including regime, flow Species selection Species Introduction of flooding; species such as which Common Alder, have a great need for water during the entire The will be subject to intervention (geographical area, climate, soil, pH, salinity etc.) distribution of the species. and the natural The example, for – profile longitudinal river’s the along in the headwaters, which are subject to flow energy higher and erosion, the species to be used system. should have a well developed root The • • • • • • The selection of the species to be used in the recovery recovery the in used be to species the of selection The of riparian plant communities is order in considered one be to need that of aspects important the most to guarantee successful establishment of the plants that are introduced and minimize negative impacts on the environment. The following should be taken into account: Given the importance of ecologically-balanced riparian functioning of river corridors, vegetation for section this guide, this in breadth some in discussed as focuses on its recuperation, through spontaneous or induced establishment of riparian plant species, with aims. protection landscape and environmental strip riparian the conserve to need the of Recognition springs from the multiple environmental benefits of keeping the land adjacent to watercourses covered with natural vegetation. However, riparian woods are often damaged or completely replaced by other types of land uses, mainly agricultural, which makes them. or restore it necessary to take action to repair When restoring these systems, characteristics such as the natural conditions (sediment type, water and hydraulic conditions, climate), the habitat type and ESTABLISHING ESTABLISHING VEGETATION RIPARIAN

Establishing riparian vegetation 202 exotic plantsforthefollowingreasons: than rather plants native choose to preferable is It good condition. vegetation the in are which area the in stretches of other of structure view in modified or simplified be can it and fixed necessarily not is structure This • water theseare: the to closest the to furthest into the From zones. area three riverbank of the sake divide the shall For we simplicity, 2001). al, et (Richard employ to ehd te etrto dsg sol tk the take implementation should following intoaccount: design the restoration the and method, final structure desired the vegetation selected, species the Whatever • • • • • area andthegeomorphology. given the in structure vegetation the of role the account into taking simplified, or altered be may 1998). This is a non-rigid structure of features that Connell, and (Telfer flooding periodic to tolerant are zone this in Plants circulate. to oxygen allow that (in branches flexible and system rhizomes), cases rootmany strong a with to conditions, adapted such is the vegetation The as soon rises. as level flooded water is and water the with when waterpassesoverit. herbaceous vegetation which slows down the flow and bushes trees, of mixture a by characterised is wetted by high and medium river flow regimes and into thenextinalowertransition zone. leads band vegetation This soil. the retain which helps vegetation herbaceous and systems root deep with bushes and treeslarge by characterized area transitional a 20 is This 2 banks. and higher for years with banks lower-lying flooding, for of occurrence effects year the to subject is The Lower Middle Planning anddesign criteria o o te ak ae r r srp Ti area This strip. dry or face bank the of top area or aquatic strip. This areacontact This in area is strip. aquatic or area or humid strip. This area is regularly is area This strip. humid or area should beavoided. areas biogeographical other use from the stock nursery conservation; of of state good a in reaches river along propagules or seeds cuttings, taking by obtained be can Material yearsbeforeplanting. two or one starting planning, prior producedwith be can the list of tasks to be carried out. The required plants in ecotypes local and species native of production and use the concerning procedures the down set to includes that plantings it is therefore projectextremely important native every In nurseries. using from available not on limitations main vegetation is obtaining plants because they are often the of One have that similar ecologicalcharacteristics. area intervention the to close situated conservation of state good a in reaches along out carried species native of inventory the on depends The most advisable way to go about choosing species • • • • • • • 1) • • • • • • •

many exoticspecies Gener They addvaluetothenativegeneticheritage The localfaunadependsuponthem watering ormaintenance Once fungal infectionsandinsectattacks They flow river and soils regimes climate, the as such istics They Plantings They ar the area. to native are that varieties and species use always should and structure vertical and horizontal their are adapted to local environmental character- present fewer plant health problems such as such problems health plant fewer present ally they do not become invasive, contrary to hy r etbihd hy o o need not do they established are they e integral totheriverinelandscape. should be as diverse as possible in both in possible as diverse as be should

203 Establishing riparian vegetation e.g. ash and elm) e of the reach to be restored, taking into water requirements of each species, placing ype of plant community, planting mostly the ype of channel and channel stability, planting typical species of the community to be established be to community the of species typical (e.g. in an ash stand, it is obvious that mostly ash saplings should be planted). the most demanding ones close to the (willow channel and alder) and the less demanding ones further away ( species that tolerate faster flow rates and sandy soils on the outside curve of meanders Exposur account the effect of shading of the waterbody (especially along narrow watercourses) and surrounding the area by areas alternate have larger to beneficial is it NB: bushes). species (trees and of shade and sun so that sunlight can reach the waterbody. T The T • • • • • • This method presents advantages of several types. From the financial point of view, it strategy is as it a only involves low protecting the cost area and keeping the weeds under control. From the point of view of ecological quality, it achieves a community with a diverse composition and structure and species the are normally better adapted for survival in in question. the area gallery continuity, whether on alternately along both both margins, so margins that the gallery or can continue to act as an ecological corridor for the fauna. In order to achieve a well structured and diversified riparian gallery, modules composed of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants should be devised and their It decided. be should strip riparian the along position is important to take into account: • • restoration restoration should involve considerable ever possible, both sides of the river should restored restored riparian strip should be sufficiently Revegetation strategies Revegetation revegetation Natural River longitudinal stretches of the restoration effort river. in a small area A have would any barely small hydrological or ecological addition, effects. a larger In intervention scale favours the corridor effect of which the is river, important for the movement of fauna. wide to ensure protection of general the rule of riverbank. thumb A is that the up even and river the as wide as least at be should riparian strip than less be never should it width; its times five to 5-6 metres wide (González del Tánago and García de Jalón, 1998). Wher be restored, given that protection of river one only plant if diminished considerable is communities side is protected. The with the channel, allowing a does This zone. riparian the and river the between systemic relation not mean simply planting trees along the river’s edge, it means mutual terrestrial influence and between aquatic ecosystems, the protection allowing and shade provide the to vegetation riverine for aquatic species whilst the river provides water for the riparian species. The

The natural revegetation method should always be advantages. many has it as considered, be to first the The area to be reforested needs from to grazing animals be protected and the established, require protection from young damage by wild trees, once animals. Herbaceous species must also be kept under control, especially if they are exotic or assisted by invasive. human actions and could be considered In setting out vegetation recuperation criteria, it is important not to forget the importance of riparian 4) 5) 2) vegetation should have functional connection 3)

Establishing riparian vegetation 204 1) the stages: following the advantageous, in out carried more be should restoration be would vegetation riparian the of spread the assist to intervening that restored.decided be is to it reachsite If not the does be successful, or if sufficient plant material to (propagules) unlikely are processes natural and limited is restoration for available space the when used, are fromseed germinate easily not do that species when process may be more appropriate. This can be the case On occasion, human intervention in the revegetation of regenerationNatural 4.7.1 Figure intermitent stream (Photo: Olga Mayoral and Miguel Ángel Gómez).

T following objectives: the fulfil should preparation this Consequently, vegetation. riparian of regeneration the favours the imitates that that factor main arethe freshets,which of effects way a in prepared be should to seeds the germinate or the for seedlings to take root. easier The ground it make to planting, for edig h ground the Readying Preparation. erreain b) a) Management andPlanting

Selective Clear hs cerns uh e ae immediately made be elms. mush and clearings willows These poplars, as such species colonizing of stages early the of encourage growth the will which ground, sunlight the of reaching amount the increase to canopy the human in clearings up open to will This activities. owing excessively proliferated belong totheriverineenvironment. the banks , removing waste that does not eoa o trees of removal on a gravel bed gravel a on nigraPopulus f hy have they if sufficient and seasonally appropriate supply of water. temperaturesa suitable and favourable,including be the successful regeneration of the vegetation need to influence can which factors external the that also, and, conservation of native state good of in woods lengths riparian goodly have to need stretches from the soil seed bank. This means that neighbouring have to come from nearby areas, normally upstream or which propagules, of number sufficient a requires it that is revegetation of type this with problem The 2)

Intr various methods: a) c)

Seeding. Selective and developbetterroots. rapidly more germinate seeds the time, same the at supplied are fertilizers and water since that is latter the of advantage The machines. with hydroseeding by or sowing, broadcast by manually, done be can It species. herbaceous cost ishigher. the though achieved, be can of species riparian mechanisms regeneration natural the of by done imitation perfect be a techniques, hydroseeding can artificially which even fines, introducing and ground the watering with combined is it if that advantage the has method latter The soil. mineral the to down clearing area-wide, or introduced, be to are species the where spots particular the at local, establishment of the seedlings or sets. It can be ground-covering species that could impede the and leaves dead scrub, of removal and species desired the regenerationpreventof could that the introducing woody vegetation. to hindrance a becomes considerable then that layer herbaceous a of development the encourage to manages only advance in far too clearing as planting, before oducing the vegetation, which can be done by This such as brambles as bushessuch of clearing is the most suitable method for method suitable most the is

205 Establishing riparian vegetation This is the technique most usually most technique the is This Planting. employed for elms, ashes, alders and other tree tree other and alders ashes, elms, for employed species as although it increases the transport and planting costs, it is a far safermethod in unstable climates such as the Mediterranean. Once the areas where the trees will and be planted shrubs have been marked, it may be necessary to dig holes, whether manually or using machinery; the holes should be roughly cylindrical, 1 m deep and 1 m wide for trees and 0.6 m by 0.6 m for bushes. The base and sides of the hole should be lightly roughened to promote better adherence of the soil used to fill the hole. bad of is hole the of base the in soil the Where and of disposed and removed be should it quality by healthy surface soil. The quantities replaced of manure or organic compost employed will depend on the needs of the species the and fertility on of the soil; in extreme cases, 0.1 m3 of manure or 25 kg of organic compost in the hole may be required for trees, with the addition of 0.2 kg of compound in both cases, and 0.05 m3 of manure or 10 kg of organic compost with 0.1 kg of compound shrubs. fertilizer for large The fertilized earth is compacted and planting holes are small dug in it, of a suitable size for the soil plugs or root balls or for the root systems of bare-rooted plants being if used. these While planting, are the root ball bare roots or should be covered and kept damp to avoid damage and drying out. Plants should be watered-in immediately to adherence improve to soil the roots; small channels be made to can aid this process. Where necessary for plant development, stakes can be used to support the plants, taking care to protect the tie area with paper, webbing or some suitable material to avoid wounding the tree. other and watering requirements. When the soil is very dry, especially during hot weather, it is advisable to water the soil prior to plantings condition suitable a in is soil the until wait and proceeding. before Ball

c) This is the technique most cuttings. cuttings. often used for , as their easily branches grow roots. Species from other families such as tamarisks and some elms can also be planted in this way (see chapter fast-growing 4.6.2). For herbaceous plants, cuttings can plugs also be or planted, demands of each although species should be taken into the account, especially as regards planting depth Planting Woody species can also be introduced by direct direct by introduced be also can species Woody sowing, although this method is applied in not practice because the often risk of failure is greater, as it depends on the weather to a far greater extent Also, than the differences other in fruiting dates techniques. of the different riparian species, together with the short survival period of the seed in the case of Salicaceae, would make campaigns necessary to achieve a varied cover several sowing of vegetation and would not be very viable, as the ground cover would have grown between one and the next, hindering the germination and rooting of the woody species enormously the costs. and increasing Annual and fast growing to place species taken has planting other all after sown should be avoid and trampling give a better finish to the work. If the soil is very compacted, the surface should be lightly tilled. Sowing can be carried out manually or by machine. Sowing density depends upon the species, but a recommended can Seeds given. often is g/m2 30 of minimum be broadcast and buried, which can be done by tilling and rolling the surface of the soil, or mats or other types of covering can be used to avoid birds and other seed-eating animals taking the newly sown seed. Like trees shrubs, herbaceous plants and also need watering- in, which should be done after covering the seeds. Where the bank face is steep or soil humidity seeding bad, conditions is hydro are used. This technique projects a mixture of water, seeds, fertilizer, mulch and binder surface, which onto has been previously the protected plant soil allowing geotextile, biodegradable a with development.

b)

Establishing riparian vegetation 206 be takenintoconsideration. climate, riverdynamics and riparian stripwidthmust This example is purely not for illustration; factors such as is it so strip, necessary to plant modules too densely (figure 4.7.2). riparian the time, shape In will nature riverbank. the recolonise spontaneously will facilitate that species the and of enrichment progressive corridor the fluvial the for protection The main objective of planting is to provide sufficient as wellsimplifyingthework. to helps increase the natural appearance result of the new planting, final the and project the for plans initial the between variation of margin certain a as precisely,too followed be to layout the for advisable immediately any lack not is it replanting, When 4.7.2). (figureorder will visible structure final the so arerandomarearestored,at the be allocated over to shrubs in specific positions and the different patterns some and species tree two or one includes pattern Each vegetation. varied structurally a and floristically achieve on to way easiest the designed is this as basis, are modular patterns planting Normally, Figure 4.7.2Exampleofmodularplantingpatternforriparianrestoration. d)

among others. spp.), ( irises and spp.) (Phragmites reeds Hen as (TyphaBullrushes spp.), album), (Chenopodium such plants aquatic for mainly Rhizome Planting. hs ehiu i used is technique This well formed specimens with vigorous straight stems, straight vigorous with specimens healthy,formed well young, be should material the standards: All the nursery stock should comply with current plant ecological conditions. using area, similar with area an in or area local the in collected seeds the of typical be should chosen systems but have a small aerial structure. The species root large develop that plants of mixture a include to need situation of type this in plants herbaceous suitable most The months. few first the during face bank the protect to order in considered be should shrubs) and trees planting with or simultaneously not (whether plants herbaceous growing fast with area the Seeding preparation. site during possible as much as movements soil minimise to important is it immediately noticeable. In order to reduce soil losses, such as amelioration of the effects of erosion are not of recuperation benefits term long the and grow to time some takes natural vegetation the woody However, vegetation. herbaceous aids shrub and understory tree the reconstituting cases, many In in bynatural plantregeneration processes. access to the river. The spaces will hopefully be filled and maintenance planting, metres,facilitating 2-3 is modules between spacing recommended The width. channel the to according adjusted and watercourse The planned modules are repeated randomly along the

207 Establishing riparian vegetation Lara F, Lara Garilleti F, R, Ramírez P (1996) Estudio de la vegetación de los ríos carpetanos de la cuenca del Jarama. CEDEX, Monografías. Ma- drid Lynch RJ, Catterall CP (1999) Riparian Lovett S, Price Wildlife P (eds.) Riparian Land Management Technical Guide- and Habitats. In: lines, Volume One: Principles of LWRRDC Sound Management. Canberra: hints. and guidelines planting bank Stream (1998) M Connell D, Telfer Catchment Management Unit, Queensland Water Fact Sheet R31. Zouhar K (2003) Fire Effects Information System [Online]. U.S. De- partment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Online URL: http://www.fs.fed.us/ database/feis/) being damaged by strong winds, humans or domestic or humans winds, strong by damaged being and wild animals. This can be done by either fencing the entire area and to completely it, restricitng or by acces using individual like protecting stakes, wire structures or plastic tree guards, plastic tube shelters or root barriers against . The relative browsed being to species different the of vulnerability has to be taken and (Hodge costs into reduce to order account in system protection when choosing the Pepper, 1998). Ashes, willows and Black Poplars are very sensitive (DCS, 2008) for example, while Elders, be to seem 2003) (Zouhar, Tamarisks or Poplars White less appetizing to ruminants. During the first years should body water the to cattle of access and grazing be prevented; designated where necessary, areas can management the about information More out. set be the in found be can zones riparian in areas grazing of following chapter. References Deer Comission for Scotland DCS (2008) Best Tree Practice Protection. Guidance. (Online URL: http://www.dcs.gov.uk/bestpractice/ crop_treeprotection.htm) Fischer RA, Martin Ratti CO, JT Riparian (2001) Terminology: Confu- sion and Clarification. Ecosystem Management and Restoration Re- Technical Notes, search Program Stream Restoration Nº 25 (EMRRP- SR-25). (Online URL: http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/sr25. pdf) González del Tánago M, García de Jalón D (1998) Restauración de ríos y riberas. Escuela Superior de Ingenieros de Montes. Mundip- Madrid rensa, Hodge S, Pepper H (1998) The Prevention of Mammal Damage Trees in Woodland. to Forestry Comission Practice Note 3 (Online URL: http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/fcpn3.pdf/$FILE/fcpn3.pdf) King JM, Tharme RE, de Villiers MS (2000) Environmental Flow As- sessments for Rivers: Manual for the Building Block methodology. No: Report WRC Town. Cape of University Unit. Research Freshwater TT131/00 a terminal bud and a ball root that is well developed not curled up. and well spread, The best time for vegetatively dormant planting and is the weather when enough favourable: are soil conditions humidity and absence of plants are severe frosts. These conditions are normally met in spring as the soil beginns to warm up. In locations with typical Mediterranean conditions, mild humid winters and dry summers, it is advisable to plant in late-autumn. Despite their proximity to the waterbody the plants and seedlings should be watered regularly dry during periods, as modification of following the earth-moving operations and their limited soil structure young the for difficult it make can development root plants to obtain their water requirements. And it finally, is important to protect the introduced plants over their initial development period from

Establishing riparian vegetation 208 lag (Lynch and Tjadem, 2000; Brismar, 2002). time Brismar, 2000; the Tjadem, and to (Lynch lag due evident, of less presence vegetation later, the riverine of decades advantages the even makes only or which services years these apparent of become many by However, them to society. attributed value subjective the upon depends largely that process mainly social is and service political a of a kind this Placing on value evaluations. monetary of market scope the economic outside classic remains gallery by riparian delivered a services economic environmental the the of Nonetheless, value 2002). Duarte; and Moreira 2002; Lee, and Friedman 2000; Gosselink, ftes o vros esn hv be pitd out pointed been have reasons various for trees of clearing indiscriminate Uncontrolledthe grazingand 2002; Angradi etal.,2004). Duarte 1996; (Larsen, for development economic incentives strong provide water to access and availability since use, land of replacedtypes other by been have which galleries, riparian of disappearance and urban both agricultural areas has resulted of in the degradation and expansion the time, same the Cortes g. At 2000). Gosselink, (e. and Mitsch 1998; authors Ferreira; and several by cited been have table, water the of hydrological lowering by caused on namely disturbance communities, impacts plant anthropogenic riparian of 1999). Verhoeven, effects and Negative (Brinson activity by human caused change to vulnerable particularly makes them galleries riparian of character dynamic The Ferreira, 1998; Moreira Moreira 1998; Ferreira, Jeffries Smith 1990; 1991; (Hunter, Mills, and documented well are – stability regime flow regional and local as well as and wildlife, quality of forms other and fish for water habitats better improved – by galleries provided riparian services environmental the of Some The economic value of riparian galleries Threats t al et t al et ., 1999; Mitsch and and Mitsch 1999; ., ., 1997; Cortes and and Cortes 1997; ., António Fabião André Fabião et al., et of river integrity, which should always be maintained. rural not compromise the protection must in of the riparian gallery production and timber wealth such However, generating areas. also while benefits environmental riparian maintain to opportunity an as seen productionbe timber can Quality 4.8.1. table in seen be can producer the to paid timber of metre cubic per cost average the of analysis An pine). (e.g. species timber conventional some than price higher cultivated in these areas (e.g. areas these in cultivated be can that species the of highly timber as be remunerative, can woodlands riparian of exploitation Forest 2001). (Oszlányi, composed are they which of vegetation Europe, of type the on depending uses, in different example, conservation For for exploited with been has galleries riparian from timber out mind. carried in is precautions it if benefits economic generate can way direct more a associated in areas and riverine exploiting species, woody riverine the of value environmental the as well As en aae truh nutbe iebn and bankside vegetationmanagement. riverbank unsuitable through damaged been specific previously have that to sites using than according rather criteria selected carefully be must activity of type this for earmarked areas reason, this margins but also the stability of the river channel; for construction type of activity affects not only the already the degraded This provide. for they access the for and/or sand – industry mainly of – removal the substrates degraded for after these sought become Later, reaches process. degradation the worsens and accelerates reasons, commercial for or access improve to whether trees, down Cutting area. degraded the of expansion gradual a and face bank steepest part of the riverbank results in erosion of the the follow which paths via water to access Livestock degradation. riparian in factors main the of some as ECONOMIC VALUEANDGOOD SUSTAINABLE RIVERVALLEYS: FOREST PRACTICES Juglans ) fetches a fetches spp.)

209 Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices 38 n/a n/a 27 n/a n/a n/a 57 n/a 45 35 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 107 n/a n/a 31 n/a n/a n/a 188 n/a 82 86 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 13 n/a n/a 20 n/a n/a n/a 17 n/a 20 3 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Portugal ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ based upon the use of the riparian zone training (angling, circuits, picnic areas, fluvial beaches etc), as long as these activities are developed in such way a as to prevent environmental impacts. The river habitat attracts many types of vertebrates including game species. Game hunting areas situated next to well structured and conserved riparian galleries will result a as diversity and abundance species in benefit of their proximity. 118 78 56 38 60 185 1015 86 165 26 22 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 400 200 190 60 90 400 3000 200 230 65 25 - 40 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 15 30 40 100 15 100 5 8 - 17 5 - 8 20 5 - 8 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Average price (Euros/m3) price Average France ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Minimum■ Maximum■ Average■ Minimum Maximum Average spp. Betula spp. Tilia Prunus avium Juglans spp. Castanea sativa Acer pseudoplatanus spp. Populus Quercus spp. Quercus excelsior Fraxinus ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Species The technical characteristics of timber from riparian galleries and the area immediately around can vary justifies partly which species, tree each within widely the variation in prices shown in table 4.8.2 4.8.1. Table gives the different species. properties riparian some of timber the of characteristics and technical Other economic activities can presence of benefit well structured from riparian galleries, the such as leisure activities and tourism, partially or totally Table 4.8.1 Table Prices of timber suited trees from to river habitats, paid to in private The and France producers values Portugal. given merely are indicative and can vary between regions within each country. This table does not take into account annual price variations related to the Pinus recommended. is values these of interpretation the in prudence and defects) of not or presence dimensions, (e.g. timber the of quality Anonymous, (Source: countries both in cultivated widely is that species riverine non a with comparison of purpose the for included is pinaster 2006; Anonymous, 2007). 2004; Anonymous, 2005; DSPE,

Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices 210 Anonymous, n.d.;Oliveira, n.d.;Carvalho,1997;LópezGonzález,2004). Table 4.8.2Properties, characteristics andmainusesoftimberfrom riverinetrees ortrees thatfrequently occurinripariangalleries(Source: ■ ■ ■ Species ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Alnus glutinosa Quercus faginea Quercus pyrenaica Prunus avium Castanea sativa Populus alba Populus nigra Frangula alnus Fraxinus angustifolia Betula pubescens Alnus cordata hues(sapwood) whitewithyellow hues(heartwood); ■ hues(sapwood) whitewithyellow hues(heartwood); ■ withred hues ■ (sapwood) White/yellowhues ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ pink-white ■ slowlydarkens ■ ■ Colour ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Brown withyellow Brown withyellow Brown; brown Brown (heartwood); Pink-hued Red-grey Yellowy brown Pinky yellow Pale whiteor Orangey red, Pinky yellow furniture), trays furniture making(structures andheavy carpentry),woodpanellingandfloors, ■ barrel making utensilsandconstruction,stakes, ■ barrel making,covering,laminates ■ posts,firewood barrel making,gluedandmouldedgoods, navalconstruction,baskets,toolhandles, carpentry;laminates;lathedfurniture, ■ leaf,paperpulp tryandtoys;matchestoothpicks, particleboard andlaminates,finecarpen furniture, basesandbackingpanels, ■ leaf,paperpulpandchipboard tryandtoys;matchestoothpicks, particleboard andlaminates,finecarpen furniture, basesandbackingpanels, ■ ■ tools,floorboards ■ laminates,interiorcarpentryandtools ■ (includingaeronautical) sometimesusedinconstruction ■ varioustypesofsmallobjects ■ varioustypesofsmallobjects decorative laminates,packaging,tools, ■ Applications ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Construction (structures and Flooring (parquet);wood panelling, Furniture, musicalinstruments,tools, Interior andexteriorstructures and Construction (structures), interior Construction (structures), interior Charcoal forgunpowder Sports equipment,furniture, Heavy furniture; particleboard and Particleboard, paperpulp,charcoal, Packaging, hydraulic structures, Furniture (indoor);hydraulic structures, submerged inwaters durability when submerged inwaters durability when ofthetrunks hardness andtheform ■ ■ ■ Observations ■ ■ ■ Timber withimproved Timber withimproved Difficult tomilldue

211 Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices types of land important benefits to society and their use. conservation Riverbanks provides important environmental services; in many present many countries and regions they are legally public together property, with the river channel and considered who adjacent landowners, the water itself. However, may be private owners, have privileged water and access associated resources, making it to necessary to regulate rights compliance. and obligations and oversee One of the creation most of access sensitive to water areas (for livestock), both concerns people which and the can compromise plant riverbank community and integrity, as tree can felling indiscriminate for timber, removal aggregate of substrates for without excessive unauthorized water diversion for irrigation adequate supervision and other uses. Indeed, any activity concerned with and the use and management of forest resources near or within the riparian gallery can potentially have a negative effect upon water quality, the aquatic and terrestrial habitat and other values and functions of the riparian zone (table 4.8.3). Riparian gallery management Riparian and challenges Scope Potential impacts of forest use activities on river galleries (adapted from Phillips et al., 2000). use activities on river galleries (adapted from impacts of forest 4.8.3 Potential Table A riparian gallery must be well structured and made up of healthy specimens to ensure that its presence will have maximum positive impact on water quality, the of inhabitants the and production timber wildlife, region (Goard, 2006a). Effective conservation and rehabilitation of river spaces needs adequate legal regulation that stimulates landowners to make areas available to increase the conservation value of the riparian galleries and corresponding river corridor. As well as this, the management of these areas must be river-basin specific, since each river has unique characteristics. Management cannot to isolated components of be the river but must limited be as ecologically far-reaching as possible and carried out at several scales – that is to say that management at the river reach scale must fit into plans for catchment the area to which the reach belongs and also into wider reaching catchment management plans (Hughes et al., 2001). One of the main challenges for the management of these areas, especially in basins with high levels of human activity, is reconciling the maintenance of land-water interaction integrity with the multiple

Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices 212 valuable timbers such as oak, chestnut, wild cherry wild chestnut, of oak, as extraction such timbers the valuable to points which high, is timber extractedthe of price the if viable only forestryis of of view. point From a purely environmental economic point of view, an this type from positive is which diversity, habitat high showing forest a in resulting dimensions), and composition species classes, age of irregularly diversity a of with stands (i.e. strips wooded development structured the to leads This out. group selection (felling of small stands) can be carried or felling selective where zones sensitive less be may felling for as health and safety reasons – although such there management necessary preclude not does used for commercial activities (Hunter, 1990) – which namely a strip adjacent to the watercourse that is not of form utilization recommended generally consists of leaving the a buffer zone, production, timber is areas these in objectives management the of one If a) Verhoeven, 1999): and (Brinson strips these of width the upon deciding when account into take to principles general some synthesise to possible it make zones buffer respective their of function riparian the and galleries on worldwide out carried studies Several vulnerableerosionto Verhoeven,and (Brinson 1999). particularly are which bankfaces, steep or unstable on important particularly is zones buffer suitable of Maintenance features). local recommended other or use of land condition adjacent geomorphology, and site vegetation, age (composition, site each of conditions specific the upon based width variable define a (2) or type, river the or slope the with vary (Phillips complex process which a is reached is via one of width two ways suitable most the Determining reasons. technical for necessary when except intervention, of form any to subject not is which watercourse the to areaadjacent an width is variable of zone buffer The

for maintainingbiodiversity, onthewhole. the wider the zones, buffer zone the better the buffer conditions wide exceptionally of designation Although The buffer zone The buffer et al., 2000): (1) define a fixed width that can oi-cnmc betvs xld the exclude objectives socio-economic il otiue o mrvmns oprd o the pre-existing situation(Phillips to compared improvements to contribute will that actions mitigation impact define and conflicts and problems potential diagnose safeguards, quality landscape implement and up draw activities, these of intensity the and areas operation forestry define stretch, each of needs specific the identify to time appropriatemost the also is This management. zone to identify th e risks and costs associated with riparian (Phillips out the planning of best management practices be carried can this after only clearly; out set be should activity this utilization of objectives forest the zone, riparian of the in type activity any initiating to Prior the outsideedgeofripariangalleries. on found often are and soils humid for preference a have species these of Most others. amongst ash, and d) 1998; Phillipsetal.,2000). Todd, and (Palone 4.8.1) (figure managers local the or population general the of objectives the with and often need to be brought into answersconjunction with restrictions scientific zone, buffer the of width the about decision final a However,make orderto in towards point scientifically-based solutions. will others) (amongst the zone of buffer function intended features, or use level land basin of or intensity local the as such factors different of study the situation, separate each For c) b)

Headwater or insteepheadwatersites. plains alluvial in located are they whether zones, All In also thearea mostvulnerable tochange. are they however control; flood for and quality wider thebufferstrip. greater the level of adjacent economic activity, the order to obtain similar levels of protection, the protection, of levels similar obtain to order qai evrnet ne rpra buffer riparian need environments aquatic ., 2000). Timely planning is essential essential is planning Timely 2000). al., et ae seta t mitiig water maintaining to essential are s et al.,2000).

213 Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices Based upon Palone and Todd (1998) and Phillips et al. 35 metres (for each river bank), depending on the site (2000), the minimum recommended width of a buffer and the desired objectives. area in the USA varies from between 10-15 and 30-

Figure 4.8.1 Criteria for determining the width of a river buffer zone (adapted from Palone and Todd, 1998).

Best Management Practice Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices Best Management Practice measures for riparian 3) Minimize impacts on forest soil, keeping the forests aim to prevent adverse impacts in the lotic organic layer intact. ecosystem that can result in altered habitats, caused by accumulation of fine sediments, variation in 4) Prohibit the entry of heavy machinery into the temperature and flow and the introduction of river channel. If crossing is unavoidable it should chemical products and organic and solid residues be carried out at designated areas that have been (Phillips et al., 2000). prepared for this function.

Generally, the landowners or the managers should be 5) Remove of large trees and branches which might aware of the following recommendations concerning fall into the watercourse after felling. intervention in the riparian zone (Palone and Todd, 1988; Phillips et al., 2000; Goard, 2006a): 6) Treat residues resulting from felling appropriately (remove chippings and cuttings). 1) Identify objectives and plan activities to be carried out. Table 4.8.4 provides more specific recommendations for different structures/operations to build/carry out 2) Define and implement buffer zone features. during logging operations in riparian zones. 214 Table 4.8.4 Recommendations for best forestry management practice in riparian galleries (adapted from Goard, 2006b).

Access Crossings Felling and yarding Post-felling

■■ Access ways and ■■ Minimize the number ■■ Work when the soil is dry ■■ Stabilize bare soils in log ladings must of crossing places and disturbed areas in be at least 8m away soil disturbance order to avoid erosion from streams

■■ Designed so as to ■■ Always cross streams at ■■ Do not fell more than 25% ■■ Re-seed and plant minimize erosion (at an a 90º angle and only in of trees felled areas with angle to the channel areas where the stream- native species and bank) bed and banks are com- posed of cohesive materials

■■ Whenever possible use ■■ Do not deposit logging existing roads or tracks residues in streams

■■ As narrow as possible ■■ Do not yard or skid logs and (but functional) trees across streams

■■ Ensure that the forestry contractor knows which trees to fell and the structure of the access ways

Concerning livestock access to the riparian gallery e) Fencing erected in these areas should be robust and the water, it is sometimes advisable to limit it by enough to withstand the movement of debris and using fencing; uncontrolled grazing in the riparian flood flow regimes. zone can damage the vegetation cover, compact the soil and lead to erosion of the bank face (Goard, However, there are situations where the controlled 2006c). Thus, fencing should be placed approximately presence of livestock in riparian woodlands can bring 20m away from the watercourse (to avoid damage more ecological benefits than problems to the system. during sudden rises in water level). Nevertheless, One example is in regulated rivers, where the absence whenever it is necessary to guarantee livestock access of yearly floods can cause extreme proliferation of to the water’s edge (to drink or cross), some fencing vegetation on typical riverine open spaces like gravel could be placed inside the water channel (Goard, banks and sand bars, which are very important 2006c): habitats for many breeding birds, arthropods and insects. Grazing can also be a cheap management a) In suitable areas, built in order to minimize river practice for controlling problems with non-native channel disturbance. invasive species like the Giant Reed (Arundo donax). It is not unusual for some restoration projects to b) The channel and the bank face of selected areas include the controlled introduction of livestock should be stable, preferably of exposed rock or as a fundamental piece in ecosystem equilibrium large stones which are not easily moved by higher (see http://www.newforestlife.org.uk/). The effects rates of flow. of grazing in riparian areas must be studied for each particular case and no generalizations can be c) The slope of the crossing area should be constant. made. More research is needed to understand the ecologically very important plant/animal interactions d) The crossing areas should not interfere with water that influence riparian areas in silvopastoral systems. movement or aquatic life. Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest 215 215 Brismar A (2002) River systems as providers of goods and services: a basis for comparing desired and undesired effects of large dam Management 29(5):598-609 Environnemental projects. Direcção-Geral II. Volume – Portuguesas Madeiras (1997) A Carvalho Lisboa das Florestas. Cortes RMV, Ferreira T (1998) Funções dos o Ecótonos Ordenamento Ripários e de Bacias Hidrográficas. Ordenamento de Zonas Ripárias. Workshop Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Funções e Vila Real. (policopy) Alto Douro. Divisão de Inventário e Estatísticas Florestais (DSPE) (2006) Sistema de Informação de Cotações de Produtos Florestais (SICOP). dos Direcção-Geral Recursos Florestais. Lisboa. (Online na URL: Produção Visited: 24/01/2008) http://cryptomeria.dgrf.min-agricultura.pt/. Dulçaquícola. Vascular Flora (2002) MT Ferreira I, Moreira MC, Duarte In: Moreira I, Ferreira Conservação. e MT, Gestão Ecologia, Cortes Ribeirinhos: e R, Aquáticos Ecossistemas Pinto P, Almeida PR (eds) Instituto da Água. Lisboa Friedman JM, Lee VJ (2002) Extreme floods, channel change, and riparian forests along ephemeral streams. Ecological Monographs 72(3):409-425 importance of these vital and unique There is also ecosystems. a strong need for practical intervention through specific management actions, knowledge based already on obtained investigation and through experimentation, scientific preserve in this important order biological to sustainable resource manner. Rehabilitation in and sustainable essential are a corridors riparian woody of management for protecting t he biodiversity and of sustainability aquatic ecosystems, as well as integrity. their ecological References Conclusions Angradi Angradi T, Schweiger E, Bolgrien D, Ismert P, Selle T (2004) Bank stabilization, riparian land use and the distribution of large woody Dakota, North River, Missouri Upper the of reach regulated a in debris and Applications 20:829-846 USA. River Research University. Wageningen Database. Tree Wageningen s/d. Anonymous. Wageningen. (Online URL: http://www.fem.wur.nl/UK/Education/ Visited 09/04/2008) special+topics/tree/. Anonymous (2004) Cours des bois 471:9. sur pied. (Online Forêts de URL: France Visited: 24/01/2008) info/137559-FDF471_09bis_pb.pdf. http://www.foretpriveefrancaise.com/data/ Anonymous (2005) Les ventes d’automne 2005. http://www.onf.fr/doc/ URL: (Online 6:4. Forêts des National L’Office Les Cahiers de Visited: 24/01/2008) pdf/conj6_1105.pdf. Arborea. Pied. Sur Vendus Bois des Indicatifs Cours (2007) Anonymous Vichy. (Online URL: http://www.arborea.com/items/actualites.html. Visited: 24/01/2008) (ed) ML Hunter In: Forests. Riparian (1999) J Verhoeven MM, Brinson Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems, 265-299. Cambridge Cambridge. Press. University The increasing awareness importance of of riparian corridors has led to the growing rural with accordance in environmental conservation, their in interest and natural area good practice guidelines. However, good management practices for riparian corridors have seldom been applied in spite of the economic value of some of the tree species involved and the important role of riparian vegetation in conserving biodiversity, in mitigating floods and delaying peak flood runoff and in stabilizing banksides. Therefore, it is awareness indispensible of to increase the public environmental and economic

Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices 216 Extension. University ofMaryland.CollegePark, Queenstown Cooperative Maryland 774. Sheet Fact Costs. Riparian and Benefits – a Buffer Adopts Landowner a When (2000) R Tjadem L, Lynch Scientific Publications.Oxford In: Calow P, Petts GE (eds) The Rivers Handbook 2: 419-438. Blackwell Experiences. German Corridors: River of Restoration (1996) P Larsen and Principles Ecology: Freshwater Applications. JohnWileyandSons,NewYork (1991) D Mills M, Jeffries New Jersey of Hall. Prentice / Principles Regents Diversity. Forestry: Biological for Forests and Managing Forests Wildlife, (1990) ML Hunter 17:325-345 Management and ResearchRivers: Regulated woodlands. floodplain of restoration the for processes scale different of importance The (2001) M F,Winfield Vautier Perrow M, JL, Peiry G, Pautou L, Lambs N, Décamps H, Foussadier R, Girel J, Guilloy H, Hayes A, Johansson M, Barsoum KS, Richards C, Nilsson E, Muller WM, Adams FMR, Hughes Ibérica yBaleares, 2nded.EdicionesMundi-Prensa. Madrid López González G (2004) Guía de los http://www.Árboles y Arbustos de la Península URL: (Online Kansas kansasforests.org/riparian/best_managment.shtml) University. State Kansas Fencing. Practices: Management Forest Riparian (2006c) D Goard kansasforests.org/riparian/best_managment.shtml) Timber Harvesting. Kansas State University. Kansas Practices: (Online URL: http://www. Management Forest Riparian (2006b) D Goard http://www.kansasforests.org/riparian/best_managment.shtml) URL: (Online Kansas University. State Kansas Improvement. Timber Stand Practices: Management Forest Riparian (2006a) D Goard New York Sons, and Wiley John ed. 9th Ecology, Forest Applied : of Practice The (1997) PMS Ashton MJ, Kelty BC, Larson DM, Smith 273-286. LewisPublishers, CRC Press. BocaRaton,Florida States, United Continental (eds). the of CA Forests in Management Dolloff Riparian JW, Hornbeck ES, Verry In: Areas. Riparian for Practices Management Best (2000) CR Blinn LW, Swift MJ, Phillips Service. Extension Washington and Education, Research, State Cooperative Service Conservation Resources Natural Forestry, Private and State States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Area, United Buffers. Forest Riparian Maintaining and Establishing for Palone R, Todd A (1998) Chesapeake Bay Riparian Handbook: A Guide in Europe: Current SituationandPerspectives, 10:2-16. Brill.Leiden ForestsFloodplain The (eds) H Hager E, Klimo In: Slovakia. Forestsin MoravaFloodplain Lower (2001) the J of Oszlányi PresentCondition Instituto cordata). (Alnus Superior deAgronomia. Lisboa Napolitano Amieiro (s/d) Â Oliveira, Conservação. InstitutodaÁgua.Lisboa e Gestão Ecologia, Ribeirinhos: e Aquáticos Ecossistemas (eds). PR Almeida P, Pinto R, Cortes MT, Ferreira I, Moreira In: e Ribeirinhas. Aquáticas Vegetais Comunidades (2002) MC Duarte I, Moreira Lisboa Agronomia, de Superior Instituto Press, ISA Sado. do Hidrográfica Bacia na Reconhecimento Mediterrânica: Paisagem na Galerias Ribeirinhas As (1999) F Monteiro, Pinto M, Lousã I, Ramos Loupa T, Ferreira A, Fabião M, Duarte J, F,Costa Aguiar M, Saraiva I, Moreira New York Mitsch WJ, Gosselink JG (2000) Wetlands, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons.

217 Sustainable river valleys: economic value and good forest practices 218 5 Case Studies an environmental interpretation centre feeding, breeding and refuge habitats for the wetland wood there is an eleven native species that could lead to colonization to lead could that species native area area contains several threatened vertebrate area area suffers from signs of degradation and Plant of the area; Develop to promote the restoration importance and of the role river ecological corridors. of habitat these habitats as Develop aquatic birds; Within thousand year old . The species The human pressures, which system. viability as a natural can compromise its • • • • • • Ana Mendes, Carla Faria, André Fabião, Artur Ribeiro Fabião, André Faria, Carla Mendes, Ana Ferreira Maria Teresa Fernandes, Rosário Rui Peixoto, Espírito-Santo Dalila Helena Almeida, Fabião, Maria António Nunes Vanda Carlos Ferreirinha, José Rita Hipólito, do Céu Joaquim Rosa • • Within the Requalification Project, the Paul AMC aimed to achieve da the following additional objectives: Goucha Environmental • • • • (AMC) Council Municipal Alpiarça the context, this In quarrying aggregate of effects the mitigate to aimed activities on the ecosystem and natural landscape values. Since this is a task that will almost certainly take many years Project to allowed the conclude, AMC the with to other Ripidurable come European into contact realities how” in and the implementation their of “know- river habitats and restoration techniques. The Paul da riparian Goucha restoration project comprised two areas: mitigation of habitat degradation and Nature interpretation. In this chapter we refer to task development, from conception to implementation “on the ground”. area contains the largest wet willow woodland woodland willow wet largest the contains area is a priority habitat, according to the Directive Objectives Introduction 43/92/CEE, namely willow and alder wet woodlands wet alder and willow namely 43/92/CEE, (91E0pt3) This It in Portugal and one of the rare wetland of woods significant size still found in the South of the Iberian Peninsula • • It is important to make clear quarrying that activities the had caused aggregate significant impacts on the ecosystem and that it was notrestore itpossible to to its initial state. The intervention not can be considered as a formal habitat initiative,restoration since it was not the possible pristine to natural return conditions; to mitigation this is a initiative, habitat implemented therefore were the conceiveddevelopment techniques of a new ecological state. to The project lead aimed to to the recreate facilitate the the conditions establishment vegetation in the that Paul da Goucha. of would natural riverine • • The Paul da of one comprised and 2005 January in started project Goucha environmental restoration the several restoration initiatives developed through the Ripidurable project. Paul da Goucha is situated in an alluvial depression in the south of the Alpiarça municipality. It is an area influenced that by has human been activity, such heavily as agriculture, livestock and quarrying of aggregates. activity The has significantly latter affected vegetation cover and in some areas has created small artificial lakes, which have been used subsequently da Goucha is for a unique litter and building waste. Paul dumping natural heritage site in the national context and its da Paul fact In preservation. its threatens degradation Goucha possesses some unique characteristics: A SINGLE LANDOWNER IN A LANDOWNER A SINGLE GOUCHA DA PAUL AREA: RURAL PROJECT MITIGATION

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 220 form of legal protection,legal of form have to is aim the although any under not is Goucha da Paul area, humid a As 92km of area catchment a a with River, watercourse Atela permanent de Vale the by crossed is that zone alluvial an of part is It Goucha. da Paul as known hectares and is partially included in the wetland area a 29.5 of area total by a has 5.1.1, figure identified in polygon red restoration, undergo to area The taken intoaccountforthedevelopmentoftasks. plans. Here, intervention we summarise the most relevant aspects of sufficient development detail the allow in to enough area the of characterization allowed elements these of collection systematic The conclusion. projects the after and 2008) June (until project the brought measures was undertaken during the entire intervention period of and of monitoring 2005 2006; during during together collected were Data was carriedoutbeforehand (table 5.1.1). ground” the “on situation management the of survey a necessary measures, appropriate most with the acquainted and elements become to order In Tabe 5.1.1Aspectsconsidered forasurveyofthesituation“onground”. Managementandplanningissues Legalsituation Geographic location Biotypes Fauna Vegetation Flora ■ Climate Hydrology Pedology Geology ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3 BiologicalCharacterization 2 Physical Characterization 1 Situation General characterization ofthearea executionPlanning, andresults 2 (figure 5.1.2).

metres thick(CONSMAGA,2002). 8 over are that deposits with catchment, the of end alluvial deposits; Pleisto-Holocene there are also transition at the comprises area the Geologically, owned. and the area of greatest ecological value are privately area surrounding the place; the took where tasks intervention land the of owner sole the is AMC The samples). core from taken information 2006, communication personal (Rodriguez, old years 35-40 between oldest trees the with Portugal, in woodland wet willow largest the is this Furthermore ). quaking and Mediterranean water) and also 7140 (Transition mires 43/92/CEE intermittent formations on (Riparian 92B0 glutinosa, Directive Habitat Alnus 91E0 a forestswith with Alluvial habitat priority is this However, Ministers 90/2001). of Council the of Resolution ratification March, of plan 15th 14/94, Ministers monitoring of Council the of (Resolution or no is management there 1994 conservation, in approved was which (MDP), Plan Development Municipal the In situation. this prevent to order in future, the in classified site the Pollution Tributaries HumanActivities Population ■ Ethnographical Heritage Archaeological Heritage Architectonic Heritage ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 6Socio-Economics 5 Natural HeritageCharacterization 4 Landscapeunits

221 Paul da Goucha mitigation project of traditional crops such as maize and rice. As a result result a As rice. and maize as such crops traditional of of this regulation, the area silted up due to natural during periods (sediment transport of rainfall factors and periodic flooding) and human impacts (removal of aggregate, north of the river). The sedimentation, the confined space and successive flooding resulted in the abandonment of agricultural activities in the 2002); CONSMAGA, to according years (20 past recent as a result, this area, rapidly underwent a transition/ as it was in the past. succession to a wetland area, spp. However, in However, spp. the past a change of land use to agriculture has been has agriculture to use land of change a past the documented. The water level would have been kept low by irrigation and river culture the allow to order in regulation Previously Previously the Paul da Goucha been area a would permanent freshwater have body with immersed emergent partially vegetation during the growing season. The vegetation would probably have been Salix of stands mixed by dominated View of the Goucha valley where the Paul and associated landscapes are situated (Photo: Ana Mendes) situated (Photo: and associated landscapes are the Paul 5.1.2 View of the Goucha valley where Figure Cartographic map with geographical location of the requalification area (Military Map number 353 - 1:25 000). area location of the requalification map with geographical 5.1.1 Cartographic Figure

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 222 domestic waste; for the site landfill site a was as sealed used following was cessation area confined a that note to important is It characterize. to difficult also and origins varied from rubble with filled were they abandoned, were quarrying the by left excavations preserving a Natural Heritage area. Meanwhile, as the of interest the of result a as also and AMC the with Quarrying activities ceased in 2000 via an agreement evident. become surroundings the and Paul the of cover vegetation the 1980 in changes major 1993 by in and began aggregates of quarrying Intensive 1970’s. the of beginning the at abandoned were activities relative age of the oldest trees in the area, the agricultural on data sedimentation, upon Based flow. water impedes which considerable undergone has river small this of basin drainage the state, present its In Figure 5.1.3Aerialphotographs oftheworksitein1993(a)and2007 (b). pollutants abovethelegalvalues(table5.1.2). of levels contain not did sediments and water the that conclude to us allow results the laboratories; certified independent by out carried were analyses The site. landfill sealed the to next taken lakes the form samples from analyses sediment and water of results by confirmed is fact This contaminants. isolate to acts site landfill the surrounds that layer clay the that mentions Tagus” the of Margin Left – region Lezíria Tagus the of sites landfill of Recovery The site. Environmental landfill and “Sealing the for developed sealed study the to adjacent Paul the and lakes the of contamination water possible was project the of beginning the since concern major A 1993 and2007 (figure 5.1.3). in taken photographs aerial using compared be can excavations and deposits alterations, These use. of

223 Paul da Goucha mitigation project 0.12 mg/L < 1.0 mg/L < 0.05 mg/L 29 mg/L 8.3 22 ºC 3.3 µg/L < 0.5 µg/L < 5 µg/L < 0.04 mg/L < 2 µg/L µg/L < 0.10 < 0.05 mg/L < 5 µg/L 44 mg/L mg/L 21 0.20 g/L < 0.08 mg/L < 0.50 mg/L < 3 mg/L 629 µS/cm 23 mg/L < 0.1mg/L ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Result ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1 mg/L 9 30 ºC 0.1 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 0.5 mg/L 0.05 mg/L mg/L 0.001 1 mg/L 0.05 mg/L 5 mg/L 3 mg/L mg/L 10 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Recommended Recommended (MAV) Surface Waters (minimum quality) ■ ■ ■ onmental Institute. 30 mg/L 30 mg/L ■ ■ ■ ■ Recommended Recommended (MAV) Irrigation water 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L 0.001 mg/L 0.02 mg/L 0.0001 0.5 mg/L 1000 µS/cm 1000 30 mg/L 0.4 - 0.7 mg/L 25 mg/L 25 mg/L 25 mg/L 22 ºC ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Recommended Recommended Maximum Acceptable (MAV) Value for human Water consumption – Pedreira do Hilário Lake do Hilário – Pedreira – 27/06/2006 - Surface Water Arsenic Cadmium Lead Copper Crhrome Mercury Nickel Calcium Magnesium hardness Total Amonia nitrogen Kjeldahl nitrogen BOD5 Conductivity COD Phosphates Phosphorous Total Nitrates Nitrites solids in suspension Total pH (laboratory) (pH) Temperature ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

Results of water and sediment analyses carried out by the Envir 5.1.2 Results of water and sediment Table Sample type Sampling point Sampling date

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 224 Sampling date Sampling point Sample type *b notdefined series) 3rd ofOctober. *a Concentration Limitvalueforheavymetalsinmudsdestinedagriculture, inaccordance withDecreto-Lei 446/91, Portaria 176/96(2ª 176/96 (2ªseries)3rd ofOctober. * Concentration Limitvaluefororganic compoundsinmuds destined foragriculture, inaccordance withDecreto-Lei 446/91, Portaria ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ hydrocarbons (PAH) Polycyclic aromatic ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Pyrene Napthalene Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene Fluorene Fluoranthene Fenanthen Dibenzo(a,h)antrachene Crisene Benzo(k) fluoranthene Benzo(g,h,i) perylene Benzo(b)fluoranthene Benzo(a)pyrene Benzo(a)anthracene Anthracene Acenaftylene Aenafthene Total phosphorous Total nitrogen Kjeldahl nitrogen Zinc Lead Copper Cadmium -Sediment –27/06/2006 –Pedreira doHilárioLake

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ g/kg ■ ■ ■ ■ mg/kg Reference value* ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 -* -* -* 2500 750 1000 20 b b b a µg/kg Result ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ g/kg mg/kg Result ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 69 1.9 1.7 59 31 24 2 35.3 37.6 <11 5.4 35.2 <5.3 <11.3 <3.6 <2.4 <14.2 27.1 <3.6 26.5 <4.4 <4.6 <4.8

225 Paul da Goucha mitigation project et et al., reptiles, reptiles, 167 bird species and 27 mammal Twenty species. five of the recorded bird species are listed in figure 1 of the Habitats Directive, 8 of which are the by “endangered” as listed are they since protected Red Vertebrate Data Book for (Cabral Portugal 2006); 82 species are know to nest in the area. One of the 27 mammal species is classified as critically endangered and another as “vulnerable” (Cabral larger lake. Areas A and B were defined as priority habitat recovery areas. Area C comprised the area the interpretive where “montado” was present where walkways would be placed. Area D which is private the Paul, around wetland area entire comprises the value. ecological and also has the greatest property The initial concept plan took into consideration that the implementation of an economically sustainable interpretation centre would require number of a visitors. Thus, intervention sufficient phases were defined that followed one another over time (figure 5.1.4); at the same time, a study of was carried out. human resources the necessary al., 2006). Intervention project Intervention Map of the intervention areas from the concept plan. from 5.1.4 Map of the intervention areas Figure The requalification project was drawn up over several several over up drawn was project requalification The discussions and meetings with a range of experts in early the During objective. proposed the meet to order phase of the project, the environmental consultancy service of the Wetlands and Wildfowl contracted Trust to were draw up the function of the project project concept was concept. to analyse the The following areas: target groups, access, interpretive and educational principles, material for opportunities and limitations, phasing of operations. publicity, At this phase the requalification project was divided of periods distinct comprising each with areas, 4 into the between space the comprised A Area intervention. B area site; landfill sealed the and ravines quarry sand the of area the sealed represents landfill site and the The present vegetation cover in comprises Paul different da types of Goucha vegetation related to specific habitat types. Generally speaking, the most abundant species is the Large ); Grey the atrocinera invasive exotic Feather Parrot Water Willow (Salix Milfoil (Myriophyllum ) aquaticum is abundant. also highly Concerning the fauna there are species, 11 recorded 13 fish species of amphibians, 17 species of

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 226 improved conditionsforvisitors: 2 Phase the sitewhenvisitsare beingmade. to travel can that educator 1 personnel: Necessary • • • in particularthefollowingactivities: B, and A areas on concentrate interventions 1 Phase Figure 5.1.5General planand drawings oftheworkspresentation project. • • • • • • • • • • • open water(removal ofexoticspecies); other invertebrates; and dragonflies amphibians, for habitats the lake. in order to make it more suitable for aquatic birds; habitats forbirds; sheltered and and nesting feeding, plants suitable of provides development the permit height Landscaping suitable distancesoasnottodisturbnesting; a at trails of placement the and ravines nesting Retention soil suitableforplantgrowth. Land Cr Cr Development Landscaping eation of a reedbed, wetland wood and areas of areas and wood wetland reedbed, a of eation eation of several small lakes in area A, to provide clearance in area A and the incorporation of incorporation the and A area in clearance niiae hbt rain esrs and measures creation habit anticipated iai riparia) (Riparia Martin Sand the of of the lake margins, so that the margin of the island in the middle of the lake f nepeie aue ris around trails nature interpretive of interpretive trails andanactivityarea. the bar,to improvementsa toilets, public park, car a the justify necessary: be will infrastructures following the case, to visitors of implementation of the number interpretive centre. If this attracts is sufficient the area the a whether assess should 4 Phase the sitewhenvisitsare beingmade. to travel can that visits organized of number the to accordingeducators,more or 3 personnel: Necessary natural values. way and ecosystems a the maintain and favour would that such in the habitats allowing marginal hereby of project management the join landowners to adjacent D) (area the attract should 3 Phase the sitewhenvisitsare beingmade. to travel can that visits organized of number the to Necessary • • • • • • placement ofwalkways; Placement ofobservatories. Landscaping macroinvertebrates; of identification the as such activities education Cr ain f n riiil ae o environmental for lake artificial an of eation personnel: 2 or more educators, accordingeducators,more or 2 personnel: and planting in area B, as well as the as well as B, area in planting and

227 Paul da Goucha mitigation project Following the presentation of the preliminary project, project, preliminary the of presentation the Following a series of meetings from different were areas (biologists, held forestry engineers, with ornithologists) in specialists order to assess the components of project. the preliminary The choice of shrubs trees, and herbaceous plants, as well as the location of observatories and interpretive trails, was subject to rigorous analyses. Concerning existed already that species only plants, of choice the in the catchment of area the considered were region surveys floristic upon based Tagus), the of margin (left as Agronomia de Superior Instituto the by out carried Specification of the areas where each species of shrub will where Specification of the areas each herbaceous and seed where Specification of the areas to Plans of locale of pavements, equipment and drainage Details of implementation of pavements, equipment and Characterization: evaluation of the area (strong and weak (strong of the area evaluation Characterization: For each of the following elements the criteria for work (demolition and clearance) preparatory heavy landscaping (digging, landfill, land lending) (crushed material covering, kerbs and guttering Pavements, of the land, planting of trees, preparation Planting (general and gates (bench and tables, equipment, fencing Furniture, Other tasks (construction and dismantling of work depot, Responsibilities and guarantees Quantification of costs for quantities and unit price for each work plan with introduction aspect of the entire General survey of the work area Topographic execution Planimetric modelling to be achieved during project will each species of tree where Specification of the areas ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ be planted ■ will be planted plants of tree producing ■ implement ■ drainage ■ intervention objectives, points, opportunities, threats), of intervention estimate of costs. proposal ■ description of the article and technical measurement, given: conditions are ■ ■ ■ and wooden base, tout-venant, sand/clay pavement, concrete kerbs, gutters) ■ shrubs and herbaceous plants, seed bearing plants). ■ for environmental support structure information boards, education) ■ final covers) ■ ■ item mentioned in the dossier of specifications. ■ to most of the elements. ■ ■ ■ be planted Content General plan General Measurements Measurements Altimetry Planimetry planting plan Tree Shrub planting plan Seed and herbaceous equipment Paving, Detailed work plan

Technical memorandum Technical Dossier of specifications ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ and quotes ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ planting plan ■ plan and drainage ■ ■ ■ ■ Designed Elements Written elements Written ■ ■ ■ Description ■

Table 5.1.3 Elements of the detailed work plan. Table Necessary personnel: centre manager, 2 permanent staff members, 3 or more educators and 2 or more filed workers, according to community response. volunteer and local Following conclusion of the project concept, a team of biophysical engineers was contracted to draw up a detailed work plan (figure 5.1.5 and table 5.1.3). site the of characterisation the on given were Details and the concept plan. Several meetings were held with the aim of making clear what would take place objectives. to meet the project at the site in order

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 228 b) a) following the by characterised conditions: was task This This lastgroup waspresent onlyinresidual amounts. pesticides. leftover refrigeratorsand batteries, car as such pollutants containing waste and debris) with mixed deposits sand and asphalt concrete, (bricks, waste building aggregate); for suitable not deposits (itself quarrying aggregate from originating waste waste: of types 3 essentially were There aggregates. quarrying from resulting excavations the fill to past information on the type of waste that was used in the moreobtain to possible also was it phase this During avaialbe area forwork(figure 5.1.6). the free to order in area the in debris building and litter all of removal urgent the indicated evaluation initial An project. intervention the up draw to order in characterization under still was site the that and time this at approved been not had project the that fact the despite 2005, in began work Requalification were based on the recommendations of Andrews and trails interpretive and observatories of location The native totheregion were excluded. not were that Plants Project. Ripidurable the of part

necessary. cutting back was carried out only when absolutely some supervisor; site the by given was permission Existing carried outtogiveregular surfaces; Landscaping Landscaping Preparatory work (demolitionandclearance) Execution re wr nt u dw uls express unless down cut not were trees f xaain ad akae were bankfaces and excavations of e) d) c) later includedinthefinalproject. were aspects discussed The riparia). (Riparia Martin Sand the of nesting the concerning taken was care Special disturbance. minimize and activity favour nesting that measures concerning (1990) Kinsman clearing operations (2)(Photo:AnaMendes). Figure 5.1.6 General aspect of the work area before (1) and after the

Removal Measur Material to reduce itspreading across thearea. orderin rhizomes, and plant whole the removalof following excavations; to tips; transported offsite to deposit sites; excess was sent es were taken to reduce local scale erosion scale local reduce to taken were es included donax) (Arundo reed giant of eutn fo ecvtos was excavations from resulting

229 Paul da Goucha mitigation project of the topsoil was avoided in the areas areas the in avoided was topsoil the of construction construction of the pit, care was taken to ever possible, the introduced soil did not place the poorest soils at the pit base and reserve the better quality soils for the bankface surface. Wher contain plant remains, litter or debris; inorganic or organic other types of Compacting destined for planting; During

due to a number of delays; therefore planting went ahead before the placement of these structures. In figure 5.1.8, we can see the general aspect of trails. kerbs for the interpretation the h) i) j) used in the pits consisted of soils and other and soils of consisted pits the in used Paving, coverings, kerbs and guttering kerbs coverings, Paving, W basis, facilitating on the spot alterations to original the plan whenever necessary. AMC and ISA’s constant presence became essential for putting plans into effect at the work site; the project Material materials obtained during on site excavations that technical conditions; met the requisite

Implementation of technical specifications given in the dossier of specifications was carried out planting after had taken place. Ideally, carried out after the placement of paving, coverings, this should be kerbs and guttering. However this was not possible General aspect before landscaping (1 and 2) and during the final phase of landscaping (3) (Photo: Ana Mendes). landscaping (1 and 2) and during aspect before 5.1.7 General Figure f) ork was overseen by AMC and ISA on a daily g)

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 230 7 tes n 92 hus ms o wih were which of most shrubs, 942 approximately and species, trees shrub 575 and tree 28 different of site. planting the involved on schemes planting The offered conditions would the species well plant since the tolerate out, that considered carried was is not it manure was this organic recommended, with fertilization bulldozer.Although a and using 5.1.9) 15cm (figure waste site a the over in layer and spread was topsoil litter clean landscaping, of clearance Following Figure 5.1.9General aspectofthetopsoil(1)andspreading overthesite(2)(Photo:Ana Mendes). Figure 5.1.8General aspectofthekerbsusedforinterpretation trails (Photo:AnaMendes). Planting 5.1.11 and5.1.12). digging using an automatic excavator (figures 5.1.10, that had been drawn up. Planting was carried out by plan the with accordance in planted, be to the species of each using to corresponding out stakes staked coded colour was area the planting, to Prior facilitate to order identification bytheteamincharge ofplantings. in species each trunk) and pot (the code colour to necessary was It containerized.

231 Paul da Goucha mitigation project General planting sequence (Photo: Ana Mendes). planting sequence General 5.1.11 Figure Planting plan for trees and shrubs in the works project. 5.1.12 Planting plan for trees Figure Detail of colour coded stakes to aid recognition of the of recognition aid to stakes coded colour of Detail 5.1.10 Figure species to plant (1) and the holes used to plant and trees shrubs (2) (Photo: Ana Mendes).

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 232 oe f h pooe ojcie wr pt into intervention the put along trails were various using objectives practise proposed the of Some f) e) d) c) b) a) to wished we promote asaresult oftheproposed activities: conduct public of type the as such General objectives were laid down in a primary phase, that theproject aimedtodivulge andpromote. together with the pedagogic stories and natural values defined were observatories of localization and Trails

private sectorandNGO’s. placards (e.g. via thematic exhibitions and debates). and sustainable development. parties both of benefit the for wildlife and population surrounding thePaul. Goucha ismanagedto: the natural environment ingeneral to: actions and measures with the Paul da Goucha and Develop Invite Pr Pr K Inspir • • • • • • • • • • eep visitors/people informed of how the Paul da Paul the how of informed visitors/people eep omote and develop interaction between people between interaction develop and omote local the of involvement the develop and omote Trails andobservatories conceptualization • • • • • • • • • • Divulge in aEuropean context; Divulge kill snakes,lizards andfrogs). to not stealing; passive is what explain nests; Respect becomes contaminated; Explain Explain Paul aswastewaterchannels; Stop using greater environmental impact; Inform Regulate fishing; Stop illegalhunting; No longerusetheP of fertilizers andpesticidestothepopulation; ad hleg pol b tkn positive taking by people challenge and e visitors to contribute to future informative future to contribute to visitors environmental initiatives promoted by the the negative impact of the excessive use the existing species of flora and fauna. the importance of the PaulGoucha the da of importance the nlr aot h fs seis with species fish the about anglers o wtr o hmn consumption human for water how aue n eg taig rm bird from stealing egg (no nature the watercoursesthe the into that flow aul fordumpingwaste; o e sd n h Pu d Guh wr dfnd in order tocatchvisitor’s attention(figure 5.1.13). defined were Goucha da Paul the in used be to contracting a design company, the most suitable aids By concerning Goucha. da Paul the of preservation of impact level the term long and medium short, greater a convey to help can potentially they since - students the - public target defined previously the with accordance in chosen was used language The • • The followingtrails were defined: an associated message with an environmental theme. area. Each trail was given the name of a bird and had • for thePaul daGoucha. Figure 5.1.13Technical designs oftheinformativeplacards created • • • of water and its effects on vegetation and animals. da Paul the Goucha andthespeciesthatcanbefoundthere; in out carried project restoration The autumn andwinter; the during occur pipits while summer, and spring year, the along over habitat of trailvary this along found species The protection. importance the and migration bird Martin/Pipit The Grey Heron Trail, that illustrates the importance igihr ri am t ilsrt te whole the illustrate to aims trail Kingfisher ri, hc am t illustrate to aims which trail, Martins occur during the during occur Martins i.e.

233 Paul da Goucha mitigation project The observatories were placed in areas that allowed allow wheelchair access. Figure 5.1.14 shows the a good view of the whole area but did not disturb interpretation plan. the birds. The observatories were equipped to

Figure 5.1.14 General scheme of the implemented interpretive plan.

Environmental Education visits

A range of activities for visitors throughout the year have left the area, with the aim of motivating the was developed in such a way that they would not be public to return and discover more about the natural exhausted in just one visit. Care was taken to make sure space they have visited. Figures 5.1.15 to 5.1.17 show that the content of the activity programme covered some of the educational material created for on site several disciplines of the National Curriculum. and offsite activities. The following educational activities were created: In order to draw public attention to the activities •• Water gymkhana being developed at Paul da Goucha and attract them Paul da Goucha mitigation project •• Let’s get to know the birds of Paul da Goucha to the site, a stand was created divulging some of the •• Educational theatre “The kingfisher” messages integral to the Ripidurable project (figure •• Let’s discover the Paul lake 5.1.19). Hopefully, the project will start a process of •• I have a little house just like that attracting the public to the site thereby increasing •• Interpretive trails (with or without guide) awareness to the importance of the sustained •• Predator and prey equilibrium of Nature and its role in Man’s well being. •• Let’s protect birds A specific aim of the project is to increase awareness •• Sing with “Ripi” on the important role of riverine vegetation in improving water quality, in flood prevention and as For each of the listed activities, associated activities a filter of pollutants. were designed to be carried out by visitors once they 234 Figure 5.1.15 (1) Educational package for activities “Let’s get to know the birds of Paul da Goucha”; “Let’s discover the lakes of the Paul”; “Let’s protect the trees”, amongst others (2) Case for keeping work carried out during the visit. (3) Worksheets created specifically for the “Let’s discover the lakes of the Paul” activity.

Figure 5.1.17 Accompanying activities CD for singing and exploring Figure 5.1.16 Didactic game for children over 7 years old. the sounds of nature; it includes the songs from the didactic play and other sounds.

Figure 5.1.19 Triptych stand for use in education, farming and natu- Figure 5.1.18 Educational play “The kingfisher” (Photo: Ana Mendes). ral space management fairs. Paul da Goucha mitigation project Paul 235 artial landscaping of the lake by the east bank P (found to be used by sunbathing area). freshwater turtles as a

4) The artificial lake for introduced educational in activities order was to that make was use found when of landscaping the underway. work spring first Although got previous indications pointed towards a high water table in the area, it was found that the artificial lake could be created with only a 5.1.21). shallow excavation (figure had that factor a steep, very was lake the in island The to be corrected, since it prevented the development of vegetation typically occurring in the region. This was not included in the initial plan due to correction landscaping heavy once However, restrictions. budget (earth movements) was it underway, was found that island the reach to used be could spoil excavated the and correct its steep slopes. The operation greatly a place where habitats since it created bird improved 5.1.22). they could shelter (figure A less positive aspect of this difficulty type in carrying of it task out is at the a the time least that disturbance causes to birds (August-September). Due to delays in contracting a out company this to work, the carry task was carried out during (April-May). period nesting the of the part sensitive most However, since the site had been covered in debris and subject to the constant movement of Lorries of the island, which although not of the southwest margin of the lake Results Results recovery Habitat eation of an artificial lake for (a) environmental Cr education activities such as the identification of and (b) macroinvertebrates to habitats provide for and other invertebrates; amphibians, dragonflies Landscaping present in the plan, was carried out during the works; Landscaping engineering techniques; using natural

Figure Figure 5.1.20 Final phase of work (1 e 2) and problems with submergence of heavy machinery due to the (Photo: Ana Mendes). extreme underwater slopes (3) 2) 3) It was only possible to obtain a submerged slope of 14% (1.7m depth in an area of approximately 5m) and not 7% below the water surface (1m depth in an area of approx. 15m), as was previously planned in accordance with Andrews and Kinsman This (1990). objective was restricted by the machinery used and the steep underwater vertical slopes (5 metres vertical depth), which was plainly 5.1.20). in figure illustrated unsafe bulldozer operator, for the The softening of the terrestrial to slopes carry was out, respecting easier the original plan wherever possible. Other areas within the work area were also used to control surface drainage of rainwater and subsequent erosion. constantly were improvements underway, was work As made that further improved the were: habitat alterations Main project process. recovery 1)

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 236 ok lc i Téa, raie b te Valencian the by organized that Tuéjar, in engineering place Natural took on course a about following came margin southeast the of Landscaping reproduction should bechosen. animal and bird on impact least the is important to emphasise that the season that causes considered to be minimal in this first year. However it was impact the years, several for vehicles other and Sequence of work on the lakes island: initial aspect (1); beginning of works (2); final phase (3) e after 6 months (4) (Photo: (4) months 6 after Ana Mendes). e (3) phase final (2); works of beginning (1); aspect initial island: lakes the on work of Sequence 5.1.22 Figure Figure 5.1.21 Creation oftheartificiallakewithhabitatsforamphibians,insectsandmacroinvertebrates (Photo:AnaMendes) slope (figure 5.1.23). next to the margin in order to reduce the submerged made were excavations deeper Also, margins. the around depth the reduce to used was soil Available area of water through application of two techniques. This initiative resulted in the creation of a more open da assessed. Paul was at were the works requalification which Goucha at stage the after organizers, course the with discussed was idea CIEF.The partner

237 Paul da Goucha mitigation project ess; olls. oven fences; Cribwall; W Fascines; Brush mattr Bio-r • • • • • • • • • • During the course, the following techniques 5.1.24 and 5.1.25). used (figures were Woven fences (1); fascines (2); brush mattress (3) and bio roll (4) (Photos: Regina Carriço, 1 and 2, and André Fabião, 2 and (3) and bio roll fences (1); fascines (2); brush mattress 5.1.25 Woven Figure 3). Construction of the cribwall to prevent erosion (1) general aspect (2) detail following budding (3) (Photos: Regina Carriço, 1 (1) general erosion 5.1.24 Construction of the cribwall to prevent Figure and André Fabião, 2 and 3). Figure Figure 5.1.23 Initial aspect of the east margin following intervention (1) and after 6 months (2) (_____ initial location of margin) (Photo: Ana Mendes). The introduction of techniques in other the Paul natural da Goucha for improving was the engineering habitat and suggested landscape. A natural engineering was course practical held in conjunction with the need to introduce a number of techniques at the site and the need to pass the knowledge to area. working in the environmental personnel

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 238 forecasted at the beginning of the project was the was project the of beginning the at forecasted not was that situation One 14%. of rate mortality a and 5.1.4). 68%, of rate survival table a showed evaluation That (see determined was specimens tree After the first Spring, the survival rate of the planted Figure 5.1.26Proliferation ofvegetationatthebeginning(1),after6months(2),1yearand(3)2years (4)(Photo:AnaMendes) (Gallinula Moorhen Common (Anas platyrhynchos), Ducks Mallard cinerea), (Ardea Heron Grey by colonisation rapid was there time, same the At native speciestocolonizethesite(figure 5.1.26). be must allow to order in clearance mechanical by controlled species This aquaticum). Watermilfoil (Miriophyllum Feather Parrot invasive exotic the of rapidthe proliferationto led slopes the of Reduction Improving colonization potential ofthespace byplantingwithnative species pce ta tns o iapa fo te ra as area the aquatic vegetationdevelops. from disappear to tends that species of these species). The Little Ringed Plover is a pioneer the allowed offspring the by (used areas feeding of site development the at conditions ecological the since surprise no is site the of colonisation their thus presence, human of tolerant and common extremely (Charadius are species first These Plover margin. east the Ringed on dubius) Little and chloropus) (Arbutus unedo). PoplarBlack Strawberry(PopulusTreethe nigraand ) (figure 5.1.27); there was a notable preference for the cases the of 7% ocurred wich trees, plated of theft

239 Paul da Goucha mitigation project 3,92 11,11 2,33 26,09 22,54 5,41 5,00 0,00 8,33 31,25 13,73 0,00 68 11,83 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Salix spp.) regenerated 7,84 16,67 0,00 0,00 1,41 0,00 22,50 0,00 8,33 4,69 0,00 0,00 38 6,61 spp. and ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Stolen Not found 31,37 19,44 2,33 13,04 5,63 18,92 18,75 18,18 19,44 4,69 9,80 0,00 79 13,74 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Dead naturally, naturally, a very good indicator of reaching project objectives. 2 removed Although invasive Giant Reed plants were work new that indicating reappeared, they ago, years will have to be undertaken to control this invasive species. made evident by the fact that 64 inventoried tree specimens (Populus 56,86 52,78 95,35 60,87 70,42 75,68 53,75 81,82 63,89 59,38 76,47 100,00 390 67,83 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Arbutus unedo (2) and signs of vandalism (3) (Photo: Ana Mendes). 64 51 25 575 100,00 51 36 43 23 71 37 80 22 72 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Percentages per species Percentages Nº planted■ Alive ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Salix alba (1), live specimen of Salix atrocinerea Salix salvifolia africana Tamarix Total in % Total Alnus glutinosa Arbutus unedo Celtis australis alnus Frangula angustifolia Fraxinus Pinus pinea nigra Populus suber Quercus Salix alba ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Figure 5.1.27 Dead Figure Stealing occurred mostly accessible facilitated areas, by the of presence stakes in the species Concerning process. planting the during used more visible/ counted as “not found”, landscaping of the area led development of pioneer river to vegetation the rapid that complicated the elaboration of inventories and compromised the chance of plant survival 5.1.28). This latter category includes dead and (figure stolen specimens, those hidden by vegetation, buried heavy landscaping etc. by As previously mentioned, earth movement improved the potential natural recolonization of the area, Percentage survival resulting from the planting operations carried out in the Paul da Goucha (per species). da Goucha carried out in the Paul the planting operations from survival resulting 5.1.4 Percentage Table

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 240 guarantee the quality of the visits, there should be should there visits, the of quality the guarantee to order in that, account into take to important is It objectives fortheendofeachvisit. establish and methods interaction public to the order assess in made were students 159 by visits 6 of total A 5.1.29). several (figure place took project, municipality from the schools the with of visits education period environmental entire the Over (2); reappearance oftheinvasive Figure 5.1.28Illustration ofthedifficultyincarryingoutinventoriessurvivingplantsomelocales (1);growth ofsomeplantedtrees Implementation ofthePaul daGouchainterpretation complex Arundo donax(3)(Photo:AnaMendes). take place. will that activities the in involved become they that that will accompany the students prior to the visit, so Preferentially,teacherswith held be should meetings activities. the of objectives educational the meet can children the that ensuring children, 5 of group per one educator per group of 25 children and 1 assistant

241 Paul da Goucha mitigation project Despite the fact that some plantings and interpretive interpretive and plantings some that fact the Despite trails have not been completed, the site will serve to population the to information environmental provide in order to bring about changes in conduct and to promote understanding of the importance of ’rivers the and ’ role in the cycle. natural water classifying with ahead go to intends council local The the Paul da Goucha Landscape”, as as a result of a its natural values “Regionally and to Protected continue the environmental requalification process, to achieve. which will take some years Final considerations The Ripidurable project aimed to recovery develop project of a part pilot of the Paul da Goucha Alpiarça, where in negative impacts resulting from the quarrying of aggregates had led to an increase local levels of pollution. in Some delays and financial restrictions, due to pioneering the nature of the project, compromised the initial plan of work. However, emphasise it that is a important project to of this constant nature demands adaptation materialize on site. to the conditions that Figure 5.1.29 Figure Examples of some education environmental activities: water gymkhana (1); get Let’s to know the of birds (2); the “Let’s Paul” turtles” (4) (Photos: Ana Mendes, 1 to 4 and Regina Carriço, 5 and 6). (3); “Freshwater get to know the pools of the Paul”

Paul da Goucha mitigation project 242 (06 Lvo emlo o vrerds e otgl ª Edição, Instituto daConservaçãoNatureza/Assírio eAlvim.Lisboa. 2ª Portugal de vertebrados dos vermelho Livro (2006) M Santos-Reis L, Rogado AI, Queiroz JM, Palmeirim ME, Oliveira N, Almeida de Ferrand T, Delinger PR, Almeida J, Almeida MJ, Cabral Practical Manual.RPSB. Bedfordshire. A - Wildlife for Restoration Pit Gravel (1990) D Kinsman J, Andrews oé ai Sno, arca Rodriguez-Gonzalez, Patrícia Santos, Maria José António Albuquerque, João Oliveira, Jorge Gonçalves, Acnowledgements References Paulo Barreiros eSérgio Marques Agrícola daGouchaeAtela,S.A. Lisboa,.TechnicalSociedade reportproduced, to Alpiarça” – Goucha - “Projecto de exploração Lda experimental de turfa Consultores do depósito Engenheirosmineral da e Geólogos (2002) CONSMAGA Director Plano (1994) CMA Municipal Alpiarça, de Municipal Câmara

243 Paul da Goucha mitigation project e initiatives. technical solutions and methods for to ancestral uses of the riparian gallery, ease landowner awareness concerning the Incr Support other futur characteristics characteristics of the including local their riparian use galleries, as ecological interaction with other corridors elements of the local and flora and fauna. Identify Return including the promotion of sustainable forms of thereby activities, education-based of and tourism development rural promoting maintenance and conservation of these areas the restoration and promotion of local riparian galleries, and divulge parties. interested the findings to other • • • • Filipa Pais • • • • and upgrade two river reaches; the first is situated principal a on second the and stream Gandum the on the Almansor river. watercourse, area intervention the of dynamics and complexity The were of a very particular nature, falling far short of the environmental quality that could be expected of degraded, very were sites the waterbody: of type this and exhibited flow problems. lacked structure Being aware that the water courses were extremely landscape, (biophysical, functions their and degraded socio economic and resulting in loss and degradation of habitats (as well hydraulic) were as other affected, natural values), restoration ecological an in the them upgrade and restore CMMN proposed to project. This aimed to recover stream functionality and to provide the means to increase the associated biodiversity by rehabilitating the riparian with the intention sustainable of conditions creating gallery, that fulfil both social and ecological demands and link them together. ove the knowledge of the natural Objectives of the intervention measures of the intervention Objectives Introduction omote the upgrading and sustainable use Impr Pr of the degraded riparian diversification of gallery, its resulting use in and conservation. in environmental • • • • With the aim of reinstating some of the wellbeing that was formerly known to exist objective principal on the river, Almansor the the and stream Gandum their into back sites these bring to was CMMN the of equilibrium. natural Clearing the banksides and planting channel with riparian species typical of the existing followed by habitat were some of the initiatives in this difficult task carried out by RIPIDURABLE project. the The objectives of CMMN the CMMN as part to: were of the The increasing recognition as of areas of riparian high biological environmental multiple of suppliers as habitats diversity role important and of their services is the main cause of the growing in interest conserving and recovering this type systems. of However, nature in spite more conscious of of the being limits more sustainability, we of humans continue natural and to carrying resource out actions that alter the environment negatively and and extraction water Excessive ourselves. on rebound of replacement diversion, the riparian by crops and pastures or the contamination of water with nutrients from agriculture and cattle are some of the impacts that alter the physical structure of fluvial ecosystems and facilitate the proliferation of the expense native vegetation, invading species at of values natural in a loss of the river’s resulting With these concerns in mind the Montemor-o-Novo Municipal Council (CMMN), in through the partnership RIPIDURABLE (INTERREG undertaken IIIC) a series of actions since project, 2005 to restore has SEVERAL LANDOWNERS IN A RURAL A RURAL IN LANDOWNERS SEVERAL OF THE REHABILITATION AREA: AND THE ALMANSOR GANDUM

Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor 244 aecus, oty eutn fo pg slurry pig the from of resulting state mostly run-down watercourse, extremely the Despite and structure natural the function ofdifferent individualfeatures. regards as degraded extremely as classified watercoursewas the Territory DirectorateRegional the Environmentby the and for studies previous In difficult. very process whole this of management landowners,the private made which to belong which of 14 properties, 17 through passes It long. metres 2,800 approximately is farmsteads, that pass by the Reguengo and “Courela de João Pais” with the Almansor River and ending next to the tracks the at starting restoration, for reach The m epciey ih diy vrg fo rt of 0,037 cumecs(m rate flow average daily a with respectively mm annual rainfall and runoff values of 700 mm and 220 revealsstream the of study hydrological The m. 362 of area an is in stream the of source The river. Almansor the of of area basin major a a is and hectares 536 approximately has stream long, Gandum 5km the approximately Monfurado, is Montemor-o-Novo, of of area city the in the of SW Situated Figure 5.2.1TheGandumriverbasin. General characterization ofthereaches to berehabilitated with an altitude of 190m – 190m of altitude an with montado 3 /s). (Flebbe,2002). oe xesv, ecig ttl egh f 1700 of length metres. total a reaching extensive, high were more stands and Reed Giant degradation The availability.. nitrogen habitat with associated often is species these of proliferation The along river. the all found were brambles and Reed Giant of stands dense large, fieldwork, 2005 summer During see types vegetation chapters the 2.1.2and2.1.3). of description closer a (for restored be should river the how of indication valuable very a gave and area the in found be could 2006b), 91B0, and 2006a (ICN, and woods Ash Narrow-leaved woods, Alder Common 91E0, habitats streams, of kind these along alternately occur to two tend that the types of habitat specimens tree adult individual some However, community. plant herbaceous poor a and exemplified by the absence of a continuous tree layer impoverishment, floristic drastic showed vegetation riparian accompanying the that observed also was It some with find small pondsofhighecologicalvalue. to stretches possible still in was it flow channel, permanent the into discharges aua 00 priority 2000 Natura i.e.

245 Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor of the river channel: this work involved and removal of plant material: carried Clearing Cutting out up to a for maximum metres each of bank; 10 the work comprised close cutting of vegetation (herbaceous and shrubs) in order to maintain the root systems intact, thereby ensuring stability, bankface which was degraded through pig slurry discharge. Where branches or necessary, branches that dry impeded water removed were and flow dead removing living or dead plant material that • • • • the Alentejo Regional Coordination and Development and Coordination Regional Alentejo the Commission in accordance with Law 46/94 of 22nd February 1994. The second phase began the restoration work. All of the legal requirements concerning preparing and implementing a call for public tender the to restoration execute work were got concluded underway during and the work first restoration half of work 2006. The comprised three cleaning and steps, clearing, namely planting installing urban infrastructure. the reaches and Clearing of the Gandum and Almansor carried rivers was out manually as using mowers, suitable chainsaws, strimmers tools and work comprised: equipment. The contract such other such General characterization of the intervention measures of the intervention characterization General Predominance of infestant plants in the Gandum Stream (Photo: F. Pais). (Photo: F. plants in the Gandum Stream of infestant 5.2.2 Predominance Figure Restoration actions comprising 3 phases began 2004 in in conjunction with the start of the The project. aim of Phase one was in maps preparing and stream situ the of understanding and characterization to support restoration measures. Phase one place over the summer of 2004, when fieldwork took was carried out along the whole stretch of the river. At the same time, given that it would be necessary to obtain the landowners’ consent to carry out work along the Gandum, a series of contacts was with made landowners and land tenants in order to obtain authorization, which in most cases turned be out to a difficult and CMMN’s proposed intervention drawn-out was looked upon by process since the many with suspicion and reluctance. Door to door contact was made with the landowners and 14 the of public 11 Only organised. were sessions awareness actions restoration for authorization gave landowners that stated landowners 3 remaining the place; take to the With operations. own their out carry would they aim of meeting the proposed objectives, the CMMN decided to restore a reach metres of of the approximately Almansor River situated 800 between the Ananil the and river the and stream the of confluence Mill. The CMMN did not need authorisation to carry out restoration measures here, since it is situated in an urban area With all of the maps and authorizations in place, the CMMN requested a license to carry out works from

Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor 246 pce, aig ae o rtc te – particularly – them protect to tree care taking respective species, the planted then team gardening CMMN The system. coded colour pre-established a CMMN. the by Firstly, out using out werestaked planted be areasto the carried were and operations project the of phase planting second the of step The second the comprised begin. concluded, could were operations planting clearance the Once • Figure 5.2.4Plantingworkcarriedoutduringtheproject (Photo:F. Pais). Figure 5.2.3 Examples of contracted restoration work carried out along the two reaches (Gandum Stream and Almansor River) (Photo: F. Pais). • rjc as cnimd hmcl oto a the most viableoptiontoadopt. as control chemical confirmed also Project the of auspices the under area this by in specialists made Visits methods. control mechanical these to of control resultscomparedsatisfactory very gives infestants chemical that demonstrate Leal on by based studies researched, carefully was option This and donax) brambles (Rubusspp.). (Arundo Reed Giant of control growth to the order in areas selected in herbicides Herbicide removed trash, werelargealso substratematerials some tyres and Domestic flow. the affected or impeded plcto: h CM applied CMMN the application: i Mrao 20) which 2001) Morgado, (in al. et ntlain f ra ifatutr aog the along infrastructure planned alterations.The some underwent riverbanks, urban of the phase, second installation the of step final and third The were processed inthemunicipalcompostingcentre. they where nursery plant municipal the to CMMN the by taken shreddedand then land, adjacent on of deposited temporarilywereresidues and waste Plant The and stands. alba local Populus angustifolia, and the were seeds planted from species from taken produced CMMN cuttings were the from and came nursery river stream Almansor Gandum the the and in reintroduced plants The European the by Commission (LIFEprogramme). co-financed – Sítio Monfurado) do de Participada e Activa (Gestão Monfurado in Management Shared and Active – project GAPS the municipality, the in underway project welded another installing within out carried was work and This guards. tree mesh tubes individual area, placing entire the fencing carried methods: three was of using out Protection most properties. on adjoining present the was which livestock, from lu glutinosa, Alnus ai salvifolia Salix Fraxinus .

247 Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor a cue from the central theme of da Luz”, the a key 2006 event “Feira for publicizing and promoting economic, cultural and with leisure the activities environment related and Environmental and Urban the Services division, which is activities of the responsible for the day to day management of the project, the 4500 participants in given this the event opportunity were to take a of virtual the bike Gandum tour river, taking in the best and fauna. beautiful aspects of its flora and most although the preceding phase had involved large- scale clearance of the whole reach. The final phase concentrated on clearing Giant Reeds and bramble patches by applying herbicides. Although herbicide application is most effective immediately following the cutting of reeds and bramble patches, it did not take place at that point because unweaned lambs were in adjoining land at the time nature systemic non-residual the Despite of operations. the cutting of the herbicide to be used at the time, the CMMN preferred to wait until the lambs were weaned avoid any risk of contamination. to Other promotion activities Other promotion Together Together with the work carried out on the Gandum and Almansor sites, ever since the beginning of the project the CMMN has been particularly concerned with increasing public awareness of the operations being carried out and landowners directly involved in the process but informing also not only the public the in general concerning their obligations duties and in the management of areas. As these a result, aquatic the CMMN has organized walks taking and public information sessions. Additionally, Outdoor furniture along the Almansor River (Photo: F. Pais). along the Almansor River (Photo: F. 5.2. 5 Outdoor furniture Figure installation of benches and information panels along panels information and benches of installation the Gandum stream was not possible due to refusal of authorization by landowners who claimed that the presence of livestock (principally incompatible with the intended sheep) presence of walkers was using the area. Once again the project’s and pathway a create to site, Almansor the attention to turned was there placed furniture outdoor The area. picnic a installed by the River Almansor authority. The third phase was the finalisation of operations. It phase in that was somewhat similar to the preceding out, carried were herbicide applications cleaning and

Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor 248 Figure 5.2.6RealandvirtualtripspublicizetheworkcarriedoutunderauspicesofRIPIDURABLEPr Licenciatura em EngenhariaBiofísica.Universidade deÉvora. Évora da conclusão para apresentado Trabalho Hidrográfica Monfurado. de Rede Sítio da do Caracterização e Análise (2002) E Flebbe resisted initially that landowners the of in some that outcome positive a the is there on However, Gandum. permission refusing landowners’ some to owing river, Almansor the also but stream Gandum the on only not operations restoration out managed carry to CMMN the schedule, work project’s the affected sometimes that process slow and difficult a landowners, with contact and fieldwork Through o-Novo andtheconfluencewithAlmansorriver 2,800 m long stretch close to the town of Montemor- the restore approximatelystream,an the of downstreamsection to decided was it mind, in limitations these With reduced. be to have would intervention it project demonstration for earmarked area the quality that obvious became rapidly a out carry to wish council’s the and approved budget the given total), in 5km (approximatelystream Gandum the of length entirerestore the to plan original the Despite References Final considerations a riverofthisnature hadinthepast. CMMN wishes to restore the dignity and respect that the because also but work), out carry to permission landowners’ seek need not does CMMN (the easier processmuch whole the makes area,which urban an in situated is it because just not term, short the in out carried be will river Almansor the of upgrading and restoration The out. carried already work the continue to intends council the future near the In need tobereinforced. will footpath, the use, public for intended area an the (not above), river mentioned reasons the Almansor for stream, Gandum the of banks the along installed already is furniture outdoor the Although of thisnature. initiatives future in participation concerning council the restoration operations later made enquiries to the e DesenvolvimentoRegionaldoAlentejo.Évora Coordenação de Comissão – Regional Desenvolvimento e Habitação Local, Administração Cidades das Ministério Flora. de Espécies de e Naturais Habitats de Guia Monfurado: de Sítio (2005) S Fialho oject (Photo:F. Pais).

249 Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor Menezes M (2002) A Flora e Vegetação da – Serra de A Monfurado Fitossociologia aplicada à Engenharia de Biofísica. doutoramento no Dissertação ramo de Engenharia Biofísica, apresentada à Évora de Évora. Universidade Pereira AH (2001) “Guia de Requalificação e Limpeza de Linhas de Água”. Instituto da Água. Direcção de Serviços de Utilizações do Domínio Hídrico. Divisão de Estudos e Avaliação. Lisboa Instituto da Conservação da Natureza (ICN) 2006a Ficha do habitat 91B0 Freixiais termófilos de Fraxinus angustifolia. Plano Sectorial da Rede Natura 2000. ICN. Lisboa (Online URL: http://www.icn.pt/ psrn2000/) Instituto da Conservação da Natureza (ICN) 2006b Ficha do habitat (Alno- excelsior Fraxinus e glutinosa Alnus de aluviais Florestas 91E0* Padion, Alnion incanae, Salicion albae)”. Plano Sectorial da Rede URL: http://www.icn.pt/psrn2000/) 2000. ICN. Lisboa (Online Natura Morgado K (2001) Manutenção dos cursos de água. Proposta de manutenção e recuperação da Ribeira de Coalhos. Trabalho de Fim Lisboa. de Técnica Universidade Paisagista. Arquitectura em Curso de Lisboa Instituto Superior de Agronomia.

Rehabilitation of the Gandum and the Almansor 250 u i i as a ihy hetnd conservation threatened highly a also is it but m) n a rpsd ainl ak c 40 km 450 (c. Park National proposed a and km2) 236 (covering wetland Ramsar a is Amvrakikos The communities ofthisarea. local the for opportunities education and recreation in order to enhance both the wildlife habitat and the effort ‘re-greening’ landscape-scale a promoting at restorationa in step demonstrationand aimed effort initial an representsurroundings its in and Varnavas Agios at actions restoration small-scale The Lourou). ‘Western the river, Greek: (in Floodplain’ the Louros of bank west the on land low-lying the of landscape wider the on also but site Varnavas Agios the on solely focus not does The project Wood. Varnavas Agios the woodland, riparian restoration at and around an important patch of relic reviewed, are problemsespecially with regard to initiating riparian woodland current and approaches Preveza Prefecture. Recent history, strategicin planning corridor river Louros the of section lower the in restoration Park,proposed the problems.of edge western small-scale the at initiatives describes and case-study challenges This of conservation history turbulent a nature has Greece, of coast the west on Park National proposed a Amvrakikos, The Figure 5.3.1Amvrakikos GulfOrientationMap. Introduction Ditiki Pediada Plimiron Pediada Ditiki Alexios Vlamis-Gardikas Irini Loi Vassilis Hatzirvassanis Stamatis Zogaris 2 ), et al.,2003). (Zogaris woodlands riparian remnant the and fringe freshwater wetlands on the agricultural/semi-aquatic the particularly types, habitat certain on especially still impact on certain parts of the protected area and pressures serious neglect, of state this of result a As by the Greek state since the organization’s inception. effort to coordinate and promote conservation actions area. was officially set up in wetland/upland 2003, there has been very little diverse and Although the management body of the National Park large a over pressures anthropogenic of in multitude the coordination a addressing of in lack nature the protecting concerns Amvrakikos in problem central A conservation attention” (Gerakis priority etal.,1999). of need “in therefore is and Ramsar the an “adverse change in ecological character” whereis occurring, site in a as Record included the Montreux Convention’s 1990, been Since has poaching. Amvrakikos and hunting aquaculture illegal widespread and alterations pollution, habitat developments, water water overexploitation, intensification, land agricultural to pressures related anthropogenic serious by plagued area, WOODLAND AT AMVRAKIKOS SEVERAL LANDOWNERSINA PROTECTED AREA:RIPARIAN

251 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Roubas forest site, near Agios Spiridon village). Most woodland relics are fragmented and degraded uncontrolled by tree-felling, localized overgrazing by livestock and the expansion of especially agriculture, citrus orchards. Around 1980, riparian forests were the of part northern the in ha 250 about at estimated Amvrakikos Gulf (Severin and Lösing, 1981). Today, this figure may be smaller but no specific inventory has ever been completed. The most prominent Amvrakikos wetlands after change the construction of the in Louros the river embankments northern (late salinization of 1960s) the Rodia Swamp was and other the coastal wetlands in the ’70s and covered ’80s. more than 30 km2 and maintained old river The Rodia swamp channels and riverine deltaic wooded portions, including extensive willow woods. with The construction of the Louros river embankments cut off the supply freshwater and circulation natural in this riverine increase in swamp, salinity from the adjacent causing lagoons that led eventually This woodlands. flooded an the eradicated immediate lentic freshwater and reed-beds its of degradation to still place are names habitats There in (Lawrie, 2002). willows to refer which swamp reed this of middle the and planes or to vast water-lily beds (Kazoglou and Zogaris, 2003). The degradation was followed by early the a In Arachthos. adjacent the in change similar 1980s a high hydroelectric dam was built just north of Arta, damming the Arachthos and altering natural flow regime of the the river. A massive die-back has wetlands coastal the along scrubland tamarisk of been attributed to increased soil salinization due to landscape-scale recent These changes. hydrologic the ecological remarkable about brought transformations by many changes of vividly that the remembered are older local inhabitants. Amvrakikos the in changes habitat anthropogenic The were responsible for even biodiversity, if the relic wetlands are extensive. considerable declines These effects are in poorly documented, know but that the breeding populations we of several birds do associated with riparian woods and wetlands have been totally extirpated from Amvrakikos during the last 80 years (Handrinos and Akriotis, 1997; Zogaris, A short history of riparian woodlands at Amvrakikos woodlands A short history of riparian Two Two major river basins, the Louros and Arachthos, dominate the structure and Amvrakikos wetland functioning system. of Until the the late extensive 1940s, areas of riverbanks riparian and humid woods alluvial delta clothed plains northern side on of the gulf. Part the the of the reason for the survival of extensive natural areas was due to position the of these wetlands on the former between frontier Greece and the 1912). Ottoman The Empire Arachthos (until river was border between the these two states international for decades. After the 1920s, resettlement of refugees from the Greco- Turkish war in Asia Minor necessitated agricultural land development and the Greek convert state the began delta’s to lowlands to Despite agricultural land. their complex hydrology, geography the and different dynamic woodlands lowland slowly retreated, wetlands particularly after and Second the World War. Through the 1950s 1960s, and embankments and early pump-houses were built and to former appropriated local wetland were areas , 2002). et al. (Arapis residents In the early 1960s, the largest riparian forests of the 1945 from photos aerial Military logged. were Louros and 1960 show that up to then, two of side either on Louros, of village the of east existed large woods between area an (in Forest Roubas The river. Louros the Petra Bridge and largest Rogi country’s the of one perhaps was and Castle) hectares covered over 200 and (Kazoglou time the at woods riparian continuous Zogaris, 2003). The Fraxias Forest, which today’s included relic Agios Varnavas Wood and but open Springs, covered and was fragmented more the Skala at least 150 ha, including linear stands on the banks of the Louros river. Other continuous areas of high forest existed at several locations in the Amvrakikos, such as within the Rodia swamp beside the Louros; along the lower Arachthos river; by Voulkaria lake and in various areas in The woods the were Arta’s gradually transformed deltaic into plain. isolated stands small or hedgerow-like thickets, with most plain Arta the of much Since 1970s. the by vanishing still maintains an extensive network of hedgerows, scattered hydrophilous trees and a few small stands villages the near Arachthos, lower the (on survive still of Aneza and Glykoriza, and even near the original

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 252 aieu albicilla Haliaetus and 2003), al., (Zogaris 2002 in Zaloggo wooded Mount adjacent of the hills in survived pair one although 1980s, lowlands: delta pomarina Aquila the in breeding stopped recently At have to known are 1997). prey of birds of species two least Akriotis, and (Handrinos there bred it that evidence extirpated little is there although area, the from also was 1905). angustirostris Reiser Marmaronetta 1860; (Powys, colchicus Phasianus and leucocephala, Oxyoura nigra, Ciconia pymaeus, include: area the in 2001). Species which are presumed to have once bred neet eas i hls nqe odad relics, woodland unique holds it because interest conservation special of is area This Gulf. Amvrakikos the to outlet river’s the from surrounding km 10 approximately its floodplain, low-lying a in and located is area Wood This area. Varvavas Agios concern the here described initiatives restoration The in 2006/07 isoutlined. Figure 5.3.2MapofthenorthwestsectionAmvrakikos andtheWestern Louros Floodplain.Thearea where restoration effortsfocused Restoration planninginthecase-study area: Agios Varnavas Western Wood and“The Louros Floodplain” ceased nesting in the delta in the in delta the in nesting ceased qia eic, Phalacrocorax heliaca, Aquila esd breeding ceased et about biodiversity decline. bring to loss habitat with synergy in acted probably birds)large-bodied of (especially persecution human but degradation, woodland riparian felt of certainly impact species the these of Some 2004). al., et Zogaris 2002; (Lawrie, changes hydrological drastic the to attributed been also have types habitat and plants wetland fish, in declines important as place, taken fractiontiny biodiversityin changes the of have that scant information on breeding birds represents only a the course, Of 1989). (Pergantis, Greece western in pair last the was this 1980s; late the in area the in and was loosely referred to as Lamari, and part of the projects drainage large-scale for target a was area this past, the In Louros. of village the to next river, Floodplain due to its location on the west bank of the the Louros; it is arbitrarily named the Western Louros of flood-zone extensive the and wetlands spring-fed et al., 2002; Theocharis et al., 2004; Economou

253 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos stream Xeropotmos Valencia letourneuxi is present Valencia are and Felix sylvestris are lutra Lutra , et al., 2006); These include Accipiter brevipes wetlands (Szijj, 1981). Hence, an is here planning strategic to enhance the site and its important issue surrounding landscape for the benefit of its wildlife other or recreation human for just than rather values developments. anthropocentric Western Louros Floodplain Area is not strictly within protected the zones of the Park. The ecological requirements of protected and rare species are very important in management planning. refers to the most Table important documented evidence 5.3.1 of the biodiversity area’s interest, primarily based on the of summary A observations. personal author’s the five riparian woodland area’s habitats with reference to their status within the is Naional Amvrakikos Park of this chapter. in Appendix I at the end provided spp. Aquila pomarina, Aquila clanga, and Dendrocopus c. 45 species mentioned as inhabiting the Western Louros Flood Louros c. 45 species mentioned as inhabiting the Western in the area. present 5 riparian woodland habitat types are Several protected species such as bats use the Wood (Epsilon species such as bats use the Wood protected Several (Epsilon Wood in the Agios Varnavas recorded 82 species were Including at least 7 species of snakes (Epsilon and Pergantis, including fish stream, observed in Xeropotamos 5 species were and lepido- (Szijj,1981) of spiders diversity Important for a large ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Comments augments species-richness. The protected beetle Morimus augments species-richness. The protected as fairly common in Agios Varnavas was recorded funereus in 2007. Wood ■ in a small 39 spp. mentioned plain (Severin and Lösing, 1981); These lists site (Hatzirvassanis, 2001). the Fraxias part of this area, and incomplete. fragmentary are ■ See Appendix I for a brief description. ■ 1994). and Pergantis, , 2006). (Hatzirvassanis et al. permanent residents ■ recently species recorded 1994); 30 protected and Pergantis, (Hatzirvassanis ■ e.g. species have been recorded, protected 1994). Several Elaphe quatuorlineata. ■ (Economou et al., 2004); an interna endemic to western Greece tionally important population of et al., 2006) in the nearby Skala Springs (Kalogianni ■ of varied (including Danaus chryssippus).The presence ptera humid localities, and the micro-habitats, N/A 100+ c.9 14 100+ 19 6 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Number of Species et al., 2006). A large part of the Biodiversity information on the Agios Varnavas Wood and Western Louros Floodplain Louros and Western Wood Varnavas on the Agios information Biodiversity Invertebrates Flora Habitat Types Mammals Birds Reptiles and Amphibians Fish ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ Biodiversity CategoryBiodiversity Approximate ■ ■ ■ ■ Principal biodiversity values of the Agios Varnavas Wood and the Western Louros Floodplain. Louros and the Western Wood values of the Agios Varnavas 5.3.1 Principal biodiversity Table As is common information exists in on the Greece, natural natural baseline of lack A Floodplain. Louros Western history very of little the history knowledge has certainly been an impediment specific to the area’s conservation. In fact, it is notable that an important population of a globally endangered fish and unique wetland habitats were discovered at Skala Springs in 2005 just a few hundred meters beyond the proposed boundaries of Park the (Kalogianni National site is also called Fraxias. Agios Varnavas Wood is a approximately covering woodland riparian relic small 14 hectares of hygrophilous high forest center near of this the area. The Agios Varnavas Wood its and surroundings have Amvrakikos the within biodiversity long for site important been known as an

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 254 suffering from overgrazing and wood-cutting. After fromovergrazingwood-cutting. suffering and was a reference to several small woodland stands, there instead, most Varnavas; Agios name the of mention the Amvrakikos (Szijj, 1981). At this time there was no of study Essen, ecological base-line first the drafted of which University the by headed team research ecological an by ‘discovered’ were village Louros of very recent. In 1979 the small relic riparian is woods east Varnavas Agios at attempts conservation modern of history the connection, ecclesiastical unique this Despite com.). pers Agathangelos, (Father uncut left and protected were church the to next grove sacred Even during difficult times of war, certain trees in this 2002). 1148-1149 (Mamalukos, from dating church Saint the Wood was built on the to of foundations of middle a Byzantine the in dedicated being monument historic This church Barnabas. associations, the religious with protected connected its been by also has effectively Wood Varnavas Agios YPECHODE, 1986). 1986; (Douros, 1980s early the since Wood Varnavas (Douros, 1955 in Agios the called been has Louros plot woodland This 1986). of Municipality the to transferred was but Agriculture of Ministry the to belonged that land public on is wood The Varnavas. Agios of church the around survives woodland relic transformed the in agricultural landscape. remainThe most important pocket of now forest of ‘islets’ isolated only logging, extensive of because 1950s, late the Since com.). pers. on (Theocharis, Lamari canals the drainage and pump-house modern the and Louros the on embankments the of 1970s early the in construction combined the after only drained was area the conditions, wetland/riparian dynamic the to Due species. hygdrophilous other many had by area dominated the was say inhabitants Local and Varnavas. Louros Agios the to to site, Springs Skala Fraxias from the stretching at area woodland/pasture an open show 1960 from the photos of aerial Military flooding Louros. frequent the and springs karstic extensive to due completely area drain to particular difficult was This forest. riparian remarkable a sustained village Louros of the east river 1950s Louros late lower the until up above, mentioned As The Agios Varnavas Wood andtheWestern Louros Floodplain u also but angustifolia Fraxinus management problem. a such addressing in critical is values biodiversity of awareness has local promoting that It obvious made activities? been recreational of multitude a and refuge biodiversity a both accommodate to enough large ha) (14 Wood Varnavas Agios the is restored; or managed be to needs area what exactly define to important is it Furthermore, decided? be it should how and Wood Varnavas Agios the of state future desired the is What accentuated. was management biodiversity-sensitive of issue the damaging, directly been always not has clearing recreational this Although reasons. and aesthetic for floor’ forest the up ‘cleaning of idea the promoted act This Wood. the from elms diseased and poplars hybrid remove and activity coincided with a Forest Service project to fell This floor. forest the from scrub bramble and wood dead trees, rotting and dead of clearing extensive the was decisions poor these of One protection. its for demands particular with inconsistent been have authorities local the by actions management Sadly, develop itfurtherasarecreational green space. to or wood, the of state’ ‘natural the enhance and protect to whether on however,controversybegan a visitors; for accessible more area the made certainly are in a near-derelict condition. Some of these works buildings small the these Today Wood. at the to fountain entrance water decorative a with cantina small a and toilets two included these surroundings; immediate its and area the in built were buildings small three 1990s mid the In cleared.were trails and ameliorated was access road built, were playground small a and kiosks, wooden benches, Wood: the of recreationalaspect this develop to steps took Louros of Municipality the and agencies development local years, later In biodiversity. unique not its preserving enjoyment, on public and recreation on focused livestock, but the protection of the forest was clearly Forest the Service of Preveza finally stopped the overgrazing by by initiative This 1986). (Douros, study Agios Varnavas Wood after an initial forest recreation studies (YPECHODE, 1986). In the mid-80s, environmentala wetlands fence was erected around the Amvrakikos major the all concerning in to referred frequently were woods the description, initial this

255 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Figure 5.3.3 Agios Varnavas Woodland Site and its vacinity. Tree-planting areas and other restoration/demonstration actions are shown.

At the turn of the century, scientists began focusing successful. Nonetheless, many dozens of planted on the wider landscape around Agios Varnavas as trees grew to over three meters and now flourish. an area of restoration potential. The importance of Furthermore, this first act of ‘restoration’ was an the wider Louros river lowlands was identified in a important lesson that increased local interest in the Life-Nature project proposal (ETANAM S.A., 1999). protection and restoration of the surrounding area. In 2002, during progress on the Life-Nature project, Perhaps the most important step in this direction was specific small-scale tree plantings took place along the closing of the unofficial rubbish dump of Louros the west bank of the Louros and on the floodplain village, located immediately next to the riverside embankments near Agios Varnavas. Although there tree-plantings and only a few hundred meters from were objections from shepherds and adjacent land- the Agios Varnavas Wood owners, the Municipality of Louros officially supported these restorative tree-planting measures – the first An important aspect of the chronicle of conservation ever at Amvrakikos (Hatzirvassanis, 2001). Although in this area is the gradual change in attitudes and several hundred trees were planted (mostly Narrow- perceptions concerning riparian habitat protection leaved Ash and White Poplar), in several cases the and restoration. After 2005, more work in the area fencing was damaged by the shepherds. Dozens of focused on the protection of the wider landscape of the trees were destroyed by browsing goats and a flood- Western Louros Floodplain, not just Agios Varnavas. event in 2005 downed some of the riverside fences. It The RIPIDURABLE restoration/demonstration project

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos goes without saying that an investment such as tree- was fortunate to act in this area at this time in its planting needs many years of after-care to be truly history. 256 Planning for restoration: strategic conservation planning

Strategy is important for effective conservation in conservation (Moughtin, 1999). SWOT stands actions. Strategic planning is a disciplined effort for “strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats” to generate fundamental decisions for actions and is a planning tool that addresses the question concerning a particular project. This kind of of devising a strategy from a two-fold perspective: planning results from the analysis of the strengths external appraisal (threats and opportunities in the and weaknesses of various options and may thus environment) and internal appraisal (strengths and determine what the particular situation has to weaknesses of the organization). This analysis, used in offer (the opportunities and threats) so that the a matrix form (Appendix II), is a powerful yet simple desired objectives can materialize. In planning this tool for dissecting the properties and potential of restoration, we used the SWOT analysis approach, of restoration options. ten employed in business management and ecently

Type of restoration project

The type of project promoted here can be referred historic type of ecosystem is restored) and on-site to as a ‘repair and enhancement of a damaged (restoration occurs at the same location where the ecosystem project’ (Clewell, 2000). Restoration historic ecosystem was damaged) (Clewell, 2000). The actions are primarily undertaken to enhance the area’s desired future state is obviously one which is naturalness of the remaining vegetation formations, shared by agro-pastoral activities and various forms to provide a habitat for threatened species, and of recreation and wildlife conservation interests. In to initiate the creation of wildlife corridors to the future, the restoration effort may expand and may reconnect woodland stands. This approach attempts introduce other qualitative aspects, such hydrological to regain some attributes of the historic or pre- engineering to provide re-wetting or restoration of existing condition of a particular landscape. Such water flow regimes. enhancement restoration may be termed in-kind (the

Type of ecosystem to be restored by the project

The area being restored is part of a floodplain and evidence supports the conclusion that extensive parts alluvial lowland system with a mixture of very of the drier upland riparian area were dominated different plant communities. Little is known of the by Narrow-leaved Ash, Common Elm, and perhaps particular structure and dynamics of the original Pedunculate Oak (specifically in the Agios Varnavas natural vegetation; most of our understanding of its Wood and much of the Fraxias area). Locally, stands structure is from interviews with local residents and of Common Alder with willows and other small the careful interpretation of older aerial photos from trees and shrubs existed in swamp-like conditions in the Greek Army Geographical Sevice (years 1945, spring-fed wetlands, particularly in the Skala Springs. 1960) (Kazoglou and Zogaris, 2003). The available Stands of Oriental Plane and White Poplar dominated Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 257 et et al., 2006). High enhancement and re-establishment of native outstanding aspect of restoration is the creation creation the is restoration of aspect outstanding oodland restoration actions must not degrade W The woodland stands must be similar to pre-existing native woodlands. The functioning ecosystem will contain enough biodiversity to regenerate itself and mature by natural processes, and to evolve in conditions. to changing environmental response An of cover and shelter for locally and birds, forest raptors, threatened as such wildlife protected and wildcat (bats, mammals certain birds; wading large and and otter), amphibians, reptiles woodland and wetland invertebrates, and the and native woodland flora (Efthimiou wetland tree stands have been proven to be important as resting and roosting sites of large birds of such as Aquila clanga at prey (Alivizatos Amvrakikos al., 2004), so recreational disturbance may create conflicts. degradation degradation in the name of so-called ‘ecotourism development’. marshland open other and meadows water existing of area flood-zone the in habitats grassland wet or floodplain. the Louros

e) f) became extremely rare; today it is nearly at the point point the at nearly is it today rare; extremely became of extirpation from this area. The Western Floodplain is Louros nowadays part of a cultural landscape dominated by activities, with agricultural a patchwork of and fragmented natural woodlands on the fringes of the semi- agricultural agro-pastoral land and riverine wetlands. Fortunately, extensive marshlands and regenerating woody scrub survive along the Louros flood-zone; so this belt of semi- natural wetland creates an important semi-natural corridor. Bringing back the extensive forests of the past is not feasible in this cultural landscape, since the upland portions of the floodplain that once held high forest stands were the first to ownership. and given over to private drained be effectively d) sity protection must be given priority in effective expansion of riparian woodland ‘initiating-act’ to demonstrate the importance Specific restoration aims restoration Specific The Biodiver within even and corridors and woodlands relict the the Agios Varnavas Wood, which has seen much An corridors beyond the Agios Varnavas Wood aims to create corridor-like area’s greenways three among most important the biodiversity nodes: the Louros river flood-zone, the Skala Springs and Woodland. Varnavas Agios the of vicinity wider the of The is wooded promotion a corridors viable and extremely important aim in this area 1999). (Bennett, of native woodland restoration. This restoration/ demonstration project community must create involvement awareness, positive effectively and use recreational combining and widespread of example long-term a be will result The benefits. biodiversity multiple- conservation on-going habitat enhancement that will promote the at relics woodland riparian other of restoration landscape-scale.

c) The specific aims are small-scale the entire landscape but and its biodiversity if will they are affect are: managed. In outline, they carefully a) b) areas areas on the Xeropotamos alluvial channalized fan Xeropotamos (now stream) the and other disturbed sites by torrential alluvial open extensive clothed scrub processes. tamarisk and poplar-ash Willow- riverbanks. Water Louros of frequently-flooded areas meadows and emergent developed reed-swamp along the formations Louros riverine wetlands (See Appendix I at the end of this chapter). Logging and cattle grazing were prevalent area in for the a long time and it that the Louros river was navigable should up to the village be mentioned of Agios Spiridon, so trees could trees, mentioned above be the Of easily. rather exported removed and Pedunculate Oak was definitely selectively felled for subsequently and timber, construction and fire-wood

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 258 idvriy ihn traee poetd area. must protected work supplementary and wardening Aftercare, threatened a within biodiversity the project asaninitialinvestmentsupportingwoodland consider to important therefore is It recently. forestalluvial or strongholds very vanished also have other human disturbances) and other lowland riparian and quarries roads, logging, (wildfires, deteriorating been have area surrounding the in forests because critical is time-frame This years. 20 next the within area wider the in established be to stands tree with The project initiated actions that will help limited areas 2) 1) and proposals/actions results tookplaceduringthe2006/07 period: following The approaches. restoration were initiate help and actions demonstrate to meant RIPIDURABLE The etc). monitoring, scientific aftercare, tree horticultural native creation, site, nursery the at engineering hydrological (i.e. completed not were tasks important many and all that is necessary in full-scale ecological restoration, cover cannot project short-term a such for available of the Forest Service of Preveza. Of course, the funding Development Agency ETANAM S.A. with the approval Amvrakikos the by undertaken project, were proposed which of most restoration/demonstration (2006) the RIPIDURABLE within actions others restoration small-scale several and Hatzirvassanis

in, rmtn boiest conservation. the Agios Varnavas within woodin2007 (figure 5.3.4). installed were biodiversity signs Three RESULTS: promoting signs, Construction dump. rubbish Louros notorious formerly the of removal successful the in act’ ‘last the represents initiative Louros river. RESULTS: Successfully undertaken, this roadfromleading VarnavasAgios the the to wood up work at the Xeropotamos stream and along the cleaning- Louros; of dump rubbish former the at Complete Specific restoration actionsand results oftheRIPIDURABLEproject Duration ofrestoration work removal of garbage and builder’s waste builder’s and garbage of removal f aeul-rfe interpretive carefully-crafted of this project. of continuation long-term the for funds secure to together work must organizations other and Louros National Park Management Body, the Municipality of management’ paradigm. Local authorities such as the ‘adaptive an nature,organizedaccordingto dynamic a have should project The 1996). (Angelstam, 60-80 years at appearance natural a reach usually freely,they develop to left are forests riparian If areas. restored these in decades two least at for continue 5) 4) 3)

Removal After Planting o boiest poeto ad environmental and education. RESULTS: Noactiontaken. protection biodiversity for area the of promotion the with incompatible are etc.) toilets (cantina, buildings these study that The asserts Wood. Varnavas Agios at 1990’s mid the in constructed were that facilities toilet and who transplanting andtree-planting. site-caretaker wardening, as such volunteer activities aftercare supported unofficial an provide helped Louros of Municipality The 2007. of summer dry very the during watered all were 5.3.5. ) (figurelatter the of bank west Louros,the river on the with Xeropotamos the of confluence the near village) Louros of dump rubbish former (the area fenced a in c) and, Stream; Xeropotamos the of the Agios Varnavas wood; b) along the embankment largethe within a) place: in took clearing Planting town). Louros areato close hedgerows from (especially surrounding the from specimens ‘rescued’ of dozens Additionally,2007. early and 2006 late in undertaken were plantings These and alba. Populus orientalis Platanus mostly angustifolia, planted, Fraxinus were specimens 650 RESULTS: ee rnpatd as transplanted were angustifolia Fraxinus ae n wreig RSLS Te trees The RESULTS: wardening. and care f aie yrpios pce o trees. of species hygrophilous native of n/r leain f h sal buildings small the of alteration and/or

259 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Figure 5.3.4 Sketch of interpretive signs created as an aesthetic way to cover an electricity meter next to Agios Varnavas Church.

Figure 5.3.5 Sketch of a sapling planted with protection against goat browsing.

Present problems and unmet needs

As mentioned above, there are potential conflicts canals is regularly practiced by the local authorities between biodiversity conservation and many of the Prefecture of Preveza with blatant disregard anthropogenic activities such as agriculture and for trees on banks, local residents also regularly cut tourism/recreation in Agios Varnavas wood and its saplings and young trees for animal fodder and for surrounding landscape. farming needs, and there is no special protection of the rare hygrophilous species such as ashes or The possibility of conflicts is intensified by unclear oaks. land tenure along the flood-zone of the Louros river, the fact that remnants of natural riparian woodlands b) Protecting existing habitat resources in the

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos areas exist on private land and beside drainage Western Louros Floodplain. The area is threatened canals, ditches and unprotected riparian zones, and by several private interests and some of it is the undefined protected-area legislation (proposed outside the proposed national park boundaries. No National Park). management plan exists. Some kind of wardening must be set in place as soon as possible during an Important considerations: interim period before legal protection is enacted. This includes the care of existing tree-stands, a) Indiscriminate/uncontrolled tree cutting. Tree riparian zones and fenced-in restoration plots. stands do not easily regenerate in the area because Volunteer wardening approved by the Municipality of persistent widespread tree-cutting. Clearing of of Louros and the Forest Department of Preveza is vegetation and dredging of drainage ditches and perhaps viable for the short-term. 260 c) Nursery creation and tree-planting. A nursery removal of nearly all buildings (cantina, decorative should be set up to propagate local Narrow-leaved fountain, two toilet structures within and at the Ashes, Pedunculate Oaks and White Poplars. Since entrance to the wood). The former cantina site specimens of known provenance cannot be reliably could become a small interpretive spot (i.e. one of obtained, wild stock from seed or transplanted the building’s walls should be retained and altered saplings should be grown at a nursery. Ash seeds to a kiosk-like structure with interpretive signs). (keys) should be collected in early winter and Removable chemical toilets will be in use during planted in shallow sand-compost. Poplars should the Agios Varnavas festival (June 11) since it is also be collected and grown. Elms may be collected costly and difficult to maintain clean, functioning from suckers. Oaks can be planted from or toilet facilities on-site. The Municipality of Louros grown from collections of young saplings. Tree should review the implications of the unofficial planting must continue within the designated designation of Agios Varnavas wood as a ‘natural plots to maintain the green corridors. It goes monument’ and carefully consider its particular without saying that only local stock should be management. used in tree-plantings. The nearby monastery of Profitis Ilias of Preveza has shown an interest in e) Research and Monitoring. A careful study of the maintaining a nursery, a rather simple undertaking Western Louros Floodplain is needed to help define if a committed organization is sincerely interested. biodiversity protection and opportunities for Volunteer support for this may be needed in the restoration at other important biodiversity nodes short-term. – particularly at the Skala Springs site. Besides this, monitoring should include a systematic d) Agios Varnavas wood as a ‘natural monument’. series of surveys to evaluate the changes and the Agios Varnavas wood is currently treated as effectiveness of the restoration actions. A very multiple-use ‘recreational forest’ (as proposed by important part of this work is exact documentation Douros, 1986). We recommend a new paradigm: so that the project may act as an example of the wood as a ‘protected natural monument’ where riparian forest restoration for any area that may passive recreation and protection are promoted but have neglected the protection and enhancement priority is given to protecting its biodiversity. If this of riparian woodlands. To avoid only baseline small woodland is treated as a ‘natural and cultural information being gathered, monitoring must be sanctuary’, some details of its management will programmed within a management framework need special care. The use of the derelict buildings (Clewell and Rieger, 1997). at Agios Varnavas is unresolved and they detract from its aesthetic naturalness. We recommend the

Management Implications

Examples of scientifically-guided riparian forest be a priority within the proposed National Park’s enhancement or restoration in Greece are isolated management plans. A specific restoration plan for and very recent (Efthimiou et al., 2006). The demise the Western Louros Floodplain must be incorporated and degradation of riparian forests in this country has into the official management plans so that the been remarkable, as these woodlands have followed restoration-demonstration project outlined here can the fate of the country’s lowland wetlands (Antipas, continue. 1985; Jerrentrup und Lösing, 1991). The Amvrakikos is an area that holds diverse but very small relic riparian Important aspects for restoration of riparian areas at woodlands. Planning their protection and promoting Amvrakikos include the following: restoration to protect biodiversity values should Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 261 261 is extremely important to have regular community regular have to important extremely is financial cost since these linear riparian or wetland or riparian linear these since cost financial Municipality The land. public on primarily are areas landscape this in part active an play must Louros of conservation initiative since it involves land planning. peri-urban and agricultural careful It participation in protection, decision-making. management and Popularization media through often helps the gain community support. rapid Important initiatives for this and widespread may be the instigation of a natural history theme during the popular saints-day kinds other of development festival The 11). (June of Varnavas Agios of nature-celebration events and publications at may initiatives Other important. is intervals regular involve NGOs, study-tours, seminars, and media- (Zogaris, races bird as such competitions attractive 2005). Another successful practice is the creation of a network of protect caretakers special who wildlife monitor habitat and areas. Whatever the case, organized volunteer involvement definitely has paved the way towards and should continue. at Amvrakikos, practice conservation • • Agios The island’. an is park ‘no that reiterates work This support cannot size, in ha 14 mere a at Wood, Varnavas the biodiversity that distinguishes the landscape of the wider area. Efforts at restoration must have entire the encompassing perspective, landscape-scale a Western Louros Floodplain. For adequate promotion sustainability, long-term enjoy will that protection of called is development biodiversity-centered of kind a for. Biodiversity-centered development consists of three basic, overlapping steps expressed by a simple slogan: “save it, know it, use it” (Janzen and Gamez, example an is Floodplain Louros The Western 1997). of an area of special biodiversity interest could activities development and where economic of variety a and protect to measures with tandem in developed be heritage values. natural restore biodiversity information about this area is still is area this about information biodiversity Valencia Valencia latourneuxi). Protecting patches legal protection status of the area within of wildlife habitat landscape is critical. within This may involve setting the up micro-reserves or agro-pastoral extending the park boundaries to encompass them; this will have no societal or Basic knowledge biodiversity Baseline complete. from far and monitoring is fundamental restoration actions, completion for of protected-area continued zoning and conservation management. The the Western Louros Floodplain is still incomplete. is part actually of the study area specifically, More and boundaries park national proposed the outside site, Springs Skala important the includes part this an area with international biodiversity (i.e. interest stronghold for fish the critically endangered Building must planning Strategic Floodplain. Louros Western guide specific management options. In this case- study a SWOT analysis helped produce particular directions for the desired future state obvious is it analysis, this Through Wood. of Varnavas Agios that biodiversity enhancement and conservation actions in the Agios Varnavas Wood far outweigh the benefits from other development more anthropocentric proposals (i.e. tourism/recreation solely use). urban-style Part involves of changing the management our paradigm of proposal Agios Varnavas Wood from a ‘recreational forest vision Our monument’. natural ‘protected a to park’ for restoration is not confined to Agios Varnavas, but based on a long-term re-greening effort at the landscape scale. Existing pockets of riparian stands and wetlands should be with interconnected corridors. Agro-pastoral land use and various recreational activities can with nature conservation and a rich if biodiversity co-exist strategic planning, strict protective measures and in place. monitoring are • • • a vision of state the future of desired the • • •

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 262 provided important information and support: Father support: and information important provided persons following The information-gathering. assistance and for Giousas N. Mr. to and Bailis, Ch. Mayor,Mr the to indebted particularly are we Louros of Municipality the At Louros. of Municipality the and S.A. ETANAM with cooperation close in working Research, Marine for Center Hellenic Waters, Inland This work was guided by personnel at the Institute of Greek) PrevezaPrefecture(in ForestService, Study Preveza. Unpublished of the Agios Varnavas Wood, Community of Louros, Preveza Prefecture. Douros I (1986) Final Plan: Creation of a field recreational ground at report intheinternet Restoration Projects. Society for Ecological Restoration. Unpublished Clewell A (2000) Guidelines for Developing and Managing Ecological ecologists. Restoration Ecology5(4):350-354 Clewell A, Rieger JP (1997) What practitioners need from restoration World The – IUCN Conservation Union Conservation. Wildlife in Connectivity and Corridors of Role The Landscape. the in Linkages (1999) AF Bennett S.A. Unpublishedreport ETANAM Ltd, Management Nature Ecosystem”.Oikos Swamp Rodia the of (2002) Restoration “Ecological V an Hatzirvassanis of Study K, Impact Environmental Bizas S, Zogaris E, Vrettou T, Arapis Diversity inForested Landscapes287-337.Chapman&Hall Faunal of Conservation (eds) RI Miller RM, DeGraaf In: Europe. in forests diverse biologically of reconstruction for basis a as regimes disturbance natural – past forest of ghost The (1996) P Angelstam Greece. JournalofRaptorResearch, 38(4):371-374 Wetlands, Amvrakikos the in clanga) (Aquila Eagle Spotted Greater the of diet Winter (2004) S Zogaris PapandropoulosD, C, Alivizatos References Acknowledgements that supportedourresearch. Management LTD for access to important documents data on the area’s habitat types, and to Oikos-Nature provided who Dimopoulos, P. to go thanks Special Dallaros. particularly V. especially Preveza, and of Service Forest the Vlami, V. Borelos, D. Theocharis, Profitis M. Kardakari, N. of Roussopoulos, Y. Pergantis, P. Monastery Ilias, Holy The of Agathangelos with EnglishSummary) Louros the at projectForestRiparian VarnavasAgios – Preveza wood, Prefecture Greek(in (2006) demonstration V – Vami restoration A, Ecological Vidalis A, Vlamis-Gardikas V, Hatzirvassanis Management LTD. UnpublishedReport Wetlands”.AmvrakikosNature of Oikos Management “Conservation 21110001 GR NAT/GR/006475, 99 Life Prefecture. Preveza Louros, of Area Fraxias the of study Re-forestation (2001) V Hatzirvassanis Handrinos G,AkriotisT(1997)TheBirds ofGreece. Helm,London Wetlands. FundingProposal and ApplicationForm.Unpublished Amvrakikos the of Management Conservation (1999) S.A. ETANAM Hellenic and Society Ecological Zoological Society, 127-135,16-19November2006,Ioannina Hellenic of Conference Thrid Proceeding Gorge. Nestos and Delta Nestos the in prey of birds for Efthimiou G, Jerrentrup H, Syllaios G (2006) Management of habitats Unpublished Study(inGreek) the Agios Varnavas wood, Community of Louros, Preveza Prefecture. of study Restoration (1994) P Pergantis S.A., International Epsilon Greece, EU Athens, Foundation, Evgenidion 2004, June 18-19 Management, Environmental and Technology Fisheries Aquaculture, International on Congress 2nd the of Proceedings River, 2004, Conservation Medit Louros Aqua the (2004) Greece. at fish S freshwater for Zogaris priorities S, management Giakoumi AN, Economou

263 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Reiser O (1905) Ornis griechischen inseln. Wien Balcanica. III. Griechenlnad und die Sarika M, Dimopoulos P, Yannitsaros A (2005) Contribution to the knowledge of the wetland flora and vegetation of Amvrakikos Gulf, Wildenowia 35:69-85 W Greece. the of Assessment Ecological In Vegetation. (1981) J Lösing I, Severin Amvrakia. of Gulf the at Arachtos and Louros Rivers the of Area Delta In: Szijj J (ed) Unpublished Report. University of Essen – GHS and IUCN. 94-141 Szijj J Ecological (1981) Assessment of the Delta Area of the Rivers Louros and Arachtos at the Gulf of Amvrakia. Unpublished Report. – GHS and IUCN of Essen University Theocharis M, Zogaris S, Economou AN, Kapsimalis V, Dimopoulos P (2004) Restoration actions and monitoring at a Mediterranean International V case-study. Amvrakikos the wetland: floodplain river Symposium on Ecohydraulics Madrid Spain. IAHR Congress 11-17 Restoration”, “Aquatic Habitats: Analysis & YPECHODE (1986) Delineation of Ramsar Wetlands: Public and Planning Physical Environment, of Ministry Hellenic Gulf. Amvrakikos Athens (YPECHODE) Works Zogaris S (2001) Wetland birds at Amvrakikos use (Greece): assessment habitat for monitoring threatened species. Dissertation. MSc.Ecology School of Biological Sciences, University Bangor of Wales, Zogaris S (2005) Bird (in Greek) Ornithological Society) 23:31-33 Race at Amvrakikos. Oionos (Hellenic Zogaris S, Papandropoulos D, Alivizatos C, Rigas G, Hatzirvassanis V, Kardakari N (2003) Threatened birds of of Amvrakikos. Oikos Ltd, S.A. KOAN Press ETANAM Zogaris S, D, Papandropoulos Rigas Y (2002) The Dalmatian Pelicans of Amvrakikos and their islets. I Physi (Hellenic 98:35-37 (in Greek) of Nature) Protection Society for the Valencia Valencia letourneuxi, the Greek Killifish. Technical Jerrentrup H, Lösing J (1991) Situation der Flussauen in Griechenland. in Flussauen der Situation (1991) J Lösing H, Jerrentrup In Erhaltung und Entwicklung von Flussauen in Europa. Laufener Laufen/ (ANL). Landschaftspfl. Natursch. Akad. 4/91, Seminarbeiträge Salzach 4:86-92 Kalogianni E, Giakoumi S, Zogaris S, Chatzinikolaou Y, Stoumboudi Assessment Rapid (2006) AN Economou B, Zimmerman R, Barbieri MT, of the Status of (EUAC). Curators Aquarium of Union European the by funded Report for Marine Research Athens: Hellenic Centre Kazoglou I, Zogaris S (2003) The reedbeds management of and conservation. Unpublished Amvrakikos: Study for their Life-Nature 99 Life Wetalnds” Amvrakikos of Management “Conservation Project Management LTD Nature OIKOS NAT/GR/006475. Lawrie VMV (2002) Do water depth structure and and salinity influence composition the of the Bangor of Wales, MSc Dissertation, University Greece? Amvrakikos, reedbeds of Rodia Swamp, Mamalukos S (2002) Monasteries and Imeres”, Churches. “Epta Kathimerini of supplement special In Culture, and Nature Amvrakikos- 13-15 (In Greek) Moughtin C (1999) Urban Oxford Butterworth Architecture, design: methods and techniques, Pergantis P (1989) Compiling data to Small-scale delineate important Bird Habitats in ornithogeographical the Amvrakikos Area. Biologia Gallo-hellenica 15:201-218 and islands Ionian the in observed birds the of Notes (1860) HLT Powys Montenegro. and Acarnania, Epirus, proper, Albania of provinces the 133-140, 228-239, 338-357 Ibis 2:1-10, Gerakis PA, Anagnostopoulou M, Georghiou K, Scoullos MJ (1999) Expression of opinion with regard to Greek Ramsar Wetlands conservation and to the actions applicability for for removal from the Montreux Record. Ramsar Key Convention: The Documents Montreux Record (Online URL: of http://www.ramsar. the Ramsar org/key_montreux_record.htm)

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 264 the Amvrakikos. Theseare brieflysummarizedbelow. in found types habitat woodland riparian five all of 2005). The Western Louros Floodplain holds examples area’s wider al. , et (Sarika species wetland in the richness exceptional despite flora, upland or riparian the on published been ever has or known actually is Verylittle semi-terrestrialforestformations. lowland of example rare a represents and habitats woodland Amvrakikos the of wetlands flora is of interest because it woodland is isolated from other riparian The • • • • • • and minor, Frangula alnus,Salixspp.andvariousemergents. along with a unique and rare plant community with protection. trees these consideredcan be ancient trees of specific need in of two itself; Wood Varnavas Agios the in exist also trees centuries-old few A plain. low-lying the of part this werein which deposited created an in the area, with coarse soils Xeropotamos the past the In Aracthos). lower (e.g. willows and Poplar, White aAlder, Common with in many other cases it is found in mixed formations of the Xeropotamos stream, at Agios Varnavas; but course lower the as such banks stream embanked The Arta). semi-natural on of dominates usually Plane city Oriental the along of especially south Arachthos, (e.g. the beds river gravel with coarse reaches along particularly inside plain, areas delta the many in exist examples Scattered the tributaries. their of and Arachthos and parts Louros rivers middle the closed along high, primarily of forest strips linear form These 92C0). Riparian Alluvial Platanus includes isolated specimens of wild of specimens isolated includes Skala spring, where a ‘flooded forest’ of alders also karstic the near a stand is Alder Common there small area, very study our In Louros. the along locations certain at exist also Neochori stands Small village. of north floodplain, Arachthos the ox-bows) of meander drying the (within channels Amvrakikos. The largest stands exist in former river the in localized very is habitat This 91E0). Code: AppendixI-Riparian Woodland Habitat Descriptions forestswith ie frss of forests mixed od (aua 00 Code 2000 (Natura woods orientalis rxns nutfla (Ulmenion angustifolia Fraxinus Alnus glutinosa Alnus uru rbr Ulmus robur, Quercus Laurus nobilis Laurus (Natura2000 , • • investigated. of native provenance, although this has never been grove high treesThese softwoods. these of are probably remarkably a of consists Wood the of half Nearly Wood. Varnavas Agios of part comprises poplars white of stand large really only the and Louros, the along survive poplars white isolated only that remarkable is It Neochori). of southwest and north meanders large the in and banks, river the (along Arachthos the along exist only poplar white with conditions the high-forest on Relict locally Louros. and Arachthos the along are found habitat this of areas -like linear and strips thin wetlands, Amvrakikos northern the In soils still survive and scattered willows are present. and hydrology preferred its with sites many since greatest potential for regeneration and restoration, degraded. severely is the has woodland of type However,particular this these of many conservation of the status but plain, delta the in canals reachesriverslower drainagethe the along of and in woodland riparian of type widespread most the is This 92A0). Code: 2000 (Natura galleries alba probably more widespread intherecent past. were hardwoods lowland so Aneza, of village the the past. Oak stands also exist in alluvial soils near in hardwood important this to of logging related selective probably is This found. were this of species specimens 3 only wood, Varnavas Agios the In pedunculiflora . subsp. robur Quercus Oak Pedunculate hygrophilous the of stands older are rare Particularly disease. elm to succumbed have trees larger the all almost however, regenerates; still and Varnavaswood Agios the in common was to the town of Louros. Common Elm, actively in the past due to the very close proximity logged presumably were They old). years70-90 at most trees in the wood are rather young Surprisingly,(estimated wood. Varnavas Agios the of part is stand of Narrow-leaved Ash, Mazoma village, , Glykoriza Voulkaria lake). One particular nearly-pure near (e.g. exist still Several nearly pure stands of Fraxinus angustifolia Amvrakikos. the in threatened most the probably is habitat This 91F0). Code: 2000 (Natura minoris) White Willow Salix alba and White Poplar Fraxinus angustifolia, Ulmus minor, Populus

265 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Accipiter spp., Aquilla , Dendrocopus ). The site will not be used by large-bodied salinization of the marshes. lagoons Many hectares and of dead the tamarisk were fringing trees located in an overflight of delta the in 2001; this may be Arachthos related to hydrological about changes by brought the construction of the Pournari Hydroelectric Dam in the early On 1980s. the Western Louros Floodplain, tamarisk and Chaste Tree are widespread as low and medium high thickets in low-lying areas, especially in the flood Louros zone. Most stands represent probably secondary regeneration after the high forest of willow/poplar has been felled or disturbed. , Oriolus oriolus brevipes Weaknessess Weaknessess Threats • Formerly officially recognized ‘forest relic’ not restored not restored relic’ ‘forest • Formerly officially recognized to receive large numbers of numbers to people large receive and will regularly be kept ‘clean’ and organized all by bramble, clearing nearly low shrubs, woody dead litter. trees The and entire with coarse a site multitude will of be small and accessible larger footpaths. ■ ■ pomarina easily disturbed by large that are such as raptors birds of visitors. numbers ■ ■ will be lost; of the forest characteristics • Many natural litter cycle; natural forest-wood particularly the natural succession and regeneration. interface and • Opportunity for nature/society education lost. environmental • Biodiveristy loss: many animal and plant species prefer conditions and management of the Wood wild natural space park’ would mean loss and displace as a ‘green species may be displaced ( ment. Some bird

as suggested in several studies and government as suggested in several an infringement of consistency in therefore proposals; management. area natural protected in terms of national park • Documented failure management. • Suburban or peri-urban housing may extend from the woodland, engulfing town towards nearby Louros space’. the new ‘green anean riparian galleries with spp.), sometimes associated with

Appendix II -Swot analysis Appendix II -Swot Thermo-Mediterr tamarisk (Nerio-Tamaricetea) (Natura 2000 Code: 92D0). These mainly include (Tamarix tamarisk thickets Chaste Tree thickets (Vitex agnus castus). These formations are widespread and Amvrakikos wetlands and varied include extensive areas in the around lagoons and estuaries, most prominently near the Arachthos and Louros river mouths. In some locations near the coast and on the lagoons, many of even the most salt-tolerant formations have died back, probably due to increased Opportunities Strengths • ■ ■ • Low-cost, low-maintenance option. • Low-cost, low-maintenance option. the may say they want to protect • Some residents and develop’, to ‘protect but in fact may prefer Wood, was converted into as would be the case if the Wood park. a recreational • Socio-political benefits may exist if the site is many ‘developed’ into peri-urban green-space; as a the value of the site may not recognize residents of in keeping parts monument’ or the interest ‘natural it in a ‘wild state’. ■ time to consider longer-term plans for • May provide or to focus conservation efforts the wider area National Park. Amvrakikos in the proposed elsewhere ■

• SWOT Analysis SWOT Agios Varnavas is converted into a recreational park for residents and visitors. The site will be managed Two Two options are analyzed and compared analytically to assist decision making. in order Option 1

Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos 266 SWOT Analysis include (exceptions state’ ‘wild a in and inaccessible remain will site the of parts and encouraged be recreationwill passive Only education. history natural and restorationbiodiversity on focus primary a with managed and rehabilitated is Wood Varnavas Agios Option 2 ■ thesite. helppromote theprotection andmanagementof environmentalists andecotourismoperators may •Volunteer effortsbyscientists,educators, practice. inbuildingrelationships centered onconservationin ManagementBodyandotherstakeholders willassist Forest DepartmentofPreveza, theNationalPark •Coordination betweentheMunicipalityofLouros, the managementplanforthesiteisdeveloped. buildings(Cantinaetc.)willbeaddressed ifa •Unresolved managementissuessuchasthederelict areas too. managementofthiswoodmayhelpsavetheother theWestern Louros Floodplain;theprotection and outstandingbiodiversity andeducationinterest in •AgiosVarnavas isonlyonelandscapefeature of future conservationofthewiderlandscape. importanteconomicandsocialfoundationforthe •ThelocationofAgiosVarnavas woodprovides an ■ especiallyfortheMunicipalityofLouros. •Socio-politicalprofit andpridewillbegained; andvisitors. isconfirmedandadvertisedtootherlocalcommunities •Thesite’s unofficialdistinctionasa‘natural monument’ forecotourismandpassiverecreation. •Thesiteassures successasa‘honey-pot’orhotspot demonstrate restoration possibilitiesandresults. •Thesiteisstrategically locatedtoshowcaseand ■ ■ Opportunities Strengths

proposed Park. authoritiesresponsible formanagementofthe theNationalPark ManagementBodyandother •Thisoptionrepresents anadditionalresponsibility for Louros mustplayanactivepart. surveillance/guarding; inwhichtheMunicipalityof

■ andattractiveness ofthesiteasanatural monument. incremental changesthatmaydegrade thenaturalness •Developmentandmanagementproposals maycreate otherdevelopmentinterests. future andmaywantto‘hybridize’restoration with •TheMunicipalityofLouros maychangeitsopinionin large partsofthesiteina‘wildstate’. managementplanwillbeneeded;thismusthelpretain •Visitormanagementiscriticallyimportant:aspecial loggingmaycontinuetodestroy dozensoftrees ayear). andenforcement againstillegalpressures. (Illegal •Maintainingthequalityofsiterequires investment ■ ■ ■ riparian areas intheWestern Louros Floodplain. remnant with Wood the connect to corridors green create to made be will Efforts place. in left be will Varnavas). Agios Nearly all of woody litter and Church old rotting trees the around immediately area the • Maintenanceofsitewillincurincreased costsand Weaknessess Threats

267 Riparian woodland at Amvrakikos Young tree protected by a wire mesh tree guard, White Poplar in the spring after planting (Photo: David (Photo: planting after spring the in Poplar White Figure Figure 5.4.2 (Photo: David Catita). allowing good sapling aeration Figure 5.4.1 Figure Catita). David Catita David Ana Ilhéu along the margin to allow the fauna to move around around move to fauna the allow to margin the along the reservoir’s edge and to connect with tributaries not dammed. are of the Guadiana that Objectives Introduction In keeping with the objectives laid down in the EFMA the in down laid objectives the with keeping In Environmental Management version), the reforestation of Programme the Pedrógão reservoir (2005 margin was defined as a since priority, the banks do not have any trees or shrubs and they also coincide with areas of intensive agriculture. One of the aims was to create a continuous forested the entire belt reservoir, like around a riparian gallery. Another aim was to prevent encroachment on this space by uses, inappropriate prevent and landowners adjacent such as the presence of cattle, which would cause a water quality. negative effect on reservoir Although riparian planting along the margins of it process, a natural and easy an be to appears reservoir is not. The existence of water halfway down a slope does not constitute in it self a riparian since the constant bankface, changes in water level, together with the thin, relatively plants. of unfertile survival and establishment the compromise soil conditions, The Pedrógão reservoir is situated along the Guadiana the along situated is reservoir Pedrógão The and Ardila rivers, immediately downstream of Alqueva the dam, occupying an area of approximately 1000 hectares. comprising infrastructure the Alqueva Multiple Final The reservoir is to act as a return (EFMA). It was created Uses Project part of reservoir, allowing the the waters released by this dam to be pumped back up to the Alqueva The reservoir. Pedrógão reservoir is equipped with a hydroelectric station and there are plans to install water two outlets surface for irrigation as irrigation system. part of the EFMA Given the multifunctional use reservoir, there is of strong bankface the and water level Pedrógão oscillation. Additionally, the forms a barrier to the natural movement Pedrógão of species. reservoir Therefore, it was considered essential to plant trees A PUBLIC LANDOWNER IN A LANDOWNER A PUBLIC REFORESTATION AREA: RURAL THE PEDRÓGÃO AROUND

Reforestation around the Pedrógão 268 eeto Wtr ee (W) Te lnig area planting the The corresponds to the inundation area between to the (RWL). RWL Level parallel Water lines Retention contour along out period, carried were year operations planting the three All 2005. a in starting over place improvement took cover initiatives plant reservoir Pedregão The Figure 5.4.3General viewof newplantings,showingtwokindsoftree guards: plasticandwire mesh(Photo:DavidCatita). australis occur naturally ontheedgesofreservoir. (Celtis Hackberry European the and minor (Ulmus Elm Common species, two other the while Vahl.) angustifolia (Fraxinus Ash leaved glutinosa (Alnus Alder Common L.), alba (Salix Willow White Four of them possess typically riparian characteristics Six species were selected for planting in the first year. for talltrees withlong,straight trunks. growingconditions favour and wildlife for shelter as The 5.4.6). objective was to create figuresmall woods that would serve (see groups between with metres apart, 10 metres 2 lines, out parallel 3 carried of was groups in (2005) year first the in Planting Year I-2005 implementation andresultsPlanning, L.), White Poplar (Populus alba L.), Narrow- Mill.) L.), naturally adaptedtosuchconditions. be must species selected the area, this in expected is temporarysubmersionSince returnperiod. year 8 an buffer area) associated with a flow of 5000 m 5000 of flow a with area)associated buffer surcharge (flood boundary property public the and success rates (approximately 15%). low had drought to sensitive morewere that species result,humidity. a soil As maintain to difficult was it an was extraordinarilyregulardespite and watering year dry 2005 humidity. atmospheric the or moisture levels soil the either on influence significant a have not did waterbody the since difference, little reservoir.the to closer strips the in made this fact, In morefour The werespecies riparian typically planted hazard forboats. a present would RWL the below presence their since plantation, the of edge external the at installed only because guards tree fencing the entire area was not possible. Fences were mesh wire and plastic using individually saplings the protect to necessary was It 3 /s and /s

269 Reforestation around the Pedrógão 15% 15% 60% 60% 20% 100% 33% ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Success rate Poplar Poplar and European Hackberry and no protective the saplings. placed around tubes were In order to facilitate maintenance, the trees planted were in groups along only two parallel between the groups. apart, with 8 metres metres lines, 2 The protective tubes placed on the saplings (1.2 m caused trunk taller a producing of aim the with high) overheating in the slower growing species, may have been which a contributing factor to the reduced success rate. 10% 15% 52% 15% 1% 7% 100% ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,953 4,576 16.065 4,618 400 2,006 30,618 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Number of plants % of total plants Year 2 - 2006 Year White Willow Common Alder Ash Narrow-leaved White Poplar Common Elm Hackberry European Total ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Species ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Based on the above observations, some modifications some observations, above the on Based (2006). planting of year second the during made were Only the species with a success rate greater than 50 % were planted, namely Narrow-leaved Ash, White Narrow-leaved Ash two years after planting (Photo: David Catita). Ash two years 5.4.4 Narrow-leaved Figure The method of planting three lines close together resulted in good vertical growth rates, as expected. However, maintenance work such time-consuming, as and difficult watering very and were clearing weed since mechanical methods were not suitable and the work had to be carried out manually. Details of plant cover improvement work carried out in 2005 5.4.1 Details of plant cover improvement Table

Reforestation around the Pedrógão 270 carried out by a single person with a hose walking hose a with person single a by out carried was which watering, especially operations, planting the improved greatly method planting two-row The Table 5.4.2Detailsofplantcoverimprovement workcarriedoutin2006. General view of the planting carried out in 2006, showing European Hackberry after one (left) and two years (right) (Photo: (right) years two and David Catita). (left) one after Hackberry European showing 2006, in out carried planting the of view General 5.4.5 Figure Figure 5.4.6Various typesofplantingschemesimplemented. ■ ■ ■ ■ Species ■ ■ ■ ■ Total European Hackberry White Poplar Narrow-leaved Ash ubro lns%oftotalplants Number ofplants ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 15,000 3,000 2,000 10,000 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 100% 20% 13% 67% no spaceforconventionalfarmmachinery was still labour intensive and difficult since there was rows between weeding However, rows. the between Success rate ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 84% 100% 80% 80%

271 Reforestation around the Pedrógão 90% 90% 80% 84% ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Success rate Dead specimens were replaced with living saplings in all stands, mostly using Narrow-leaved Ash and White Poplar. 40% 40% 20% 100% ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7,666 7,666 3,835 19,167 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Number of plants % of total plants Year 3 – 2007 Year Narrow-leaved Ash Narrow-leaved White Poplar Hackberry European Total ■ ■ ■ ■ Species ■ ■ ■ ■ During the third year of the the project (2007) same combination of plants was used as the year, previous but without protective tubes and planted in a single row with a distance of approximately 6m between the groups. The 2007 planting has especially, has given made good it results easier maintenance methods. to and, use mechanized General view of planting carried out in 2007 (Photo: David Catita). view of planting carried out in 2007 5.4.7 General Figure Details of plant cover improvement work carried out in 2007 (estimated) carried out in 2007 work 5.4.3 Details of plant cover improvement Table

Reforestation around the Pedrógão 272 h ceto o sal odd ra (with areas wooded small evident to rise gave trees) of of lines 3 approximately creation The the hottestmonthsofyear. provided little shade, and to water the saplings during grew intensively over the which planting period since the saplings weeds, eliminate to necessary proved has it sunlight to exposed highly and arid relatively is improvements to subject area the since However, leaved Ash. Narrow- as such timbers prime producing term, long the over character productive more a on take will area this that hoped is It reservoir.Pedrógão the of margin the aroundarea wooded continuous a create to aimed have now until out carried operations The Figure 5.4.8Three yearoldPopulus albatrees attheedgeofreservoir (Photo: DavidCatita). Final considerations f h ipoe ae –vr 0 hcae – may – hectares 200 attenuate thiseffect. –over area improved the of dimensions the although areas, improved these for planted may reduce thenatural lookthat is intended rows of number the in reduction the Additionally, compared to the trees planted in the preceding years. trees will probably develop smaller, less vertical trunks operationsmaintenance however,easier; much these both still of third- execution the made methods The planting year but difficulties. clearance mechanized, weed presented were watering the which facilitated year operations, second the in carried out plan planting The difficulties. operational

273 Reforestation around the Pedrógão Figure 5.5.3 Figure Aerial photo with types characteristic of the present- day river morphology. The River showing various channel planform types planform channel various showing River Lech The 5.5.2 Figure according to an old military map (Franziszeische Landesaufnahme Staatsarchiv). Österr. source: 1816-1821; Johannes Konstanzer Johannes Christian Moritz pattern, which makes this region easy to spot even in pictures taken by space-cams; green arrow). Then there are the most famous areas where the river is braided a of formation the allow to enough wide still taken has regulation although arrow), (blue type river river linear a of form the in recognizable is and place Lech the still is river the now to Up side. one on bank ‘most important landowner’. valley’s Where we are. 5.5.1 Where Figure The geographical framework is the 4,138 hectares of the Natura 2000 region valley (political , in county country , the Tyrolean Lech Austria). The Lech River has influenced the phenotype of Wide the time. present the to up right valley Lech Tyrolean meadows water softwood with forest alluvial of areas (Salici-Myricarietum, Salicion eleagno-daphnoidis), alder and ash water meadows (Alnenion glutinoso- incanae) and dry pine water meadows Pinetum) (Dorycnio- edge the wild river. changing branches of Large, water are still possible dynamically in the the river bed is very wide. parts where (figure map military old an from details following The of morphology heterogeneous highly the show 5.5.2) the pristine river valley. In the upper reach, with a relatively steep gradient, the Lech is of an elongated type, whereas with diminishing gradient and higher input gravel the Lech changes and more to more the river. type of a braided well-known, characteristic The current state is best characterized by spectrum whole an the depicts aerial which 5.3.3) (figure photo of the present-day river morphology. A major part of the Lech is as heavily regulated as most parts of alpine rivers in general (red arrow). In other areas, elements of a near-natural river structure characteristic are very left has impact human still if even left, footprints (here in the form of a ‘string of pearls’ The ‘LIFE 00NAT/A/7053: Wildflusslandschaft Tiroler Lech’ project (www.tiroler-lech.at) started in April 2001 and lasted, with a year’s extension, till March 2007. It implemented a broader concept than usual of river protection and restoration. This case study important facts. summarizes the most SEVERAL LANDOWNERS IN A IN LANDOWNERS SEVERAL REVITALISATION AREA: PROTECTED LECH TYROLEAN RIVER OF THE

Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech 274 • shared is costs between thefollowingnationalproject partners: the of 50.5% remaining The 2000 area. Natura a as region target the of declaration was funding EU 49.5% for precondition The project. the for available were Euros million 7.82 of total A h lwrn o te e lvl a nt ny e to led only not has level bed the of lowering The winning. aggregate increasing and tributaries major channelization, sediment-retaining dams built on the major another is problem. It has been riverbed caused by a combination of river Habitats sinking the the by Directive, covered species many affecting thus and habitats natural of areas losing from Apart today’s problematic situation. for blame to partly are they necessity,but a became valleys side river the in protection as bedload or regulation such measures district structural the productive!), of is 7% about (only to valley pressure the increasing exploit the and century 20th of the beginning the at catastrophes flood Following • • • • • • • die-wildbach.at/) http://www. Protection; Avalanche and Flood for Lawinenverbauung, Sektion Tirol (Technical Service http://www. Management; Water lebensministerium.at/) Environment Forestry,and (Federal Agriculture, of Wasserwirtschaft Ministry Sektion und Raum Ländlicher Sektion Wasserwirtschaft: und Umwelt Management Water Depts.) Tyrol, and of Conservation Government Nature Regional the of Wasserwirtschaft (Office Abteilung und Umweltschutz Amt WWF Österr For Bundesministerium Problems involved Basic project information, partners, timeframe tehice Des fr idah und Wildbach für Dienst sttechnischer e Trlr adseirn, Abteilung Landesregierung, Tiroler der eich (WWFAustria) für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, und Land- für • necessary for2reasons: yearswere became extension year 1 a but scheduled, 2007).(2001years5 – 6 Originally lasted project The goal. the is common a achieve to interestsdivergentrather with departments/organisations LIFE-Project various the of of cooperation aspect delightful A • the Natura 2000area. interestgroupsand about population the of sections some of grounds socio-economic on scepticism the or flora, typical and habitats sensitive endangering Other problems include insufficient control of visitors, a certainextent,thesettlementareas. rare plant and animal species endangered but also, to the are only not Thus, etc.). protections, riverbank of (washout structures protective for problems and caused level also has but groundwater wetlands, fluvial of the out drying further in fall a floodplain, adjacent its and river the between disconnection as such system fluvial the on impacts negative further • • had beensecured. resources national from funding additional after start only could work so estimated, originally than process planning detailed the in expensive more much became Martinau) at Lech the of (widening repair andfloodprotection works with up tied partly still are resources and work, Tyrolean the the out carry to capacity the in restrictions to led of reports naturally department) hydrographic government’s the to (according probability 5000-year a with event unpredictable In One August 2005 an extreme flood took place. This place. took flood extreme an 2005 August f h lre rvr etrto measures restoration river larger the of

275 Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech out a joint project with organisations Reach (Stanzach – Weißenbach): Braided Reach (Steeg – ): Straight course; Reach (Höfen–Reutte–Weißhaus): Unfavou- (Höfen–Reutte–Weißhaus): Reach oving the ecological awareness of the local oad river widening measures for simultaneous eserving animals and plants that are listed by the by listed are that plants and animals eserving Br Upper Middle Lower rable bedload deposition in the main settlement capacity, transport sediment the of reduction area; effective cross section and freeboard; operations ecologically disputed dredging multiple, flood protection and river revitalization (examples below) Pr or endangered EU as important, vulnerable Impr people Carrying fields of interest different from processes river; erosion stable river bottom

• • • • • • • • A delicate bedload management balance has to be middle and upper the in needed is gravel as attained, river braided dynamic, highly the maintain to reaches type; whereas in the lower reach a bedload surplus would be a severe problem. So a whole set of well- coordinated measures was needed to fulfil all these 5.5.4): (figure requirements 4) 5) 6) mentioned of problems the loss of river habitats and riverbed sinking. The main mechanisms used were river morphology and bedload budget. To simplify these rather complex matters, the Lech can roughly 4), as follows: be divided into 3 parts (see figure e.g. well water at removal removal of sediment-retaining of the riverside waters and linking and restoring the fairly natural, the sinking of the riverbed and fall of widening, by removing several constructions: several removing by widening, oving flood protection in accordance with Measures, special projects Measures, Aims of the LIFE-project eservation and resettlement of target species: most important river restoration and engineering and restoration river important most Häselgehr Pr e.g. Little Ringed German Plover, Tamarisk, Common Lady’s Sandpiper, Slipper, Damselfly and amphibians Bilek’s Azure PR work River river Lech at the Martinau hamlet; river Vils. Johannesbrücke bridge and Step-by-step dams on unobstructed the bedload transport: Hornbach river and Schwarzwasserbach brooks. tributaries to ensure Revitalization them up to their parent river: Impr regulations protection environmental Conserving dynamic fluvial habitats. Stopping level. groundwater

• • • • • • • The an give to below here introduced briefly are measures improvements obvious most the of impression overall in the riverine landscape. River restoration and engineering were measures the main employed to cope with the above- • • • The LIFE project included a total of projects. The most 53 important measures individual and projects as follows: employed to achieve the set goals are Reacting to the above-mentioned problems, the LIFE- the problems, above-mentioned the to Reacting at following goals: aims Project 1) 2) 3)

Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech 276 Figure 5.5.5Riverrevitalisation, Vils. acceptance and awareness environmental people’s Special attention was paid to measures for enhancing town ofVils. the for measure flood-protection important an also is project this time, same the At regained. been backwater-systems have reactivated with and areas forest adjacent alluvial of ha river 5 alpine approx. and additional habitat of ha 10 approx. stretch, river revitalized km 2.3 a banks, smooth rebuilding and riverbed the raising and widening By m. 1.5-2 approx. by sinking bed river the in resulting tight corset, very a into forced was Vils the 1930’s the In • • • of some large sediment-retaining dams in • the upstream reaches). measuresin our by caused consciously also part in district from the possible bedload surplus (which is innovative project to protect the main town in the an as improvessituation, time ecological same the A (example below) river main the in deficit) gravel present the fight (i.e. balance gravel the improve to tributaries big Removal big bedload trap in the lower reach, which at the River revitalisation andfloodprotection Vils • • • in approving commentsinlocalnewspapers. resulted least, not but last and, acceptance project’s the increased clearly measures These project. the of measures. Figure 5.5.4Locationofthelargest riverengineering/revitalisation • • • Support School-pr – www.zeitfluss.at W “woodhenge” (Celtictree-circle) ba a a ih iwn-on (“Falkenstein”) viewing-point high a at ebcam ojects o a oa iiitv t isal a install to initiative local a for

277 Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech 1.2 million m³ of accumulated sediments for bedload for sediments accumulated of m³ million 1.2 over the coming years. transport By lengthening the bridge, widening the river bed (to approx. 180 m) and relocating protection dams upstream, on a length of almost 3 km, more than 20 have been resurrected. ha of alpine river habitats Removal of retention dams at Hornbach and Schwarzwasserbach dams at Hornbach of retention Removal River revitalisation at Johannesbrücke revitalisation River Removal of sediment-retaining dams, taking the Hornbach as an example. 5.5.7 Removal of sediment-retaining Figure River revitalisation at Johannesbrücke. 5.5.6 River revitalisation Figure Large sediment-retaining dams built in the 1950/60s two from removed were of the major tributaries, the Hornbach and Schwarzwasserbach, freeing roughly Because of Johannesbrücke, the a bridge restriction built river bed of in the Lech had caused sunk 1936/37, by more than the the 3 and inundation from off cut were areas Adjacent m. by the pristine softwood water meadows with willows and German Tamarisk were displaced by dry pine forests on high terraces. Flood protection endangered. Johannesbrücke itself were dams and the

Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech 278 ol sc a te fiil aue conservation nature official torrents regulating for department the the department, as such goals groupsfor differentway with new a establish to was restoration, river the besides goals, top the of One stakeholders andopinionleaders. local with way new a in communicate to possible it projecthydroelectricLife a The for made plant. plans and area 2000 Natura a as nomination discussion, Park National of years by alienated been had that communicate public a to to area protected the of aimed particularities the Wildflusslandschaft Project the Life Lech of Tiroler part considerable A raising nowadays, project an public awareness ofconservationtargets. the become of part have important Relations events. Public spectacular Nonetheless, through public the to convince tried have Greenpeace) or WWF as (such NGOs only decades recent In work. nature-conservation today’s in factor key a become have relations Public Public-Relations as akey for acceptance innature conservation management andnature guide training. out, carried were projects relations public 33 of total A and theWWFtocommunicatewitheachother. and avalanches, the department for river management Figure 5.5.8Publicparticipation. iio pafrs tee tal, visitor trails, themed platforms, visitor e.g.

279 Revitalisation of the Tyrolean river Lech 280 Appendices

281 Water Quality Water Bathing water: Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006 quality water bathing of management the concerning 76/160/EEC. Directive and repealing Discharge of dangerous substances: protection the of aquatic environment: of the European Directive Parliament and of the 2006/11/EC Council of 15 February 2006 on pollution caused dangerous by substances certain discharged into the aquatic of the Community. environment 98/83/EC Directive Council water: drinking of Quality intended water of quality the on 1998 November 3 of for human consumption. Quality of shellfish waters: of Directive 2006/113/EC the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the quality required of shellfish waters. Urban waste water treatment: of May 21 concerning 1991 91/271/EEC urban waste Council Directive water treatment. Water suitable for fish-breeding: Council Directive 2006/44/EC of 6 September 2006 on the quality of fresh waters needing protection or improvement in to support fish life. order Groundwater Directive pollution: against groundwater of Protection of 2006/118/EC the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution on 1999 April and 26 of 1999/31/EC Directive Council and deterioration; the landfill of waste. Protection of waters against pollution nitrates from caused agricultural sources: Council by Directive of 12 December 1991. 91/676/EEC SOIL List of relevant European directives, conventions and communications conventions directives, European of relevant List River Managament Flood management 2007/60/EC of the and European Parliament and of the evaluation: Council of 23 October 2007 on Directive the assessment and management of flood risks. Helsinki Convention: trans-boundary watercourses and international lakes: Council Decision 95/308/EC of 24 July 1995 on the conclusion, on behalf of the and protection the on Convention the of Community, international and watercourses trans-boundary of use lakes. Inland waterways: and Parliament European the of 2005/44/EC Directive River information of the Council of 7 services: September 2005 on harmonised river information services (RIS) on inland waterways in the Community. Pricing and long-term Council, the to Commission the from Communication management of European water: Parliament and Committee: Pricing and Economic sustainable management of and Social 477. [COM(2000) water resources Sustainable Aquaculture: Communication from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament sustainable the for strategy A 2002. September 19 of development of European aquaculture [COM(2002) final. 511 Water Framework Directive: Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000. and droughts in the : Commission Communication of “Addressing the 18 challenge of July droughts water in the 2007: scarcity European and Union” [COM(2007) 414 final.

282 osrain f aua Rsucs Vlm II) the (Volume Resources for [COM(2001) 162final. Natural Plan of Action Conservation Biodiversity European the Parliament: and Council the to 2001 March 27 of Communication of Commission Conservation Resources: Natural the for Plan Action Biodiversity Fisheries (Volume IV). the European Parliament: for Communication of 27 Commission March 2001 to the Council Fisheries: and for Plan Action Biodiversity Agriculture (Volume III)[COM(2001) 162final. the European Parliament: Biodiversity Action Plan for Communication of 27 March 2001 to the Council and Commission Agriculture: for Plan Action Biodiversity aquaculture. in species absent locally and alien of use concerning Council Regulation (EC) No 708/2007 of 11 June 2007 species: absent locally and alien of use Aquaculture: 216 final. Commission ecosystem Sustaining services for - biodiversity: human beyond well-being” and [COM(2006) - 2010 by biodiversity of loss the for “Halting 2006 May 22 of Communication Plan Action Biodiversity 231 final. entitled [COM(2006) protection” soil 2006 for strategy September “Thematic 22 of Communication Commission protection: soil for strategy Thematic of wastefrom extractive industries. of the Council of 15 March 2006 on the management industries: Directive 2006/21/EC of the European extractive Parliament and from waste of Management and prevention control. pollution integrated concerning European 2008 January 15 of the Council the of of and Parliament 2008/1/EC Directive Directive: IPPC control: and prevention pollution Integrated h ipeetto o te U oety strategy on forestry EU Reporting [COM(2005) 84final. the - of implementation Parliament the European the Council and the to 10 Commission the of from 2005 Communication March strategy: forestry EU The approach EC the development: [COM(1999) 554final. and forests on approach: 1999 November 4 of Parliament EC European the and the development: Council the to fromCommission Communication the and Forests of forest reproductive material. Directive Council 1999/105/EC of 22 December 1999 on the marketing material: reproductive Forest Plan [COM(2006)302 final. Action Forest EU an on 2006 June 15 of Parliament from the Commission to the Council and the European Communication plan: action forest Union European Forestry natural habitatsandofwildfaunaflora. of conservation the on 92/43/EEC Directive Council Natural habitats (Natura 2000): The Habitats Directive: 318/2008 of31 March 2008. No (EC) regulating Regulation by Commission and flora therein; and trade fauna wild of species of protection the on 1996 December 9 of 338/97 No (in flora and (EC) Regulation Council CITES): fauna the with accordance wild of species Endangered wild birds. of conservation the on 79/409/EEC Directive Council Directive: Birds birds: wild of Conservation (Bonn Convention). animals wild of species Bonn migratory of the conservation on Convention - the of conclusion the on species 1982 migratory June 24 82/461/EECof Decision Council Convention: of Conservation

283 Environmental Environmental indicators: Commission to the Council of Report 20 September 2002, Analysis of the from “open list” of environment-related 524 final. [COM(2002) headline indicators the Evironmental damage: Directive the European Parliament and 2004/35/EC of the Council of of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with to the regard prevention and remedying of environmental damage. Global Monitoring for Environment (GMES): and Communication Security from the Commission, of 10 November 2005, entitled: “Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES): from concept to [COM(2005) 565 final. reality.” LIFE+: a financial instrument for the environment: Regulation (EC) No Parliament 614/2007 and of of the the Council concerning European of 23 the May 2007 (LIFE+). Environment Financial Instrument for the Sixth “Environment Action Environment Programme: Our 2010: future, Our choice” [COM (2001) 31 ; and Environment Community Sixth the of review Mid-term 225 final. [COM(2007) Action Programme Strategy for sustainable development. [COM(2001) 642 final. 264 final ; (COM(2005) 658; [COM(2007) Strategy on the sustainable use of natural resources: December 21 of Commission the from Communication 2005 - Thematic Strategy on the sustainable use of [COM(2005) 670. resources natural the from Communication principle: precautionary The precautionary the on 2000 February 2 of Commission principle [COM(2000) 1 final. The Strategic Directive: Environmental Directive Assessment 2001/42/EC of Parliament (SEA) and of the the Council of European 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and on the environment. programmes White Paper of 9 February 2000 on environmental liability [COM(2000) 66. Landscape Management European Landscape Convention: Council of Europe Treaty Series no. 176 (CETS No.: 176) Florence, Italy. 20 October 2000. Guidelines for the implementation of the European Landscape Convention: member to Ministers of Committee the of Rec(2008)3 Recommendation states. Adopted CM/ by the Committee of Ministers on 6 February 2008. Pan-European Biological and Landscape Strategy: Diversity Council of Europe and European for Centre Nature Conservation. “Environment Ministerial for Europe” Conference (Sofia, , October 23-25 1995). Nature and 1996. Press, Council of Europe Environment, No. 74 Regional planning and the resources: Resolution protection 238 of (1992) of water the Conference Standing of Local and Regional Europe. Authorities of And Sustainable Protection Environmental Development to Approaches sustainable Communicat- agriculture: European the Council, the to Commission the from ion the Parliament, Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions of 27 January 1999: Approaches to sustainable agriculture [COM(1999) 22 final. Common Agricultural 1782/2003 Policy No (EC) Regulation Council (SFP): (CAP)- Payment Single Farm of 29 September 2003 establishing common rules for direct support schemes policy. agricultural under the common development; rural for guidelines strategic Community European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD): Council Decision of 20 development February rural for 2006 guidelines on strategic Community Decision Council 2013). to 2007 period (programming 2006/144/EC.

284 Programme (ECCP)[COM(2000)88final. Change Climate European a towards emissions: gas greenhouse reduce to measures and policies EU (ECCP): on Programme Change Communication from the Commission of Climate 8 March 2000 European Climate Change www.labor.uevora.pt Portugal 7002-554 Évora de Biologia Unidade deBiologiadaConservação,Departamento LabOr -Laboratório deOrnitologia Universidade deÉvora Department ofBiology LabOr -Laboratory ofOrnithology, University ofÉvora, www.isa.utl.pt Portugal 1349-017 Lisboa Tapada daAjuda Engenharia Florestal Universidade TécnicadeLisboa,Departamento Instituto SuperiordeAgronomia (ISA) Technical University ofLisbon,Forestry Department, Higher Institute ofAgronomy www.cm-montemornovo.pt Portugal 7050-127 Montemor-o-Novo Largo dosPaços doConcelho Câmara MunicipaldeMontemor-o-Novo Montemor-o-Novo MunicipalCouncil www.cm-alpiarca.pt Portugal 2090-100 Alpiarça R. JoséRelvasnº374 Câmara MunicipaldeAlpiarça Alpiarça MunicipalCouncil Partners oftheRIPIDURABLE-project (lead partner) and beyond”[COM(2007) 2final. Change to 2 degrees Celsius - The way ahead for 2020 of 10 January 2007, entitled: “Limiting Global Climate Commission, the from Communication beyond: and 2020for ahead way the change: climate Strategyon www.env.uoi.gr/ Greece 30100 Agrinio Seferi 2 Lab. ofEcologyandBiodiversity Conservation Management Faculty ofEnvironmental andNatural Resources University ofIoannina www.hcmr.gr Greece GR-19013 Anavissos,Attiki 46,7 kmAthens-Sounio,Mavro Lithari Inland Waters (HCMR) Hellenic CenterforMarineResearch, Institute of www.u-bourgogne.fr France 21000 Dijon 6 BdGabriel Ecologie Evolutive UMR CNRSBioGéoSciences Université deBourgogne University ofBurgundy www.cefe.cnrs.fr France 34293 Montpelliercedex5 1919 RoutedeMende Centre d’EcologieFonctionnelleetEvolutive Centre nationaldelarecherche scientifique CNRS-CEFE National Centre ofScientificResearch

285 Forest Center for Applied Research (CIEF) for Applied Research Center Forest Urbanism Water, Protection, Office for Environment Government Regional and Housing of the Valencian a la Investigació i l’Experimentació per Centre Conselleria de Medi Ambient, Aigua, (CIEF); Forestal Valenciana Generalitat Urbanisme i Habitatge, 114-6, Valencià del Pais Comarques 46930 Quart de Poblet, Spain http://www.cth.gva.es/ The electronic edition of this book can be downloaded at www.ripidurable.eu. edition of this The electronic ETANAM S.A. ETANAM for South Epirus and Development Agency Amvrakikos Ydatopyrgos Periochi Lascaratou, Preveza 48100 Greece www.etanam.gr

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