“Their Blood has fall ’19/winter ’20

pg. 24 pg. 25 Flown and Mingled “Whose Blood has withFlowed Ours”: and Mingled The Poli- with Ours”: Slavery took on many images that highlighted its horrors or, as in this image, sought to present the “peculiar institution” in positive terms. (Image: New York Public Library) S The Politics of Slavery i n tics ofIllinois Slavery and Missouri in Illi from -a letter printed in the Missouri Gazette in in the Early Republic In1819, a gentleman an from extractSt. Charles County, Missouri, wrote, “Notwithstanding the foolish apprehensions which have been entertained by certain prophets, that the measures advocated in Congress on the subject of Missouri slavery, would deter emigration from the slave-holding states, never, at this season of the year, has the influx of population . . . been so considerable.”1 The author by lawrence celani goes on to say that the “caravans of movers [from Kentucky and Tennessee], were flowing through our town” towards the “lands of promise” in the Boons Lick on the Missouri River or near nois and Missourithe Salt Riverin in the northeastern part ofthe the territory. Indeed, the period immediately following the War of 1812 had seen a massive influx of migrants into Missouri, mostly from the states of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia, causing the population to increase from just under 20,000 in 1810 to more than 60,000 on the eve of statehood in 1820.2 For slaveholders or middling farmers in the Upper South, Missouri was somewhat of a beacon with seemingly Early Republic unlimited potential for one to start a new life or to grow cash crops, and slavery was the fall ’19/winter ’20

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Article VI of the Northwest Ordinance stated that Article the Sixth. There shall be neither slavery “neither slavery or nor involuntary servitude in the said territory, Dating to the late involuntary servitude” seventeenth century, otherwise than in punishment of crimes whereof the Code Noir shall be allowed in the territory. regulated slave and free blacks alike in the French Empire, the party shall have been duly convicted: and became part of race relations in colonial and Provided always, that any person escaping territorial Louisiana. (Image: Wikimedia) into the same, for whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such

the means by which they would which stated that “neither slavery to choose sides on the issue of fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed achieve wealth and prosperity. nor involuntary servitude” shall slavery for the first time in their This inflow of settlers portended be allowed in the territory. lives. This caused divisions within to the person claiming his or her labor the Missouri Crisis from 1819– Still, Illinois residents held a Illinois and Missouri and beyond 1821, which saw a national referendum on whether to over slavery’s future in the West, or service as aforesaid. debate surrounding not only amend the state constitution and it changed the trajectory of whether to admit Missouri as to allow slavery, which they the states’ respective outlooks and a slave state, but also the did in August 1824. Though politics. The short-term results implications that admission the movement failed, the in each place were different—one Be it ordained by the authority aforesaid, That of the state would have implications would be large. endorsed slavery while the other for the rest of the Louisiana rejected it—but the long-term the resolutions of the 23rd of April, 1784 relative to Purchase Terriroty. In trying to comprehend the changes these conflicts meaning of these political events, engendered were immense, the subject of this ordinance, be, and the same At the same time, just across the broader Missouri Crisis, and altering the states’ orientations the Mississippi River, Illinois saw the Illinois convention movement, and paths for the future. This are hereby repealed and declared null and void. a similar explosion of population. it is important to understand essay will focus on the former. Though there was some controversy them as examples of a much over whether the territory had larger attempt by slaveholders Historians have had various DONE by the UNITED STATES in CONGRESS reached the appropriate number and proslavery advocates to make explanations for exactly what the assembled, the 13th day of July, in the year of our Lord of inhabitants for statehood in the West safe for slavery, and we convention movement meant for 1787, and of their sovereignty and independence the 12th. 1818, mostly coming from northern must also be aware of how these Illinois and the wider politics of congressmen, the population conflicts came to be understood slavery. Some have noted that the increased more than 300 percent locally or regionally. Both the movement was a battle between 3 between 1810 and 1820. While Missouri Crisis and the movement two opposing ideological forces Article 6 of the Northwest Ordinance (above) kept some slaveowners from some slaveholders ultimately did to legalize slavery in Illinois with incompatible visions for the passing through Illinois when migrating to Missouri, thinking that the Ordinance banned slavery in the territory (present-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, migrate to Illinois, most avoided were products of national and future of Illinois society. They and part of northeastern Minnesota). However, the Ordinance also protected them in the state or passed through it international developments such argue that the antislavery retaining or capturing enslaved people. (Image: Library of Congress) on their way to Missouri. The as westward expansion, empire, forces—led by the likes of reason for that, of course, was that and migration, but these events Governor Edward Coles, John slavery was banned by Article VI also helped to generate a political Mason Peck, and others— of the Northwest Ordinance, awakening in their respective were better able to rally their states by forcing many citizens fall ’19/winter ’20

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Although opposed to slavery his entire life, Virginia-born Edward Coles (1786-1868) knew Thomas Jefferson and James Madison before moving to the Illinois Territory and becoming the state’s second governor in 1822. When he moved, he “Their Blood has manumitted his slaves he owned in Virginia in 1819 and acquired land for them to farm. (Image: Collections of the Illinois State Historical Library, archive.com) Like Coles, John Mason Peck (1789- 1858) was a prominent opponent of slavery in Illinois as well as Missouri. Peck arrived in St. Louis in 1817 and co-founded the First Baptist Church of St. Louis. (Image: Forty Years of Pioneer Life: Flown and Mingled slavery A Memoir, archive.org) ...most Missourians could not imagine their state without it.

constituencies around this issue to relationship to Illinois, and the important factor, in Illinois defeat the measure. The emergence ones that do generally highlight becoming a free state. The same of an antislavery nationalism the similarities between the two holds true for Missouri, whose during the convention movement, states and the artificiality of the lack of these structures or of most clearly expressed by border dividing them. In turn, anything resembling the Governor Coles, would become these accounts tend to collapse Northwest Ordinance allowed Illinois at the foundation of the Republican all meaningful distinctions that slavery to grow in the years before the time of 4 statehood. Party three decades later. Others actually did differentiate Illinois statehood—so much so, in fact, with Ours”:(Image: David The Poli-have emphasized the economic from Missouri.6 While great work that most Missourians could not Ramsay Map Collection) aspects of the struggle, recognizing on that topic has been written, my imagine their state without it. that the campaign was an attempt larger research goals, only narrowly by poor whites who sought to covered in this essay, stress that As historians such as David destroy the political influence of Missouri and Illinois were Waldstreicher and others have the bourgeois Yankees and the different, and that the border argued, politics in the early republic Southern-born slaveholders who between them, while arbitrary, was simultaneously local dominated politics in early Illinois. had a large impact on how and national, and how people These interpretations recognize the states developed from the understood and defined themselves either implicitly or explicitly that late-eighteenth century through in relationship to the nation was the event was fundamentally a to the antebellum period. filtered through political practices 7 battle over the future of the state, The colonial and territorial and ceremonies at the local level. and whether freedom or slavery institutions put in place in Illinois, Therefore, I seek to understand tics of Slavery in Illiwould dominate-.5 most importantly the Northwest the local and national debates Ordinance, laid out the legal and that surrounded the Missouri Very few studies account political structures of that Crisis and the Illinois convention for Missouri’s role in these territory, and the Ordinance was movement, which I argue had the developments and their a key factor, perhaps the most opposite effect. Consequently, this nois and Missouri in the Early Republic fall ’19/winter ’20

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Thomas Hart Benton (1782- Illinois and Missouri occupied a space that 1858) ranks among Missouri’s James Tallmadge (1778-1853) most noted senators. When has been termed the ...where the is perhaps best known as an he first moved to the Missouri “American Confluence,” antislavery member of the Territory he became one of House of Representatives the region’s most influential Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers converge. who proposed the “Tallmadge opinion-makers as editor of Amendment” to the bill the Missouri Enquirer. He was allowing Missouri to become a the architect of ideas about state by restricting slavery and Manifest Destiny in the West, phasing it out, requiring that and a defender of Jacksonian “the further introduction of Democracy and Andrew slavery or involuntary servitude Jackson, despite his having essay attempts to understand how much of the colonial period and American South or in the wider be prohibited, except for the wounded Jackson earlier punishment of crimes, whereof in a brawl. (Image: Library and why Missourians came to beyond. The French brought Atlantic World. This situation the party shall have been fully of Congress) see themselves differently from slaves to the Illinois Country in would carry over into the Early convicted; and that all children born within the said State their counterparts in Illinois. the early eighteenth century to Republic. By the 1810s, both Illinois [Missouri] after the admission work in the lead mines of and Missouri were beginning to thereof into the Union, shall be By the Civil War, both Illinois free at the age of twenty-five present-day southeastern Missouri come to terms with slavery in years.” The House passed the and Missouri looked vastly different and southern Illinois. Slavery even their respective territories. Despite Amendment but the Senate culturally, economically, and did not. (Image: New York existed in some form for centuries the Northwest Ordinance’s ban Public Library) politically, but those differences before European contact, and it on “slavery and involuntary had not always been as pronounced functioned as a way for indigenous servitude,” unfree labor dominated as they would come to be by 1860. groups to organize power and to the social and political system of they submitted their application Missouri by that time. Petitions allow them to enter the Union Both were once part of French fashion diplomatic ties.9 A hybrid Illinois in the period immediately for statehood in 1818. They faced for statehood had begun circulating on “equal footing” with the other Louisiana, occupying what some slave system of Indian and African preceding statehood. Illinois had a challenging dilemma. If the among residents of the territory states. The “anti-restrictionist” have termed a borderland, and the slavery emerged and would have the largest slave population in the majority proslavery constitutional in 1817, and the first petitions crusade in Missouri reached a connections forged there did not broad implications into the Northwest Territory, with most convention passed a state were submitted to Congress in head in 1820, when the debates in vanish when the French lost their nineteenth century, when laws enslaved people either working constitution that was seen as early 1818. For various reasons, Congress were at their apotheosis. colonies to the British and Spanish began to be passed defining slavery in the rich alluvial plain of the too proslavery, it would likely be they would have to wait nearly Public meetings were held in the Seven Years’ War, nor did in strictly racial terms. Though American Bottom or in the salt rejected by Congress and possibly a year before a statehood bill throughout the territory, the that relationship completely break plantation slavery on the scale of mines near Shawneetown. Aside draw unwanted attention to the would finally be heard.14 By early newspapers printed news from when the region began to become contemporary colonies in British from this, a system of quasi-slavery system in Illinois. If they passed a 1819, Congress was finally ready Congress on their proceedings, heavily populated and overrun by North America never really took existed in the Illinois Territory, constitution similar to Indiana’s, to debate the topic of Missouri and tensions were known to get Americans in the late-eighteenth hold in the region, a successful where thousands of former slaves with explicit provisions that statehood when an enabling quite heated. On the one hand, and early nineteenth centuries. export economy surrounding the were converted to indentured prevented the further introduction act was submitted that would Joseph Charless, the editor of As stated above, however, we must trade in cereal grain emerged in servants with contracts lasting up of the practice, then proslavery allow Missourians to form a the Missouri Gazette and Public be careful not to take that too the eighteenth century, and the to 99 years.11 However, indentured Illinoisans would not get what constitutional convention. The Advertiser, argued that the people far, and it is in moments like the Illinois Country would prove to servitude was not slavery, and they wanted, and they would be antislavery representative James of the territory should decide Missouri Crisis and the Illinois be a valuable colony in France’s the fact that slaveholders had to forced to either sell their slaves, Tallmadge “tossed a bombshell the issue of slavery, which three convention movement that the Atlantic Empire, providing the either create or find a way around convert them to indentures, or into the Era of Good Feelings” decades later would come to be ruptures between these two states, provisions for slave colonies in the this loophole suggests that move.12 The constitution that was by proposing that gradual known as popular sovereignty. and eventually between the North Caribbean. By the 1750s, around the Northwest Ordinance was passed ultimately did draw the ire emancipation and the further That slavery was even a question and South, became manifest. 40 percent of French settlers in a powerful barrier with which of antislavery congressmen such importation of slaves be was proving to be a controversial the Illinois Country owned slaves, slaveholders were forced to contend. as James Tallmadge, James Taylor, prohibited as a condition of position. On the other hand, John For nearly a century, Illinois and in Missouri the slave population and Arthur Livermore, but Missouri statehood.15 This single Scott and Thomas Hart Benton and Missouri occupied a space accounted for around 13 percent Unfree labor was well integrated the constitution passed by a event would set off a national emerged as the territory’s that has been termed the “American of the population by the turn in the Illinois economy by the wide margin, and slavery was and regional debate about the strongest advocates for the Confluence,” a vast region in the of the nineteenth century.10 1810s and had continued to be protected in Illinois. future of slavery in the West. admittance of Missouri with North American interior where a political issue for much of the slavery intact.16 The latter’s the Missouri, Mississippi, and Slavery in the American period that immediately preceded Missourians looked with Missourians themselves were newspaper, the Ohio rivers converge.8 Despite St. Louis Enquirer, Confluence developed into its statehood in 1818. Proslavery curiosity on Illinois during this deeply committed to the cause of helped launch Benton’s political slavery’s long tradition in the 13 own discrete and heterogeneous Illinoisans had to carefully navigate process. That the territory would statehood and felt betrayed by the career, and it was known to region, the system had occupied a system; as a result, it never established a changing regional and national submit a proslavery constitution Tallmadge Amendment, which publish editorials pushing for unique, if imprecise, place within the institutional backing that terrain surrounding slavery when was all but a foregone conclusion, would restrict their freedom to statehood and anti-restriction.17 the American Confluence for other forms of slavery took in the as slavery was well-established in own slaves and potentially not fall ’19/winter ’20

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Residents of Missouri and While residents of Missouri ground, of course, recognized this, toasted the MissouriIllinois closely followed the debatester were some of the- strongest which is why those who migrated in Congress, and they were deeply advocates for unconditional with slaves from the Upper South, A Mr. Daniel Smith of Edwardsville concerned with the future of statehood, residents of Illinois or those who sought to own their states. Toasts published in were somewhat divided over slaves, clearly preferred Missouri toasted quite humorously, that... the local newspapers indicate not the issue, both at the state to Illinois. only a striking awareness of the constitutional convention and implications of the Missouri Crisis, beyond. Admitting slavery in After a bitter and protracted but also the knowledge of the Missouri could make the push for struggle that lasted nearly three constitutional questions that the slavery by proslavery advocates years, the Missouri Crisis was “if must be tolerated process provoked. Missourians in Illinois easier. The contingent finally settled with the help of slavery gave tribute to their political leaders, at the Illinois state constitutional Henry Clay and Jesse Burgess urging them to gain sense and convention had hoped to revisit Thomas, the latter a senator from [in Missouri], let it be allow their territories to become a the issue of slavery at some point Illinois. Still, it was the antislavery ritory, that it may state.enter A number of Irishmen met in the future, and the admittance speeches by Cook, himself Illinois’ on St. Patrick’s Day 1820 in of a proslavery Missouri might lone representative in the House on these terms, that master St. Louis and toasted the Missouri make that possible. Conversely, of Representatives and the only Territory, that it may enter its allowing slavery in Missouri member of the state’s delegation and slave change positions “entitled rank among the states could also antagonize the growing to vote against the admission of of the union” and may have “a antislavery contingent in Illinois, Missouri, that angered Missouri’s constitution of her own choice.” 18 led by the likes of Governor slaveholders. In an interesting every seven years!” The meeting of the St. Louis Coles, Daniel P. Cook, and John episode of interstate conflict that Mechanics Benevolent Society Mason Peck, among others.20 would further inflame antislavery went so far as to toast not only In his History of Illinois, future advocates, the editor of the Missouri but Illinois, which at the governor Thomas Ford reveals Edwardsville Spectator revealed time was approaching statehood, a different view, writing that at that he had uncovered a conspiracy and whose “blood has flowed the time of the Missouri Crisis, by Missourians who were plotting its “entit led rank and mingledamong with ours.” 19 A Mr. “every great road [in Illinois] was to make Illinois a slave state. Daniel Smith of Edwardsville crowded and full” of immigrants Apparently, proslavery Missourians toasted, quite humorously, that “if bound for Missouri, and that the were attempting to purchase the slavery must there be tolerated [in “short-sighted policy of Illinois” Illinois Gazette in Shawneetown Missouri], let it be on these terms, prevented slaveholders coming and establish another newspaper that master and slave change from the east from settling and in Edwardsville, which would 23 conditions every seven years!” purchasing lands in Illinois.21 serve as a base of their operations. Many in Missouri and Illinois saw The fact that slavery was illegal in In his memoirs, Peck dedicated that entering the union on each Illinois caused great anxiety in the several pages to the Illinois state’s own terms was crucial, and early years of statehood for some, convention movement, concluding that a sense of kinship was felt and it was clear to many at the that “there can be no doubt that by those on either side of the time that its illegality was holding a deep-laid plan was formed for Mississippi. It seems that for at the state back and preventing its securing the consummation of least some inhabitants of residents from taking part in the this scheme [to admit slavery in the states of the union” 24 Illinois, the Missouri Crisis was wealth and prosperity that new Illinois].” Though there is little theirs as well. migrants with slaves could offer.22 evidence of an actual conspiracy Slaveholders and people on the by proslavery Missourians and and may have “a consti- tution fall ’19/winter ’20

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Missourians became ENDNOTES 1 Missouri Gazette and Public 8 Aron, American Confluence. 17 Harrison Anthony Trexler, Slavery in that Advertiser, June 3, 1819. Missouri, 1804–1865 (Baltimore: Johns convinced was 9 Brett Rushforth, Bonds of Alliance: Hopkins University Press, 1914), 100–108; slavery 2 George Dangerfield, The Awakening Indigenous and Atlantic Slaveries F. C. Shoemaker, Missouri’s Struggle for central to their of American Nationalism, 1815–1828 in New France (Chapel Hill: University Statehood, 1804–1821 (New York: Russell (Prospect Heights, Ill. Waveland Press, of North Carolina Press, 2014), 29. & Russell, 1969), 109–33; Ken Mueller, progress and prosperity... 1994), 109; Sean Wilentz, The Rise of Senator Benton and the People: Master American Democracy: Jefferson to 10 Margaret Cross Norton, Illinois Census Race Democracy on the Early American Lincoln (New York: Norton, 2005), 223. Returns, Collections of the Illinois State Frontiers (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Press, Historical Library (Springfield: Trustees 2014). See St. Louis Enquirer, March 17, 3 Rep. James Tallmadge of New York of the Illinois State Historical Library, 1819, and St. Louis Enquirer, June 16, 1819, was suspicious of Illinois’ territorial 1934), xxi, xxvi; Carl J. Ekberg, French for the clearest expression of Benton’s Illinoisans working together to on slavery. Illinoisans were more Morrow Prize population, and he requested a Roots in the Illinois Country: The political ideology, where he articulates document be submitted to Congress Mississippi Frontier in Colonial Times his vision of westward expansion, legalize slavery, many at the time conflicted over the issue of slavery This article received the 2017 Lynn “showing that the Territory had the (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, and issues in January 1819 to March began to lament the closeness of in Missouri, as well as the future population required” to apply for 2000), 152; Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. 1820, where he expresses his proslavery the two states, and the differences of slavery in their own state. and Kristen Morrow Missouri History statehood. See Annals of Cong., 2nd Kremer, and Antonio Frederick Holland, position for Missouri. Student Prize, awarded for the best Sess., 306. Missouri’s Black Heritage (Columbia: were becoming more pronounced. While a large antislavery contingent 18 student paper on an aspect of Missouri University of Missouri Press, 1993), 14; Missouri Gazette and Public Advertiser, The borderland was becoming a existed in the former during the 4 Suzanne Cooper Guasco, Confronting J. Viles, “Population and Extent of March 22, 1820. site of conflict and division, early years of statehood, the history presented at the Missouri Slavery: Edward Coles and the Rise of Settlement in Missouri before 1804,” 19 which would become much more legislature was dominated by Conference on History. The annual Antislavery Politics in Nineteenth- Missouri Historical Review 5, no. 4 Ibid., July 10, 1818. Missouri Conference on History Century America (DeKalb: Northern (n.d.): 189–213. evident as the years went on. Southern interests, which Illinois University Press, 2013), 105–33; 20 Memoir of John Mason Peck, ed. brings together teachers of history and meant that legalizing slavery was Suzanne Cooper Guasco, “‘The 11 M. Scott Heerman, “In a State of Rufus Babcock (Philadelphia: American The Missouri Crisis and the a major concern. other professional historians to share Deadly Influence of Negro Capitalists’: Slavery: Black Servitude in Illinois, Baptist Publication Society, 1864). convention movement in Illinois in the presentation of the results of Southern Yeomen and Resistance to the 1800–1830,” Early American Studies: 21 research, to exchange information on Expansion of Slavery in Illinois,” Civil War An Interdisciplinary Journal 14, no. 1 Thomas Ford, A History of Illinois, were crucial events in the politics These episodes tell us much History 47, no. 1 (2001): 7–29. See also (2016): 114–39, https://doi.org/10.1353/ From Its Commencement as a State in of slavery that would develop about the politics of slavery in teaching and curriculum, to consider Daniel Peart, Era of Experimentation: eam.2016.0003; Paul Finkelman, 1818 to 1847 (New York: Ivison & in the antebellum period. Some the Mississippi River borderland ways to promote interest in history American Political Practices in the Early “Evading the Ordinance: The Persistence Phinney, 1854), 51. historians have argued that the in the years before the Civil War. and the welfare of the profession, Republic (Charlottesville: University of Bondage in Indiana and Illinois,” of Virginia Press, 2014), 47–72, for a Journal of the Early Republic 9, no. 1 22 Matthew W. Hall, Dividing the Missouri Crisis was in many ways Connections or kinship between and to discuss other concerns common different perspective. (1989): 21–51; James Edward Davis, Union: Jesse Burgess Thomas and the a rehearsal for the conflicts that Illinois and Missouri obviously to all historians. Frontier Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana Making of the Missouri Compromise would arise in the era of the Civil never went away, giving slavery a 5 James Simeone, Democracy and University Press, 1998), 165–66. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University 25 Slavery in Frontier Illinois: The Press, 2016), 116–17. Wa r. While that may be true, it central role in the politics and culture Bottomland Republic (DeKalb: Northern 12 Davis, Frontier Illinois, 166; M. Scott is clear that in the Missouri Crisis, in the West. Eventually, those Illinois University Press, 2000). Heerman, The Alchemy of Slavery: 23 Glover Moore, The Missouri a free labor discourse did emerge, connections would come to play Human Bondage and Emancipation Controversy, 1819–1821 (Lexington: 6 Historians who are especially guilty in the Illinois Country, 1730–1865 University of Kentucky Press, 1966), while at the same time Southerners a divisive role in the years before of this are Stephen Aron, Christopher (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania 284–87; Norman Dwight Harris, The began to articulate a vision of the Civil War. As the expansion Phillips, Matthew Salafia, and Anne Press, 2018), 98–99. History of Negro Servitude in Illinois a West with slavery intact.26 of slavery became more fraught Twitty. Stephen Aron, American and of the Slavery Agitation in That 13 Missourians became convinced and contested, the structures and Confluence: The Missouri Frontier See issues of the Missouri Gazette, State, 1719–1864 (New York: Negro from Borderland to Border State Missouri Intelligencer and St. Louis Universities Press, 1969), 27–29. See also that slavery was central to their institutions put in place on either (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Enquirer in 1823–24. Edwardsville Spectator, August 1, 1820. progress and prosperity as a state, side of the border would play a 2006); Anne Twitty, Before Dred and therefore were the strongest large role in how each place came Scott: Slavery and Legal Culture in the 14 “Memorial of the Citizens of the 24 Memoir of John Mason Peck, 195. American Confluence, 1787–1857 (New Missouri Territory,” http://digital.shsmo. advocates for the admission of to understand slavery’s role in its York: Cambridge University Press, 2016). org/cdm/ref/collection/GovColl/ 25 Moore, The Missouri Controversy, their state without restrictions future. For Illinois, the Northwest For a delineation of the problems id/20762 1819-1821. Ordinance, while regularly with borderlands as a framework, see Johann N. Neem, “From Polity to 15 Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath 26 Joshua Michael Zeitz, “The Missouri circumventing slavery, proved too Exchange: The Fate of Democracy in God Wrought: The Transformation of Compromise Reconsidered: Antislavery difficult a thing to evade entirely. the Changing Fields of Early American America, 1815-1848 (Oxford: Rhetoric and the Emergence of the Historiography,” Modern Intellectual Oxford University Press, 2007), 147. Free Labor Synthesis,” Journal of the History 15, no. 3 (2018): 1–22. Early Republic 20, no. 3 (2000): 447–85, 16 Perry McCandless, “The Rise of https://doi.org/10.2307/3125065; 7 David Waldstreicher, In the Midst of Thomas H. Benton in Missouri Guasco, Confronting Slavery. Perpetual Fetes: The Making of American Politics,” Missouri Historical Review Nationalism, 1776–1820 (Chapel Hill: 50, no. 1 (1955): 18–20. University of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1997), 10.