Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections

­Overland­Boat­Transportation­During­the­Pharaonic­Period: Archaeology­and­­Iconography

Pearce­Paul­Creasman Laboratory­of­­Tree-­Ring­­Research,­University­of­­Arizona Noreen­­Doyle Institute­of­Maritime­Research­and­­Discovery

Abstract

Pharaonic Egyptian needs for waterborne transport surpassed the convenience of geography. Several obstacles— chiefly the lack of a water pas - sage from the Nile Valley to the Red Sea and the unnavigable waters of the Second Cataract— had to be overcome. The Egyptians achieved this by techniques of hull construction, by architectural means, and by the employment of vehicles. Vehicles also functioned for the ceremonial transport of boats and boat- shaped shrines. This paper is a survey of the methods of overland boat transportation during the pharaonic period, with an emphasis on the archaeological and iconographic evidence.

or­the­ancient­Egyptians,­the­material­world­of­everyday was­the­focus­of­the­Red­Sea­trade,­and­from­there­came­valuable life­encompassed­three­major­bodies­of­water:­the­Nile,­the exotic­commodities,­including­frankincense­and­ebony. 6 e­Red FMediterranean,­and­the­Red­Sea.­While­the­Nile­provided Sea­was,­for­the­Egyptians,­­“land-­locked”­in­pharaonic­times, pharaonic­Egypt­with­its­“superhighway,”­greatly­facilitating­the accessible­from­the­Nile­Valley­only­through­the­wadis­of­the north-­and­southbound­transportation­of­cargo­and­passengers, 1 Eastern­Desert. 7 Absence­of­sufficient­resources­to­support­an it­also­presented­obstacles­in­the­form­of­cataracts­beyond­the independent­coastal­boatbuilding­industry­made­naval­opera - Nubian­border.­Furthermore,­until­the­creation­of­a­canal­dur - tions­there­dependent­upon­the­importation­of­watercra,­either ing­the­Late­Period, 2 it­provided­no­east/west­corridor­to­the as­timber,­as­boat­parts,­or­as­more­or­less­constructed­­watercra. Red­Sea,­which­was­the­marine­route­not­only­to­the­nearby Although­the­Red­Sea­trade­could­date­from­as­early­as­the Sinai­Peninsula­(with­its­valuable­turquoise,­malachite,­and­cop - Naqada­II­period, 8 the­earliest­textual­evidence­suggesting­the per­ores)­but­also­to­the­Arabian­and­east­African­coasts. 3 What transport­of­boats­or­boat­timbers­through­the­Eastern­Desert accident­of­geography­omitted,­the­Egyptians­themselves­engi - dates­to­the­reign­of­Pepy­II.­Pepynakht­called­Heqaib­records­an neered­to­provide:­where­water­could­not­be­brought­to­boats, expedition­undertaken­during­this­reign­into­the­“country­of­the boats­were­brought­overland­to­water.­e­terrestrial­geography aAmw .” 9 Although­the­inscription­does­not­specify­the­location­of of­Egypt­had­thus­a­profound­effect­on­its­nautical­­technology. 4 the­expedition, 10 the­ aAmw are­generally­taken­to­be­the­predeces - e­archaeological­record,­including­texts,­iconography,­arti - sors­of­Eastern­Desert­Bedouin. 11­ Pepy­II­charged­Pepynakht facts,­and­site­features,­provides­a­variety­of­information­on­which with­fetching­back­the­corpse­of­an­officer­named­Anankhet, to­base­interpretations­of­the­general­nature­and­importance­of whom­the­ aAmw had­slain.­Anankhet­and­his­soldiers,­who­were overland­boat­transportation­during­the­pharaonic­period. also­killed­in­the­attack,­were­in­the­region­to­construct­( spt ,­liter - However,­just­as­with­the­transportation­of­stone, 5 Egyptian ally­“bind”) 12 a­“Byblos”­boat­( kbnt )­for­a­journey­to­Punt. administrative­records­and­monumental­inscriptions­omit­most ough­it­was­formerly­suggested­that­Byblos­boats­were­neces - logistical­details­regarding­the­conveyance­of­watercra­over­­land. sarily­built­on­the­Syrian­coast­by­Syrian­shipwrights, 13 it­is­now generally­accepted­that­the­term­derives­from­the­seagoing­run Eastern Desert Portage on­which­such­boats­were­first­­employed. 14 While­it­has­been­conjectured­that­fully­constructed­water - Although­also­reachable­by­the­Nile­and­overland­routes,­the cra­could­have­been­transported­through­the­desert, 15 the­evi - land­of­Punt­(identified­with­the­region­now­occupied­by­Eritrea, dence­(linguistic­and­otherwise)­better­supports­the­more­usual northern­Ethiopia,­and­eastern­Sudan,­as­well­as­southern­Arabia) contention­that­expeditions­brought­timbers­and­that­assembly

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Figure . Unpegged mortise- and- tenon joint. took­place­on­the­shore. 16 A­general­description­of­such­an­expedi - tion,­led­by­the­“Keeper­of­the­Door­of­the­South,”­Henu,­dates to­the­reign­of­Mentuhotep­III. 17 In­setting­off­on­his­journey­to Punt,­Henu­“went­forth­from­Koptos­upon­the­road”­(i.e.,­the Wadi­Hammamat)­with­an­army­of­three­thousand­men­(this was­perhaps­an­ideal,­if­not­standard,­complement;­an­inscription at­Ayn­Soukhna­also­mentions­three­thousand­men 18 ).­Donkeys accompanied­them,­but­their­only­listed­burdens­are­sandals. Once­on­the­coast,­Henu­“made­this­ship”­( iri Haww pn ).­On­the return­through­the­wadi,­aer­the­naval­expedition­had­secured Figure . Transportation of a colossal statue by means of a sledge; the­“gis”­and­completed­the­round­trip,­Henu­and­his­men porters carry a timber in hand, after Newberry and Fraser, El picked­up­blocks­of­stone­hewn­from­the­­hills. Bersheh Part 1, The Tomb of Tehuti- hetep (1895), pl. xv. e­large­number­of­men­and­the­variety­of­their­tasks­(secu - rity,­transportation,­boatbuilding,­sailing,­­well-­digging,­and­quar - rying)­indicate­the­logistical­complexity­of­the­expedition. Unfortunately,­as­this­is­a­commemorative­inscription­and­not an­administrative­document,­Henu­omits­details­critical­to understanding­the­organization­and­execution­of­the­expedition. e­text­indicates­specifics­of­neither­boat­transport­nor­boat construction,­and­there­is­no­corresponding­iconography­from Figure . Log or timber carried to a boatyard slung from a carrying any­period­related­to­overland­transport­toward—­or­boat­assem - pole, after Davies, Crum, and Boulenger, The Rock Tombs of Deir el bly­on—­the­Red­Sea­­coast. 19 Gebrâwi I (1902), pl. XXIV. However,­two­coastal­sites,­Mersa­Gawasis/Wadi­Gawasis and­Ayn­Soukhna,­provide­direct­archaeological­evidence. e­pharaonic­site­at­Ayn­Soukhna,­which­includes­at­least Scholars­have­known­of­the­pharaonic­site­at­Mersa nine­galleries­dug­into­the­base­of­a­mountain­overlooking­the­sea, Gawasis/Wadi­Gawasis­for­at­least­fiy­years 20 but­did­not­fully presents­similar­evidence. 24 No­fewer­than­three­galleries­date­to understand­its­significance­until­the­last­decade,­when­it­became the­Old­Kingdom, 25 and­others­are­of­tentative­Middle­Kingdom the­focus­of­revived­attention­that­remains­ongoing. 21 e­site­is date.­Numerous­cedar­ship­planks­(and­at­least­two­oak­planks) located­at­the­eastern­end­of­the­Wadi­Gawasis,­north­of­the with­characteristically­Nilotic­unpegged­­mortise-­and-­tenons Wadi­Hammamat.­At­least­seven­chambers­hewn­from­the­lime - (Figure­1)­yield­carbon­dates­of­approximately­2000 bce .26 stone­terrace­served­as­warehouses. 22 Evidence­of­occupation e­sites­have­not­yet­yielded­the­precise­means­by­which­tim - has­been­confirmed­for­the­Old­and­Middle­Kingdoms,­when bers­initially­arrived.­None­of­the­inscriptions­indicate­any­means the­site­likely­served­as­a­seasonal­harbor­for­expeditions,­espe - of­conveyance,­although­working­scenes­attest­to­timbers­carried cially­to­Punt.­Here­too­are­found­disarticulated­ship­timbers in­hand­(Figure­2) 27 and­slung­from­carrying­poles­(Figure 3). 28 and­a­host­of­other­­ship-­related­components­displaying­the­char - Definitive­traces­of­construction­on­the­shore­are­also­lacking, acteristics­of­the­Nilotic­boatbuilding­tradition:­unpegged and­indeed,­as­Ward­and­Zazzaro­point­out,­“it­is­hard­to­imagine ­mortise-­and-­tenon­joinery,­dovetails,­and­lashing­­channels. 23 what­might­indicate­­ship-­assembly­rather­than­disassembly”­at­a

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Figure . Funerary procession, after Naville, Das Ägyptische Totenbuch der XVIII. bis XX. Dynastie I (1971), Taf. III.D.a. site­such­as­Wadi­Gawasis. 29 At­both­this­site­and­Ayn­Soukhna, of­a­pegged­hull­would­have­required­breaking­timbers,­or­at­least stored­timbers­represent­the­end­(or­at­least­intended­middle) drilling­or­hammering­out­hundreds­of­pegs­per­vessel,­appears­not stage­in­the­existence­of­the­seagoing­ships­from­which­they­came. to­have­suited­the­pharaonic­Egyptian­shipwrights’­purpose. At­Wadi­Gawasis,­damaged­timbers­were­marked­before­disassem - Although­it­would­have­resulted­in­improved­seaworthiness,­peg - bly­of­the­vessel,­and­workers­removed­barnacles­and­other ging­would­have­limited­the­reuse­of­timbers­and­would­have­made marine­incrustations­before­storing­timbers­in­the­caves—­all­indi - the­regular­disassembly­of­hulls­an­excruciating­and­impractical cations­of­intent­to­reuse. 30 Like­the­disassembled­Khufu­I­boat task.­e­concession­seems­clear:­more­time­invested­in­construc - interred­at­Giza,­the­Ayn­Soukhna­timbers­were­stacked­in­an tion­(and­perhaps­maintenance)­of­lashed­and­unpegged­hulls­was organized­manner,­ready­for­future­­application. 31 exchanged­for­savings­when­the­vessels­were­in­use.­e­returns­on Ship-­breaking­with­the­aim­of­preserving­the­utility­of­at the­initial­construction­investment­would­have­compounded­each least­some­timbers­was­made­practical­by­the­prevalent­form­of time­a­vessel­was­disassembled­and­­reassembled. construction­employed­in­the­hulls;­this­was,­to­all­evidence,­a Ease­of­disassembly­should­also­be­considered­in­the­context deliberate­goal­of­pharaonic­­shipbuilders. 32 of­large­Nilotic­vessels,­particularly­obelisk­barges.­e­volume­of Evidence­of­lashings­(cordage­run­from­plank­to­plank­in timber­required­to­transport­such­architectural­elements­down - order­to­essentially­“sew”­the­boat­together)­on­the­inboard­faces stream­from­the­quarries­would­have­been­astounding,­and­tow - of­timbers­can­be­found­on­the­remains­of­most­pharaonic­vessels, ing­a­vessel­of­such­large­proportions­upstream­ to the­quarries beginning­no­later­than­the­Early­Dynastic,­as­represented­by­the (either­from­the­shipyard­where­it­was­constructed­or­back­from boat­burials­at­Abydos. 33 Repurposed­boat­timbers­were­found­in its­last­port­of­call)­might­not­have­been­practical.­e­river­cur - the­First­Dynasty­cemetery­at­Tarkhan, 34 while­timbers­“recycled” rent,­which­could­reach­4­knots, 45 could­have­proved­impassable for­the­construction­of­a­Twelh­Dynasty­ramp­appeared­at when­the­barge­was­headed­southward.­Disassembly­of­a­barge, Lisht. 35 All­of­these—­in­addition­to­the­timbers­from­Ayn for­subsequent­transport­of­the­timbers­on­smaller,­more­stream - Soukhna­and­Wadi­Gawasis,­the­Fourth­Dynasty­Khufu­I­vessel lined­vessels,­might­have­been­a­better­­option. 46 at­Giza, 36 and­possibly­the­boats­from­the­pyramid­complex­of Senwosret­III­at­Dahshur 37 —likely­demonstrate­evidence­of­lash - Slipways and Vehicles ing.­is­would­have­made­the­boats­easily­disassembled­(or, indeed,­as­evidenced­by­the­modern­reconstruction­of­Khufu­I, 38 e­wooden­runners­of­sledges,­with­their­characteristic easily­reassembled)­using­a­few­specialized­­tools. 39 blunt­and­usually­upturned­forward­ends,­oen­appear­in­paint - e­second­key­element­of­hull­joinery­is­characterized­by ings­and­reliefs­showing­the­transport­of­large­or­heavy­objects. what­it­lacks:­ pegged ­mortise-­and-­tenons.­In­absolute­terms­of­hull Items­transported­by­this­method­included­stone­blocks­and­fin - integrity,­pegged­­mortise-­and-­tenon­joinery­is­more­effective­than ished­architectural­features­such­as­colossal­statuary,­columns, unpegged;­locking­tenons­and­planks­together­by­means­of­a­peg and­obelisks, 47 as­well­as­considerably­less­massive­but­no­less prevents­the­planks­from­slipping­laterally­or­longitudinally­when unwieldy­statuary. 48 Boats­composed­another­significant­class­of subjected­to­stresses. 40 In­the­construction­of­other­objects, objects­transported­in­this­­manner. Egyptian­carpenters­did­lock­tenons­in­this­manner­and­had­since Most­of­the­iconographic­evidence­for­such­boat­transport as­early­as­the­Naqada­III­period, 41 and­even­used­the­technique­for comes­from­the­context­of­ceremony 49 rather­than­depictions­of boat­deckhouses­(Khufu­I)­and­rudders, 42 but­they­seem­to­have working­watercra­in­scenes­of­daily­life.­A­shrine­aboard­a­cere - entirely­avoided­it­for­hull­construction. 43 Nevertheless,­beginning monial­cra,­which­might­be­a­large­model­rather­than­a­working in­about­the­fourteenth­century­ bce ,­pegged­­mortise-­and-­tenon vessel,­houses­an­image­of­the­deity­or­the­mummy­of­the joints­proved­so­effective­that­they­became­the­dominant­shipbuild - deceased,­which­is­taken­either­along­a­ritual­circuit­(in­the­case ing­technology­in­the­Mediterranean­for­about­the­next­two­thou - of­a­god)­or­from­the­embalming­station­to­the­tomb­(in­the­case sand­years. 44 Such­joinery­is­meant­to­be­permanent:­disassembly of­a­mummy;­see­Figure­4).­Model­barques­are­borne­alo­on­the

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Figure . Construction of a funerary shrine (TT51), after Davies, Figure . Portable sacred barque of Amun. O. BAM 21 446, Deir el- Two Ramesside Tombes at Thebes (1927), pl. XXXVI. Medina, after Emma Brunner- Traut and Hellmut Brunner, Osiris, Kreuz und Halbmond: die drei Religionen Ägyptens (Mainz am Rhein: von Zabern, 1984), 52 fig. 36.

Figure . Funerary procession, after Caminos, “Fragments of the ‘Book of the Dead’ on Linen and Papyrus,” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 56 (1970): pl. LIII.1. Figure . Wagon- mounted funerary shrine, after Orazio Marucchi, shoulders­of­priests­(Figure­5),­a­loier­version­of­the­presumably Guide du Musée Égyptien du Vatican (Rome: Imprimerie Polyglotte original­practice­of­drawing­boats­along­on­sledges­(suggested­by Vaticane, 1927), 40 fig. 11. the­fact­that­two­or­more­horizontal­carrying­poles 50 commonly support­a­sledge­upon­which­the­barque­sits). In­the­iconography,­funerary­vessels­large­enough­to­accom - modate­the­mummy­and­its­coffin­are­the­ceremonial­cra­far more­likely­to­be­shown­being­dragged­on­sledges. 51 Although­fre - quently­referred­to­as­boats,­many­of­the­objects­represented­in the­iconography­have­a­nature­that­transcends­the­nautical:­they are,­rather,­a­type­of­wooden­funerary­shrine.­“Boatless”­versions of­these­shrines­appear­mounted­on­sledges­or­wagons (Figure 6). 52 In­some­cases,­the­shrine­encases­the­hull;­that­is, only­stem­and­sternpost­appear­(such­as­in­Figures­7­and­8).­ese instances­may­represent­shrines­fitted­with­finials­to­give­the appearance­of­a­boat.­Although­excavation­has­revealed­no­exam - ples­of­these­­boat-­shaped­shrines,­two­such­finials—­a­matching Figure . Wagon- mounted funerary shrine, after John H. Taylor, set­of­stem­and­stern­of­New­Kingdom­date—­are­known. 53 A Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt (London: British Museum scene­of­carpenters­at­work­(Figure­7)­shows­that­shrine,­boat,­and Press, 2001), 188 no. 131. sledge­were­constructed­as­elements­of­a­single­object.­is­is­fur - ther­underscored­by­an­instance­in­which­a­­tow-­rope­is­tied­not­to beneath the­runners­(Figures­8­and­9),­which­would,­of­course,­ren - the­sledge­or­other­vehicle­but­to­the­bow­of­the­“boat”­being­trans - der­a­sledge­impractical­for­dragging.­While­these­could­be­taken ported­(Figure­9).­In­some­cases,­the­sledge­runners­might­never for­elements­of­the­wheeled­vehicle­that­carries­the­sledge­(also­dis - have­been­intended­to­facilitate­transport­of­the­object;­it­has­been cussed­below),­in­one­case­particularly­(Figure­9),­it­is­evident­that noted,­for­example,­that­neither­the­little­golden­shrine­of the­beams­(or­blocks?),­being­outside­the­wheels,­are­associated Tutankhamen 54 nor­a­small­sledge­from­Lisht­(probably­intended with­the­sledge­runner­and­not­the­wagon­body,­which­seldom for­a­canopic­chest 55 )­has­been­dragged.­In­rare­instances,­­wagon- appears­in­the­iconography.­ese­wooden­members­were­proba - ­mounted­sledges­(discussed­further­below)­have­transverse­beams bly­added­to­facilitate­liing­the­shrine­from­the­­ground. 56

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Figure . Papyrus or papyriform funerary boat towed on a sledge by six men (not shown), after Davies and Gardiner, The Tomb of Figure . Detail of funerary sledge, after Vandier d’Abbadie, Deux Antefoker (1920), pl. XIX. tombes ramessides á Gournet-Mourraï (1954), pl. XIII.

Figure . Sledge from Dahshur, from Reisner, Models of Ships and Boats (1913), 89 fig. 326.

While­such­observations­warrant­caution­in­drawing­inter - In­funerary­scenes,­such­­boat-­bearing­sledges­are­pulled­by pretations­about­functional­nautical­details­from­these­objects, a­team­of­men, 62 cattle, 63 or­both­(men­following­cattle, 64 or they­do­not­negate­the­use­of­wagons­or­sledges­to­move­bulky men­and­cattle­on­different­ropes 65 ).­Liquid­(perhaps­milk?)­was objects­such­as­boats;­these­shrines­will­thus­be­treated­as­evi - poured­in­advance­to­purify­the­way, 66 but­pouring­sufficient dence­without­­prejudice. quantities­of­water­would­also­have­the­effect­of­slicking­the e­usual­convention­is­to­show­a­single­runner,­but­on­rare roadway­for­readier­passage­of­the­sledge­runners. 67 Nile­silt occasions,­both­runners­appear—­as,­for­example,­in­the­tomb­of makes­a­highly­effective­lubricant:­once­moistened,­“it­becomes Intef-iker­(Figure­10).­is­has­the­advantage­of­showing­both as­slippery­as­ice.” 68 Iconography­attests­to­the­fact­that­the ­tow-­ropes­clearly­tied­not­to­a­beam­between­the­runners­but­to Egyptians­took­advantage­of­this­property­for­the­overland­trans - the­runners­themselves. 57 Typically,­no­means­of­attachment­is portation­of­heavy­objects. 69 Indeed,­it­has­been­observed­that shown,­and­the­line­of­the­rope­simply­terminates­at­the­sledge, the­underside­of­at­least­one­of­the­extant­sledges­did­not­have though­in­some­images­a­ring­(presumably­metal)­affixed­to­the scratches,­which­indicates­that,­if­it­was­dragged­it­all,­it­was­not runner­serves­as­a­purchase­to­tie­rope(s)­(Figure­11). 58 In­other pulled­over­(or­at­least­not­damaged­by)­rough­­surfaces. 70 cases,­ropes­(which­in­the­iconography­can­appear­as­one­or­two­in In­nautical­terminology,­“slipway”­refers­to­a­sloping­section number 59 )­are­tied­directly­around­the­runners­(Figure­10). of­shore­on­which­ships­and­boats­can­more­easily­be­moved­to Few­working­sledges­(Figure­12)­are­known. 60 One­was and­from­the­water.­e­term­has­been­more­widely­applied­to found—­along­with­as­many­as­five­boats—­buried­beyond­an­outer any­path­across­which­an­object­may­be­dragged,­pushed,­or enclosure­wall­southwest­of­Senwosret­III’s­pyramid­at­Dahshur; 61 towed. 71 Kemp­defines­the­term­more­narrowly­as­a­­mud- presumably,­it­carried­at­least­one,­if­not­all,­of­the­boats­to­the­site ­lubricated­roadway, 72 which­may­or­may­not­be­reinforced­with for­burial.­Each­runner,­which­has­the­same­upturned­end­that stone,­timber,­or­mudbrick.­Slipways­without­some­kind­of­rein - appears­in­paintings­and­reliefs,­measures­4.21­m­in­length­and­has forcement­are­likely­to­have­been­overlooked,­reclaimed­by­the an­­L-­shaped­mortise­running­between­the­upper­and­outer­side Nile­or­desert,­or­otherwise­obscured­from­the­archaeological face­immediately­behind­the­upturn­(presumably­for­fastening­a record.­Most­were­probably­convenient­paths­reinforced­as­neces - ­tow-­rope).­e­overall­width­of­the­sledge­is­approximately­80­cm. sary­for­the­task­at­hand­and­later­disassembled­to­reuse­the­mate - Four­crossbeams­span­the­space­between­the­runners.­e­extant rials,­thus­leaving­little,­if­any,­evidence.­Occasionally,­more­per - sledges,­or­records­thereof,­seem­to­indicate­that­4­m­by­slightly manent­facilities­were­devised,­such­as­the­launching­slipway­at less­than­1­m­could­be­considered­common­­dimensions. the­quay­at­Karnak 73 and­the­portage­slipway­at­­Mirgissa. 74

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Figure . Slipway around the Second Cataract at Mirgissa, after Vila, “Les vestiges de la plaine,” in Vercoutter, Mirgissa I (1970), 193 fig. 1 .

Figure . Transverse section of the Mirgissa slipway, after Vila, “Les vestiges de la plaine,” in Vercoutter, Mirgissa I (1970), 209 fig. 16.

Aptly­conceived­as­a­“boat­road,” 75 the­Mirgissa­slipway,­the were­invested­to­construct­such­an­elaborate­portage­suggests­the only­known­example­of­its­type,­was­constructed­to­avoid­the significance,­in­quality­or­quantity,­of­the­traffic.­It­is­certainly­by least­navigable­portion­of­the­Second­Cataract­(Figure 13); 76 in intent­that­the­southern­end­of­the­slipway­was­in­close­proxim - the­vicinity­of­the­rock­of­Abu­Sir,­south­of­Wadi­Halfa,­the­Nile ity­to­the­fort­of­Mirgissa­(for­monitoring­and­protection),­with became­“scarcely­navigable­for­a­considerable­distance.”­is­was the­northern­end­perhaps­at­Matuga­or­Abu­Sir. 79 It­ran­straight the­customary­­end-­and-­return­point­for­nineteenth-­and­early for­no­less­than­1.5­and­perhaps­as­much­as­4­­km. 80 twentieth–century­European­tourists­venturing­up­the­Nile. 77 Used­at­least­as­late­as­the­reign­of­Amenemhat­III­and­pos - During­the­inundation,­the­rocks­and­islands­of­the­cataract sibly­into­the­New­Kingdom, 81 the­slipway­was­not­a­simple might­be­submerged,­turning­this­portion­of­the­river­into­a ditch­or­rut,­but­had­a­support­structure­of­mud­bricks,­packed stretch­of­rapids;­when­low,­from­roughly­December­to­July,­the mud,­and­lateral­wooden­ties­“rather­like­[a]­railroad” river­ran­very­­shallow. 78 (Figure 14). 82 e­slipway­itself­is­approximately­3­m­wide, 83 Because­neither­trade,­exploration,­nor­war­wait­for­high more­than­enough­to­accommodate­the­maximum­beam­(width) waters,­slipways­to­ensure­safe­portage­were­prudent­investments of­the­Twelh­Dynasty­Dahshur­boats­(2.15–2.43 m84 )­and of­potentially­great­strategic­advantage.­at­labor­and­resources would­provide­ample­clearance­for­the­width­of­a­sledge­such­as

Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections | http://jaei.library.arizona.edu | Vol. 2:3, 2010 | 14–30 19 P. P. Creasman and N. Doyle | Overland Boat Transportation that­found­at­Dahshur­(approximately­0.8 m). 85 Sledge­tracks were,­in­fact,­evident­on­the­slipway,­the­last­travels­baked­into the­watered­silt­road; 86 incised­a­few­centimeters­into­the­silt­by the­weight­of­the­sledge­and­its­load, 87 these­are­easily­distin - guished­as­parallel­impressions­approximately­one­meter­apart,­a figure­corresponding­tolerably­well­to­the­width­of­the­sledge found­at­Dahshur.­Hoof-­and­footprints­were­also­found­in­the boat­track.­In­this­case,­people­(watering­the­silt?­drovers?) walked­in­front­of­cattle 88 that­dragged­a­sledge­while­one­or more­persons­followed­behind.­is­provides­an­archaeological parallel­to­the­iconographic­examples­of­­sledge-­towing­in­funer - ary­scenes­discussed­­above. Photographs­of­the­Mirgissa­slipway­(Figure­15)­appear­to indicate­that­an­additional­mode­of­portage­was­employed along­the­slipway:­dragging­a­boat­directly­on­the­silt. Vercoutter­noted:­“The­silt­still­shows­long­track­where­either the­sledge­ or the boat itself rubbed­on­the­[wet]­silt”­[emphasis added]; 89 however,­it­seems­that­both­events­­occurred. A­certain­set­of­raised­striations­is­easily­overlooked,­but nonetheless­presents­convincing­evidence­for­direct­contact­of­a boat­hull­on­the­silt.­ese­striations­are­much­thinner­than­the sledge­tracks­and­likely­resulted­from­the­seams­of­a­boat­com - ing­into­contact­with­the­wet­silt.­ey­are­remarkably­consis - tent­and­spaced­approximately­15–20­cm­apart­from­the next 90 —spacing­that­recalls­the­dimensions­of­hull­timbers­on the­Dahshur­boats. 91 Between­the­marks­of­the­boat’s­seams,­it Figure . Surface of Mirgissa slipway with features labeled, after Vila, may­also­be­possible­to­see­the­even­smaller­striations­le­by­the “Les vestiges de la plaine,” in Vercoutter, Mirgissa I (1970), 207 fig. 13. grain­of­the­dragged­timbers­themselves. 92 If­a­sledge­had­been employed,­a­boat­should­not­have­come­into­contact­with­silt and­le­such­marks. In­exceptional­cases­in­the­iconography,­there­is­no­sledge beneath­the­funerary­boat­in­processional­scenes. 93 Sledges­are also­missing­from­a­couple­of­­two-­dimensional­depictions­of working­boats­being­actively­moved­across­land:­one­from the tomb­of­Meryneith­at­Saqqara, 94 the­other­from­TT40,­the tomb­of­Huy­(Figure­16). 95 ere­is­no­doubt­that­the­former image,­associated­with­workshop­scenes,­represents­the­festive launch­of­a­royal­traveling­boat.­Two­gangs­of­men­pull­at­ropes; what­seems­to­be­a­makeshi­truss,­with­the­mast­serving­as­a truss­stanchion,­prevents­the­ends­of­the­hull­from­bending Figure . Boats dragged or launched, after Davies, Gardiner, and downward,­or­hogging.­e­rudde r is­not­present.­e­eban Davies, The Tomb of Huy, Viceroy of Nubia in the reign of scene,­associated­with­the­collection­of­tribute­from­Nubia,­is Tutankhamun (No. 40) (1926), pl. XVIII. more­ambiguous.­Here­each­cargo­boat­(also­rudderless)­is­fitted with­a­more­conventional­form­of­hogging­truss.­ese­trusses A­­water-­slicked­mud­surface­was­not­the­only­means­the are­also­associated­with­depictions­of­(the­same?)­boats­else - Egyptians­used­to­lessen­friction­for­the­transportation­of­heavy where­on­this­wall,­with­crewmen­aboard­and­rudders­mounted. loads:­wooden­rollers­facilitated­the­passage­of­sledges­bearing One­of­the­rudderless­boats­is­being­simultaneously­pushed­and stone­blocks­or­statuary, 97 some­of­which­may­have­surpassed­one pulled.­e­ground­before­(but­not­behind)­the­hull­is­depicted thousand­tons­in­weight. 98 Such­mass­is­a­serious­obstacle­when as­an­irregular­surface­above­the­painted­baseline,­suggesting,­as employing­rollers, 99 but­even­the­largest­boats­were­not­nearly­so Davies­says,­“the­­mud-­flats­near­the­river.”­Although­it­is­impos - heavy;­the­largest­extant­pharaonic­vessel,­the­approximately sible­to­discount­the­possibility­that­this­is,­like­Meryneith’s 43.5­m­long­Khufu­I, 100 consists­of­approximately­38­tons­of scene,­a­launch,­it­is­tempting­to­view­this­as­the­slipway,­either Lebanese­cedar. 101 While­rollers­are­a­hypothetical­possibility­for at­Mirgissa­or­­elsewhere. 96 the­portage­of­boats,­the­available­evidence­is­­disputable.

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Figure . Funerary procession, after Corteggiani, The Egypt of the Pharaohs at the Cairo Museum (1987), 92 no. 53.

Figure . Funerary procession, tomb of Sobeknakht (II), from Tylor, Wall Drawings and Monuments of El Kab ( 1896), pl. II.

A­purported­example­from­the­New­Kingdom­can­be­found cedes­that­these­could­represent­wheels,­but­strongly­prefers­to in­a­vignette­from­the­funerary­papyrus­of­Maiherpri interpret­them­as­rollers. 109 Whether­the­arrangement­of­captive (Figure 17). 102 e­funerary­barque­sits­on­its­customary­sledge rollers­(i.e.,­affixed­to­the­sledge) 110 would­in­Egypt­be­any­more and­is­dragged­by­a­combined­team­of­men­and­cattle.­e­sledge effective­than­wheels­seems­dubious.­It­also­bears­noting,­regard - does­not­rest­on­the­ground­line,­but­instead­on­two­small­solid ing­the­utility­of­wheels­in­Egypt,­that­chariots­sometimes­appear circles­that­have­been­interpreted­as­rollers. 103 A­similar­scene in­agricultural­and­garden­­scenes. 111 from­a­New­Kingdom­linen­at­Dartmouth­College­Museum Furthermore,­among­the­Karnak­talatat,­fatted­cattle (no. 39-64-6623),­in­which­a­team­of­cattle­drag­a­“boatless” appear­on­what­are­indisputably­wheeled­wagons. 112 Unlike­char - funerary­sledge­with­three­circles­beneath­it,­has­been­similarly iots­of­the­period,­these­wagons­have­disk­wheels;­the­axle­and interpreted­(Figure­6). ­104 linchpin­securing­each­wheel­are­clearly­portrayed­in­relief,­distin - e­use­of­the­wheel­in­Egypt­has­been­dismissed­as­imprac - guishing­them­from­rollers.­Each­vehicle­is­equipped­with­ three tical­on­account­of­the­nature­of­the­ground­in­both­floodplain pairs­of­wheels­to­convey­the­enormous­weight­of­the­livestock. and­desert. 105 However,­additional­evidence­reveals­that­this Similarly,­­barque-­shrines­with­nominal­stem­and­stern­(associ - scene­almost­certainly­represents­wheels­rather­than­rollers; 106 ated­with­the­burial­of­the­Buchis­bull­in­the­Ptolemaic­period) although­spoked­wheels­were­well­known­by­the­New­Kingdom, have­what­ appear to­be­four­pairs­of­disk­­wheels. 113 disk­wheels­made­their­first­identified­appearance­in­the­record Other­examples­of­solid­wheels­exist­in­association­with in­Egypt­at­the­bottom­of­a­siege­ladder­in­a­painting­of­late­Fih boats.­Earliest­of­these­is­the­wall­painting­in­the­Seventeenth or­early­Sixth­Dynasty­­date. 107 Dynasty­tomb­of­Sobeknakht­(II)­at­el­Kab­(Figure­18), 114 in Another­parallel­roughly­contemporary­with­the­Maiherpri which­a­shrine­containing­the­mummy­sits­aboard­a­small­boat vignette­appears­on­an­Eighteenth­Dynasty­stele­in­the­collection of­typically­funerary­form.­The­vessel­sits­on­a­sledge­that­in of­the­University­of­Liverpool­(no.­E.30). 108 Here­it­is­not­a­boat turn­is­provided­with­solid­wheels­through­which­the­axle­termi - being­transported­but­a­sledge­bearing­what­appears­to­be­a­com - nals­protrude. 115 As­with­the­wheeled­vehicle­in­the­Liverpool partmentalized­crate­for­a­variety­of­agricultural­produce.­Pulled stele,­there­is­no­evidence­for­a­wagon­body.­Whether­the­sledge by­a­team­of­at­least­two­oxen­tended­by­a­drover,­the­vehicle itself­has­been­fitted­with­wheels—or­rests­upon­a­wagon­unde - rides­low­to­the­ground.­ere­is­no­sign­of­a­separate­wagon picted­ except for­its­wheels—is­impossible­to­say.­As­with­scenes frame­beneath­the­sledge—­only­a­pair­of­circles.­Kitchen­con - of­­sledge-­dragging­(and­also­paralleling­evidence­from­the

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Figure . Wheeled boat model, after Brunton and Engelbach, Gurob (1927), pl. LII.

Mirgissa­slipway),­cattle­pull­Sobekhnakht’s­vehicle,­before which­walk­men,­one­of­whom­purifies­the­way.­Tylor’s­inter - pretation­of­the­scene­as­a­representation­of­a­wagon­drawn over­rollers­(on­account­of­the­artist’s­unfamiliarity­with­the function­of­wheels)­was­discounted­at­an­early­­date. 116 Wheels­of­this­sort­appear­with­a­boat­model­found­in­a tomb­at­Gurob­(Figure­19). 117 Unlike­most­other­boat­models, this­one­is­generally­considered­to­be­a­child’s­toy; 118 the­hull form­differs­from­other­boat­models­and­does­not­match­well with­Egyptian­ritual­watercraft.­Aside­from­a­pierced­rectangu - lar­piece­of­wood­that­served­to­attach­the­boat­to­its­con - veyance,­of­the­supporting­vehicle­only­the­four­wheels­remain. Figure . Wagon from Medinet Madi, after Dittmann, “Der If­this­was­made­as­an­amusement,­something­with­which­a Segelwagen von Medinet Madi,” MDAIK 10 (1941), 64 Abb. 3. child­could­play,­the­arrangement­of­the­supporting­vehicle need­not­reference­any­other­representations­or­working wooden­frame­of­the­wagon­measured­2.09­m­in­length­and arrangement:­the­wheels­might­exist­only­to­allow­the­boat 1.23 m­in­breadth­(excluding­the­two­axles,­each­of­which­meas - model­to­be­moved­across­the­ground­or­floor­and­nothing ures­1.70­m­from­end­to­end).­e­solid­disc­wheels,­affixed­to more.­However,­the­polychrome­decoration­of­each­wheel­is the­axle­with­a­linchpin­and­each­31­cm­in­diameter,­are­proba - vaguely­reminiscent­of­some­­post–New­­Kingdom­representa - bly­not­strong­enough­to­support­large­stone­loads.­However, tions­of­disk­wheels­(see,­e.g.,­Figure­9)­that­appear­in­scenes­of less­weighty­loads,­including­small­vessels­of­perhaps­15­m­or­less funerary­processions­with­wagons­towed­by­men­or­by­men (about­the­size­of­the­Dahshur­boats),­would­not­be­unreason - and­cattle.­While­in­some­cases­it­is­ambiguous­whether­the able.­It­has­been­suggested­that­a­sledge­or­other­structure­would wheels­depicted­are­rather­impressionistically­rendered­spoked have­been­secured­atop­the­wagon. 122 Although­there­is­no­evi - wheels,­one­example­with­concentric­circles­overlain­by­petal dence­that­this­vehicle­carried­a­boat,­it­is­entirely­possible­that shapes­on­its­wheels­seems­more­likely­to­represent­decorated just­such­a­trolley­was­what­the­artists­of­the­examples­men - solid­wheels. 119 With­the­interpretation­of­the­object­from tioned­above­intended­to­­represent. 123 Gurob­in­dispute­(toy­or­representation­of­wheeled­ritual More­sophisticated­spoked­wheels­also­appear­with­funer - craft?),­it­is­difficult­to­infer­much­information­from­it­regard - ary­boat­transport.­Most­of­these­are­­post-­pharaonic,­but­the­ear - ing­the­portage­of­working­­watercraft. liest­example­comes­from­the­tomb­of­Ahhotep­(I).­A­model A­low­wagon­with­four­small­solid­wheels­and­thus­a­very wagon,­made­of­copper­alloy­and­wood,­was­found­in­associa - low­profile—­dubbed­by­some­a­“trolley” 120 —is­known­from­the tion­with­two­exceptional­model­boats,­one­of­gold­and­one­of Ptolemaic­Period­(Figure­20). 121 Found­at­Medinet­Madi,­the silver. 124 e­wagon­(Figure­21)­has­two­pairs­of­­four-­spoked

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Representations­of­wagons­at­least­nominally­bearing­a­boat or­­boat-­shaped­shrine­became­more­common­during­the­ird Intermediate­Period­and­thereaer. 129 Some­are­processions­asso - ciated­with­gods­and­temples,­which­are­(along­with­the­festival of­Opet)­probably­ancestral­to­the­festival­of­the­local­saint,­Abu ­el-­Haggag,­celebrated­annually­even­today­at­Luxor­with­a­­wagon- ­borne­boat. 130 However,­most­of­the­­post-­pharaonic,­­pre-­Islamic examples­occur­in­association­with­funeral­­processions. e­wagons­themselves­are­not­well­defined­in­two­dimen - sions,­and­seldom­provide­any­interpretively­useful­information. Figure . Model wagon from the tomb of Ahhotep, after von ey­appear­most­commonly­as­sledges­perched­atop­wheels, Bissing, Ein Thebanischer Grabfund aus dem anfang des neuen reichs. with­little­clear­evidence­of­any­structural­connection­between Neudruck der Ausgabe (1900), Taf. X. the­two­elements.­As­discussed­previously,­it­is­possible­that­what appear­to­be­beams­parallel­to­the­axles­in­two­examples (Figures 8­and­9)­might­belong­to­the­shrine­being­carried­rather than­to­the­wheeled­vehicle:­note­that­such­beams­do­not­appear on­the­models­or­the­Medinet­Madi­wagon.­Another­possibility is­that­the­cart­body­itself­is­deliberately­archaized­as­a­sledge. 131 On­the­funerary­wagon­in­the­tomb­of­Petosiris­at­Tuna­­el-­Gebel (Figure­22), 132 a­bar­appears­running­between­the­two­wheels;­it passes­“behind”­the­felloe­of­the­rear­wheel­but­runs­“over”­the felloe­and­spokes­to­the­hub­of­the­forward­wheel,­almost­as­if­it were­intended­to­represent­(in­some­kind­of­perspective)­the­axle. But­it­seems­highly­doubtful­that­this­is­a­­two-­wheeled­cart rather­than­a­­four-­wheeled­wagon.­e­zigzag­lines­between­this bar­and­the­bottom­of­the­poles­that­support­the­boat­(whether decorative­or­intended­to­indicate­some­structural­element)­are likewise­difficult­to­­interpret. 133 Figure . Funerary procession, tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el- Gebel. Even­if­most­of­these­wheeled­processional­wagons­never­car - Photograph by Noreen Doyle. ried­working­boats,­a­notable­account­of­the­transport­of­work - ing­(as­opposed­to­ceremonial)­watercra­by­wheeled­con - wheels 125 on­fixed­axles­that­run­under­the­extreme­ends­of­the veyance­does­exist.­e­Gebel­Barkal­Stele­of­utmoses­III wagon­frame.­Atop­the­frame­sits­a­block­of­wood­to­which­one describes­the­event­as­part­of­that­king’s­eighth­Asian­campaign, or­the­other­of­the­hulls­was­fastened;­both­block­and­hulls­have in­his­­thirty-­third­year,­when­the­Egyptian­army­had­to­cross­the protruding,­horizontal­metal­eyes,­two­on­each­side,­with­the Euphrates. 134 e­king­ordered­boats­( aHaw )­to­be­made­or­hewn block­having­an­additional­eye­on­one­short­­side. (mDH )135 in­the­hills­near­“the­Mistress­of­Byblos.”­e­term­ aHaw There­is­debate­as­to­which­model­boat­belongs­mounted is­a­common­term­used­to­refer­to­Nile­boats­used­for­purposes on­the­wagon.­As­currently­displayed,­the­gold­model­is­placed as­diverse­as­fishing­and­­war. 136 there. 126 It­has­the­characteristics­of­a­funerary­barque­with ese­vessels­were­transported­to­the­river­by­­ox-­drawn papyriform­finials­turned­inboard,­but­bears­no­chapel,­has­a carts­( wrrywt ).­Faulkner’s­claim­that­this­is­the­“first­recorded­use single­quarter­rudder­(extremely­unusual­for­the­period 127 ), by­the­Egyptians­of­wheeled­transport­as­distinct­from­the­light and­includes­a­complement­of­oarsmen.­Unlike­­two- ­two-­wheeled­chariot” 137 is­incorrect,­as­the­previously­discussed ­dimensional­representations­of­­vehicle-­borne­boats­or­any iconographic­evidence­of­wheeled­vehicles­(some­predating other­boat­models,­both­metal­hulls­are­provided­with­rings utmoses III)­attests.­e­term­ wrrywt is,­in­fact,­usually­trans - by­which­each­could­be­fastened­to­corresponding­rings­on lated­as­“chariot.”­Chariots­occasionally­appear­in­agricultural the­(or­a)­wagon.­Furthermore,­the­presence­of­the­crews­with scenes,­apparently­to­transport­officials­into­the­fields, 138 but their­oars­or­paddles 128 calls­into­question­the­purpose­of­set - sometimes­also­to­haul­loads.­­Ox-­drawn­chariots­are­known ting­either­boat­onto­a­wagon.­Possibly­they­are­toys,­a­func - too, 139 but­in­this­context,­“cart”­(meaning­a­­two-­wheeled­vehicle tion­that­relieves­them­of­any­need­to­accurately­represent­a other­than­a­chariot)­is­probably­intended. 140 ey­might­have working,­­real-­world­arrangement;­in­no­known­representa - generally­resembled­those­that­appear­later­in­the­Battle­of tions­of­ceremonial­overland­boat­transport­from­the­period­is Kadesh­reliefs­(Figure­23) 141 or,­more­nearly­contemporary­with rowing­or­paddling­portrayed,­although­this­would­not,­of the­inscription,­the­­two-­wheeled­­ox-­drawn­cart­with­railed­sides course,­be­­impossible. known­from­a­fragmentary­relief­of­an­agricultural­­scene. 142

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Notes

1. e­ease­of­Nile­navigation­is­oen­overstated­by­scholars,­though­sel - dom­by­travelers,­whose­accounts­are­oen­filled­with­frustrations occasioned­by­storm,­lack­of­wind,­and­other­delays­and­hazards. For­a­review­of­the­challenges,­see­Angus­Graham,­“Plying­the­Nile: Not­Plain­Sailing,”­in­Kathryn­Piquette­and­Serena­Love­(eds.), Current Research in Egyptology 2003: Proceedings om the Fourth Annual Symposium (Oxford:­Oxbow,­2005),­41–­56. 2. Carol­A.­Redmount,­“e­Wadi­Tumilat­and­the­‘Canal­of­the Pharaohs,’”­ Journal of Near Eastern Studies 54­(1995):­127–135. Belief­in­such­a­canal­prompted,­for­example,­Carl­Sølver (“Egyptian­Shipping­of­about­1500­ b.c. ,”­ e Mariner’s Mirror 11 [1936]:­430–469) to­suggest­that­it­“would­have­been­much­easier Figure . Carts at the Battle of Kadesh, after Wreszinski, Atlas zur to­build­ships­on­the­Nile­and­send­them­by­its­eastern­arm­to­the altaegyptischen Kulturgeschichte II (1935), 170. Red­Sea­than­to­transport­materials­for­shipbuilding­from­the­Nile by­land­to­the­coast­of­the­Red­Sea”­(454).­Torgny­­Säve- Faulkner­suggests­that,­given­the­distance­and­roughness­of ­Söderbergh­( e Navy of the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty the­terrain­that­utmoses­III’s­army­would­have­encountered, [Uppsala:­Lundequistska­Bokhandeln,­1946],­13)­also­believed its­boats­must­have­been­transported­in­sections. 143 is­is­cer - that­Hatshepsut’s­Punt­expedition­traveled­from­the­Red­Sea­to tainly­possible­and­even­probable;­sometimes­even­chariots­had the­Nile­by­some­water­passage,­because­“no­desert­traveling­is to­be­disassembled­for­mountain­crossings. 144 For­most­water - depicted”­in­the­scenes­of­the­event­at­Deir­el-­Bahri. cra,­timbers­approaching­4­m­in­length­would­probably­have 3. Evidence­of­a­maritime­corridor­between­the­Nile­and­the­Oases been­rare.­For­example,­of­the­99­structural­timbers­used­in­the and­the­Faiyum­to­the­west­is­scant.­A­notable­exception­could construction­of­the­Cairo­Dahshur­boats,­only­one­exceeds­4­m be­the­­Lahun-­Hawara­gap­connecting­the­river­and­Lake­Moeris, in­length,­with­only­eight­exceeding­3­m.­e­majority,­51,­are especially­during­the­annual­floods;­see­James­Harrell­and less­than­2­m,­and­an­additional­39­timbers­are­2–3­m;­all­such Thomas­Bown,­“An­Old­Kingdom­Basalt­Quarry­at­Widan­­el- lengths­could­easily­be­transported­on­­two-­wheeled­carts.­Over ­Faras­and­the­Quarry­Road­to­Lake­Moeris,”­ Journal of the rougher­terrain­unsuitable­for­wheeled­vehicles,­a­single­fit­porter American Research Center in Egypt 32­(1995):­71–91. would­find­a­2­m­timber­manageable,­and­certainly­donkeys­or 4. For­a­discussion­of­the­development­of­ancient­Egyptian­water - teams­of­porters­could­transport­longer­timbers­(Figures­2­and­3); borne­transportation­from­a­geoarchaeological­perspective,­see few­timbers­would­have­required­special­overland­travel­arrange - Fekri­A.­Hassan,­“The­Dynamics­of­a­Riverine­Civilization: ments. 145 is­account­strongly­suggests­that­whoever­“hewed” A Geoarchaeological­Perspective­on­the­Nile­Valley,­Egypt,” the­boats­at­Byblos­did­so­using­Nilotic­building­­techniques. World Archaeology 29­(1997):­51–­74. 5. Barbara­G.­Aston,­James­Harrell,­and­Ian­Shaw,­“Stone,”­in­Paul Conclusions Nicholson­and­I.­Shaw­(eds.),­ Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Cambridge:­Cambridge­University­Press,­2000),­5–77. While­there­is­insufficient­evidence­to­indicate­that­the 6. For­a­current­review­of­the­literature­and­summary­of­the­evidence need­for­overland­transportation—­especially­as­disarticulated regarding­Punt­and­its­location,­see­Kathryn­A.­Bard­and­Rodolfo timbers—­inhibited­the­development­of­boat­and­ship­construc - Fattovich,­“Introduction,”­in­K.­A.­Bard­and­R.­Fattovich­(eds.), tion­and­technologies,­it­was­at­least­a­consideration­for­the Harbor of the Pharaohs to the Land of Punt: Archaeological pharaonic­shipbuilder.­is­consideration­(or­necessity)­may Investigations at Mersa/Wadi Gawasis Egypt, 2000 –2005 (Napoli: have­had­further­ramifications­on­Egypt’s­prowess­as­a­seafaring Università­degli­Studi­di­Napoli­“L’Orientale,”­2007),­17–­27. power,­especially­from­the­New­Kingdom­onwards,­as­other 7. See,­for­example,­Lanny­Bell,­Janet­H.­Johnson,­and­Donald Mediterranean­cultures­adapted­more­efficient­construction Whitcomb,­“e­Eastern­Desert­of­Upper­Egypt:­Routes­and technologies­such­as­pegged­­mortise-­and-­tenons. Inscriptions,”­ Journal of Near Eastern Studies 43­(1984):­27–­46. For­working­watercra­of­relatively­modest­size,­portage 8. Juris­Zarins,­“Ancient­Egypt­and­the­Red­Sea­Trade:­e­Case­for without­disassembly­was­certainly­possible­by­several­means,­but Obsidian­in­the­Predynastic­and­Archaic­Periods,”­in­A.­Leonard the­available­evidence­suggests­this­practice­was­probably­con - and­B.­Williams­(eds.),­ Essays in Ancient Civilization Presented to fined­to­exceptional­regions­(such­as­the­Second­Cataract)­and/or Helene J. Kantor (Chicago:­Oriental­Institute,­1989),­339–368. circumstances­(e.g.,­ritual­contexts).­In­the­latter­case,­portage­pre - Zarins­suggests­that­foreign­obsidian­could­have­found­its­way­into served­the­Egyptian­ideal­of­water­transport,­even­if­the­boat­car - Egypt­via­Red­Sea­trade­based­at­Koptos,­at­the­end­of­the­Wadi rying­the­deceased­to­the­tomb­was­more­semblant­than­­authentic. Hammamat,­as­early­as­the­Naqada­II­­period.

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9. Text:­Kurt­Sethe,­ Urkunden des Alten Reichs I (Leipzig:­J.­C. 17. Breasted­1906,­429–433;­Jules­Couyat­and­Pierre­Montet,­ Les Hinrichs’sche­Buchhandlung,­1933),­131–135.­Translations: Inscriptions hiéroglyphiques et hiératiques de Ouâdi Hammâmât James­Henry­Breasted,­ Ancient Records of Egypt Volume 1: e First (Cairo:­l’Institut­français­d’archéologie­orientale,­1912),­81–84, rough Seventeenth Dynasties (Chicago:­University­of­Chicago, pl. XXXI;­Lichtheim­1988,­52–­54. 1906),­161–164;­Alessandro­Roccati,­ La literature historique sous 18. Mahmoud­Abd­­el-­Raziq,­Georges­Castel,­and­Pierre­Tallet, l’Ancien Empire égyptien (Paris:­Editions­du­Cerf,­1982),­208–211; “L’exploration­archéologique­du­site­d’Ayn­Soukhna­(2001–2004),” Miriam­Lichtheim,­ Ancient Egyptian Autobiographies, Chiefly of the in­­Jean-­Claude­Goyon­(ed.),­ Proceedings of the Ninth International Middle Kingdom: A Study and an Anthology (Freiburg:­Uni-­ Congress of Egyptologists/Actes du Neuvième Congrès International des versitätsverlag,­Vandenhoeck­&­Ruprecht,­1988),­15–16;­Nigel C. Égyptologues, Grenoble, 6–12 septembre 2004 (Leuven:­Uitgeverij Strudwick,­ Texts om the Pyramid Age (Atlanta:­Society­of­Biblical Peeters­en­Departement­Oosterse­Studies,­2007),­1:61–68. Literature,­2005),­333–­335. 19. For­Nilotic­boat­construction­scenes,­see­Edward­M.­Rogers,­“An 10. ­Säve-­Söderbergh­(1946,­11)­suggested­Suez­as­the­location,­but­the Analysis­of­Tomb­Reliefs­Depicting­Boat­Construction­from­the­Old two­sites­discussed­below,­Mersa/Wadi­Gawasis­and­Ayn­Soukhna, Kingdom­Period­in­Egypt”­(master’s­thesis,­Texas­A&M­University, are­distinct­­possibilities. 1996),­ nautarch.tamu.edu/eses /pdf- files/Rogers- MA1996.pdf 11. Breasted­1906,­163,­n.­e;­Strudwick­2005,­377­n.­27;­Roccati­1982, (accessed­December­16,­2008). 182.­For­a­discussion­of­the­identity­of­the­ aAmw ,­see­Janice­Kamrin, 20. Leo­A.­Tregenza,­ Egyptian Years (London:­Oxford­University­Press, “e­Aamu­of­Shu­in­the­Tomb­of­Khnumhotep­II­at­Beni­Hassan,” 1958),­182.­See­also­the­following­by­Abdel­Monem­A.­H.­Sayed: Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 1.3­(2009):­22–­36. 1997;­“e­Recently­Discovered­Port­on­the­Red­Sea­Shore,” 12. Translations­of­ spt vary:­“build”­(Breasted­1906,­163;­Percy­E. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 64­(1978):­69–71;­“Observations Newberry,­“Notes­on­Seagoing­Ships,”­ Journal of Egyptian on­Recent­Discoveries­at­Wadi­Gawasis,”­ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 28­[1942]:­64–66;­Strudwick­2005,­333);­“equip” Archaeology 66­(1980):­154–171;­­1983. (Lichtheim­1988,­16;­Pierre­Montet,­“Notes­et­documents­pour 21. See,­for­example,­Bard­and­Fattovich­2007­and­Ward­and­Zazzaro­­2010. servir­a­l’histoire­des­relations­entre­l’ancienne­Égypte­et­la­Syrie 22. Trina­Arpin­et­al.,­“Fieldwork,”­in­Bard­and­Fattovich,­ Harbor of the III:­Byblos­et­les­navires­giblites,”­ Kêmi 13­[1954]:­63–75).­For­a Pharaohs to the Land of Punt ,­37–99. list­of­occurrences­of­this­verb,­first­used­for­“binding”­a­papyrus 23. See­Ward­and­Zazzaro­2010­and­also­Ward­and­Zazzaro,­“Finds: ra,­see­Dilwyn­Jones,­ A Glossary of Ancient Egyptian Nautical Ship­Evidence,”­in­Bard­and­Fattovich,­ Harbor of the Pharaohs to Titles and Terms (London:­Kegan­Paul­International,­1988),­222, the Land of Punt ,­135–­164. VI.76.­e­type­of­watercra­indicated­here­is­not,­however,­a 24. Mahmoud­Abd­­el-­Raziq,­Georges­Castel,­and­Pierre­Tallet,­“Dans “reed­boat,”­as­translated­in­Strudwick. le­golfe­de­Suez,­les­mines­de­cuivre­d’Ayn­Soukhna,”­ Archéologia 13. Newberry­1942,­­65. 414­(2004):­10–21;­“Ayn­Soukhna­et­la­mer­Rouge,”­ Égypte, 14. R.­O.­Faulkner,­“Egyptian­Seagoing­Ships,”­ Journal of Egyptian Afrique et Orient 41­(2006):­3–6;­“L’exploration­archéologique Archaeology 26­(1941):­3–9;­Shelley­Wachsmann,­ Seagoing Ships du­site­d’Ayn­Soukhna­(2001–2004),”­in­Goyon,­ Proceedings of and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant (College­Station:­Texas the Ninth International Congress of Egyptologists ,­61–68;­Institut A&M,­1998),­19.­It­is­still­sometimes­suggested­that­during­the­Old français­d’archéologie­orientale­–­­Le­Caire,­“Ayn­Soukhna.” Kingdom,­Syrian­shipbuilders­were­responsible­for­the­construc - Travaux­archéologiques.­ www.ifao.egnet.net/ archeologie/ayn- tion­of­these­vessels;­see­Steve­Vinson,­“Seafaring,”­in­Elizabeth soukhna (accessed­March­15,­2010). Frood­and­Willeke­Wendrich­(eds.),­ UCLA Encyclopedia of 25. Pharos: Newsletter of the Alexandria Centre for Maritime Egyptology (Los­Angeles:­UCLA­Department­of­Near­Eastern Archaeology & Underwater Cultural Heritage 1­(2009):­­2. Languages­and­Cultures),­ escholarship.org/uc/item/9d93885v 26. Patrice­Pomey,­“A­Pharaonic­­Sea-­Going­Ship­of­the­Middle­Kingdom (accessed­March­26,­2009). (c.­2000­ b.c. )­from­Ayn­Soukhna”­(paper­presented­at­the­Twelh 15. Robert­Partridge,­ Transport in Ancient Egypt (London:­e International­Symposium­on­Boat­and­Ship­Archaeology,­­2009). Rubicon­Press,­1996),­­61. 27. For­example,­the­plank­carried­in­association­with­the­transport­of 16. For­example,­Sølver­1936,­453;­Newberry­1942,­63;­Cheryl­A.­Ward, the­colossus­depicted­in­the­tomb­of­Djehutyhotep­(Percy­E. Sacred and Secular: Ancient Egyptian Ships and Boats Newberry­and­George­Willoughby­Fraser,­ El Bersheh Part 1, e (Philadelphia:­University­of­Pennsylvania­Museum,­2000),140; Tomb of Tehuti- hetep [London,­Egypt­Exploration­Fund,­1895], C. A.­Ward­and­Chiara­Zazzaro,­“Evidence­for­Pharaonic 20,­pl.­xv).­Compare,­too,­the­transport­of­a­mummy­case­cradled Seagoing­Ships­at­Mersa/Wadi­Gawasis,­Egypt,”­ International in­the­arms­of­four­men­who­carry­it­to­the­tomb­(TT277, Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39.1­(2010):­26–43;­Abdel Ameneminet;­Jeanne­Marie­Vandier­d’Abbadie,­ Deux tombes Monem­A.­H.­Sayed,­“Discovery­of­the­Site­of­the­12th­Dynasty ramessides á Gournet- Mourraï [Cairo:­Imprimerie­de­l’Institut Port­at­Wadi­Gawasis­on­the­Red­Sea­Shore,”­ Revue d’Égyptologie Français­d’Archéologie­Orientale,­1954],­pl.­XIV,­XV.2,­XVI.1–2). 29­(1977):­140–178;­A. M. A.­H.­Sayed,­“New­Light­on­the 28. Norman­de­Garis­Davies,­W.­E.­Crum,­and­George­Albert­Boulenger, Recently­Discovered­Port­on­the­Red­Sea­Shore,”­ Chronique d’É - e Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrâwi I (London:­Egypt­Exploration gypte 48­(1983):­23–­37. Fund,­1902),­pl.­XVI,­XXIV;­Klaus­P.­Kuhlmann­and­Wolfgang

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Schenkel,­ Das Grab des Ibi, Obergutsverwalters der Gottesgemahlin 42. See­Creasman,­forthcoming,­and­Ward­and­Zazzaro­2010,­34­(fig. 10), des Amun (ebanisches Grab Nr. 36) (Mainz­am­Rhein:­Verlag for­an­illustration­of­rudder­blades­with­pegged­­mortise-­and-­tenons. Philipp­von­Zabern,­1983),­1:95,­2:­Taf.­31,­103,­­104b. 43. Cheryl­A.­Ward,­“Boatbuilding­in­Ancient­Egypt,”­in­Frederick­M. 29. Ward­and­Zazzaro­2010,­­14. Hocker­and­C.­A.­Ward­(eds.),­ e Philosophy of Shipbuilding: 30. Ibid. Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Wooden Ships (College 31. Pomey­2009.­See­also­ Pharos 1­(2009):­­2. Station:­Texas­A&M­University­Press,­2004),­13–24. 32. Ward­2000,­­140. 44. For­further­­discussion,­see­Vinson­1994,­37–41. 33. David­O’Connor,­ Abydos: Egypt’s First Pharaohs and the Cult of 45. Vinson­1994,­­7. Osiris (London:­ames­and­Hudson,­2009),­183–194;­Cheryl A. 46. Björn­Landström,­ Ships of the Pharaohs (New­York:­Doubleday, Ward,­“Sewn­Planked­Boats­from­Early­Dynastic­Abydos,­Egypt,” 1970),­130.­However,­there­is­also­an­argument­for­the­towing in­C. Beltrame­(ed.),­ Boats, Ships and Shipyards: Proceedings om of­such­barges­upstream;­see­J.­V.­Wehausen,­A.­Mansour, the Ninth International Symposium on Boat and Ship Archaeology, M. C. Ximenes,­and­F. Stross,­“The­Colossi­of­Memnon­and Venice 2000 (Oxford:­Oxbow­Books,­2003),­19–23.­Some­of­timbers Egyptian­Barges,”­ International Journal of Nautical Archaeology of­the­Khufu­I­boat­were­inscribed­with­complementary­hieroglyphs, 17­(1988):­295–­310. suggesting­­step-­by-­step­assembly­instructions­(Ward­2000,­140). 47. Newberry­and­Fraser­1895,­17–26,­pl.­xii,­xv;­Aston,­Harrell,­and 34. Steve­Vinson,­ Egyptian Boats and Ships (Buckinghamshire:­Shire, Shaw­2000,­18–19;­Mark­Lehner,­“Construction­of­Pyramids 1994),­18–19;­William­F.­Flinders­Petrie,­Gerald­A.­Wainwright, (Old­Kingdom),”­in­Kathryn­A.­Bard­(ed.)­ Encyclopedia of the and­Alan­H.­Gardiner,­ Tarkhan I and Memphis V (London: Archaeology of Ancient Egypt (London:­Routledge,­1999),­639–645; School­of­Archaeology­in­Egypt,­1913),­24,­pl.­­9. Partridge­1996,­131–137;­Harrell­and­Bown­1995,­82–83;­George 35. Dieter­Arnold,­ Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry (Oxford: Goyon,­“Les­navires­de­transport­de­la­chaussée­monumentale Oxford­University­Press,­1991),­86–92;­Ward­2000,­110–112; d’Ounas,”­ Bulletin de l’Institut ançais d’Archéologie orientale 69 Cheryl­Ward­Haldane,­“Boat­Timbers­from­­El-­Lisht:­a­New (1971):­11–41,­pl.­ I–VII;­Arnold­1991,­275–­280. Method­of­Ancient­Egyptian­Hull­Construction.­Preliminary 48. For­example,­Vandier­d’Abbadie­1954,­pl.­X,­­XI. Report,”­ e Mariner’s Mirror 74­(1988):­141–152;­C.­W. 49. See,­for­example,­Arvid­Göttlicher,­ Kultschiffe und Schiffskulte im Haldane,­“e­Lisht­Timbers:­a­Report­on­eir­Significance,”­in Altertum (Berlin:­Mann,­1992),­13–75;­Alan­R.­Schulman, Dieter­Arnold­(ed.),­ e Pyramid Complex of Senwosret I: “A Memphite­Stela,­the­Bark­of­Ptah,­and­Some­Iconographic e Southern Cemeteries of Lisht (New­York:­Metropolitan Comments,”­ Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 2­(1980): Museum­of­Art,­1992),­102–­112. 83–109,­pl.­1–2;­W.­B.­Kristensen,­“De­Symboliek­van­de­Boot­in 36. Mohammad­Zaki­Nour,­Zaky­Iskander,­Mohammad­Salah­Osman, den­Egyptischen­Godsdienst,”­ Koninklijke Akademie van and­Ahmad­Youssof­Moustafa,­ e Cheops Boats (Cairo:­General Wetenschappen, Verslagen en Medeelingen: Afdeeling let - Organisation­for­Government­Printing­Offices,­1960);­Abdel terkunde 5.4­(1919):­254–288;­Claude­Traunecker,­“La­barque Moneim­Abubakr­and­Ahmed­Youssef­Moustafa,­“e­Funerary processionnelle­d’Amon,”­ Les Dossier Histoire et Archéologie 61 Boat­of­Khufu,”­ Beiträge zur ägyptischen Bauforschung und (1982):­49–54;­G.­A.­Gaballa­and­Kenneth­A.­Kitchen,­“e Altertumskunde 12­(1971):­1–16;­Paul­Lipke,­ e Royal Ship of Festival­of­I Sokar,”­ Orientalia (New­Series)­38­(1969):­1–76; Cheops (Oxford:­British­Archaeological­Reports,­1984);­P. Lipke, Catherine­­Graindorge-­Héreil,­ Le dieu Sokar à èbes au Nouvel “Retrospective­on­the­Royal­Ship­of­Cheops,”­in­Sean­McGrail­and empire (Wiesbaden:­Harrassowitz,­1994);­L.­B.­Mikhail,­“e Eric­Kentley­(eds.),­ Sewn Plank Boats (Oxford:­British­Archaeological Festival­of­Sokar:­An­Episode­of­the­Osirian­Khoiak­Festival,” Reports,­1985),­9–18;­J.­Richard­Steffy,­ Wooden Shipbuilding and the Göttinger Miszellen 82­(1984):­25–44;­Epigraphic­Survey,­ e Interpretation of Shipwrecks (College­Station:­Texas­A&M­Press, Festival Procession of Opet in the Colonnade Hall with 1994),­24–28;­Ward­2000,­47–60;­Samuel­Mark,­“e­Construction Translations of Texts, Commentary, and Glossary (Chicago: of­the­Khufu­I­Vessel­( c. 2566 b.c. ):­A­­Re-­Evaluation,”­ International Oriental­Institute,­1994). Journal of Nautical Archaeology 38.1­(2009):­133–­152. 50. Georges­Legrain,­“Le­logement­et­transport­des­barques­sacrées­et­des 37. eir­method­of­construction­is­a­matter­of­debate­(see­Pearce­Paul statues­des­diex­dans­quelques­temples­égyptiens,”­ Bulletin de l’insti - Creasman,­“A­Further­Investigation­of­the­Cairo­Dahshur­Boats,” tut ançais d’archéologie orientale 13­(1917):­1–76,­pls.­­I–­VII,­1–13. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology [forthcoming]);­however,­even 51. On­occasion,­funerary­boats­are­elevated,­such­as­depicted­on­the these­boats­demonstrate­hallmarks­of­easy­­disassembly. Nineteenth­Dynasty­Memphite­relief­of­Merymery­(see­P.­A.­A. 38. Lipke­­1984. Boeser,­ Die Denkmäler des neuen Reiches: Gräber [Milano: 39. Vinson­1994,­­44. Cisalpino,­1911],­pl.­XV;­Hans­D.­Schneider­and­Maarten­J.­Raven , 40. See­Creasman,­forthcoming,­for­a­brief­discussion­of­the­structural De egyptische oudheid [’s-Gravenhage:­Staatsuitgeverij,­1981],­98, merits­of­pegged­versus­unpegged­­mortise-­and-­tenon­­joinery. no. 84b).­Not­only­is­the­­sledge-­mounted­model­funerary­boat­car - 41. Ward­2000,­32;­see­also­William­Matthew­Flinders­Petrie,­Guy ried­on­poles­by­men,­but­a­rope­is­held­in­hand­by­three­additional Brunton,­and­Margaret­Alice­Murray,­ Lahun II (London: men­and­is­fastened­to­a­team­of­two­cattle.­Merymery­thus­enjoys Bernard­ Quaritch,­1923). all­possible­advantages­of­every­form­of­­conveyance.

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52. Iconographic­and­actual­examples­abound,­but­see:­Norman­de­Garis Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of Art I [Cambridge: Davies­and­Alan­H.­Gardiner,­ e Tomb of Antefoker, Vizier of Harvard­University­Press,­1953],­193).­Arnold­(1992,­26)­hypothe - Sesostris I, and of His Wife, Senet (No. 60) (London:­G. Allen­& sizes­that­at­least­one­other­large­sledge,­approximately­4.2­m,­was Unwin,­1920),­pl.­XXI­(TT60);­Nina­de­Garis­Davies­and­Norman also­present­at­that­site,­but­the­wood­was­too­degraded­to­confirm de­Garis­Davies,­ e Tombs of Menkheperrasonb, Amenmose, and the­suspicion.­It­is­possible­that­another­­full-­sized­sledge­exists.­On Another (Nos. 86, 112, 42, 226) (London:­Egypt­Exploration­Society, display­at­the­Cairo­Museum­is­a­sledge­labeled­“5460,”­presumably 1933),­pl.­XXXVIII­(TT42);­Torgny­­Säve-­Söderbergh,­ Private corresponding­to­the­ Catalogue General .­However,­“GC­5460”­is­an Tombs at ebes 1: Four Eighteenth Dynasty Tombs (Oxford:­Griffith amulet­(G.­A.­Reisner,­ Amulets, Catalogue General 5218–6000 et Institute,­1957),­pl.­XXIV­(TT17);­Norman­de­Garis­Davies,­“e 12001–12527 [Cairo:­L’Institut­français­d’Archéologie­orientale, Tomb­of­Tetaky­at­ebes­(No. 15),”­ Journal of Egyptian 1907],­35).­e­sledge­on­display­is­oen­(correctly)­identified­as Archaeology 11­(1925):­10–18,­pls. II–V,­pl.­V­(TT15);­Edouard the­sledge­from­Senwosret III’s­pyramid­complex­at­Dahshur­(“GC Naville,­ Das Ägyptische Totenbuch der XVIII. bis XX. Dynastie I 4928”­in­Reisner­1913,­88–89).­For­example,­Partridge­(1996, (Graz:­Akademische­Druck­&­Verlagsanstalt,­1971),­Taf.­III.P.e.,­L.a, 131–133)­explicitly­reconciles­the­visual­differences­between L.e;­Ahmed­Fakhry­and­Jürgen­Osing,­ Denkmäler der Oase Dachla Reisner’s­recordings­of­the­Dahshur­sledge­and­the­one­on­display, (Mainz­am­Rhein:­von­Zabern,­1982),­Taf.­22c,­24a,­31b;­Marianne but­no­one­has­clarified­the­conflicting­labels.­Comparison­of ­Eaton-­Krauss­and­E. Graefe,­ e Small Golden Shrine om the Tomb Reisner’s­drawing­(1913,­89,­fig.­326)­of­the­Dahshur­sledge­with of Tutankhamun [Oxford:­Griffith­Institute,­1985]). the­one­labeled­GC­5460­produces­a­near-identical­match.­Records 53. S.­R.­K.­Glanville­and­R.­O.­Faulkner,­ Catalogue of Egyptian associated­with­a­sledge­“5460”­report­that­it­came­from­the­New Antiquities in the British Museum II: Wooden Model Boats (London: Kingdom­and­has­similar­dimensions­to­the­Dahshur­sledge Trustees­of­the­British­Museum),­67,­pl.­XIIb–c­(BM­36848). (Waheed­Edwar,­personal­communication,­June­4,­2004).­A­photo - 54. Partridge­1996,­­137. graph­of­the­sledge,­with­Arabic­label­legible,­can­be­found­in­Pearce 55. Arnold­(1992,­59)­suggests­that­the­lack­of­scratches­“might”­indi - Paul­Creasman,­“e­Cairo­Dahshur­Boats”­(master’s­thesis,­Texas cate­ceremonial­rather­than­practical­­use. A&M­University,­2005),­ associates .imrd.org / pcreasman - 56. Note­that­in­TT49­(Norman­de­Garis­Davies,­ e Tomb of Nefer- MA2005.pdf (accessed­December­12,­2009),­123,­fig.­57.­To­the hotep at ebes I– II [New­York:­Metropolitan­Museum­of­Art, best­of­our­knowledge,­the­records­of­the­Cairo­Museum­sledge 1933],­pl.­XXV)­two­­shrine-­bearing­boats­arrayed­with­other (JE?)­“5460”­are­otherwise­­unpublished. funerary­furniture­before­the­­tomb-­owner­sit­either­on­a­sledge 61. Reisner­1913,­88–89;­de­Morgan­1895,­81–83.­For­the­Dahshur set­on­what­is­apparently­a­set­of­carrying­poles­(lower­register)­or boats­and­their­discovery,­see­Diana­Craig­Patch­and­Cheryl­Ward is­set­directly­onto­carrying­poles,­which­are­set­upon­blocks­to Haldane,­ e Pharaoh’s Boat at the Carnegie (Pittsburgh: keep­them­off­the­ground­(upper­register). Carnegie­Museum­of­Natural­History;­1990),­Ward­2000, 57. e­watercra­in­this­scene—which­supports­a­funerary­­lion- 83–102;­Pearce­Paul­Creasman,­Benjamin­Vining,­Samuel ­headed­bier,­the­coffin,­and,­presumably,­the­mummy—could­be Koepnick,­and­Noreen­Doyle,­“An­Experimental­Geophysical either­a­papyrus­cra­or­a­wooden­papyriform­vessel.­Remains­of Survey­at­the­Pyramid­Complex­of­Senwosret­III­at­Dahshur, papyrus­watercra,­which­surely­existed­as­everyday­working­cra, Egypt,­in­Search­of­Boats,”­ International Journal of Nautical are­not­known­from­the­archaeological­­record. Archaeology 38.2­(2009):­386–99;­P.­P.­Creasman,­Douglas­Sassen, 58. For­example,­Vandier­d’Abbadie­1954,­pl.­VIII,­X;­George­Foucart, S.­Koepnick,­and­N.­Doyle,­­“Ground-­Penetrating­Radar­Survey­at Le tombeau d’Amonmos (tombeau no. 19) (Cairo:­L’Institut the­Pyramid­Complex­of­Senwosret­III­at­Dahshur,­Egypt,­2008: français­d’archéologie­orientale,­1932),­37,­fig.­5;­pl.­IV,­­9. Search­for­the­Lost­Boat­of­a­Pharaoh,”­ Journal of Archaeological 59. Occasionally,­the­rope­is­omitted­entirely;­see­Earl­of­Carnarvon Science 37.3­(2010):­516–524;­Creasman,­­forthcoming. and­Howard­Carter,­ Five Years’ Exploration at ebes (London: 62. For­example,­Vandier­d’Abbadie­1954,­pl.­X­(TT277);­Naville H. Frowde,­1912),­pl.­LXIII­(TT37:­man­driving­two­cattle­with 1971,­Taf.­­III.P.e. a­brace­between­their­horns­for­the­rope,­pulling­a­­sledge-­borne 63. For­example,­Marcelle­Baud­and­Étienne­Drioton,­ Le tombeau de bar ­que­with­two­steering­oars). Roÿ (tombeau no. 255) (Cairo:­l’Institut­français­d’Archéologie­ori - 60. In­addition­to­the­sledge­from­Dahshur­(George­Andrew­Reisner, entale,­1928),­fig.­7;­Naville­1971,­Taf.­III.P.j.,­­L.e. Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du musée du Caire, 68, 64. For­example,­TT78­(Annelies­Brack­and­Arthur­Brack,­ Das Grab Nos. 4798–4975 et 5034–5200: Models of Ships and Boats [Cairo: des Haremheb: eben nr. 78 [Mainz­am­Rhein:­P.­von­Zabern, l’Institut­français­d’Archéologie­orientale,­1913],­88–89;­Jacques­de 1980],­Taf.­16,­55b);­TT16­(Marcelle­Baud­and­Étienne­Drioton, Morgan,­ Fouilles à Dâhchour: Mars–Juin 1894 .­[Vienna:­Adolph “Le­tombeau­de­Panehsy,”­in­Georges­Foucart,­M.­Baud,­and Holzhausen,­1895],­81–83),­a­small­sledge,­approximately­1.70­cm E. Drioton­(eds.),­ Tombes thébaines: Nécropole de Dirâ’ Abû’n- in­length,­from­Senwosret­I’s­pyramid­complex­at­Lisht­is­known Naga: Le tombeau de Roÿ [tombeau no. 255]; Le tombeau de (Dieter­Arnold,­ Pyramid Complex of Senwosret I at Lisht [New Panehsy [tombeau no. 16]; Le tombeau d’Amonmos [tombeau no. York:­Metropolitan­Museum­of­Art,­1992],­59;­William­Hayes,­ e 19]; Le tombeau d’Amon- am- anit [tombeau no. 277] [Cairo: Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Study of the Egyptian L’Institut­français­d’archéologie­orientale,­1935],­pt.­2,­11,­fig.­3).

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65. Foucart­1932,­37,­fig.­5,­pl.­IV­(TT19). 78. H.­E.­Hurst,­ The Nile: A General Account of the River and the 66. For­example,­Baud­and­Drioton­1928,­12,­fig.­7­(TT255);­Naville Utilization of Its Waters (London:­Constable,­1952),­73.­Before 1971,­Taf. III.D.a.­For­the­ritual,­see­Foucart,­52–63;­Davies the­Nile­was­dammed,­the­floods­typically­began­in­June,­reach - 1925;­Norman­de­Garis­Davies,­“An­Apparent­Instance­of ing­their­apex­in­September.­The­waters­would­quickly­recede, Perspectival­Drawing,”­ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 11­(1926): ultimately­reaching­their­lowest­levels­in­May­(John­Ball, 110–112;­Miriam­Lichtheim,­“Situla­No.­11395­and­Some Contributions to the Geography of Egypt [Cairo:­Survey­and Remarks­on­Egyptian­Situlae,”­ Journal of Near Eastern Studies Mines­Department,­Ministry­of­Finance,­1939],­204;­Harrell 6.3­(1947): 169–179. and­Bown­1995,­83). 67. Barry­Kemp,­“Soil­(Including­­Mud-­Brick­Architecture),”­in 79. Vercoutter­1965,­­69. Nicholson­and­Shaw,­ Ancient Egyptian Materials and 80. e­total­length­of­the­slipway­is­unknown.­e­French­concession Technology ,­78–103. only­included­the­southernmost­1.5­km­(Vila­1970,­193,­fig.­1; 68. Jean­Vercoutter,­“Excavations­at­Mirgissa­II­(Oct.­1963–March Vercoutter­1970,­12–13,­fig.­4),­and­the­remaining­portion­was 1964),”­ Kush: Journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service 13­(1965): not­surveyed­prior­to­the­flooding­of­the­­region. 62–73;­see­also­J.­Vercoutter,­“Desert­Highway­Built­for­Ships,” 81. Alessandra­Nibbi,­“A­Group­of­Stone­Anchors­from­Mirgissa­on e UNESCO Courier (December­1964):­36–37. the­Upper­Nile,”­ International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 69. Kemp­2000,­­93. 21.3­(1992):­259–267;­Vercoutter­1970,­18–­23. 70. How­likely­an­explanation­this­is­for­the­lack­of­scratches­mentioned 82. Vercoutter­1965,­69;­Vercoutter­1964,­­37. by­Arnold­(1992,­59)­is­unknown.­e­undersides­of­other­extant 83. Vercoutter­1965,­­68. sledge(s)­have­not,­to­our­knowledge,­been­similarly­­examined. 84. Creasman,­forthcoming,­table­1;­Ward­2000,­84,­table­­8. 71. For­example,­there­are­quarry-­and­­construction-­related­slipways­at 85. Reisner­1913,­­88. Lahun­(Petrie,­Brunton,­and­Murray­1923,­2,­12,­34,­pl.­XIII,­XV) 86. Vila­1970,­209,­figs.­13,­15,­­16. and­Lisht­(Arnold­1991:­86–92;­Ward­2000,­110–112;­Haldane 87. See­Vila­1970,­207,­fig.­13­(“Les­traces­de­patins­de­traîneau­sont 1992;­Haldane­1988),­both­reinforced­with­disarticulated­boat­tim - indiquées­par­les­fleches­blanches”);­209,­fig.­16­(“empreintes­des bers.­Sometimes­pyramid­ramps­are­referred­to­as­slipways­(James patins”);­215,­fig.­22,­at­­bottom. Frederick­Edwards,­“Building­the­Great­Pyramid:­Probable 88. Note­that­the­carcasses­of­dra­cattle­were­found­in­the­builders’ Construction­Methods­Employed­at­Giza,”­ Technology and debris­from­the­Eleventh­Dynasty­complex­of­Mentuhotep­at­Deir Culture 44.2­(2003):­340–354,­349;­Mark­Lehner,­ e Complete ­el-­Bahri­(Lehner­1997,­203;­Arnold­1991,­64). Pyramids (London:­ames­and­Hudson,­1997),­215–217;­Dows 89. Vercoutter­1965,­­68. Dunham,­“Building­an­Egyptian­Pyramid,”­ Archaeology 9.3­(1956): 90. See,­especially,­Vila­1970,­figs.­13,­­22. 159–165.­For­a­summary­of­­road-­building­in­context­of­quarries, 91. For­hull­plank­dimensions,­see­Creasman­2005,­37­(table­1),­49 see­Aston,­Harrell,­and­Shaw­2000,­18–­20. (table­2),­85­(table­7),­92­(table­­8). 72. Kemp­2000,­­93. 92. See,­especially,­Vila­1970,­fig.­­13. 73. ­Jean-­Claude­Golvin,­“Temple­of­­Amen-­Re­at­Karnak,”­in­Bard, 93. On­the­side­of­a­ rishi coffin­in­the­Metropolitan­Museum­of­Art Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt ,­400–404,­fig.­53; (William­Hayes,­ The Scepter of Egypt: A Background for the Partridge­1996,­8,­fig.­­5. Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of 74. Jean­Vercoutter,­ Mirgissa I (Paris:­Direction­Générale­des­Relations Art II [Cambridge:­Harvard­University­Press,­1959],­31,­fig.­14), Culturelles,­Scientifiques­et­Techniques,­Ministère­des­Affaires two­cattle,­driven­by­a­man­with­a­stick,­drag­a­funerary­boat Étrangères,­avec­le­concours­du­Centre­National­de­la­Recherche directly­on­the­ground.­It­should­be­noted­that­Hayes­described Scientifique,­1970),­13–15,­173–180;­André­Vila,­“Les­vestiges­de the­style­of­painting­on­this­coffin­as­“somewhat­crude”;­the la­plaine,”­in­Vercoutter,­ Mirgissa I ,­193–­221. absence­of­the­sledge­could­be­merely­an­artistic­oversight,­or 75. at­is,­a­road­intended­ for boats­and­distinct­from­roads­made­ of even­the­result­of­concern­for­fitting­the­entire­scene­into­the boat­timbers,­like­those­previously­mentioned­at­Lahun­and­Lisht. narrow­­register. A­70­m­segment­of­the­nearly­10­km­quarry­road­between­Widan 94. René­van­Walsem,­“The­Tomb­of­Meryneith­at­Saqqara.­Results ­el-­Faras­and­Lake­Moeris­was­constructed­of­silicified­wood of­the­Dutch­Mission­2001–2003,”­ Bulletin of the Australian (Harrell­and­Bown­1995,­80,­fig.­15),­but­it­is­not­clear­if­the­wood Centre for Egyptology 14­(2003):­117–134,­pl.­­12. was­silicified­prior­to­use­in­the­road.­Regardless,­there­are­no­indi - 95. Norman­de­Garis­Davies,­Alan­H.­Gardiner,­and­Nina­de­Garis cations­the­wood­was­from­a­repurposed­boat(s),­nor­is­there­a Davies,­ The Tomb of Huy, Viceroy of Nubia in the Reign of clear­interpretation­of­when­this­road­was­­constructed. Tutankhamun (No. 40) (London:­Egypt­Exploration­Society, 76. Vercoutter­1964,­37–38;­Vercoutter­1965,­62–73;­Vila­1970, 1926),­pl.­­XVIII. 204–214.­Ironically,­the­slipway­is­now­submerged­and­likely­lost 96. First­proposed­very­briefly­in­Noreen­Doyle,­“Iconography­and­the due­to­the­creation­of­Lake­­Nasser/Nubia. Interpretation­of­Ancient­Egyptian­Watercra”­(master’s­thesis, 77. Cook’s Tourists’ Handbook for Egypt, the Nile and the Desert Texas­A&M­University,­1998),­ nautarch.tamu.edu/ eses / pdf - (London:­omas­Cook­and­Son,­1892),­­243. files/ Doyle- MA1998.pdf (accessed­December­16,­2008),­32.­If

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Huy’s­is­not­a­depiction­of­a­slipway,­it­could­instead­be­a­visual 110. M.­A.­Littauer­and­J.­H.­Crouwel,­ Wheeled Vehicles and Ridden manifestation­of­a­boast­encountered,­for­example,­in­autobiogra - Animals in the Ancient Near East (Leiden:­E.­J.­Brill,­1979),­8­and phies­in­which­the­­tomb-­owner­specifies­that­he­has­built­water - also­35,­where­the­authors­propose­that­wagons­developed­from cra­for­a­particular­task­appointed­to­him­by­the­king—see,­e.g., sledges­on­­rollers. the­inscription­at­ Qubbet­­al-­Hawa­in­the­tomb­of­Sabni,­which 111. For­examples,­see­Cyril­Aldred,­“An­Unusual­Fragment­of­New states:­“e­majesty­of­my­lord­sent­me­to­construct­two­great Kingdom­Relief,”­ Journal of Near Eastern Studies 15­(1956): barges­in­Wawat­so­as­to­ship­two­great­obelisks­north­to 150–152,­pl.­XVII;­Yadin­1963,­188–189,­210–­211. Heliopolis”­(Strudwick­2005,­339;­also­Roccati­1982,­214–215; 112. Donald­B.­Redford,­ e Akhenaten Temple Project Volume 2: R wd- Lichtheim­1988,­17). Mnw , Foreigners, and Inscriptions (Toronto:­Akhenaten­Temple 97. Karl­Martin,­“Obelisks:­ Quarrying,­Transporting­and­Erecting,”­in Project,­1988),­10,­pl.­­31. Bard,­ Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt ,­587–589; 113. Robert­Mond­and­Oliver­H.­Myers,­ The Bucheum III: The Arnold­1991,­273–275. Plates (London:­Egypt­Exploration­Society,­1934),­pl.­CIX.1; 98. Martin­1999,­588;­Somers­Clarke­and­Reginald­Engelbach,­ Ancient Étienne­Drioton,­ Encyclopédie photographique de l’art: Le Musée Egyptian Construction and Architecture (Oxford:­Oxford du Caire: Photographies inédites d’André Vigneau (Paris:­Édi - University­Press,­1930),­­34. tions­“Tel,”­1949),­pl.­192,­no.­192,­­46. 99. Arnold­1991,­275.­Note­that­even­the­colossus­being­transported­in 114. Joseph­John­Tylor,­ Wall Drawings and Monuments of El Kab: e a­scene­from­the­tomb­of­Djehutyhotep­(Figure­2),­estimated­to Tomb of Sebeknekht (London:­Egypt­Exploration­Fund,­1896),­4, have­weighed­about­sixty­tons­(Clarke­and­Engelbach­1930,­85), pl.­II.­For­the­placement­of­this­Sobeknakht­in­the­chronology­of was­moved­on­a­sledge­without­­rollers. the­Seventeenth­Dynasty,­see­Chris­Bennett,­“A­Genealogical 100. See­Nour,­Iskander,­Osman,­and­Moustafa­1960;­Abubakr­and Chronology­of­the­Seventeenth­Dynasty,”­ Journal of the American Moustafa­1971;­Lipke­1984;­Lipke­1985;­Steffy­1994,­24–28; Research Center in Egypt 39­(2002):­123–­155. Ward­2000,­47–60;­Mark­2009). 115. Davies­1926,­112;­van­Walsem­1997,­­229. 101. Mark­2009,­133.­Rowena­Gale,­Peter­Gasson,­Nigel­Hepper,­and 116. Tylor­1896,­4;­Davies­­1926. Geoffrey­Killen,­“Wood,”­in­Paul­Nicholson­and­Ian­Shaw­(eds.), 117. Guy­Brunton­and­Reginald­Engelbach,­ Gurob (London:­Bernard Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (Cambridge: Quaritch,­1927),­pl.­LII;­Angela­P.­omas,­ Gurob: A New Cambridge­University­Press,­2000),­334–371,­offer­a­figure­of Kingdom Town (Warminster:­Aris­&­Philips,­1981),­1:86, 40 tons­“displacement.”­However,­displacement­is­“the­weight­of no. 747;­2:­pl.­56,­no.­747;­Wachsmann,­ e Gurob Ship Model a­vessel­ and all of its burden ”­(Steffy­1994,­251–252;­emphasis (College­Station:­Texas­A&M­University­Press,­forthcoming). added).­e­Khufu­I­vessel­could­have­held­far­greater;­the­figure 118. Emma­­Brunner-­Traut,­“Spielzeug,”­in­Wolfgang­Helk­and of­40­tons­ displacement is­too­low.­It­is,­in­any­case,­extremely Eberhard­Otto­(eds.),­ Lexikon der Ägyptologie V.8 (Wiesbaden: unlikely­that­such­a­large­vessel­would­be­transported­overland­as Harrassowitz,­1984),­1152–1156;­omas­1921,­1,­86.­See a­single­unit,­given­the­stresses­that­would­be­placed­on­the­hull Wachsmann,­forthcoming,­for­a­different­­interpretation. when­removed­from­the­­water. 119. For­a­discussion­of­these­representations,­see­René­van­Walsem,­ e 102. ­Jean-­Pierre­Corteggiani,­ e Egypt of the Pharaohs at the Cairo Coffin of Djedmonthuiufankh in the National Museum of Antiquities Museum (London:­Scala,­1987),­92–93,­no.­­53. at Leiden (Leiden:­Nederlands­Instituut­voor­het­Nabije­Oosten, 103. Arnold­1991,­­275. 1997),­226–231;­see­also­Wachsmann,­­forthcoming. 104. Ricardo­A.­Caminos,­“Fragments­of­the­‘Book­of­the­Dead’­on 120. Littauer­and­Crouwel­1979,­­112. Linen­and­Papyrus,”­ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 56­(1970): 121. Karl­Heinrich­Dittmann,­“Der­Segelwagen­von­Medinet­Madi,” 117–131.­Pointing­to­the­unusual­number­of­circles­beneath­the Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung sledge,­Caminos­prefered­to­interpret­them­as­­rollers. Kairo 10­(1941):­60–78,­pl.­­16. 105. Partridge­1996,­76;­similarly,­the­use­of­wheeled­vehicles­at­Deir 122. Dittmann­1941,­62–64,­abb.­­2. ­el -Medina­is­said­to­“rarely­have­occurred,­if­ever”­(Jacques­J. 123. For­further­discussion,­see­Dittmann­1941,­­65. Janssen,­ Donkeys at Deir el- Medîna [Leiden:­Instituut­voor­het 124. Friedrich­Wilhelm­von­Bissing,­ Ein ebanischer Grabfund aus Nabije­Oosten,­2005],­74). dem anfang des neuen reichs. Neudruck der Ausgabe (Berlin: 106. Davies­pointed­out­the­wheels­in­el­Kab­scene­in­1926,­­112. A. Duncker,­1900),­19–22,­Taf.­IX.­2a–k,­­X. 107. Saqqara­tomb­of­Kaemhesit.­Wolfgang­Helck,­“Rad,”­in­W.­Helk 125. For­the­spokes­of­chariot­wheels­and­the­significance­of­their­num - and­Eberhard­Otto­(eds.),­ Lexikon der Ägyptologie V.1 (Wiesbaden: ber,­see­James­K.­Hoffmeier,­“Observations­on­the­Evolving Harrassowitz,­1983),­76–78;­Yigael­Yadin,­ Art of Warfare in Chariot­Wheel­in­the­18th­Dynasty,”­ Journal of the American Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Discovery (London: Research Center in Egypt 13­(1976):­43–­45. Weidenfeld­and­Nicholson,­1963),­­147. 126. Mohamed­Saleh­and­Hourig­Sourouzian,­ e Egyptian Museum, 108. Kenneth­A.­Kitchen,­“An­Unusual­Stela­from­Abydos,”­ Journal of Cairo: Official Catalogue (Mainz:­Verlag­Philipp­von­Zabern, Egyptian Archaeology 47­(1961):­10–­18. 1987),­no.­­123. 109. Kitchen­1961,­­13. 127. Doyle­1998,­­122.

Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections | http://jaei.library.arizona.edu | Vol. 2:3, 2010 | 14–30 29 P. P. Creasman and N. Doyle | Overland Boat Transportation

128. Whether­these­crewmen­are­rowing­or­paddling­(among­other Redford,­ e Wars in Syria and Palestine of utmose III (Leiden: details­of­the­silver­model)­is­subject­to­debate;­for­a­summary,­see Brill,­2003),­106–107;­R.­O.­Faulkner,­“e­Euphrates­Campaign­of Wachsmann,­­forthcoming. utmosis­III,”­ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 32­(1946):­39–42; 129. A­list­of­examples,­with­discussion,­can­be­found­in­van­Walsem Georg­Steindorf,­“Stele­utmosis’­III.­Vom­Gebel­Barkal,”­in 1997,­225–239;­see­also­Wachsmann,­­forthcoming. Wolfgang­Helck­(ed.),­ Urkunden der 18. Dynastie: historische 130. Abdel­Moneim­Abubakr,­“Divine­Boats­of­Ancient­Egypt,” Inschrien utmosis’ III und Amenophis’ II (Leipzig:­Hinrichs’sche Archaeology 8­(1955):­93–95;­S.­Wachsmann,­“Sailing­into Buchhandlung,­1955),­1227–1368;­George­Andrew­Reisner­and Egypt’s­Past:­Does­a­Celebration­of­Luxor’s­Patron­Saint­Echo Mary­B.­Reisner,­“Inscribed­Monuments­of­Gebel­Barkal­Part­2.­e Ancient­Pharaonic­Traditions?”­ Archaeology 55.4­(July/August Granite­Stela­of­utmosis­III,”­ Zeitschri für ägyptische Sprache und 2002):­36–39;­S.­Wachsmann,­“e­Moulid­of­Abu­el­Haggag: Altertumskunde 69­(1933):­24–­39. A Contemporary­Boat­Festival­in­Egypt,”­in­Harry­Tzalas­(ed.), 135. Jones­1988,­215–216­(VI.39). Tropis VII , Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Ship 136. Jones­1988,­131–132­(II.14,­II.15). Construction in Antiquity (Athens:­Hellenic­Institute­for­the 137. Faulkner­1946,­­40. Preservation­of­Ship­Construction­in­Antiquity),­2:821–835; 138. One­example­is­TT17­(Nebamun);­see­Richard­B.­Parkinson, Wachsmann,­­forthcoming. The Painted Tomb-Chapel of Nebamun (London:­British 131. Archaizing­might­also­account­for­the­proliferation­of­disk­(rather Museum­Press,­2008);­Yadin­1963,­210.­A­second­example­is­a than­spoked)­wheels­on­many­funerary­vehicles.­e­Egyptians faience­fragment­(chariot­in­vineyard);­see­Yadin­1963,­­188. employed­deliberate­archaic­forms­in­watercra,­most­notably­giv - 139. Davies,­Gardiner,­and­Davies­1926,­24,­pl.­XXIII,­XXVII, ing­wooden­hulls­the­pretense­of­being­ras­by­means­of­papyri - XXVIII­(Nubian). form­finials,­but­also,­more­elaborately,­in­rigging:­see­Noreen 140. See­A.­Erman­and­W.­Grapow,­ Wörterbuch der ägyptische Sprache Doyle,­“e­Persistence­of­the­Bipod­Mast­and­the­Transience­of (Berlin:­Akademie-Verlag,­1926)­1:334;­compare­use­of­the­word the­Tripod”­(paper­presented­at­the­Fiy-Seventh­Annual in­O.­Cairo­25­543,­which­makes­reference­to­a­“she-­ass­of­the Meeting­of­the­American­Research­Center­in­Egypt,­­2006). wagon”­(Janssen­2005,­­74). 132. N.­Cherpion,­J.-P.­Corteggiani,­and­J.-Fr.­Gaout.­ Le tombeau de 141. Walter­Wreszinski,­ Atlas zur altaegyptischen Kulturgeschichte II Pétosiris à Touna el- Gebel. Relevé photographique (Cairo:­l’Institut (Leipzig:­J.­C.­Hinrichs’-schen,­1935),­Taf.­22,­23,­82,­92,­92a,­93, français­d’archéologie­orientale,­2007),­134–135­(scene­92,6).­ 94,­169,­170;­Yadin­1963,­107–­109. 133. e­depiction­is­vaguely­visually­reminiscent­of­a­funerary­cart 142. From­TT125,­dating­to­the­reign­of­Hatshepsut;­see­Cyril­Aldred, appearing­in­a­vignette­drawn­on­linen­(BM­10265),­in­which­the “An­Unusual­Fragment­of­New­Kingdom­Relief,”­ Journal of Near cart­body­appears­as­a­­cross-­hatched­area­between­the­wheels Eastern Studies 15­(1956):­150–152,­pl.­­XVII. (Kristensen­1919,­272,­fig.­6;­Göttlicher­1992,­69,­abb.­40). 143. Faulkner­1946,­40.­Vinson­(1994,­44)­suggests­that­the­army 134. Adriaan­de­Buck,­ Egyptian Readingbook: Exercises and Middle brought­“prefabricated­boats”­with­them­for­the­river­­crossing. Egyptian Texts (Leyden:­Nederlandsch­­Archaeologisch-­Philologiscal 144. Yadin­1963,­­454. Instituut­Voor­Het­Nabije­Oosten,­1948),­1–2,­58;­Donald­B. 145. Creasman­2005,­tables­1–5­and­7–11.

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