Astrotecture™ Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. a California Professional Service Corporation 4260 Terman Drive #104 Palo Alto, CA 94306

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Astrotecture™ Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. a California professional service corporation 4260 Terman Drive #104 Palo Alto, CA 94306

Presentation to the Future of In-Space Operations (FISO) 11 May 2011

2. First Mars Habitat Architecture (18th IAA Humans in Space Symposium, Houston 15 April 2011).

3. Deep Space Habitation: Asteroids, Mars, Moons (National Academy of Science – NASA Technology Roadmaps, Houston, 27 April 2011)

4. International Collaboration on Analog Utilization Workshop (USRA/NASA, Houston 7-8 April 2011)

5. The Key to Scientiﬁcally Valid Habitat & Analog Studies: Asking Big Questions

6. Conclusion

Presentation to the 18th International Astronautics Academy Symposium on Humans in Space 15 April 2011 Houston TX USA

• Hypogravity • Radiation • Need for Regenerative & Bioregenerative Life Support • Mars Dust • Planetary Protection

! There is still a worry (¿Wishful Thinking?) in the Human Research Community that someday NASA will launch a crash program for a Mars mission without doing 1930 Noordung Torus: the essential research. Artificial G UV protection, © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. Human-Machine Interface. ! J. R. Ball, C. H. Evans (Eds.) Institute of Medicine (2001). Safe ! NRC (2000c). Radiation and the International Space Station: Passage: Astronaut Care for Exploration Missions, Washington Recommendations to Reduce Risk, Washington DC: National DC: National Academies Press. Academies Press. ! D. Longnecker, R. Molins (Eds.), NRC (2006). A Risk ! NRC (2002) Safe on Mars: Precursor Measurements Reduction Strategy for Human Exploration of Space: A Review Necessary to Support. Human Operations on the Mars of NASA’s Bioastronautics Roadmap, Washington DC: National Surface, Washington DC: National Academies Press. Academies Press. ! NRC (2003). Factors Affecting the Utilization of the ! NRC (1970). Radiation Protection Guides and Constraints for International Space Station for Research in the Biological and Space-Mission and Vehicle-Design Studies Involving Nuclear Physical Sciences, Washington DC: National Academies Press. Systems, Washington DC: National Academy of Science Press. ! NRC (2006a). Assessment of NASA’s Mars Architecture: ! NRC (1992). Biological Contamination of Mars: Issues and 2007-2016, Washington DC: National Academies Press. Recommendations, Washington DC: National Academies ! NRC (2006b). Preventing the Forward Contamination of Mars, Press. Washington DC: National Academies Press. ! NRC (1996). Radiation Hazards to Crews of Interplanetary ! NRC (2006c). Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Missions: Biological Issues and Research Strategies, Space Exploration: Report of a Workshop, Washington DC: Washington DC: National Academies Press. National Academies Press. ! NRC (1997a). Advanced Technology for Human Support in ! NRC (2006d). Review of NASA Plans for the International Space, Washington DC: National Academies Press. Space Station, Washington DC: National Academies Press. ! NRC (1997b). Mars Sample Return: Issues and ! NRC (2007). An Astrobiology Strategy for the Exploration of Recommendations, Washington DC: National Academies Mars, Washington DC: National Academies Press. Press. ! NRC (2008a). Managing Space Radiation Risk in the New Era ! NRC (1998). A Strategy for Research in Space Biology and of Space Exploration, Washington DC: National Academies Medicine in the Next Century, Washington DC: National Press. Academies Press. ! NRC (2008b). A Constrained Space Exploration Technology ! NRC (2000a). Microgravity Research in Support of Program: A Review of NASA’s Exploration Technology Technologies for the Human Exploration and Development of Development Program, Washington DC: National Academies Space and Planetary Bodies, Washington DC: National Press. Academies Press. ! NRC (2009). Assessment of Planetary Protection ! NRC (2000b). Guidelines for Developing Spacecraft Water Requirements for Mars Sample Return Missions. Washington Exposure Guidelines, Washington DC: National Academies DC: National Academies Press Press. © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C Table 1. National Academies’ reports from the National Research Council (NRC) and Institute of Medicine (IoM): Distribution among the Five Showstoppers.

Hypogravity Space Regenerative Life Mars Planetary Counter- Radiation Support Protection Dust measures Protection • Physical- • • Back- —1970 —1998 Chemical —2002 Contamination —1996 —2000a p. 50 —1997 pp. 25-30 pp. 3-4, —1997 —2001* pp. 36- —2000a pp. 62-64 —2000a pp. 52- —2002 pp. 37- —2000c 18-20 51 —2001* p. 96 57, 76-79, 82-84 43 —2003 —2002 pp. 22-25 —2000b pp. 37- —2006a, pp. 41- —2006d 19-20 —2006c 47, 115-130. 46. —2006d pp. 18-19 —2006d pp. 13- —2006b —2008a 14, —2007 —2008b pp. 34- —2009 37 • Bioregenerative- • • Forward- CELSS Contamination —1997 pp. 30-37 — 1992 —2006** pp. 112- — 2006a 113. — 2007

! Spacecraft and Habitat Architects and Engineers need the research results to analyze, design, and build our systems. We are customers.

! There is a tendency to jump to (non evidence-based) conclusions in terms of architecture, design, and engineering: • About what is not necessary, and worse, • What is NOT POSSIBLE.

! These assumptions and attitudes lead to dismissing solutions before the chance to test their feasibility.

A brilliant design that demonstrates all the Showstoppers:

! 16 Psyche: Largest M-type in the Main Belt. ! 1986 DA is an Amor, Mars-Crosser and Main Belt. ! 1992 TC is Mars- crossing Amor. ! 3554 Amun is an Earth-crossing Aten. ! 4660 Nereus is a Earth- and Mars- crossing Aten ! 65803 Didyos is a Mars-Crossing Amor

Images courtesy of Bruce Damer, President of Digital Space DEBATE: ARTIFICIAL G ENVIRONMENT VS. “SHORT-ARM” CENTRIFUGE

February 1937 “2001 Space Odyssey” Stanford Torus 1968 Circa 1975-77 DEBATE: ARTIFICIAL G ENVIRONMENT VS. “SHORT-ARM” CENTRIFUGE

Ames Human-Powered Centrifuge 1994

JSC TransHab Centrifuge Concept (August 1935) With PLAID Logo 1998 • We still do not have the 2.5m Space Station Life Science Centrifuge (Biological Research Project) to perform the necessary fundamental science but we are at “ISS Complete.”

• The debate of the Artificial Gravity Wheel/Environment versus the Short Arm Centrifuge is not productive.

• Neither of these solutions has been tested experimentally in space, but members of the Human Spaceflight and HRP Communities jump to conclusions about what designs are possible, which can succeed, and which are not necessary.

• We can have a short-arm centrifuge long before a complete artificial-G wheel.

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C However, Shielding Technologies have not Advanced Nearly as Much (Dose in Sv unless noted otherwise) Standard or 30 Day Limit Annual Limit Career Guideline Limit NASA SP-71, 200 Rad (2 Gy) 55 Rad - (Billingham in Reetz “emergency” from one (0.55 Gray) (Ed), 1965, p. 140) SPE Apollo Maximum 0.50 from an SPE - - Operational Dose (English et al, 1973, p.3) NRC, 1970 0.25 0.75 4.0 NCRP, Rpt. 98, 1989, 0.25 0.50 1.75 female, 35 years of age. 2.5 male NCRP, Symposium - - 0.9 female, Proceedings No. 3, 1.4 male 1997, 35 years of age: 3% excess risk of cancer. NCRP Rpt. 132, 2000, 0.25 Gray-Equivalent 0.50 Gray 0.6 Gy-Eq. female, 35 years of age. Equivalent 1.0 Gy-Eq. male © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C

We have not yet designed and seriously tested a system with sufficient shielding for GCRs.

! Assuming that shielding mass is always Marco Durante (L) & Gianfranco “parasitic” – is not a solution. Grossi at Brookhaven National Lab (2003) with Carbon-Carbon ! Radiation Shielding: Multifunctional wall shielding sample provided by the construction. Author for the “Habot.”

! NRC (2008) Managing Radiation Risk in the New Era of Space Exploration, Washington DC: National Academy Press.

! However, rigid internal shielding is not a launch-cost effective solution within the IPV.

6m Habitat Interior Diameter

Habitat Water Shield Geometry: 2f Truncated Octahedron

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C • Water is amorphous: It can be pumped into an IPV at an in- space fueling and water depot in LEO or at L1. • Water can be launched from Earth separately from the IPV or produced on the Moon and shipped to L1. • Once we have a sufficient supply of water in space, we keep reusing it, pumping it from the returning IPV to the next IPV. • At the NASA Phobos & Deimos Conference 15 MAR 2011, NASA Flight Surgeon Jim Logan advocated 50g/cm2 = 5RP shielding for a Mars / Deimos mission.

• In the 1997 IPV design, 5RP = 70 tons of H2O • With an L1 fueling & water depot, that is not a problem. • If we can plan a Fuel Depot to transfer 100s of tons or propellants, why not 70 tons of water? © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C We must Design Mars and Asteroid Spacecraft and Habitats around Regenerative Systems from FIRST Principles (not “integrate” them later):

! Physical-Chemical Regenerative ! Bioregenerative • Air Revitalization, • Air Revitalization, • CO2 Removal, • CO2 Uptake, • Humidity Control, • O2 Production • Contaminant Detection & Control, • Primary & Secondary Water, • Secondary/Tertiary Water, • Primary & Secondary Urine, • Secondary/Tertiary Urine, • Primary/Secondary Solid Waste, • Secondary/Tertiary Gray Water • Primary/Secondary Wash & Laundry • Secondary/Tertiary Solid Waste & (Gray) Water, biomass recovery, • Condensate recovery. • Food Growth & Harvesting • Thermal Control • Power management • Ecosystem Sustainment

The two systems provide complementary capabilities with “unlike” redundancy

Seasonal Hemispheric Dust Storms

Ubiquitous Dusty Plains Spirit MER Image of Mars Dust Devil © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C One (Earth) Year Spirit MER Dust Accumulation Experiment Toxicity of Lunar and Martian Dust Simulants to Alveolar Macrophages Isolated from Human Volunteers

Judith N. Latch,1 Raymond F. Hamilton, Jr., and Andrij Holian2 Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA Chiu-wing Lam and John T. James Johnson Space Center Toxicology Group, Space Life Sciences, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, USA © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C ! NASA Human System Integration Req’ts NASA Cx 70024: ! Lunar Dust Contamination[HS3006DV] The limit of lunar dust in the internal atmosphere shall be verified by analysis. The analysis shall include a review of the vehicle design and testing of the Atmosphere Revitalization System (ARS). The verification shall be considered successful when the analysis and tests show the particulate contamination of less than 10 micron and equal to or greater than 0.1 micron size (TBR-006-004) within vehicle can remain below 0.05 mg/m3. 2010 Crew Productivity Study AIAA 2010-8846 (Northrop Grumman)

! Dust Removal Suitports and “Front Porch” are part of an EVA Access Module Designed for Dust Exclusion! Dust. Disposal Marc Cohen, US Patent 4,842,224. Image by Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems

! The BIGGEST SHOWSTOPPER would be finding EXTANT LIFE on Mars.

! Everything Leaks!

! We must design habitats, rovers, and EVA suits from a “clean sheet start” to accommodate PP.

! The ECLSS must integrate PP and contaminant control.

! Surface Science equipment and procedures must incorporate PP in sample collection and handling.

1994-95 Ames “HazMat” Vehicle D-RATS 2008 Small Electric Rover Astrotecture™ Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. a California professional service corporation 4260 Terman Drive #104 Palo Alto, CA 94306 http://www.astrotecture.com

Presentation to the 18th International Astronautics Academy Symposium on Humans in Space 15 April 2011 Houston TX USA

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! The Five Showstoppers define ! The habitat design must be the design baseline for Space measured in terms of the figures of Habitats: merit for: • Hypogravity ! Mass,

• Radiation ! Volume,

• Need for Regenerative Life ! Cost, Support ! Crew safety, • Dust and Contaminant Control ! Mission success, and • Planetary Protection ! Crew Productivity –

! Key parameters for any habitat: ! Including human reliability in • the crew size, the space living and working • the mission duration, or length of environment. tour of duty, • the use of in situ resources, • and the frequency of logistics resupply. © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! 1989: The 90-Day Study and the Space ! The Working Environment: Exploration Initiative • Mars Surface Laboratories and ! Preparing for the Mars Design EVA Systems Reference Mission (MDRM): ! The Living Environment • The Mars Underground Emerges ! Mobile Bases and the Habot ! The Interplanetary Vehicle Debate

! 1997 Publication of the Mars Design ! Advanced Habitat Technologi Reference Mission 1.0/2.0 ! 2009 MDRM Redux 5.0 • Retrenchment in MDRM 3.0 ! The new Flexible Path Strategy ! Habitat Analogs, Mockups, and Simulators implies crewed missions to asteroids, Phobos, or Deimos and ! Typology of Habitat Construction eventually to the Mars surface. • The 1997 NASA Habitats and Surface Construction Roadmap

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! Rendering of an initial habitat for Moon or Mars exploration, derived from the NASA 90-Day Study (NASA image). © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! Rendering of an inflatable habitat for Moon or Mars exploration, derived from the NASA 90-Day Study (NASA image, artist credit: Gary Kitmacher & John Ciccora). © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C.

! Kent Joosten’s concept for the MDRM 1.0 Mars exploration habitat, (NASA image, rendered by John Frassinito). © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. Assumptions and Constraints of the 1995 Mars Habitation Strategy. Assumptions Constraints • Crew of six, with a wide skill mix and cross- • Verification of successful precursor missions training in critical skills are required before sending the crew on the • Conjunction class mission, next 26 month launch opportunity, • 500 to 600 days on the Mars surface, • Cargo landers must land successfully and deploy cargo as designated, • Pre-positioning launch for the Earth return vehicle in Mars orbit, • Robotic operations, • Pre-positioning launch for the Mars Ascent • In situ fuel generation and storage for MAV Vehicle (MAV) on the Mars surface, must be completed and verified before crew launch from Earth, • Pre-positioning launch for the Mars surface habitat and associated equipment, • Crew fitness must be sustained and verifiable, and • Launch the crew only after verifying the Earth return vehicle, ascent vehicle, surface • In the event of major failure, there will be habitat, and the fueling of the ascent vehicle sufficient landed resources for mission abort to the Mars surface. • In situ fueling of the ascent vehicle, and • Growing a portion of food on Mars.

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. Interpretation of the Joosten Concept (Cohen, rendered by Emmart): Dual remote means of egress, Greenhouses EVA-Access Facility External Sample Storage Water Shielding IRSU H20 & O2 generation

Atmosphere Cache

Water Tank Radiation Shield

Living Quarters Pressure Port, Typ.(One of four) Flexible Tunnel

Equipment “Dense Pack”

Laboratories Optional & Solar Storm Shelter Water Tank Wheels

Scale in Meters © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. 1 5 10 15 ! IPV and Surface Habitat Key Design Parameters for Optimization Strategies Design Unique to Common to Both Unique to Parameter IPV Habitat Habitat Designs Planetary Surface Habitat 1. Radiation Must launch to LEO, don't Water possible for both, but Can extract water from Mars Shielding want to drag it down to derived from different sources. atmosphere or excavate regolith. planet surface. 2. Pressure 2 Ports at distal axial ends Dimensions, controls, structures, 4 or more peripheral ports w/ dust Ports and mechanisms. control 3. EVA Airlock May incorporate an airlock Both may include a separate, Separately landed habitat & airlock and Zero-gravity optimized external EVA module. module allows on-surface assembly. suits. 4. Laboratory No use for the Lab Facilities Laboratory will provide the center of Facilities going to Mars, minimal use the Working Environment. on return voyage. 5.Counter- Countermeasures such as Exercise regimens for aerobics Zero-gravity countermeasures less measures a small diameter, human- and weight training important in the .38 G on Mars. Against 0-G powered centrifuge 6. Gravity Optimize for zero-g IVA NO EASY COMPROMISES Optimize for partial-g operations. Orientation operations. 7. Life Support Plan for physical / chemical Some common components for Plan for physical /chemical system closed-loop regenerative physical/chemical systems. that includes local resources system, with possible plant- (atmosphere) with CELSS growth unit. component. 8. Safety, Pure Reliability Strategy: Availability Strategy: Resupply & Reliability & Propulsive character repair complement standard Quality demands .99999 reliability reliability approaches. Assurance Strategy (SR&QA) 9. Habitat Pre-Integrated Units with Some assembly Pre-Integrated, Pre-fabricated, Construction minimal assembly and Assembled, Deployed, and ISRU outfitting. are all feasible and preferable. © 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! The Hoffman and Kaplan (1997, p. 1-31) acknowledged this “minority report”: ! Study team members were not unanimous in the choice of a common habitat for space transit, for landing on the surface, and for surface habitation. Some argued that, due to the different requirements, a common design was not in the best interest of the mission. This is an area for further research.

Key Features of MDRM 1 Habitats: Dual Habitats Pre-positioning launches on the prior launch window. ISRU

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. CLASS DESCRIPTION BENEFITS 1. Pre-Integrated A composite structure that can High reliability & easy to repair. be autonomously predeployed Hard Shell Module and operated on the Moon and Near-current technology Mars surface. delivered complete to the surface. Add larger modules to ISS and Fully integrated. Lunar Orbit

The capability for A.I. smart habitat for failure detection, analysis and self-repair.

2. Pre-Fabricated An inflatable structure that can Larger usable habitable be autonomously predeployed volume. Inflatable deployed or and operated on the Moon and assembled structures. Mars surface. Lower mass

Partially integrated and flexible. Higher crew productivity

The capability for A.I. smart Higher crew moral and quality habitat for failure detection, of life. (Lower stress) analysis and self-repair.

High reliability & easy to repair.

Taking the steps toward building new civilizations

3. In-Situ Resource An ISRU-derived structure that Least requirement for Construction is manufactured using indigenous materials from Earth per resources and constructed usable habitable volume. Lunar concrete autonomously. (“Lunacrete”), Can build colony infrastructure It is autonomously operated and to support sustained human Masonry, maintained utilizing A.I. and V.R. presence and evolution.

In-situ vitrified caves, The capability for A.I. for failure Self Sufficiency from Earth drilled tunnels or lava detection, analysis and self- tubes. repair. Higher level of society.

• Human Factors • Information Science • Life Science • Life Support

NASA-Ames

! Upper and Lower Level, Controlled Environment Research Chamber

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! View of the 20-Foot Atmosphere Chamber at JSC where NASA conducted the 3 LMLSTP Closed Chamber Studies of up to 90 Days (author photo, right, January 2010, NASA photo below).

Views of the FMARS Habitat on Devon Island, Kurt Micheels, Architect

Summer of 2009 (Photo credit: Brian Shiro, astronaut for hire.com)

Constance Adams, Architect for TransHab Interior

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. Transport Collect Transfer to Anaiyze and Place Can Samples Select to Lab!- external in External Transport stowage on rover External In Canister Vehicle Samples Storage Ops

Robot Retrieves Robot removes Autoclave Return can to Canister - Places sample from empty can! transport vehicle Transfer in Sample Airlock canister Ops Sample to Sample to Prep Transit Airlock! Chamber

Return Unused Robot places Visual Inspection Slice, Dice, unused in can & Preliminary Saw, & Label Portion!to Sample A/L Internal Analysis Sample Separate Selected Sample to Ops Portion of Sample Transit Airlock

Discard Route Dry Lab Analysis Unwanted Sample Remove Samples to Lab Specimen to Science Exit Airlock Chamber Wet Lab Analysis

Pack Move Remove Place into Return Selected processed sample container from internal Samples Completion sample container exit airlock! storage to Earth

“Wagon Trains”

1995 Kozlov and Shevchenko Mobile Base, assembled in 9 Landings.

1993 Frassanito Lunar Rover Base

1971 North American Aviation Lunar Sortie Vehicle Habitat Robots (Habots) on the lunar surface, John Mankins Concept (NASA image, artist credit: Pat Rawlings).

! 2003 Mobitat1--left and 2006 Trigon-Mobitat2–right (Courtesy of A. Scott Howe).

Drawn by Ross A. Tisdale, NASA-Ames & SCI-Arc

Habitat Architecture for Mobile Lunar and Planetary Bases 49 2006 Mars Base Model University of Houston Prof. Larry Bell, Architect (Author Photo)

2009 NASA MDRM 5.0 NASA image, artist credit: Pat Rawlings

! Given sufficient Science results, it is possible to design and engineer to find evidence-based solutions for the Five Showstoppers.

! It is essential to design space vehicles and habitats FROM THE BEGINNING to mitigate the Showstoppers.

! Gravity is the sole constant in the evolution of life – It’s not just a good idea, it’s the law for human health and reproduction.

! Radiation Protection must be built into Spacecraft & Habitat Design Process FROM THE BEGINNING.

! Life Support and Environmental Control Systems plus Data Systems and Autonomy comprise the central integration disciplines for human spacecraft & habitat design.

! ECLSS Design and Engineering makes Mars Dust Control and Planetary Protection possible.

References cited are available at http:www.spacearchitect.org Or submitted separately to the Panel

Presentation to the NASA Technology Roadmaps Study Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National Research Council ! Human Health and Surface Exploration Panel WORKSHOP 27 April 2011 ! Lunar and Planetary Institute 3600 Bay Area Boulevard, Houston, TX 77058

! Preface: The National Academy of Science Committee Process

! Precedents: 1997 NASA Habitats and Surface Construction Roadmap – a Materials Description Approach.

! Threats to Crew Health and Safety

! Need for Performance-Based Standards, Requirements, and Specifications.

! The Limits of Minimum Functionality Design Analysis Cycles.

! The Failure of Space Habitat Analog Studies

! Post Occupancy Analysis of Space Habitats and Vehicles (e.g., Shuttle & ISS).

! Conclusion

! NASA is trying to rush the NAS Committee process so that there will not be a serious examination of the Roadmap status quo – just a quick rubber stamp and a slap on the back.

! When I served on the NAS/NRC ASEB Committee for Radiation Protection in the New Era of Exploration, we took testimony for about six days, one hour per speaker.

! Don’t let NASA rush this Committee – Cite the inadaquete time in your report.

! You are writing a report, aren’t you?

© 2011, Marc M. Cohen 55 ! Precedents: 1997 NASA Habitats and Surface Construction Roadmap1, 2, 3 was the first comprehensive attempt at a Space Architecture taxonomy, but it had limitations: • Descriptive based on Material Specifications. • Point Design Approach to Habitats, Bases, and In-Space Habitats – meaning designers promote one concept or technology and try to make mission requirements fit it. • Not evidence-based or supported by empirical research. • Assumed a Linear Evolutionary Path Based on Prescriptive Design and Technology. • Designs must be configuration-specific to a particular project or design reference mission.

• Did not consider Mission Duration as a key design driver.

! 1. Cohen, Marc M.; Kennedy, Kriss J. (1997 November). Habitats and Surface Construction Technology and Development Roadmap. In A. Noor, J. Malone (Eds.), Government Sponsored Programs on Structures Technology (NASA CP-97-206241, p. 75-96). Washington, DC, USA: NASA. ! 2. Cohen, Marc M.; Benaroya, Haym (2009). Lunar-Base Structures. In A. S. Howe, B. Sherwood (Eds.),Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture (Chapter 15, p. 179-204). Reston,Virginia, USA: AIAA. ! 3. Kennedy, Kriss J. (2009) The Vernacular of Space Architecture . In A. S. Howe, B. Sherwood (Eds.),Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture (Chapter 15, p. 179-204). Reston,Virginia, USA: AIAA. © 2011, Marc M. Cohen 56 ! The Space Architecture community has developed a much more sophisticated and better documented understanding of the Advanced Habitat design.

! In 1998, we founded the AIAA Space Architecture Working Group within the Design Engineering TC. • 2001, It advanced to an AIAA Subcommittee • 2007 The Space Architecture Technical Committee (SATC) was established http://www.spacearchitect.org

! The SATC organizes technical paper sessions at 2 conferences each year and recently collaborated on the production of the book Out of this World: The New Field of Space Architecture • Follows the Kuhn paradigm for establishing a new discipline or field. • The SATC seeks to establish professional and scholarly standards for the practice of Space Architecture. • We encourage architectural licensure as a key professional qualification.

© 2011, Marc M. Cohen 57 ! Space Architects and Engineers must design Advanced Habitats to protect the crew against threats to health, safety, and long-term sustained performance. for Deep Space Habitation4 are: • Hypogravity • Radiation • Need for Regenerative and Bioregenerative Life Siupport • Dust (Lunar, Mars, etc) • Planetary Protection (Forward and Back Contamination)

! 4. Cohen, Marc M. (2011, 15 April). The Five Showstoppers for Mars Habitation (and Asteroids), presentation to the 18th IAA Humans in Space Symposium, Houston, TX, attachment to this presentation.

! “Advanced Habitat” should mean that it is designed, built, and tested to meet rigorous Performance-Based Standards, Requirements and Specifications – NOT merely a material- spec description.

! These standards and requirements can be developed and defined only through scientifically valid architectural design research. • It is not appropriate to have civil servants in a hermetically sealed bubble “writing requirements” without benefit of the research literature.

! 4. Cohen, Marc M. (2010 Aug). Framework or a Crew Productivity Figure of Merit for Human Exploration (AIAA-2010-8846). AIAA Space 2010 Conference and Exhibition. Anaheim, CA, 30 Aug-2 Sept 2010.

! 5. Cohen, Marc M. (2010 July). Trade and Analysis Study for the Altair Habitable Module Configuration, (AIAA-2010-6134). AIAA 40th International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES), Barcelona, Spain, 11-15 July 2010. © 2011, Marc M. Cohen 59 ! In 2007 with the Altair Lunar Lander, NASA made a breakthrough in analytical methodology with the Minimum Functionality Lunar Design Analysis Cycle 1 (LDAC-1), which was applied to the 2008 Lunar Lander Development Studies7.

! Minimum Functionality means looking at the design of a project or vehicle to identify the minimum requirements and parts necessary to carry out the mission “single-string” with out any unexamined assumptions about reliability or safety that could create unnecessary redundancies.

! Minimum Functionality is an excellent analytical tool, but it is NOT a true design method.

! Advanced Habitats for Deep Space – Asteroids, Mars, and Moons must incorporate evidence-based crew health and safety protections and crew productivity objectives FROM THE BEGINNING and not as just an afterthought to minimum functionality or to conventional design processes.

! 6. Cohen, Marc M. (2009 July). Comparative Configurations for Lunar Lander Habitation Volumes: 2005-2008 (SAE 2009-01-2366). 39th International Conference on Environmental Systems (ICES), Savannah, Georgia, USA, 12-16 July 2009. Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA: Society of Automotive Engineers. © 2011, Marc M. Cohen 60 ! From the perspective of valid architectural design research, all space habitat analog studies to date have been a failure. • There has not been a statistically valid experimental research design – only anecdotes. • The typical scenario is that one individual does something in the habitat, mockup, or vehicle prototype and then declares that with n=1, he has “proven the hypothesis.” • How many things can you count wrong with this approach? ! NASA and the International Partners need a new approach to Analog Studies that produces Scientifically Valid, Evidenced-based, Reproducible Results with sufficient statistical power (large n) for Architectural Design Research8.

! 8.Cohen, Marc M. (2011, 8 April). Using Space Habitat Analogs for Architectural Design Research. Submitted to the NASA/ USRA International Collaboration on Analog Utilization Workshop Houston TX. Submitted to the Panel as an attachment to this presentation.

© 2011, Marc M. Cohen 61 ! NASA is missing a vital, major opportunity to conduct scientifically valid POEs for Shuttle and ISS (and publish them) that will benefit architectural design research for future space habitats.

! NASA did a comprehensive and systematic (although not scientific) evaluation of Skylab with the MSFC Skylab Mission Reports and the JSC Skylab Experience Bulletins.

! However, NASA has never published anything comparable for Shuttle or ISS.

! A new problem is that while NASA proclaims “transparency,” in fact it is hiding and suppressing existing data:

• The Skylab Experience Bulletins (SEB) were publicly available for 35 years, but recently, NASA took them off the NSTRS Server and restricted them to” NASA personnel only.”

• At a time when NASA is closing research libraries and literally throwing books in the dumpsters, it is a tragic loss that the marvelous SEBs are no longer available.

• Once the books are thrown out and the reports disappear from cyberspace, WE ARE ALL LOST

! This panel should investigate NASA’s suppression of the Skylab data.

! This evidence must come from applying the methods of architectural design research.

! These requirements and the designs that fulfill them must protect the crew against the

! Minimum Functionality Analysis should not a priori rule out mitigation of the – these crew protections and support should be part of the “Minimum Function.”

! NASA Analog studies (e.g. Desert RATS) must be based on a scientifically valid statistical research design – they cannot be all n=1 “proofs of hypothesis.”

! Most important: NASA needs to conduct a scientifically valid Post Occupancy Evaluation of ISS, preferably as an international partnership, and publish it.

© 2011, Marc M. Cohen 63 Dr. Marc M. Cohen, Arch.D Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. 4260 Terman Drive #104 Palo Alto, CA 94306-3864 650 218-8119 [email protected] Contribution to the NASA/USRA International Collaboration on Analog Utilization Workshop Houston TX 8 April 2011

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! In architectural design research, there are several disciplines and methods to learn • How well an environment performs, • How it may be possible to improve or remediate it, and • How to design a better one the next time.

! It would be enormously valuable to the designers of future spacecraft to plan and conduct scientifically valid research at the existing analogs including terrestrial habitats, simulators, and ISS.

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! Two major shortcomings in the HF Approach: • Recognition of Human-environment interface " Most HF researchers deny the human-environment interface exists. • The assumed short time duration " Widespread attitude that a human factors problem occurs only in the few seconds before the airplane crashes.

! Environmental Psychology is one of the key disciplines in EDRA Robert B. Bechtel, Arza Churchman (Editors) (2002). Handbook of Environmental Psychology, New York: Wiley.

! Cultural Ethnography is a highly useful method to understand a user community, particularly in terms of • How they perceive the environment and use products, • What is the social and cultural significance of artifacts, and • How people attach meaning and value to the world around them.

! In Cultural and Semantic Ethnography, the method is to select one or more cultural informants to interview as a way of immersing the researcher in their worldview. • Understanding the worldview enables the researcher to construct a taxonomy of the key things that constitute the structure and meaning of the cultural informant’s environment.

DRAFT 69 ! NASA Habitat and Human Spacecraft research tends not to ask questions – just try to “prove” preconceived points. ! For Example: Costs and Mass scale with the number of crew. • NASA needs to ask the big questions such as “What is the optimal number of crew for the mission” rather than use a pre- ordained number. ! However, the System Engineering Religion, as practiced within NASA is uncomfortable asking questions. • Within the System Engineering juggernaut, any question that does not yield a simple, deterministic answer is not worth asking.

! Instead, it has become the ritualistic codification of bureaucratic stagnation.

! It has become the antithesis of scientific Since the original System Engineering inquiry. In 1965, NASA has lost the way.

© 2011 Marc M. Cohen, Architect P.C. ! NO. ! Almost no one in NASA, Congress or the White House is acting or talking as if they were serious about humans in deep space. ! We are not investing nearly enough in the science for the five showstoppers. ! We are not asking the key questions for hardware and mission design and operations because of NASA “System Engineering.” ! There are far too many people within the agency and in industry fighting against the proposed crewed asteroid missions in favor of a return to the Moon. ! The subtext that drives every project is control of decisionmaking and funding – Nobody cares (least of all Congress) whether it will produce a viable spacecraft.