Library of Adelbert College of Western Reserve University
PRESENTED BY
FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D,
BY
ROBERT F, PENNELL
REVISED EDITION
WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP
@!3~t~tt ALLYN AND BACON 1891
PREFACE.
THIScompilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History of Greece. It is liopcd that it may fill a want, now felt in many high schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and fall of Rome, with a biography of her chicf men, and an outliilc of her institutions, manners. and religion. For this new cdition the book has been entirely rewritten, additioiial matter having bcen inti-oduced whenever it has been found licccssary to mect recent requirements. The penults of proper names have becn marked when long, botlr in the text and Index. ?'he Exarn- ination Papers given are introduced to indicate the present range of requirement in leading colleges. The maps and plans have bcen specially drawn and engraved for this book. The design 11as been to make them as clcar and open as possible; consc- quently, namcs and places not nientioned in the text have, as a rule, becn omitted.
ROBERT F. PENNELL. GAIUS lULIUS CAESAR. ANCIENT ROME.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY.
TALY is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of I Europe, Lxtxern the 39111 and 46th parallds of north latitude. It is 720 nriles long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 niiles broad in its widest part, i. e. from the Little St. Bernard to tlie hills north of Trieste. It has an area of nearly iro,ooo square miles, about that of the State of Nevada. 'The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest of Europc. The pass over these mor~ntainswliich presents the least difficulties is through tlie Julian Alps on the east. It was over this pass that the Barbariaus swcpt down in their invasions of thc country. The Apeiinines, \vl~ichare a continl~ationof the Alps, extend through tlie whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend casterly towards tlie Adriatic coast, and turn south- enstrrly lii~g~iogtlie coast through its whole cxtrnt. l'his confor~nation of the country causcs the rivers of any size helow tlie basin of the Po to flow into the Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into tlie Adriatic. I Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by thc Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called Gallia Cisalpiua (Gaul this sidc of the Alps), and corre- sponds in general to nod ern Lon~bardy. The little river !\thcsis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. Of the tributaries of the Pados, the 'l'iclnnq on tlre north, a~id the Trcl~iaon the south, are of historical interest. The portion of Nortliern Italy bordering on the AIediter- ranenn is a ~nountaiiious district, ancl mas caller1 Liguria. In this district on the coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district nortli of the Athesis, betveen the Alps and tlre Ailri- ntic, was called Venetia, fro111 which comes the name Venice. Here were located Pataviurn (I'adua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. Gallin Cisalpina contained many flourisl~ingtowns. North of the Padus were Verhna, hlediol~nu~~i(Milan), Crembna, hlanl~~a,i\n(les, and Vercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river nrere Augusta Tauri116r11m(Turin), Placentia, T'arma, hlutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little strealm flowing into the Allriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpina oil the southeast. ?'he ?tI~tcl-n,noother little stream, was the south- ern boundary on tlre other side of Italy. Central Italy, lTIrriin Propria, or Italy Proper, i~icluded all of the peninsula l~elowthese rivers as far down as Apulia and 1,ucania. In this divisiun are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Iiris, and Voltornus, \\,hiclr empty into the Mediterranean, a~rd the WIctaurus, Aesis, and .4ternus, wliich empty illto the Adriatic. 'The ,nost inrl~ortant subdivision of Central Italy was Lati~u~n,burcleriug on the l'yrrhenian Sen. North of it on the snure coiht was Etrnria, and to the 5011th was Cam- pania. On the !idriatic coast were Umbria, PicBnum, an11 Samninm. The cities of Lstium wel-c Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, near the inor~tliof the sallie river. 'l'en lnilcs northwest of Ronie mas Veii, an Fllriiscan city, and about the saiue distalice sor~tlreastwas illbn Longa. Nr:ll-ly the same distance directly soot11 of Ko~nc,on the coast, was Lavininm, aud east-northcast of Kome was Tibur. Neigh- hori~~gto Alba l.onga were 'l'uici~lum and the ~llbanLakc. 'l'hc Pomptine hlarshes wcre near the coast, in the south- ern part of Latii~m. Lake Kegillus was near Kome. In E:trurin were I'lorcntia, I'acsulae, Pisar, Arretiul~l, Volaterrae, Clusium, and 'I'aquinii ; also I.:ll 0 far as we know, tile early inhabitants of Italy werc .. . S dlvidecl into three wces, the Iapygian, Etruscan, an(l Italian. Tlie Iapygians were tlie first to settle in Italy. 'Sl~ey probxlily canlc from the north, and were pushed south by laler irnmigl-ations, u~itilthey were cm!mleil into the sootheasirrn corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were ~~iostlpabsorbed by the Greeks, who settleil ill the eighth and seveiiih centuries all along the soutlicr~land soi~th\\~estemcoast, and who vere Inore highly civilized. Rcsides the Iapygiaiis. aiid distinct from the Etruscans and Iialians, were the Venetians and the I.igilrians, the former of !vhou~ settled in Vcnetia, the latter ill Liguria. The Etruscai~sat ihe iin~en.l~cn Romnr~ history begins were a powerful and n,nrlike mce, superior to the Italians in civilization atid ihe aris of life. They probably calne from tlie north, and at first sctiled in the plain of the Po ; but bring aftel-ivards dislodgcil by the invacli~~gGauls, they moved farther sontli, into F;trnria. Here they fonncil n colifederation of t1~2elr.e cities bet\vecn the Al-i~oam1 the Tiber. Of thcse cities the 111ost noicd were Volsinii, the heail of the confederacy, Vcii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clu- sium. 'Tliis people also formed scattering settleniciits in other parts of Italy, but gained no fi1-111 foothold. .kt one time, in the sixth century, they were in power at Rome, Corsica, too, \\,as at this time ii~iilcrthrir cuntrol. l'licir <:rlmmerce was coi~siderahlc. Many \\,ell pr-cservcd oiono- alents of their art 1iai.e bee11 discoverecl, but no one has ye: lieen able lo dc<:il,l~erany of the inscriptiuns upor t11e1n. 'l'he power of these pcople was gmdually lesseneil by the Ko~iians,and after the fall of Veii, in 396, bcca~neprac- tically extinct. The Italians were of the same origin as the Hellenes, aiicl belonged to the Aryan race, a peoplc that lived ii~ earliest iinies possibly ill Scandinavia. IYliile the Helltnes wrrc scttli~igin Greecc, thc Italians entered Italy. At this tinle tlie Italians had made consirlerable progrcss in civilization. l'liey understood, in a measure, the art of agricultore ; the huilding of lhor~ses; ilie use of wagons anil of boal5; of fire in preparing food, and of salt in season- ing it 'I'iiey coulcl ~uakcvarior~s ~reapons and or~~aments out of coyper and silver; hiisba~iii and wife were recog- nizcil, ant1 the people were divided into clans (tribes). 'That portion of thc Itnlians k~iow~ias tlie Latins settled in ;I plain uliicli is bounded on the east and south by moun- tains, on the west by tile '~yrrlienian Sea, and 011 the north by tlie high lands of Etruria. 'l'his plain, called Latinm (flnt country), contains about 700 squa~mile. :one half tlie size uf Rhode Island), wit11 a coast of oiily fifty miles, and 110 good hnrl~ors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiher, and its tributary, tlie .411io. Hills rise liere and there ; as Soracte in the northeast, the promontory of Circeiun~in the sonthrvcst, Janiculum near Rome, and the illban range farther soutli. 'l'he low lanils (moilern Cirfii/hirp,n) \\,ere tnalarious and unhealthy. IIe~icethe first settle~nentswere nlnde on the hills, which nlso couId be easily fortified. 'l'he first town established was Alba; around this sprung ,111 other towns, as I,annvium, Aricia, 'l'nsrnl~rm, 'rl'il,ur, I'racneste, Laurentum, Koma, and Lai-inium. 'These towns, thirty in number, formed a confcrleracy. called the Latin Confederacy, and chose Alba to be its head. /In an~~ualfestival was celebrated with great so- leilinity by the magistrates on the Aliian Mount, called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembler1 and offered sacrifice to their con~~llo~igod, Jupiter (Lntin~is). CHAPTER 111. '1'1II.: IIOMANS AN11 TIIEIIt EARLY GOVERI\'\lENT. E have learned the prohable origin of t11c Latins; W how they se111ed in 1,atium. and founded nunlemur towns. Itre shall now exaaluine more particularly that one of the Latin towns n,l.iiich mas destined to outstrip all her sisters in prosperity and po\ser. 170urteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monot- onous level of the plain through \vhic11 the river flows is broken by a cluster of lrillsl rising to a considerable lieight, around one of which, the Palatine, first settled a tribe of Latins called Ramnes, - a name gradually changed to Romaus. Wheu this settleluent was formed is not 1;nown. Tradi- tion says in 753. It may have been n~richearlier. 'I'hese first settlers of Rome were ~~ossiblya colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they unitctl il~ernselves wit11 a Sabinc colony that had seltled ~lortliof them on the Qnirfllal Hill. ?'lie flame of Tities was given to this nerr, tribe. A third tril~e,named Luoeres, composed, possibly, 1 The scven hills of llistoric Kame were tile Aventitle, Capito- linc, Coelinn, Esquilioe (the highest, 218 fect), I'alatine, Quirinal, and Vimi~ial. The Jatlicttli~rn \+,as oli the othci side oi the 'Ci- licr, and \$.as held by the early Romans as n st~ongholdagainst the F:truscans. It was coii~rectedwith Rome by a \i-oodeo bridge (Potar Subliciiiiiir). 732 N(i/l/.iil:S AA'LI ?'i//.//+/iA A'L Y GO C'Iealis a place of gathering or coming together. This was betiveeil tlie Palatille and (Juirinal hills near thc Forcun, or 111arkc1-placc. This assembly itself was called the Comitia CcuriSta, i. u. an assembly composed of tile 30 curiae. This body alone had the power of cIia11- ging thc existing laws; of declaring \vnr or peace; nlid 1 We must remcrnher that at this time no one was a Roman cit- i~etrwho did not bclollg to some family. 1111 other residcnls \rere either slaves or had nu political riglirs, i. c. Ihail nu voice ill the govenrurent. CHAPTER IV. HE positio~iof Rome was superior to that of the otllcr T to,\vns in tl~e Latin Confederncy Sililztecl on tllc 'l'iber, at the head of navigation, she nali~r~ilybecame a connnel-cia1 centre. Her citizens prospel.cd and greii. ~\.caltliy, and ~vealth is poiver. Her hills were natrtral strongholds, easily held against a foe. Thus !Ire see tlial shc soon became the ~iiost po~verful of the Lntiri cities. and rvhen her i~lterests conflicted with theirs, she had no scr~iplesabout conrli~eriilgally of them and annexing theis territory. 'Thus Alba was taken during the reign of 'Tnllus IIos~ tilins, and his successor, Ancus hIarcius, sub~Ine(1 scvernl citics along the river: a~idat its mouth founded a colon) which was named Ostia, the seaport of Rome. At this time (about 625) the Ronran territory ((7,rri.r Ronikiiits) co~~iprisednearly 250 square miles, l~ein!: irre~il- lar in shape, but lying mostly along tile soutliern Im~lh.of the l'il~er and extending about tea or twelve miles fio~n the river. It was not luaterially increased (luring the next 1\vo celitories. The ori~inal founders of Rome and their- direct dc~ scendanrs were called Patricians, i. c. belonging to tlic Pati-cs, or Fathers of tire f.~~nilics. 7'11eg forme(l n class distinct frolu all otlrrrs, jral(~nsly protecti~~gtheir rights agaillst outsiders. Attached to the I'atriciarls \\,as a class called Clients, n~ho, thougli free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. e. they lincl no voice in the governi~lenl,but were boi~nclto assist in every may the Patrician, called Patron, to whom they were attached. In return, the lattrr gave them his support, and looked after their interests. 'l'lrcse clients corre~ spo~lded somewhat to serfs, worlced on the fields of their patrons, and bore the niline of tlie ~d7~sto ivl~icli their patroil belonged. Their origin is uncertain : but they may have come fro111 foreign to~vns conqoe~edby the I.,atins, and mhose inhabitatits had not been innde slaves. 111 additio~~to the clients there mere actual slaves, who were tlie property of their masters, and coulcl lie bought or sold at pleasure. Sometimes a slave was freed, and then i~ewas called a Libertus (freedman) and became tlhe client of his former m:lster. As Kon~egrew into connnercial pron>incnce, still another class of people flackecl into the city from foreign places, wlio might be called resident foreigners, corresponcling in genera! to the M~ticsat Athens. Sucb were lunny mcr- chniits and workmc~~of all trades. These all were sup- 11osc(l to be under the protectic.~of sollie patrician who acted as their patron. These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreign- ers, were all of a different race from the Romans. This should be coi~stantlyborne in mind. We have learned that Rome, as she grerrr in power, con- quered many of the Latin towtls, and added their territory to hers. The illhabitants of tires- tonrns were of the s;imc race as the KOIII~IIS,but were not al10ned i111y of their civil rigltts, Most of them were far~ncrs and peasants. Many of them mere wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the nger Rombnus, or in Ronie itself, were called Plebeians (Plebs, multitude). Their very liallle sho\vs that they musl have been numerous. They belonged to 110 gens ur curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to own ])ropcrtp. I11 later times (from about 350) a11 who were not Patri- cians or slaves mere called Plebeians. Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning Levy), and numbered three thou- sand infantry called mzlidcs, from niille, a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalry nun- bered three hundred at first, one hundred froill each tribe, and was divided into three co~lipaniescalled Centuries. During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now become numerous, for more rights, was met hy the so called Servian reform of the constitution. I-Iere- toforc o~llythe patricians had bee11 1-equired to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. To accomplish this, every one who was a land-owllsr, provided he owned two acres, was cnrollcd and ranked according to his property. There were five "Classes" of them, 'rhe several classes wcre divided into 193 sub- divisions called "Centuries," each century representing tlre same amount of property. In the first class there mere forty ce~rturiesill active service, composed of men under forty-six, furry centuries of reserve, and cigliteen centuries of cavalry. lu the secoiiil, third, and fourth classes there were tiventy ce~ituries encl~,tcn in active service, and ten in I.rcvrvc. The fifth class had thirty centuries of saldicrs, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. 'The first four ranks of tlie troops were made up of the infantry fro111 the first class. :\I1 were arn~eclwith a leather hclmet, ro~unil shield, breastplate, greaves (kg-pieces), spear, and sword. 'The fifth rank w:is cotuposed of the sccond class, ~vhowere ar~nedlike the first, ivithout breast- plate. 'l'hc sixtli rank was co~ilposed of rlle third class, rvho had neither l~reastplate nor greaves. Rcllitlcl these canie the fni~rlliclass, armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having o~ilyslinss. Each soldier of the illfalltry paid for his oivn equi11- tilei~ts; the cavalry, ho\vever, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. 'l'his ncnr org:unization of both patricians and plebeians was originally only for ~nilitary purposes, - that the army might he increased, and the expenses of keeping it more ~iluitalily dividecl among all the people. But gradually, as tile influence of the wealtlip plebeians liegan to be fcll, the orga~lizatioliwas found well adapted for political pur- poses, and all the people were called together to roto itnder it. It mas called tlie Comitia CenturiAta, i. e. an assen~hlyof centuries. 'The place of meeting was on thc Campus Martius, a plain i~ulsideof the city. In this asselubly each century had one votc, and its vutc was riecidecl by tlie tuajority of its individual voters. The tendency of tliis systenl was to give the wealthy the whole power; firs since each celltury represented thc same amount of property, the centuries in the r~pperor richer classes were much s~nallerthan those in the loiver or poorer classes, so that a majority of the centuries mighl represent a sn~allrlliilority of the people. l'lie lnajority or the wealthy people at Rome were still patriciang so the assernbly rvas virtually co~ltrolledl)y thcm. 111 this asseni- Idy magistrates were elected, laws made, war declared, ancl judgmeilt passcd in all criniinal rases. CHAPTER V. TIIE DYNASTY OF TIIE TAI F tlre seven traditional kings of Rome, tile last three O ,"ere undoubtedly of Etrusca~origin, and their reigns left in tlre city tuany traces of Etruscan influence. l'he Etrusca~ls\!,ere great brtilders, and the only buildings of im- portance that Ro~nepossessed, until a nrncli later period, were erected under this dynasty. Tlie names of these kings arc said to have been Lucius Tarclninins Priscnr, Servius Tullius, his son~in-law, and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. Under the first of thesc kings were built the finc temple of Jupiter Capitolinns, on tlre Capiloline Hill; and near by shrines to Juno and Minerva. This temple to Jupiter was called the Capitolium, and from it rrre get our word Capitol. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman religion and authority, and at times the Senatc was con: vened in it. During this reign the famous Cloaca Maxima, or great server intended to drain the Carnpagna, is also said to lhavr hcen constructed. This server mas so well bnilt that it is still used. Under the seconc1 Icing of this dynasty, Servii~sl'~illius, the city mas sorroundc(l wit11 a wall, \vhiclr included thc Palatine, Quil-inal, Coelian, rind Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the opposite side of the river, ant1 connected with the city by a bridge (poiis si~diici?ds). 'The establishment of the nem niilitary organization, men^ tioned in the previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. The pupil will notlce tile similarity between these reforms of Tollius and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus early was the Greek influence felt at Rome. During tlie reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DiAna was erected on the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin torvns. Tarquinius Superbus added to the Ager Rominua the territory of the city of Gabii, and planted two military colonies, rr~hich were afterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tanluins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a Republic was established, rr.hich lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. END ENVIRONS . ..eme~s, "a ..,.. . CHAPTER VI. 'IlIE CONSULS AN11 TI 1' the closc of tlie dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal A form of governnlent was abolished, an, illstead of one kills \vho iielrl office for life, two officers, called Con- suls, werc electcd aiinually from tlie Patricians, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a salutary check upon tlie other ; so that neither was likely to abuse his power. This change took place ton;irds the close of the sixth century lbcfore Christ. In times of great emerzency a lierso~i called Dictator might be appointed by one of the Conails, who slioul~lhave so~xcnieauthority; but his tenure of office never exceedcd six months, and he must he a patrician. He exercised his authority olily outside of the city walls. It was at this time, about 500, that the Comitia Centuri6t.a came to be the more important assetiibly, superseding in a geat measure the Comitia CuriAta. I\'e must remember that in this assenibly all criminal cases ~\~eretried, magistrates nominated, and Ilavs adopted or rejected. We must not forget that, since it lvas on a lirolie~.tybasis, it was under the co~itrol of the patricians, for tlic great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were liialiy wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a. gain for this party. Ahout this tinic the Senate, which heretofore ha This is thc origin of the phrase uscd by speakcri acldrcssing the Senate, vir. : " Pnfi.er (tl)Toi,i~ii~Ii.'' (called in later times Publicans). \vould extort all they coulri fro111 the tax-payers, thus enriching tliemselves u~ilari~fully. So the hard times, tlic opl>ression of the tax-gathercr, and the unjust la\\. about debt, ~iiadethc coliditioli of the poi~r une~~durable. The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Man! were obliged to serve niore than their due time, al~din a rank loiver than war just; for tlic Consuls, iu-110 had rharge of the 1ci.y of troops, were patricians, and natur~lly favored tlieir on.11 party. Hcncc we see that tile cavalry service was at this tiluc lllade up entirely of young patri~ ciaos, \vllile tlic older ones rvere in the reserve corps, so that tl~ehrul~t of military dot), fell on the plebeians. '('his starc of tliillgs could not last, atld, as the oppor- tiinity for rebelling agnirlst this ulijust atld cr~leloppressinti was offered, the plebeians \Irerc not slow in accepting it. I city was at \rzar with the tieigl~boring Sabines, .4equimls, and Volscians, and needed extra men for de- fence. One of thc Colisuls liberated all ivho were confined in prison for debt, a~idthe danger was avertcd. Upoti the return of tlie army, home\,er, tliosc who liacl heen set free \\rerc again thrown into prison. The llext ycar the ~xisoners mere again needed. At first they refused to obc)-, but were finally persuaded by the Ilictator. Rut alter a wcll-camed victory, upon their return to tlle city walls, the plebeinns of the army dcserted, and, marcltirrgj to a hill ticar by, occupied it, threatening to found n new city unless their wrongs mere rcdrcsscd. This is called tlie First Seces- siau of the Plebs, and is said to hnrze bcen io 494. The patricians and ricl~erplebcinns sarv that concessions must bc niarle, for the losc of these people morlld be niin to Rome. 'I'iiose ill debt n.cre released iro111 il~eil-oiiliga~ tions, and the plebeians received the right to choose annu- ally, from their ow11 numbers, t1vo oiticers called Tribiuli Plebis, who should look after their interests, and have the power of vetoing ally action taken by any magistrate in the city. 'This puwer, hu~veuir, ~25confinccl mithil-, tlrc city malls, and coulcl never be excrt:isecl outside of tlienl. The person of the 'l'riiiunes w:is also ll~nrle sacred, to prevent interference svith them \\~hiiein discharge of their ~Ioties, and if any one htte~nptcil to stop them he was r:omrnitting a capital crime. 'l'hus, if the Consuls or Quaes- tors mere inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, r~r lo be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by their veto stop the matter at once. This was an imn~e~isegain for the plebeians, and they were justified in giving the 11a1ue of Sacred Moullt to the hill to which they had seceded. The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later to ten. CHAPTER V1I. FIE next gain made by tlie 11leLieians was the an~~ual called ~ediles.' 'l'hesc officers Ileld nearly the same po- sition in reference to the Trihi~nesthat tlie Quaestors clid to tlie Consuls. 'They assistcd tlrc l'ribunes in the per- formance of their various duties, and also had special charge of the temple of Ceres. In this teniple were deposited, for safe keeping, all the ciecrees of thc Senate. 'These two offices, those of 'Tribune and Aedile, tlie result of the fi~stsecession, were filled l)y elections held at first in the Cornitia Centurikta, but later in an assembly called tlie Comitia Tribdta, ~vhichmct sonietimes withill and some- times rvithout the city walls. This assembly was coniposed of plel~eians,who voted by "tribes" (frihifa,meaning composed of tribcs), each tribe being entitled to one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of its individual voters? The Cornitia Tribljln \\,as convened and presided over by tlie Tribunes and Aediles. In it were discussed ~nattersof 1 The word "Acdile" is derived from Ac THE COYTlCST 0V T11E P1,EUEIAKS FOR CIVIL l HE plebciails were now (aboul 475) as n~mrrousas T the patricians, if not 1110re so. Tlxir organizatior had become perfected, and nmiy of Lheir lcaders were persistent in their efforts to better the colliiition of their follo\vers. l'hcir especial ai~nwas to raisc their civil and ~~oliticalrights Lo an equality mith those of tllc patricians. ,Ihe , struggle fillally culnii~latedin the illurdtr of one of the 'l'ribnnes, Gnar~~sGenucius, for attenlptillg to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. Valero Publilius, a 'rribunc, now (471) proposed and carrierl, not\rzithstanding violent opposition by the patri- cians, a ~l~easurcto the erfect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the Coinitin Tribzitn, insteacl of the Cornitin Ctftti~riciin. l'brls tile plebeians gained a very ilnportant step. 'Tliis bill is called the Publiliall Law I r"/ebir~itz~~n' PII~Z~I~IL?~). For the next twenty years the struggle continued una- f~ated. The plebeians dernanded a written code of laws. We find among all early peoples that the laivs are at first I All bills passed in the Cumitizr 'L'ribilta rvcre called Plebiscita, and until zS6 were not necccsnrily 1,inding npon thc people at large; hut this bill seemi to hare been recognized as a Inn. the unwritten ones of custom and precedent. The la\xzs at Komc, tllus far, hail becn interpreted accordi~igto tlic r\,islies and traditions of the patricians only. A cliange was de- mandcil. This was obtaiiled by the Terentiliail Rogation, a prol~osalmade in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Ilarsa, a Trib- une, to the erfect that the laws thereafier bc written. The patrician families, led by oile Icaeso Quinctius, made litter opposition. Iiacio himself, son of ilie famous Cincinnht11s, was impeached by the Tribune and fled from the city. Finally it mas arranged that tile Colnitia Centuriita should select from the people at large ten men, called the Decem- "irate, to hold office for one year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, and especially to dram up a code of lams to be inbmitted to the pcople for ap- proval. A commission of three patricians ivas sent to Athens to exa~ninethe laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height of its prospcrity. T\ro years were spent by this commission: and upon their return in 452 the above men- tioiled Dcccmvirate mas appointed. Tlie laws drawn up hy this hoard \\,ere approved, en- grairecl on ten tables of copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more tables were added ihc next year. These Twelve Tables were the only Ro lliali code. The Decelnviri should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, but they neglected to (lo so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannictl manner. The people, grow- ing uneasy under their injustice, tiiiaIly rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentence that brought an in~~ocentmaiden, Virginia, into liis power. Her father, Virginius, saved his dangliter's iionor by stabbing her to the lieart, and fleeing to the cainp called upon the soldiers to put doivn such wicked government. A second time tlie army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the Sacred Mount. where they noniinaled their omn Trih~uies. 'Then, marcliing into the city, they co~iipelled the 1)ecemuiri to rcsign. The Twelve Tables have not been preserved, except in fragments, an!l we knorv but little of their exact contents. 'l'iie positioll of tile debtor was apparently maile morc en- dural>lc. Tlic absolute control oi tlie pntcr fmiiiiizr over liis farnily was abolished. The close connection heretofore existing l~ctrveenthe clients and patrons was gradually re- laxed, the fornier became less dependent upon tlie latter, and finally were ahsorbed into tlie body of the plebeians. Gentes arnong tlie plebeians now began to be recognized ; previously only the patricians had bee11 diviiled into pztes. Tlios rve see, socially, tlie two onlcrs were approaching nearer and nearer. In 449 Valerius and Horatius !vrrc elected Consnls, and were instrilmeiital in passing tlle so called Valerio-Horatian lams, the substance of rvliicli was as follows : - I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to tlie Comitia Centiiriita against the sentence of ally magistrate. IT. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribilta (plebiscitn), if sanctiolied by the Senate and Comitia Centuriita, merc made binding upon patricians and plebeians alike. This as- sembly nor" becamc of equal importance with tlie other two. 111. The persons of the T~ihunes,Aediks, and other ple- beian officers, were to be considered sacred. IV. Tlir 'Tribunes coulil take part in the debates of the Senate, and veto any of its decisions. 'l'\r,o years later (447). the election of the Quaestors, who rl~uststill be patricians, rvas ir~trlistedto the Comitia Tril~lita. Heretofore they had been appointed by the Consuls. In qqg the Tribune Conulei~isproposed a bill mliicl~ \\>as passed, and called the Ca~~uleianLaw, giving to the plebeians the right ol intentmrrizgc (connr~bium)with thc patricians, and enacting that all issue of such iliarriages should have tile rank of tlie father. Canuleius also proposed another bill !vliich he did not carry; viz. that tlie cons~ilsliip be open to the plebeians. 4 compromise, ho!vcver, was made, and it was agreed to suspend for a tittle the office of Consul, and to elect ;mnu- ally six Military Tribunes in the Coluitia CenturiAta, the office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year mhetlier they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continued for nearly a l~allccntury. The patricians, liowever, were so influential, that for n long time no ~~lebcianwas elected. As an offyet to these gains of tlie plebeians, the patri- cians in 435 obtained two new officers, called Censors, elected from their orvn ranks every five years (i7ist~ti~11)to Iholil office for eightcen months. The duties of the Censors were: - I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. 11. To punish ilnrnorality in the Senate by the renioval of any members who vere giiilty of offences against public niorals. 111. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works of tlie state. This office became in aftcr pears tlie most coveted at Konie. .\ few years latcr. iii A~L,the plebeians niade another ,:el) forward by obtaining the right of electing oue of tlic~v lionlber as Quaestor. 'l'hcre were now iour Quaeslurs. 'Thus the patricians, in spite of the tilost obstinate resist- ance, sustained loss aiter loss. liven the rich plebeians, who lh;id lliil~erto often foulrd it for their intercst to side with the patricians, joined tlic iiirmcrs or loiraer classes. I'inally, in 367, the 'Tribones Liciiiius and Sextius pro- posed am1 passed the followitig bills, called the Liciniail Ropatiolls. I. 'To nbolisli the six niilitary tribunes, and elect annually, as formerly, two Colisuls, choosing one or both of them fro111 the plebeiaiis. IS. 'To forbid any citizen's holding ,;lore than 500 j! HE: first authentic history of Rolue begins about 400. T 1"he city tl~mpossessed, possibly, three I~~iildred square miles of territory. The number of tribes had beell increased to twenty-five. Later it became thirty-five. In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the 411en- nines into Etmria and attacked Clusi~un. Here a Celtic chief rvas slain by Roman ai~ibassadors, who, contrary to tile sacred character of their mission, were figliting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, inarclied 11pon Rome. The disastrous battle of the Allia, a srnall river about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. l'he Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the foe. The Celts, how. ever, del.?yed three days before marcl~ing upoil Rome. Thus the people had tin~eto prepare the Capitol for a siege, \vhich lasted seven months, when by a large s~uuof money the barbarians were induceil to withdraw. During this siege the reconls of the city's history were (lestroyed, and we have no trustworthy data for eveills that liappened previous to 390. The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovereil fro111 the l~low. In $7 the lost territory adjacent to tlhe Ti- ber mas nnilexed, and military colonies mere planted at Sutriom and Kepete ~11)onthe I:t~u>can border, and also at Circeii and Setia.' The neighboring Latin town of Tus- cul~uln,n~hich had always heen a failhful ally, rvns ani~exed to Rome. The trying timcs of these years had ca~~sednumerous cncmics to spring np all arouncl Rome; but she showed llcrself sol~eriorto them all, i~ntilfinally, in 353, she had siihdued the !i~lliili: of Sorltliern Etroria, and gained posses- sion of the town of Caere, with iiiosl of its territory. The Lown was made a Mmlicipium, tlie first of its kind. 'The inhabitants, being of foreign blood atid language, were not allomcd thc full rights of Roiuan citizenship, but wele permitted to govern their own city in local matters as they \visheil. hlany to\vns were subsequently niadc muni- cipia. Their inl~nhitaotswcl-e called cives sine snffragio. "citizens rvitho~~tsufli-age." Iluring the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the loivland countries as far south as Tarracina. To the north, across tlie 'Kber, she had acquired most of the ter- ritory hclonging to Veii and Capkna. In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty rvith the Samnites, a race that had establishe 1 Thesc military colonies, of which the Romans subsepoently (planted nrany, were outposts established to protect conrlucred tcrri- tory. A band of I:i~rna~i citizc~nswas artncd a~lrlequipped, as if for military puvposcs, Thcy toolr ivith Lhem their irivcs and children, slavcs atril followcis, al?drstal,li5Recd a local gorel-ornellt similar to tila1 of li,>>iic. 'I'lle-e colotr~stsr~!i~~i~i~isli~d their rights as l The accounts of this war are so ulicertain and colifi~sed tliat no clear idea of its details can he giveir. It resulted i~ino ~uaterialadvantage to either side, except tliat Ronie retained Capna aiid made it a iii~~zi~@ii~iii,annexi~ig its territory to her o\vii. The cities of the Latin Confederacy had hem for a long time iookilig with jealous eyes 1111on tlie rapid progress of Rome. 'Sheir om11 rights liad been rlisregarded, and they telt that they o~i~stnow niake a stand or lose everythiilg. 'They sent to 1<011ic a proposition that one of the Consuls and hall of the Se~latcbe Latins ; but it rvas rejccted. A war- follorred, ia tile tllil-il pear of whicll nras fougl~tthe bat- tle of 'TrigAnum, near Mount Vesuvius. l'11e Romans, with tlieir Samnite :illies, were victorious through tlie eCforts ol the Consll~,Titus Mallli~~sTorqll&.t~~s, Olle of the illlistrio~s llanlcs of this still doubtful period. The re~ilai~lderof the operatio~ls was rather a series of expeditio~is against i17di~ vidual cities tiIan a gc~ieralwar. In 338 a11 the Latins laid down their anns, ,,nil the war cluscd. 'Tile Latin confederacy was at an end. Kolue now >\,asmistress. I'nur of the 1,ntin cities. Tibur, Praeneste. Cora, and Laurent~un,were left independent, but all t11r rest of the towas mcrc anliexed to Rome. Their tel-ritory liecame part of tlie Age1 Nu?n&~liu,and tlle inhabitants Ro- man plebeians. Ilesidcs acqt~iri~~gJ~.:~tium, Rome also annexed, as ri~iriii- ,.@itz, three lnore towns, I'uildi, Formiac, and Vclitrae, a T'olscian town. Latiunl was no\!, made to include all the cou~ltrpfro111 th? Tiljrr to the Volturnus. Ro!ile about this tilue established several Maritime (Ro- man) Colonies, lrhicli were siiililar to ller Military (L,atin) colonies, except that the colonists retained all their riglits a, I The results of the First Samnite War and the 1,atin \Var were, as we have seen, to break up the Intin confederacy, nnrl enlarge the domain of Rome. Tliere rverc now in Italy three races aiming at the su- premacy, the Romans, the Samnites, and the Etruscans. T!le last of these was tlie weakest, and hacl becn declin- ing ever since the captr~reby the Romans of Veii in 396, :mnd of Caere in 353. In the contest which follo\ved between Rome and thc: Snmnites, the combatants rrrel-c very nearly matched. Rome had lher poiver luore compact anrl concentrated, tvhile the Sa~nniteswere superior in nr~mbers. I~utmere more scat- tered. They mere both equally brave, 1)oring the first live yenri of the war (326-321)~the Ko- mans were i~snallysuccessf~il, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. In this l~criorl Ronle gained no new territory, but forillded a nnmber of military posts in the enemy's country. The pearc lasted for about n year, when hostilities were again renevi~cci. Ry this time tlie Samnites had foulld a wortl~y leacler in Gavius Pontius, by whose skill and \"is- 1 It is said that the father of Decios acted iil a similar manner in n battle of the Latin war. CHAPTER X. N the early tinres of Rume, while she mas but little 1 ,I~o,~I,,it 11, ,I, fie custonr of Greece to sed colonies away to relieve the pressure oi too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, Fraocc, Asia h31inor, slid especially in Sicily and Southem Italy, ~vliere thc cou~~trybecame so tl~orougllly Crecianizecl that it was called Mapila Graecia. Here \Irere nlanp flourishing cities, as Tarenturn, Sybaris, Croton, and 'l'hnl.ii. These had, at the tiue of their con- tact \14tIr Rome, greatly fallen from their former granclrur, oiviiig partly to tile inroads of barbarians from thc north, l~anlyto civil disselisio~~s,mid still more to their jealor~s). of each other ; so that they were onable to oppose any firm and unitecl rcsistailce to the progress of Rome. It had been their custoin to rely largely ~ipon strangers for tile recruiting and mnnage~~ientof tlicir arnlies, - a fact \vliicli explains in part the ease ~vitlrivhich they mere ouercoriie. Of these cities Tarenturn was now the chief. \Vith it a treaty had been lilade by which the Tarentines agreed to certain Iin~its beyond which their fleet izras not to pass, and the Romans hound tben~selvcsnot to allow their ves- sels to appear in thc Gulf of Tarenturn beyond the Lacinian Iirolnontory. As usual, the Ro~uansfo11nd no clifiiculty ill evntling their treaty whcnever it slioul~lprofit tRem. 'l'hurii \\,as attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing ot aid from Tarenturn, called on Rome for assistauce. As soon as do~iiesticaffairs per~nitted,war was declared against the Lucanians, alid the wedge was entered rvhicli was to sep- arate illagna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver the fonnel- over to Rome. Pretending that the war was instigated by 'l'arentum, Koliie clecided to ignore the treaty, a~idsent a fleet of ten vessels illto the llay of Tarentulii. It was a gala day, and tile people were asse~nbleclin the tlieati-c that overlooked the bay when tlie ships appeared. It was determined to lx~nislithe intrusion. tl fleet was manned, and four of the Koiiia~isquadron were destroyed. An ambassador, l'oslumius, sent by Roiile to delila~~d satisfaction, was treated wit11 insult and conlempt. He replied to the mockcry of the Txrentines, that their blood slioi~ld mash out the siain. Tlie next year one of the Consuls was ordcl-ed south. Aleamvhile 1Brcntum had sent envoys to ask aid of Pyrrhos, the yolnig and ambitious King of Epirus. He was cousili of Alexander the Great, and, since he had ob- tained no share in thc division of tlie coliqrlests of this great leader, his dream mas to foulid an empire in the \\rest that \vould surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. Pyrrhus lanclcd in Italy in 281 n~ith a force of zo,ooo infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about coml~cllingtlie clfcminate Greeks to prepare for their om11 defc~~ce.Places of aliiusemelit were dosed; the people wcre forced to perform nlilitary duty ; disturbers of the pnl,- lic safety were put to death; and other refornls \!,ere inade wliicli tlie danger: of the situation seeiued to clemand. Meanmhile tile Romans acted with promptness, ancl boldly challenged him to battle. 'l'lie arn~iesliiet in 280 on the plain of HeraclBa, on tile banks of tlie Liris, where the level nature of the country irras in favor of tlie Greek method of fighting. 'l'he hIacedol~ian phalanx was the ,nost perf~ctinstrl,lirent nf wnl.fare tile a~orlcllind yet seen, and tile R<,~i~anlegions hail liever yet been brought illto collision \r,itli it. The Romans, i~ndcrLaevinus, were defeated, liiore by the surprise of a charge of elephants than by the tactics of tlie l~halanx. FIonrever, they retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much inipressed by the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "41iotller such victory will send iiic back \vithout a lnan to El>ir~~s."FIG recognized tlie inferior qualities of 11is (;reel< allies, anil de- termil~cdto 111ake a pcacc. A trus~edmessenger, Cineas, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloq~~ence, which was said to 1iai.c gained more for his master than the sivord. l'lirough him Pyrrhus pron~iseil to rctirc to Epirns if safely was gilnranteerl to liis allies in Italy. The eloquence of Ci~icas\\,as fo~tified\rrith presents for the Senators ; nnd though these \irere refused, many seemed 14E \vas ~iowmistrcss of all Italy south of the Arllus Ro'ancl Aesis, 'Tlis country was cli~:icleciillto two parts. I. The Ager Romrinus, i~lcludii~gaiioilt one quarter of thc \vllolc, bounded on the north by Caere, on the soulh by Formiae, and on the east by the Apennines. 11. Tlic Depelldellt Comm~ulities. The As,- Ron~iii~us\\,as sr111di1-ided,for voting and fioan- cia1 purposes, into thirty-three, after\~arclsthirty-five districts (tribes), four of which were in Rome. Tile electioi~swere all helcl at Rome. These districts were 111ade up,- n. Of Rome. 6. Of the Rolnan Colonies, luostly maritime, now nu!lll)er- illg seven, but finally increased to thirty-five. c. Of the Municipia (tov11s bound to scwice). d. Of the Praefectdrae (towns govcrned by a l~raefecl,who was sent from Roiue and appointed lip the Praetor). The Dependent Colnmrulities were luade up, - n. Of the Latin (tnilitary) Colonies, no~vriiunibering twenty- two, afterwards incrcnsed to thirty-five. 6. Of the Allies of Ro~lie(Socii), rvhose cities and ndjoioing territory co!nposed more than one half of the country controllid by Rome. These allies were allo\vccl local governn~etit, \\,ere not obliged to pay tribute, but mere called upon to filrlrisli their proportion of troops ior the Roilian army. 'The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classci, viz. : - ir. 'Tl~oiewho possessed both Public anil Private Rights as citizens, i. e. Full Rights.' 6. l'hosc \\,ho were subjects and did not possess full rislits. , l'hose who mere Allies (Socli). d. 'Those who were Slaves, who possessed no rights. e. Those who were Resident Foreigners, \vlio possessed the right of trading. To class n belonged the citizens of Rome, of tlie Rowan r:olonics, and of sonx of the IVIunicipia. To class 6 belolrgeil the citizens of luost of the Municipia, who possessed o~ilyprivatc rights, the citizens of all the IJrn++ictzinre,and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. Evexi at tl~isearly ilate, the liecessity of easy communica- tion with llre capital seems to have becn rvell rlnderstooil. Roads mere pushed in every direction, - broad, level mays, over which arinies liiight be marched or intelligelice qoickly carried. They mere chains nrliicl~ bound her possessions i~rdissolublytogether. Sonic of them remain to-day a mon- 1 Public liglits colrsisted of tile jin ,stlf/r-n, 'l'lrc thrci: most noted men of the pcriod embraced in the two preceding cliapters were Appius Clandius, the Ceiisor and patrician ; and RIaliius Curius IlentAtus and Gaitis ].'a- bricins, plebeians. \\'e have scen that all plebeians who were land-owners l~elongedto one of the tribes, and could vote in the Curniti~c T~ihitn;this, liomc\,er, shut out tlrc plebeians of the city who olvned no land, and also tlie freedmen, who were gen- crally educntcci and professional men, such as doctors, tcacliers, ctc. Appius Claudius as Censor, in 312, deprived the land- owners of the ercl~lsiveprivilege of voting in the Coliiitin Tribzitn, and gave to property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years Iatcr this lniv mas modified, so that it aly~liedto ihc four city tribes alone, aiid tlie thirty-one rural tribes l~adfor lllcir basis landed property only. lluring tlie censorship of hl~pins,lio~ne had its first regu- lar water supply by tlie Appian aqueduct. 7'he first mili- tary road, the Via Appia; was built under his stlpcrvision. 'I'lris road ran at first horn Rome as far as Capua. It was construcle~lso well that lirany parts of it are to-day in good (.ondition. ?'he road mas afterward extended to Brundisiom, lilro~~gliVeliiisia anil 'firentnnr. Manins Cnriufi DentAtus uras a peasant, a contemporary of Apl~ius; and his opponent in many mays. He rvab a stn)lig friend of the plebeians. lie obtained for Llle soldiers I:li-ge assignments of the Agu Pub2iCI1.r. 11e drained the lu~vand sivanlpy country near Reite by a canal. He was tlie coliqueror of I'yrrhus. -4 nxtn of stcrling qualities, 6-o- gal and unosteatatious, after his public life he retil-ccl to his farm and spent the rcmaincler of his clays in seclusion as a simple peasant. Gaius Fabricius, like Dentitiis, was fronl the peasants. He was a Hemicall. As a soldier he ivas successful. As :I htatesman he was incorruptible, and of great use to his coun~ try. IJrer.ions Lo the battle of Asculum, Pyrrhus attemptecl to bribe him by large su~usof money, and, failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behii~da cur- tain; the curtain was sudiltnly removed, but Fabricius, thoogl~ immediately under the elephai~t'strunk, stuocl unmoved. In this generation \1)e fi~~rlRoniai~ character at its best. Wealth hail ~iotflorved into the state in such large quanti- ties as to corrupt it. The great mass of the people were peasants, s~uallland-owiiers, of frugal habits and inoral qual- ities. Ulit comparatively few oivnecl large estates as yet, or possessed large tracts of the Age7 P216liCI(s. A century later, tvhen niost of the available land in the peninsula was lieid by the mealtliy and ial-me~lby slaves, we find a great change. 'The fall of Tarenturn illarks an i~iiportant era in 1Zom~o liistory. Large treasures were ohtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern Italy. Luxury became inore fash- ionable ; morals began to degenerate. Greed for \vealtii obtained by plunder begzz~ito get possession of the Romans. From now on the moral tone i!f the people continued to degenerate in liroliortion as their empire increaseil. CHAPTER XII, FOREIGN CONQUEST. ROME I\XD CARTl5hkE.-FIRST l'UNIC1 WAK. (264-241.) HILE Rome was gradually elilargi~ig her territory from Latiuni to the Straits of MessBna, oil the otller shore of the Mediterranean, opposite Italy and less lhan one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. Like Rome, Carthage l~adan obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, it requircd centuries to gain her power. It was the policy of Cartilage to tilake a successf~llrevolt of ber subdued allies an impossibility, by consuniilig all their energies in the support of her inl~nense population and the equipment of her numerous flccts and armies. Hence all the surrou~ldiil~tribes, once \\randering nomads, were forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colo- nies sent out by hersclf, they forined the so called 1,ibyo- Phoenician population, open to the attack of all, and in- capable of ricfence. Thus the corllitry around Carlhage was weak, and the inoment a foreign enemy landed in Africa the war was tilerely a siege of its chief city. 1 The word " Punic" is derived fiain Phooiici. TheCarthaginiani were said to have come o~igic~allyfrom Pboeuicia, on tlre eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Tlieir first ruler \>,as Ilido. The Latin student is of coorsc familiar wilh Virgil's story of Dido and AenCas. The po\ver of Cartilage lay in her conimercc. 'I'hrouSh her hands passed the gold and pearls of the Orinit; the famous Tyrian lju~ple; ivory, slaves, and incense of Arabia ; tlie silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and the iror of Elba. Hut the harsh and glooiiiy chnractcr of the ljeople, their cruel religion, wliicli sanctioned hu~nansacrifice, their dis- regard of the rigllts of others, their rvell knon.i.il treachery, all shut them off from tlie higher civilization of Ron~eand Greece. 'The goveriimellt of Cartilage uras an Aristocracy. i\ council composed of a few of high birth, and another com- posed of the very wealthy, managed the state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were tlie people sumiiloned and consulted. Ronie had ~liadctwo treaties rvith Cartl~agc; one ini- iliediately afler tlic cstablislinrent of the Republic, in 500, the otlicr about 340. Uy these treaties conlnlercc was al- lowed betveen Rome nllil its dc~~ei~~lcnciesand Cartliage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Rut tlie Romans nrcre not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond tlie 1:a.y of Carthagr. In leaving Sicily, l'yrrhus hnd exclaimed, " \Vliat a fine Ixittie~field for Ronie and Cnrthage ! " If Cartliage were mistress of this island, Rome wo~ikl be shut 111, in her peninsula; if Kunie were in possession of it, the coni!nerce of Cartliage rvould be interceptcd, anii a good breeze ci one night ivould carry the Roman fleets lo her walls. At this tinie the islalrd i\>as siiarcrl Iiy three powers, - Hiero, lril~g of Syrarrlsc, the Carthaginians, a~id the Ma~nertiues;;I band of ixiga~iili n~ho caiiie from Caiu- pnnin. The latter, niaking hlessina their lhearl-quarters, lhad been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Rciiig shi~t up in hlessina by Hiero, they aske~l aid of Rolnc on tile ground that they were fro111 Campmia. .Altl~ongli Roiue was in alliance with Eliero, and had but recently executed 300 mercei>aries for iloi~~gin Rlreginn~ what the hlamcrtincs had done iil Sicily, shc deterniined to aid them, for Sicily ivas a rich and tenipting prey. ivIcanivliile, hoiveier, tlirorigh tlie i~itervelltioli of the Cartliaginiaas, a truce had been formed betiveeil Hiero :~nd the I~rigaiids,and the sicge of &Iessinn was raised. 'l'he city itsclf mas occupied by a fleet and garrison of Carthaginians under Hanno. The Romnns, though the Mamertines no longer needed their aid, landcd at Messina and dislodged the Carthaginians. Thlis opened thc First Punic War. 'The Ro~nansat once formed a do~ihlealliance with Syracuse and Messhila, thus gain in^ control of the eastern coast of Sicily anrl getting their first foothold oiitside of Itnly. Tllc most in1portllnt iillallil city of Sicily Trrns Agrigentorn. Here the Cartliaginians thc next year (262) concentrated their forces rlnder Hannibal, son of (;isco. The Romans besicgerl the city, b11t were theiiiscir~es cut off from snp- plies by Hanno, ivho lanile~l at IHeracl6a in their rear. Koth besieged :in~l besiegers si~ffered ~iil~ch. At last a battle \\,as fi~~ight(zGz), in mliicli the Romans were vic- torious, orving to their superior infantry. Agrigentr~m fell, and only a few st~.onglioldson the coast were left to the (':irthaginians. Tlic Romails 1101\. l~egan to feel thc need of a fleet. '['hat of Cart1l:ige ri~lecl the sca !i.itlior~t n rival: it lint 4 only controlled inany of the seal~orts of Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. \\Tit11 their usual energy, the Ro- mans began the work.' A rvreclzed Cartbaginian vessel was taken as a model, and hy the spring of 260 a navy of 120 sail rrras ready for sea. Tlie sliips were tnade the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the pilrposc of running down and sinking tlie cnemy's vessels; a kind of hanging stage was also placed on the proiv of t11e ship, \~,liicli could be Ionrered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides witli parapets, and liad spacc for tivo men in front. On coming to close quarters mith the enemy, this stage mas quickly Ionrered and fastened to tlic opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus tlie Konlaii marines \!.ere enabled to board with case their opponeuts' ship, and fight as if on land. Four naval battles no\!, followed : rst, near Lipara (260) ; 2d, off Mylae (260) ; 3d, off Tyndaris (257) ; 4th, off Ecnomos (256). In the first of these only seventeen ships of tile Romans were engaged undrr the Consrll Gnaet~sCorllelius Scipio. Thc flcet with its co~nrna~xlerwas capti~rcd. In tlie second engagement, off Nlylae, all tile Roman flcct il~iderGaius Duilius tool< part. Thc Cnrthaginians were led 11). Hannibal, son of Gisco. Tlie newly invented stagcs or boxding-bridgcs of the Rom:!ns \!,ere found to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without these bridges desce~~dingrvith their grappling irons 1 In 259 threc ?cars previous to thc battle of E:coomns, the Rn. mans oniler I,t~cios Scipio cnptuved Hlcsia. :I seaport of Col-sica, and crtablislreil there n ,n:iial station. and l~oldingthen1 fast to the Ko~nans. l'he Carthaginians were defeated, with tile loss of nearly half their Aeel. . bronze column, or~ial~ientedwith the beaks of tllc captured vessels, \\>as erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. l'he pedestal of it is still standing, aild on it are inscrilicd some of the oldest inscriptions in the Latin language. The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomos, the Carthaginians had 3 50 mil. Thirty Carthaginiaii and twenty~fourRoillal~ vessels were sun];, anil sixty+our of the forincr captured. 'The Punic fleet withdrew to the coast of .lfrica, and pre- pared in the Bay of Cartliage for another battle. Uut the Ronians sailed to tlie easleril side of tlie peninslila which helps to form tlie bay, and there landed without opposition. Marcus Atilins Regulus was put in co~urnand of the Konia~iforces in iifrica. Vor a time he was very successful, and the Carthngii~iansbecame disheartened. Many of the towi~snear Carthage surrendcreil, and the capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, hot the ternis offered were loo humiliating to be accepted. Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, reniail~rd inactive at Tunis, near Carthage, nrglecti~~geven to secorc a line of retreat to liis fortified camp at Clnpen. The next spring (255) he wassurprised, his army cut to pieccs, arii1 he lii~usclftnke~i prisoner. He subsetluctitly died a captive at Carthage. The Romans, learning of this clefeat, sent a flcrt of 350 sail to relieve their coinrades ivho were sh~ilup in Clupea. \Vhile on its mag, it gained a vir:tory over the Carthagill- ian fleet of thc IIermian promontory, sinking ;14 of tlic enemy's ships. It arrived at Clupca in time to save its fiicnds. 'l'l~e war in Africa was nor" abandoned. The Reet, ct- ting sail for home, was partly destroyed in a storm, only cigilty ships reaching port. Hostilities continued for six years without any great re- sults. Panormus \!.as t~ke~iin ; the coast of ATrica rav- aged in 253 ; Thermac and the island of Lipara were taken in zjz, and Eryx in 249. Drepana and Lilybaeum werc now tlie only places in Sicily liekl by Carthagc. 11 regular siege of Lilphaeurn was llecided upon, and the city mas blockaded hy land and sea ; but the besieging party suffered as much as tlic besieged, its stlpplies wcre frequently cut off by the r:aualry of the Cartha- ginia~is,and its ranl;s begail to be thinned by disease. The Consul, l'ublius Claudius, rvlio had charge of the siege, deterluiiied to surprise thc Cartliaginiao fleet, \vl~icli was stationed at nrepana (249). Hc was unsuccessfi~l,and lost three forirths of his vesscls. Aiiother Reet of 120 sail sent to aid him vns rvl-ccked in 3 violelit storm. 'The Roinai~swere no!\, ill perplexity. l'he war had lasled fiiten~years. Four lieets had been lost. allrl one sixth of the fighting popolntion. They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily were still in tlie rilemy's hands. 1:or six years inore the \var dragged on (249-243). A new Carthaginian commander, Ha~nilcarBarca (Lighl- iiing), mcanmhilc took the field in Sicily. He was a inan of great activity and military laleot, and the Romans at first wcre no in;ltcli for hin~. Jle seemetl in a fair ,!,a), to regail, all Sicily. 'She apathy of the Sellate \\,a> io great, tl~.lt at last sollie private citizcns built arid nmnncd at tlieir on.11 cxpelise a fleet of 200 sail. Gaius Lutatius Catulus, the Consol in com~na~~d,sur- lxised tlie encn~yand -occl~picd the harbors of Ilrepana and Lilybaeuzn in 242. 4 Cartliagil~ial~fleet which calue to thc rcscr~ewas met and destroyed off the AegAtes Inaulae in zqr. Hamilcar was left iii Sicily without support and sup- plies. He saw that peace must he 11i:idc. Sicily ,Iras snrrenderecl. Carthngc agreed lo yay the cosl of tlie rrr,ir, - about $3,ooo,ooo, - olio third down, and the remainilcr in ten annual payments. 'n~oseliderl the First Punic War. CHAPTEK XI11 Wb:hTTY-'I'kIKEP; pears elapse~lbetmeen the First and T Second Punic Urars. 'Tire Canhagini.ins were en- %aged during the first ynrt of this time in crushiiig a tnutir~y of their mercenary troops. Korue, taking advantage of the position ill \vIlich her rival was placed, seized upon Sardinia and Corsica, and, when Cartilage ol~jected,thrcatelied to renerrr thc war, and obliged her to pap nrore than one rnillio~ldollars as ;i fine (237). 'She acqnisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica il~troduced into the governrnellt of Ronle a new system ; viz. the Pro- vincial System. Heretofore the two chief inagistrates of Rome, the Con- suls, had exercised their functions over all the Roman pos- sessions. Now Sicily was nlade what the Romans called :I p~ovi~iiin,or Province. Sarrlil~ia and Corsica formed an- other province (235). Over each province mas placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. Vor this purpose trvo new Praetors were no\\- elected, making forlr in all. The power of the governor wns absolute ; he was comn~anderin chief, chief magistrate, and supreme judge. 'The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or 1nol.e Quaestors. All the inhabitants paid as taxes into tllr Koilla~r trcasory one tenth of their proclucc, and fiiw per cent of tlrc value of their imports and expoits. They were not obliged tu furnish troops, as were the depclldants oi I 1 Gaius Fla~uinius,by his agrarian laws gaineil the bitter hatred of the inability. He was tlie first Governor of Sicily, and thcrc sho\r.ed tlie effect that this land bc ~ivelito the veterans and tlic poorer classes. 'l'he law nzas executecl, and colonies plaiiteil. 'To the Gauls tliis seemcd but the first stell to the occupa- tion of the ivliole of thcir country. '1'hi.y all rose in armi except tlie Cenomitni. This contest continued for ten years, an~iii ,\,as invaded by an aim), of ,~o,ooomen. 'The plans of the invaders, Iio\vever, miscarried, and they were hcmmed ill Ibetneen turo Konlao arli~iesiimi Telamon in 222: a~id~111- nilii1att:d. l'l~e Gallic king \\,as slain at tlie hands of tlie Conbul Marcus Claudins Marcellus. Koliie was now mistress of tlic \s,liole peninsula of Italy, excel~tingsoiile tribcs ill Liguria, who resisted a short time longer. 'Three n~i/itn>:~(I.atin) coloilies were fo\inclcd to llold tlie Gauls in check ; Placentia and Crem6na in the territory of the Insnbres, and Mutina iii Illat of the noii. 'Tile Yin Finmziiin, the great northern road, !\,as evtelided from Spoletiuln to Ariminnm.' hfeauwhilc Cnrtiia~eiras not idle. After subduing the revolt of the mercenaries in 237, she forl~iedthe project of obtaining Spain as coni~~cnsatio~ifor the loss of Sicily, Sar- dinia, 2nd Corsica. Hamilcar Rarca, by energetic meas- ures, established (236-228) a firm foothold iii Southcrn and Southeaster11 Spain. At his death? his son-in-law, Hnsdrubal, coiitinued his work. Many tom~is were founded, trade prosi~erc 'THE SECONII PIlSIC \\'r\l<.-FI N the spring of 118 Hanilibal started from Cartlljgo infantry, rz,ooo cavalry, and 37 elephants. His illarch to the Pyrenees occupied two months, oiving to the opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal nom sent back a part of liis troops, retaining 50,000 infantry atid 9,000 cavalry, all veterans. W'ith these lie crossed the moun- tains, ancl nmrchecl along the coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Ncmansns (Nin~cs),through the Celtic territory, rritli little opposition. The last of July fouiid him on the banks of the Rlione, opposite Hrenio (Avignon). The Roiria~ls wcrc asto~iisliedat the rapidity of his movements. Thc Consuls of the year were Scipio and Sempronins. The former had been in Northern Italy, leisllrely collect in^ forces to attack Haiinihal in Spain ; the latter was in Sicill, making preparations to inva(le Africa. Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at ?4lnssilia near the end of June. Learll- ing there fix the first time that Naiinibal had alreacly left Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. Tlir Celtic tribes of the neighborhood rrrere moil over to liis side. Troops collected frorn these were stationed aloi:g the river, hut Scipio's main arm), relilainecl .it Massilia. It ivas Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived witli liis troops. He obtainecl all the boats possi- ble, and co~istructednumerous rafts to transport his ~uain body of lroops. :I cletachment of soldiers was sent up the river wit11 orclers to cross at the first available place, :~nd,rctul-ning on the oliliositc Iinnlc, to surprise the Celtic forces in tlie rear. 'l'lie plan succeeded. l'he Celts fled in conl~lsion,ancl llie road lo 1l:e .\Ips n7as opened. l'hr15 Scipio n,as olitgeneralled in the very beginning. His coursc ~iowshould have been to return to Nortl~erii Italy with all his forces, and take every means to check I-Iannibal there. Instead, he sent lnost of liis troops to Spain nniler liis brother Gnaeris Scipio, :1nd himself, \vith but a few men, set sail for Pisae. IL'Ieanwliile Hanilibal I~urriedup tile valley of tlie Khone, across tile Isara, through the fertile country of the Allo- brogcs, arriving, in sixteen days from Avenio, at the pass of [he first ;\lpine range (Mont du Cliat). Crossing this with some clifficulty, orvilig to the nature of the country and the resistance of thc Celts, lic hastened on through the country of the CentrOnes, along tlie north banli of the Isara. As he was leaving this river and apl~roachingthe pass of the Little St. Rcr~iard, lie was again attacliecl by the Celts, and obliged to make tlie ascent amidst continual and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, the arnly reached the summit of the pass. H~I-e, on a table-lanil, liis troops were allowed a brief rest. The hardships of tlie descent were fully as great, and the fertile valley of the Po was a \relcome sight to the half- farnislied and exhausted soldiers. Were they encainped, in September, and recruited their wearied energies. 'This famous march of Ila~i~iihalfrom the Rlione lasted thirty-three days, and cost l~im20,000 infalltry and 3,000 cavalry. 'She Komans !!.ere still unprepared to liieet Hannibal. C)ne army was in Spain under Gnaeus Scipio ; tlie other in Sicily, on its way tn Africa, ~in~lerthe Cons111 Si,mlwnnir~.;. 'The only troops irnmedi:itely available were a fen, soldiers that lhad bee11 left in the v;~lleyof the Po to restrain the (huls, rvho had I-ccently shown signs of defection. Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from hiassilia, look co~i~nlanclof these. He !net Han~iihalfirst in Octo- her, 218, licar the river Ticinus, a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish follomed, in which lie \\,as i\,ounded and rescued by his son, a lac1 of seventeen, afternrards tbe famous Africdnus. The Roliians were discomfited, vith considerable loss. They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroyi~ig tlie bridge behind tliem. Hannibal forded tile river farther up, and ~llarclicd along its right bank until he reached its confluence with tlie Trebia, opposite Placentia. Here Ire encamped. Meanivl~ile Senipronius, who had been recalled fro111 Sicily, rclicved the disabled Scipio. l THE SECOND PUNIC \VIR.-FI ONE was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the Latin allies mere sl~mnioned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old inen alike took up arms; eve11 the slaves were promised freedom if they would join the ranlcs. Hannibal niarclied from Cannae into Canipania. He induced Capua, the second city of Italy, to side \\zit11 him. Rut his expectations that other cities would follow her cxan~plewere not fulfilled. He went into minter quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxu- rious and effenlinnte habits, are said to Iiavc injured his soldiers. But Hannibal's superiority as a general is no- questionable, and his rvant of success after this was due to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact that the resources of Rome were greater than those of Carthage. 'The Latin allies of Rome liad remained true to their nllc- giance, and only one city of importance mas under his control. It \\,as an easy matter to conquer the enemy in open battle, but to sopljort his own army mas more dif- ficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On thc other hand, the Romans rvere well supplied with food fio~ntheir possessions in Sicily. 5 Ilannihal saw, therefore, that niore active measures than those already employed were necessary. He sent to Cartliage an appeal for aid. He formed an alliance with Philip V. of Xacedonia, and earnestly urged Hasdrubal Barca, his lieutellant in Spain, to come to Ilis assistance. IIe hoped, with this army fiorn the north, wilh suliplics and reinforcements from Carthage, and vrjith such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, to concentrate a large force at Rome and co~npelher illto srlbmissioii. 'l'he Konians, realizing the position of Haiinibal, kept what forces thcy could spare in Spain, under tlie two Scipio brothers, Puhlius and Gnaeus. IVith these thcy hoped to stop reinforcements froni reachiilg tlie enemy from that quarter. At tlie same timc their army in North- ern Greece effectually engagcil the attentio~l of Philip. Tlir~s two years (214-212) l>assed without ally ~nater~al change in llie sitoatio~iof affairs in Italy. I11 z, >vhile tlie Carthaginialis were in the extrenle so~itb of Italy, hesieging 'Tarenturn, tlie Romans made strenuous efforts to recover Campanin, and especially Capua. Han- nibal, learning the (langcr, marched rapidly north, and failing to hrenli thl-ough the lines which enclosed tlie city, resolx-ed to advn~iceon Rome itselt Silently and quickly lie inarclied along the Via Lnfirra through tlie heart of tlic tcrritory of Rome, to within three ~milcsof the city, a~iilwith his vnngllard lie even rode 1111 to one of the city gates. llut 110 ally joined liirn; no I Hiero II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. Iluring his long reign of Inore tha~ififty years lie had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome in her struggles with Carthage. Hieronyrnus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. l'he young tyrant, who mas arrogant and cruel, was assassiliatecl after reigning a few months. 'l'he Roman Governor of Sicily, Marcellus, troubled by the Cartiiagiiiian faction in Syracnse, threatened the city with an attack unless the leaders of this faction were ex^ pelled. 111 rcturn, they endeavoreil lo arouse tlie citizelis of the iieiglihoring city of Leonti~iiagainst Romc and the Ronian party in Syriic~~sc.ivlarcellus at ol~cattacked atid sturmerl 1.eontini. The Syracr~sans then closed their city gates against him. '1 sicge of two years (zrq-zrz) fol- lowed, famous for the various devices adopted by tlie noted mathematician ArchimCdes1 to defeat the move- ments of the Romans. 7'he city was finally betrayed by a Spanish uficer, and given up Lo plunder. The art treasures in which it was so rich were conveyed by Mar- cellus to Rome. From this time (212) the city hecalile a part of the province of Sicily and tl~chcad-quarters of the Roman Governor. Pnblius Cornelius Scipio, with his brother, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, were minniiig victories over the Carthaginians under Hallno a~iilHasdrubal. The greatest of these \!,as longlit in 215 at Ibera, the location of wliicli is 1111certaill. Spain was gradually being gained over to Rome, when the Cartliaginia~~s,iiiakiiig dcspcratc cfforts, sent large reinforcements ihcrc (212). 'l'ile al-mics of the Scipios were scpamted, surpriseii, and over~vlielincil. Nut11 their leaders were slain, and Spain m:ls lost lo Rome. Unless checked, the Carthaginians ~vouldnow cross the Alps, enter Italy, and, joining forces tvitli Hannihal, 1)lacc Rome in great danger. Publius Cornelius Scipio, son or 1 Arclii~nedcswas a great investigator in thc science of mathc- m;itics. Hc discovered thc ralio of a splrei-e to its ci~ci~~rrscril>cil cylindci-. One of his fatnous sayiilgs was, "Give me 11.11crc to stand, and I will niovc the worlcl!' IIe erertcd liis i),g~n~iityit, tl?~ ~IITCII- tion of po\verful trracllines for tire dcfcnce of Syracuse. Iiight of ihis works on luathcmatics arc in enistencc. IIe was killed at the cloae oftlle siegc by a Roman soldicl, \vho wonid have spaled his life lhsd hc not been too intciit 01, a mathcmaticol problctn to colnply with tlic summons to surl-coder. On his tombstone, it is said, was cngraveil a cylinder eliclositig a sphrre. TIIR cAdfPA7G1vs IIV SPA I)'-. 69 one of the slain gener:ils, then but twenty-fonr years ot axe, oifercd to go to Spain and take command. tle had lpreiiously mncle himsclf very pol~ular as Aeilile, nlld mas u~~a~~imouslyelectec1 to the command. 011 his arrival in Spain in 210, lie foin~dtlie whole country west of the Ebro under thc enemy's control. Fortr~lratelyfor the Romans, the three Carthagiiiian gen- erals, Hasdrubal and Mago, hrothers of Hannihal, and Hasdrubal, sun of Gisco, did not act in har~nony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in tlie folloiving spring (zog), to cap- ture Carthigo Nrwa, tlie head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor was gained, and eightccn ships of war, sixty- three transports, $Goo,ooo, and ~o,ooocaptives fell into Lhc lhanils of the Romans. Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Ilannihal, at Baeculae, ill the upper valley of the Haetis (Guadalquivir) ; but the battle was not decisive, for Has- drrlhal was so011 seen crossing the Pyrenees, with a con- siderable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the winter (209-208) in Galil. l'he two Carthagininn generals now in Spain, Mago, anil llasclriibal, tlic son of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitanin, the former to the Ralenres, to wait for reinforcements from liolrle. The next year another battle was fought near 13aeculn, rcsr~ltingin the total defeat of the Carthaginians, who re- treated to Gadus, in the southwestern part of Sl~ain. Tire country bcing now (206) nnder Roman influence, Scipio crossed tile straits to Africa, and sisiteil the Nulnid- ialr princes, Syphax and Masinissa, ~vholll Ire hoped to stir "11 against Carthage. On iris return, aftcl- qrlelling n Inll- tiny of tlie sol~liel-s, were rlis?atisfie~l 311011t tl~cirl~ay, Ile rcsigned liis command, and starte(1 for Komc, n,hel-e ihc intended to become a candidate for the consulship. The neivs of the apliroach of Has~lrubalcaused intense anxiety at Koiiie. I.:verp nerve was strained to llrevelit tlic union of tlie t\vo brothers. l'he Consuls for this year (207 I were Gaius Claudius Nero, a patrician, and Marcus Livius, a plebeian. To the former was intr~~stedtlic task of keep- ing Hnnnihal in check in Rrottium, while tlie cluty of i~iter~ cepting Hasdrubnl was given to tlie latter. 'rllc Cnrtbaginian 11ad already ~caclledthe ndghborhood of tlie river RIetailrns, a small strean3 soutli of tlie Rubicon. Flr~nihere lie sent ~~>esse~~gersto inform his brother of his oplnoacli anrl propose(l line of m:lrch. These messengers were captured 11). Kero, and tlic contents of their despatclics learned. Hc at once pushed north rr.itli liis forces, joined l.iains, tilet I-iasdmbai oil the Metaurus early in 207, and defeated his arm], with great slaugliter. A~nongthc slain was Hasdrubal lii~nself. Nero rett~rnedsouth ~vilho~~t delay, and the first intimation that IIannibal had of tliis linttle was tlie sight of liis brother's head il1roir.n into the catnp by the victorious foc. The war in Italy was now virtunlly ended, for, although OME was now in a position to add new nations to her Sor~irerlycolllgosed a part of the vast empire of A1ex:in~ der the Great, and which finally went to swell the linlits of Roman ai~thority, \!,ere Egypt, Syria, Macedon~a, and Greece proper. Egypt was governed l~ythe I'tolemies, and includcd at this titile the valley of tile Nile, Palestine, I'hoenicia, tlie island of Cyprus, and a i~rilliherof towns in 'l'lirace. Syria, extending from the Mediterra~~eallto thc Indus, vras com~~osedof various nations which ci~joycdn semi- independence. Under i~rcon~petentrilleis, she saw portion after portion of her doininio~lsfa11 from her. l'l~usnrosc Pergnmns, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Plirygia. Macedonia nras rrlled by Philip V., ancl inclucled also a large portion of Northern Greece. Greece proper was divided between tlie Achaean ailii Aetolian Leagues, the for~uerincluding thc luost of tile Peloponnksns, the latter the greater pnrt of Central Greece. Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slon.ly rlrifting into closer contact \\sit11 the East. She formed an alliance rvitli 15gypt in 273. From this country had collie in part l~ri.supply of corn il~iringthe Second Punic \Val.. In 205, I'tolemy V. l,ec::ime king, nn i\r;ls to carry the war abroad. This year (200) the COIISLII,Ptihlins Siilpicills (;alba, \!,:is sent with a considerable force across :Ire Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the Consul Villius during the next year, ryere productive or no decisivc results, but ill 19% tlle Consul Titos Quinctinb; Flamininns, a iiralr different calibre, coiiclocted the rvnr wit11 vigor. Hr clefeatcd Philip on the .+bus, drove him b:lclr lo tlie paw of 'Tempe, ancl llrc next year utterly iicfcated liim :~t Cynorcephalae. The king had dlarvn up lhis forces in ti170 .oliivisioils. IVith tlie first lie broke tlirougl~ the lint of tlie legions, wlrich, ho\ve\~cr,closed in around him wit11 but little loss. Tire other division was attacked by the Ro~traos,n.lrile it was forming, and thorouglrly cliscomfite~l. l'lrc victory of the Ro~ua~ismas decisive. About the same time the Acliaca~iscapturcd Corinth fro111 l'liilip, and the Khodians clefeated his troops in (:aria. Furtlier resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of hIacedonia alone ; he was deprivcd of all his depende~icicsin Greece, 'l'lirace, and Asia Minor, and mas fi~rl,iclilen, as (;al.thagr lhnil l,r?n, to m:?gr war \vitho~lt Ronre's consent. The next year (rgh), at tlie Isthmian (;limes, the "free- dom of Greece " was proclaimed to the e~?tliusiasticcrowds, and two years Iatcr Fla~iiininr~s\r~itlidrew his troops from tlie so called " three fetters of Greece," - Chalcis, Ilrn~etrias, and Corint11,-and, urgiilg tlie (;reeks to sliow themselves worthy of tlie gift of tlie Rollla11 people, he returned home to enjoy a well earlied triumph. The chief result of tlie second Wacedonian war was. therefore, the firm establishment of a Roman Protectorate over Greece and Egypt. 'The wedge harl l~eenentered nlld tiic i~ltcrferenceof Rome in Eastern afl~irsvas assured. CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN \\'z\R. NTIOCHUS 111. of Syria, who had proposed to share A Egypt with Philip, liacl been e~igigedfor ulne time in a campaign in the East, and did 1101 hear of his ally's dangcr until too late to air1 him. Horvever, he claimcd for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thmce, which Philip had previously held, and rvhiclr Rome now declarcd free and iudependent. He crossed the Hellcspoiit into 'Thmce in 196, but did not dare to enter Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by thc Aeiolians, until after Fla- mininus had n-ithdrawn all his troops (192). :\ntiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the porver bchind his throne was Hannibal. 'l'his great soldicr, after his defeat at Zama, did not relin- rluish the airn of liis life. He became the chief magistrate of his nativc city, and in a short time cleared the n~oral atmosphere, ~vliich mas charged with corruptio~l and dc- pravity. Under lrim Carthage 111ight have risc~i again. But his intrigues \\zit11 Antiocli~~s,with ivhom he \aisl~cil to make an alliance, gave Roiue an opportunity to inter- fere. His surrender rvas dernanrlerl. He Red, and, aftcr wnnclering fro111 coast to coast, bccanle the trristerl adviser of the Syrian king. Had Antiochus been energetic xiler his arrir.al in Grcecc, he could have acconil~lishedsomething before the Koman troops i:ame. But he ilisrcgarded the warnings of Han- nibal, and spent vaIuable lime in minor niaucrs. The Romans arrived in 191, and onder Clabrio at 'Thermopylae drove back the intruder, who lizistily retired to Asia Minor. 'Tile Aetolians mere l>unislled Tor their infidelity. In 190, Lncius Cornelius Scipio was elected Consnl, and put in co~nmaildof the army in the East, with the un- derstanding that he slioulcl be accompanied by 11is brotlier .\fricBnus, and have the bcncfit of his nlilitary skill anil experien(:e. Under his command, thc Romans crossed the Hellespont and sought .lntiochus in liis own 1;ingdom. Hannil~nl coulil do iiotl~ingwith the poorly ilist:i~~linecl troops of the king. They sverc met by the invadil~gforces at Magnesia, in Lydia, in 190, and 8o,ooo Asiatics were put to rout by ;o,ooo Rornans, $0,000 being slain. The loss of the victors mas slight. On that day the fate of Asia mas sealed. Antioclius reliiiqnished all 111-ctensionsto any territory )vest of the river Halys and the Taurus mountniils. llis chariots, elephants, flect, and treasures were all surrendered. Scipio returned home to elljoy a triumph, and added Asiaticus to his name, as liis brother had taken thrut of Afiicinus in commemoration of his victory. Gneius Manliiis Vulso succeeclcd Scipio in the East. He iuade n camp:tign against the Gauls, \\~lrohad settled in Galaria about a century beiorc, and had hecomc wealthy by nirxls of constant pl~inderings. The excuse for thc cam- paign !r7as, that rhcy had served in thc Syrian army; the rcason was, their wealth, ancl the a~ubitionof the Consul for glory. The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they themselves became assiniilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeable chiefly for the reason that Manlius ulidcrtook it withozt the nr~tha?-ityof the Senate, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent which was too fre- quently followed in Inter times. On his return to Ronle he was allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. These wars in the East brouglit to Rome immense riches, which laid the foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally undermined tlic strength of tlic state. ljron~ Greece were introduced learning and refinement, from Asia immoralit), and effenii~lacy. 'l'he vigor and tone of Romau society are nowhere more forcibly shown than ill the length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. bIeanwhile, at Rome tlic political enemies of the Scipios were in the ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misap- propriating funds obtailicd during his campaign in the East. As he was about to prodoce his a~count-booksbefore the Senate, his brother, AfricBnus, seized them, tore them to pieces, and threw the reinuants 011 the floor. Asiaticns, however, was sel~tenccdto pay a fine. \\'hen it was after- wards intimated that hm brother too was iml~licatcd, he proudly reminded his enelnics that their iiisinuations wcre ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges were made. Two ycars later (183), Africinus died in voluntary ex~lc at Liternurn, on the coast of Campanid. He had lived little more than fifty ycan. His wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, wlio fell at raiiilae, and the sister of him who aftrn\~anlsconquered Perseus of >lacedonin. His daughter, Cornelia, afterwards beca~ue tlie mother of thc famous Gracchi. Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. Ilur- ing the campaign in the East, 11e Inel IIan~iihalat the court of Antiochus. In tlie conversation 1Innniba.l is reported to have said that he considered ;ilexanclcr tlie greatest general, l'yrrhus next, and, liad he himself conquered Scipio, he would havc placed liimsell before either. Scipio lived to see Rome grow fro111 an Italian power to be practically tlie ~nistress of tlie >iorld. IIe mas of niarked intellectual cr~lti~re,and :is coliversant with Greek as with liis mother tongue. He possessed a charm which ~iiadehim popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greece were not so cor~rtedat Iiolne as in latcr days. Hannibal, after the clefeat of A~itioclios, was delnandrd by the Romans, but, cscnl~ing,took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, King of Uitliynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops mere sent to arrest him. See- ing no way of csr:ape, lie r~pcnedthe bead on liis ring and swallowed the l~oisonwhich it container1 (183). Thus died one of thc greatest of commanders, without attaining the aiu of his life. He had live4 but fiftyfour years, yct liis life was so marked that people have cver since looked ivith wondcr upon the tremendous magnilu~le of rvhat he ~~ndertook,anil cnmc so near accor~q~lisliing. This same yonr is also momorable for tlie dent11 of " tlie last of the Greeks," Philopoemen.' 1 See Ancxent Greece, page r~($ CHAPTER XVIII CONQUEST OF NACEDOKIA AKD GREECE. (171-146.) LTHOUGH Philip had a~dedthe Ko~nans in their A campaign against Antioc11.s. he did not receive from them the expectetl reward in additions to his territory. Irn~nediatercsista~lce would be futile; but he labored pa- tiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir 11)) among the neighboring Greeks hostile fecling toivards Rome. I-Ie placed his army on the best footing possible, and soon bcgan to enlarge his boiu~darics. Complaints mere made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give ,111 his coniluests, and confine himself to the limits of hlacedonia. In I 79 Philip died, and mas succeeded by his son Perseus. Thc new king mas as able as his fatliei., and more i~npa- ticnt of snbjectioa. Ar made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, aud strove to arouse among the Greeks ~nemoiies oi their former greatness. The Senate, hearing of his nnmemus intrigues, determined to check him. War mas declared in I 71 ; hut the forces sent by Ronle rrrcrc at first led by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished unlil Lucius Aemilius Paullus was made Consul, aiid took charge of the war in r6S. 6 I'a~~llus(229-160) was the son of the Consul of the sanie name who was kiilcd at Cannae. Iiis integrity was first sliown when, as Curule Aedile,' in 192, he prosecuted per- sons who had made an illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191 as governor, where, after some reverses, lie put rlo\\zn all insurrections. He \\.as Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering n tribe of nrarauders in Liguria. For this he was allomed a trinlnph. EIe was elected Consui a second ti~nein 168, and sent against Perscus. The war mas brought to a speedy end by the battle of Pydna, on the Thermiic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Saluotl~rjcewith Iiis treasures ail11 fainily. Ke was shortly afterrnards captured, but was treated with kind- ness by tile Consul. Paullus now travelled tliroogh Greece. Later, assisted by commissjoners, 11c arranged tlre affairs of hIacrdonia. 'The coriiltry was divided illto four snlall republics, independent of each other, but proliibited froni intermarriage and corn- merce with one anolhe~~. On his return to Roine in 167, he enjoyed a triuml~h, which mas graced by Perseus and his three children. He ,"as Ce~isorin 164, and died fonr yean later. I'aullus liad two sons by his first wife. The elder oi these was adol~ted by Fabius A,Iaximns Cl~ncthtor, the yonnser by tlre son of Afrid~lnsthe elde,; his brother-in- law. He was of tlre "bli~e" blood of Rome, of perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, 1)ut somewhat su~~crstitious. A patron of leartrirlg and the fine arts, he gave his sons the hest training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularity is the fact that his bucly mas ~carriecl to its last resting place by volunteers froin the nrious peoples he had conrluererl. I'ersei~s spent Ids last clays in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is allegcil, base and cruel treatment. He was tl~clast king of Macedonia. After the victory at Pydnn, tlie sympathy shown in Greece for the co~~queredmonarch made the Romans more watcli- ful of her interests there. All suspected to he enemies were reluoved as hostages to Italy, aii(1 among these was the l~istorian Polybius. Ilc lived in Rome for more than twenty years, and became a great friend of the younger Africinus, \vIiom lie accolupanied to the siegc of Carlhage. Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, in- depelidcnt of each other, with no rights of COIIIL~L~~U?~or conin~e,,rit~rn. Utter demoralization soon ens~~ed,which proved a sure preventive to all alliances liable to shake thc authority of Rome. Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty pears after PI-dna, culminating in what is sometimes called tlie Fourth Macedonian War (149-146). Uildcr the leadership of Andriscus, ~vlioclaillled to be a son of Frrseos, the people rebelled agninst rhc protection of Rome. They were twice defeated in 148 1iy thc praetor Qui~ltusCaecilius Metellns, rvho gnined the agnomcn of Macedonicns. The country was inade a Roman province, with a Roman magistrate at its l~ead. At this time the Achaeans were q~~arrelli~igmitli Sparta. Metellus warned thenr to desist, and rrzlien the Achacans advanced against him, he easily defeated theiii ncar &letcllns was n mo THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE, IFTY years had passed since Zama. It mas a pcriod government \\'as meakened by the quarrels of coiiflictiiig factions. Masinissa, King of Numidia, an ally of the l ROME AXTI SP.IIN.-TIIE NUAIANTINE AKD SERVILE WARS. (206-1 32.) ERIC1NUS tlie elder left Spain in 206. After a ':. A'prov~~iclal government of nine years (2o6-197), the country rvas divided into two provinces, separated by ihe Ibdrus (Ebro), and each pror~incemas assigned to a praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain \,,as really brought into a state of coll~pletepeace and order. The niountains and forests were a formidable obstacle to tlie Konlan legions, and favored guerilla warfare, mhich makes conquest slow and laborious. The most warlike of ihe Spanish tribes was tlie CeltibBri, who occupied the interior of the peninsula. Tliey mere always uncertain and intractable, continoally breaking out into revolt. In rgj, Cato the elder put domn a rebcllion led by them. He estal>lished Inore firnily the I INTEWXlL 1IISrORY.-TIIE GWACCIII. E Ixve seen horv ilic long struggle between the pntri- M/'.c~:~ns and plebeians terniinated in a no~ninnlvictory for the latter. From about 275, the outmnrd form of the old constitution had undergone little change. It was notninally that of a 'L~noderatedemocracy." The Sellate and offices of state were, ill Iaiv, open to all alike. In practice, how- ever, the constitution becalnc an oligarcliy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreor~cr,the Senate mas controlled by a clms who clailned all the privileges of n nobility. The Co~nitiasmere rarely called upon to decide a il~~estion.Most lnatters mere settled by a Decree of the Senate (Senntt~sCnnsr?/t,iilm). To be sure the Comitia de- clared for war or peace, bot the Senate conducted tile war and settled the co~iditionsof peace. It also us~lallyassigned the commands, organized the provinces, and inallaged the finances. 'Tile causes for this asce~idencyof the Senate are not harcl to find. It was a 11ody made up of men capnllle of con- ducting affairs. It could be convcned at any time, ~vl~ereas the voters of the Conlitins were scattered over all Italy, and, if assembleil, rvould 13ot he competent to decide ques- tions demanding knowledge of military matters anrl foreign policy. The Senate and the Kon~annobility Itrere in tlie rnain the same. ill1 patricians were nobles, but ;1l1 nobles were iiot patricians. The patricians wcrc the rlescendants of the ori- ginal founders of the city. The noblcs were tlie descend- ants of any one who had filicd one of tlie follorving six curule offices, viz. Dictator, ivlagister Equitum, Consul, Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. 'l'llese nobles possessed the right to place in their hall, or carry iii funeral processions, a wax mask of this ancestor, and also of any other lne~nberof tlie family who had lield a ci~rulcoffice. A plebeian who first lield this office was called a ?ravi~s ho?tzo, or " ne~vman." The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, liad at this time the monopoly of power. Legally, I~orvever,it liad no positive authority. 'I'he right of tlie people to gov- ern was still valid, and there was only wanting a niagistrate witlithe courage to remind them of their legal rights, and urge the exercise of thcm. Such a magistrate \\,as found in Tiberius Sempronins Gracchus. 1Vith liini was usliered in the contest wliicli lasted for more than a century, and brooglit to the surface some of tlie proudest rialncs of Roniaii history. On one side or the other we find them,- Marius and Sulla, Caesar and Pompey, Augustus and Antony, -arraying Rome against herself, until the glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor of the Empire. 'I'iberius Senipronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to tlie nobility, but iiot to the aristoc- racy. He married Cornelia, the daughter of Africinus the elder. They had twelve cliildrcn, of wliom all but three died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. INTEISiV.4 L HIS TOA' Y. 95 '['he daughter, Sempronia, married AfricAnus the younger. 'The sons, Tiberius and Gaius, grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left a widow when they were Inere boys. 'Siberius (164-133) entered the anny, atid served unricr his brother-in-law during the third l'unic war. Tell years later (136) lie was Quaestor in Spaiu, wliere he won tile :iffeciiorls oi the people by adhering to tlie ~nildpolicy which his iither had previously followed. His popular measures here displeased his brother~in-la\\,,aird he ceased to be a favorite with him. On his return Irorue he passed through Tuscany wliere he was astonished to see large tracts of the (zpr pr~biicz~s(see Clraptcr VII.) cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizelis of tlie Republic were wandering in towns without employment, and deprived of the land which, according to law (see the Licinian Rogations, page 29), should hare been divided an~ongthen>, and not hcld in large quantities by the rich land-owners. Tiberius dcter~niiredto rectify this rvrong. In 133 lie offered himself as candidate for the tribuneship, and mas elccted. He then began boldly the batlle for the coin- mons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now a dcad letter, which forbade the holding of more tha11 320 acres of the nger pf~6licz~sby ane it~diuidoal. Occupants \vlro had fenced this land and improved it mere lo be compensated therefor. The wealtliy classes and tlie Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, Octavius Caecisa, \\rho was himself a large laird-owner, taking advantage of his authority as Tril~une, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the qllcstion. (:racchus, full of catlnrsiasnr o\.er the justice of his cause, obtained, contrary to 311 l~recedent,the removal of his col- league from ofice, and passcd his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, his brother, and his father-in-law, Appius Clartdius, to carry it into effect. It \Y~Sco~~trary to the law that n person should Ihld llx office of Tribune for two soccessii~eyears. Rut Cracchils, in his desire to carry o::t his plans, deter~ui~ledto violate this rule, and offered himself as candidate for the next year. ?'he election day came, and whcn it became evident that he would he re-elec:ed, the aristocrats, who had turned out in fill1 force oil the Campus Martius with their retinues of amled sla~xsan(! clients, raised a riot, ancl, lrilling Gracchus with threeln~ildredof lris follovi~ers,threw their bodies into the Tiller (133). 'Thus was shed tlie first bloocl of the civil strr~gglc. The mol~was led hy Scipio Nasica, the ui~cleof l'iberios. !\fricinns, m1ie11 he hearil of the murder of lris brother4n-lam, earlaimed, "Justly slain." 'L'he agrarian law, liomcrer, \vhich ha (~2~).His reiuark about the dent11 of l'ihrrius (;r:icclius gave dire ofencc to the popiilar party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, probably "a viclilii of po- litical assassination." Af~ic&~i~~swas a man of refinement and culture, a rvarln friend of scl~olars,a patron of the Greek liistnrian Polybius, anrl of the poets Lucilius and Terence. He was opposed to tlie tenilcncy of his age towards luxilry and extravagance. IIe was an orator, as well as a general. Tlie one blot on liis career is tlie terrible destruction of Cartliage, wliich lie possibly might have averted had hc sliow~ifirm oppositioli to it. Scipio Nasica, who led the mob against Tibcrius, was compelled, tl~oi~ghPontifex Maximns, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. CHAPTER XXII. important after the death of Alexa~~cler. Its first king, ~lttalusI. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. He was a11 ally of the Komans, and his successors remained their firm friends. The city hecalnc one of the most pros- peroils and famous in Asia Minor, noted for its architectural iiioonments, its fine lihrary, and its schools. Attalr~s III., at his deal11 in 133, bc'~catherl to Konle his kingdom, which inclucled Lydia, Pisidin, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It was 111ade a province undcr the name of Asia. After tlic destruction of Carthagc, the most important kingdon1 in Africa was Numidia. It co11t:rined a number of flourishing towns, which were ccntrcs of a collsiderable commerce. Masinissa left this kiilgdon~to his son Micil~sa. 'l'he lattci had two soils and a neplleru, Jngurtha. 'The nepherv was a bril!iant yomig man, rvlio had served u~~dcr Scipio in the Numantine war, and rcturned to Africa cov- ered with honors. He was named joint heir with his cous- ins to the kingdon1 of Numidia. Micipsa dying soul1 after, Jugurtha rnurclerecl one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed tlie mliole kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed to Rome. Con~missionersmere sent to in- vestigatc. They were bought off by Jugortha, and retonled home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal was aftcr- wards c:apturecl, savagely tortured, and fin.tlly killed. The Senate, co~upelled by the pop~~lnrindignation to niake an investigation, n~ovcdso slowly that solue of its msmbers \\,ere accused of acr:epting bribes. \Var was declared at last, but the campaign languished, and pace mas so011 made on such easy terms for the prince that it was evident his money had again bee11 freely used. 'Tire scandalous transaction was denounced at Ronie by the . ..lrlhune Memmius. Jugurtha then repaired to tlie city in person, and bought up all the ar~tlroritiesexcept I'Iemmius, mhoni he found incorruptiblc. He had auuther cousill in the city, whom he caused to be murilered. After this tlie Senale ordered lii~nto leave, and as he departed, it is said he exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to perish, if a purchaser be found ! " \\Tar was now begun in earnest (I ro), but resulted in a crushing defeat of the Romans, mlrose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated hy tlm defeat, the Senate in the (01- Ionring year sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. He was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigid aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failr~re,he tool; with him as his lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, Gaius Marius. b'larius, born at Arpinun~in 157, wasthe son of a farmer, and was himself bred to tlie plough. He joined the army YUG7JZTHINE WAR. I01 at an early age, and soon attracted notice for his puilctnal ~wrformanceof all duties, miil his strictllcss in discipline. He was preseilt at the siege of Numantia, and his courage caused Scipio to predict for hi111 a brilliant career. He soon rose to be h#lilitary Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the Peoljlc, and two years later Praetor. Tlie fact tliat he was respected and valued ill high circles is shomn by his subsecluclit marriage into the family of the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, he became a person of social distinction. The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the river Muthul, and tirade to retire into the desert, where llis strongholcl, Tlrala, was captured. Ile sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrender was demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritated tliat such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded that Marius should be made Collsul atid have charge of the war. When the lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence. to enable him to be present at the elections, as 11~as necessary according to the law, his general ridiculed the idea, and told Ilirii to wait another twenty years. He went, however, and war elected in 107, being the first plebeian chosen to that office for more than a century. Metellus was recallecl, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomell of Numidicns. hlarius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Ro- man legions must be reorganized and better disciplinecl. He enlisted men mllo had no other occul~ation, that they miglit bccon~e professional soldiers. Some men of rank who had a taste for war also went rvitli him. .Among these \\.as a young patvician, Cornelius Snlla. \Kt11 this army l\larius soon wrcsted from Jugurthn 311 his strongholils. In lcss than two years ll~ewar was over. Uy his ally, Bocchus. ! 'TIIE CIMDRI AND TEU'TONES. - POLITICAL QUARRELS. HE war with Jugurtl~aended none too soou, for blarius T was ,reeded in a ~rugglerequiring all iis talents, The Cimbri and Teutones, barbarous nations fro111 North- ern liorope, were threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Ronlan armies had met with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of tire Rlione. Eighty tlrousantl Rotuans and forty thoosa~~dcatnp follo\vcrs are said to have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this nio~nctit clrosen to enter lialy, the destruction of Rome mould have been a certain result. k'ortunately, tiley turned to ilie I'yre- nces, and, smeeping over the mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. Marios, appointed Colrsul a second time, devoted his en- ergies to forming and training the army. Ile selected the plains on the banks oi tlie Rlloirc in Soitthel-n Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here ire drilled Iris troops, accus- toming ilrern to the greatest ]iossibIe exertions. Many per- ished under thc strain, but the survivors became hardened solcliers. Corps of engineers were attached to eacli legion, and the soldiers were taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his foiirth consulship (~oz),he felt prepared to meet ihe enemy. Tlie barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, the Ci~ubrimarching around the northern foot of the .\Ips towards Noricum, with tlie intention of i~lvadingItaly from that quarter, while the Teutoncs remained in Caul. As the latter aclvaiiced, Marius took up his position in a fortified wrnp near Aquae Sextiae (Aix). He :llo!ved the enemy to march past him, and then follo\ved cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fall upon tliem. I11 the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match for the drilled legionaries, who were irresistitjle. The contest lastcd two days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cat to pieces (zo July, 102). At the close of this battle word was brouglit to L~Iariusthat he had been elected Consul for the fifth time. iVIeanwliile, the Cimhri had crossed the Alps and rvrre ravaging the fertile fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulos, the otl~erConsul. The next year Marius came to his rcscue. Near Vercel- lae tlie Cimbri met the same fate as their brethren, and Ivdy rvas saved (lor). No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrels broke out at Roiue mith great fury. Ma- rius was ciected Consul for the sixth time. The popular lieroes of the hour rrrere two demagogues, the Tribune Sa- tnr1:inus a~idthe Praetor Glaucia. They carried corn lams and land laws,' and compelled the Senators to take an oath ' These \\,ere tllc Appuleian Laws (loo) : - I. Any Roman citizen could buy corn of the state at anomiopl price. TI. The land in Cisalpiile Gaul, bvhich the Cimlilians had occupied, slrould bc divided among the Italian and Roman citizens. 111. Coionics from tlic rctcral~sof hlariiis wele to be founded in Sicily, Aclraia, and Macedc~nia. POLITICAL Q(1ilRRRL.T 1°5 to execute their lams. Metelli~sNumidicus refusing to com- ply wit11 their wislics, Saturninus sent a guard to tlie Senate- IIouse, draggcd liim out, and expelled liitir from tlie city. [)wing this troubleso~lietime, Marius showed that he was no politician. He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavorii~gto please all parties he pleased none. On [lie popular side there were two parties, the moclerate one, led by Memmius, who had exposed tlic Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and the radical one, led by Saturni- nus and Glaucia. Menlmius and Glaucia both ran for the coiisulship, and as the former seeiiled likely to be successful, he mas murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturninus and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the Senate-House, tlie roof of which was torn OK. and tlie wretches mere stoned to death. The fall of Saturninus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall of Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was suspected that he was a victim of treachery. Marius having now become generally unpopular on ac- count of his vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, travelling through Asia Minor, and vis- iting the court of Mithradates, Iiing of Pontus. For tlie next eight years (!Jygl)Ron~e enjoyed a season of comparative quiet. CI-IAPTER XXIV. INTEItNAL HISTORY.-'I'IiE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). T th~st~mc there was a bitter rivalry between the Sen- A at: and the eclucstrian order, or conniiercial class. Froni the former were chosc~~the governors of the prov- inces, from the lnttcr came the tax.gatherers (p16dZic~z71i) and the money-brokers (negotitrtores). It will help us to understand better tile condition of affairs, if we study the <:omposition of the Senate and the Eijuites. The Senators, three hundreil in number (later thc''IF 11u1,1- ber was incrcnscd to six hundred), held. their office for lilc. When vacancies occurred from deatl~,or occasionally from ren~oval,they were filled by the Censor,' who appointed a person that had l~eldone of the folloiving offices : Iliclalor, Consul, Pr~etor,Curule Aedile, or, after the time of Sulh, Quacstor. All persons who llad Ileld thcse offices, or that of Tribune, mere allowcd to join in debate ill the Sellale, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. llence he must be n,ealthy. We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided illto six classes accordi~lgto their property, and that these classes were subdivided into one hunclred and ninety-thrce other classes called cenliirics. About zzg, the number mas incrcascd to three hunclred and seventy-three. Eighteen 1 See the dutics of Ceoror, page 28. of tlie cc~~turiesof the first class were c~rlledEquites, and nlllst hnvc property worth twenty thous~inrldollars or more. This name was give11 to them hccausc at first they servetl in the army as horsemen, tliongh in latcr tinies tlie cavalry was composed only of allied troops. Tlic Eql~itcsmere originally froill tlie aristocracy alone, but, as tlie lilel~cinns increased in wealth, many of them becamc ricli ei~ouglito bc included in this class. 'l'liere was no hostility between tlie Senate and tlic Equites until, in 123, Gaius G~,accliuspassed the Lex Y,~,/inri,ia,wl~icl~ prescribed that the jurors (/jd,hcc~)should be cl~osenkoln thc Eqnites, and not the Seuate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, and the breach iri(lcnei1 every year. On thc one side were the tiol~les,represented by the Senate ; on tile other sidc, the eilaestrian or~lcr. Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it 11ad control of t11c courts: and often ~iinilean unscml~olous use of its power, especially in those courts which were establisl~ed to try governors for extortion in tlie management of provil~ccs (g~mcsfionesY~~IL?IL repeiitni/iu.r~n~). Froin the Eqnites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They pil- laged and robbccl the peolile at will, and, if a governor liad the courage to interfere wit11 thcm, a threat of prosecutioli mas held over his liencl. The average governor pl-eicl-rrcl to connive at their exactions; the holder ones paid \\,it11 fines or exiles for their courage. "mother trouble w.1:; threatening tlir commonrvealth. l'lie Italian allies of Roiuc did not posscss the iiancl~isebelong- ing to a Ko111an citizen. For nearly t\vo cent~~riesthey liad shared dansers and victories with tl~eRomans; they now eagerly dcmanclcd all their privileges. In 91, Marcus Livius Drusus, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Ron~an citizenship aroused great opposition. His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced thcm null and void. He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an assassin in the same year. The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered into a closc alliance, chose Corfinium, in the Pelignian Apenoines, as their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the name Italia. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House. Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Pub- lius Rutilius Lupus, both took the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and Sulla. This war (90-88), called the Social War, i. e. the war with the allies (Sucii), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, defeated the Romans severai times, and entered into negotiations with the Northern Itaiians, whose fidelity began to wwer. It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried the Juliall Law, by which tile Roman franchise mas extended to all who had not yet revolted. 'The next year this law was supplc- THE SOCIAL W.IR. 109 mented by the Plautian Papirian Law, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town the franchise, if he handed in his nxine to the Praetor at Rome within sixty days. About the same tirne mas passed another lam, the Calpurnian, ~vhich pern~ittedRolnan magistrates in the field to bestow the fran- chise on all who mislied it. These lavs resulted in disor- ganizing the rebellion. The Samnhes and Lucanians held out the longest, but were finally put dorvn by Marius. The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was tor11 asunder by violent personal rivalries. 'I'here was no class not affected by the wide-spread tight- ness in the money market. The treasury was empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Rlithradiles, I IIARIUS AND SUI.LII. - CISNIL. ITH tlie name of Marius is usually coupled tlint of I&7Lumua Cor~~eliusSulla (138-78) "He was a pa- trician of the purest blood, had inherited a n~odcratcfortune, and had spent it, like other you~igmcn of rank, lounging in theatres and amusing himself with ditiiier parties. He was a pact, an artist, and a wit. Although apparcntly indolent, lie mas ~~aturallya soldicr, statesnian, and cliplomatist. !Is Quaestor under Marius in the Jugorthine War, hc ha11 provcd a most active and usefril officer." In thcse African car- paigns lie showed that lie knew how to win the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through liis whole subse- quent career, tlie secret of his brilliant successes seems to have been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he alvays held wcll under control, even w11ei1 they were ai- lowed to i~idirlgein plunder and license. It was to Sulla's combined aclroitness and coilragc that hiarius orvcd tlie final capture of J~~gurlha.He servccl again i~ndcrblari~ls in the ca~lipaigns against the Cin111ri arid Teutolies, and gave efficient help towards tlie victor-y. But the Consul became jealous of his rising power, aild all friendly feeling between the trvo ccased. After tliis campaign S~illalived at Rome for sonic years, taking no part in politics, and during tliis time his 11a1ne iWAKIUS AND SI/%LA. 11 1 and that of his rival are almost unhearcl. He appearcd before the public again in 93, rvl~enhe ~snselected I'lactol; and increased Iris popularity by an exhibition of a Iiiindrecl lions in the arena, matched against Nun~idianarchers. In 92 he went as Propraetor to govern the province of i\sia, ancl hrre he first met Mithraddtes. This nionarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordi- nary man. Ile spoke many languages, was the idol. of his subjects, and had boundlcss ambition. He rlouhted the d~lrabiiityof the Ronla~lEmpire, and began to elllarge llis own territory, with no apparent fear of Rorne's intcricrence. Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Ronlan protectial~,and was ruled by a prince, Ariobarsdnes, that Rome had recognizetl. This country Mithradites attacked. He killed the prince, and placed oil the throne his ow11 neplicrv. Rome interfered, and Sulla was inslructed to visit the monarch. He accomplished his nlission wit11 his usual adroitness, and returned to Kotne with ncw honol-s. fle took an active part in tlic Social War, eclipsing the famc of his riv:ll, Marius. Hc was now the recognized leadcr of the conservative and aristot:mtic party. Tlic feeling between thc rivals was more bitter than ever, far Marius, though old, had by no ~ucanslost his prestige will1 the popular party. It was at this ti~ncthat Mithraditcs, learning of the Social War, thought it a good opportunity to advance his o\~ninterests a~idextend his reahu. I-Ie collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. With his fleets he sailed through the Dardaiiclles into the Archipelago. The extortions of the Ro111an governors had bee11 so great, that Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia hlinor, gladly revolted from Rome, and accepted his pro- tection. All the Ro~lran residents with their fanlilics \\,ere massacred oil a single clay. It is said that 80,000 persons perished. h4ithradAtes himself next crosscd the Uosliliorus, and n~arched into Northern Greece, which receivcd him with open arms. Soch was the conditiun in the East when Srilpicii~sRII~IIS carried the hills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Marius liave charge of the war against hfitliraclAtes. This was not to Sulla's liking. He was in Campania mill1 tlie legions that liad served in tlie Social War. The soldiers mere devoted to him, and ready to follow him anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking mAtters into his own hands, ~narched into thc city at the head of his troops. The people resisted ; S~ilpiciuswas slain ; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, where he li~red for a time, watching the course of eveiits. Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East called him away; and no sooner mas hc gone than the flames of civil rvar burst out anew (87). Luciua Cornelins Cinna, a friend of h'larins, was Cons111 that year. He tried to recall Marius, but was violently op- posed and finally driven fro111 tlie city. Tlie Srnate declared him deposed from his office. He iilvoked the aid of the soldiers in Cacnpania, alnd found them ready to follow him. Tlie neighboring Italian towns scnt him men and moncy, and Marius, conling from .4frica, joined him rvith six t11o11 sand troops. They ninrched upon Rome. The city was cai~tured. Cinna was acknowledged Consnl, and the sen- tence of outlawry which had bee11 passed on Marius was revoked. The neat year hlarit~swas 111nde Cons111 for the seventh time, and Cinna for the seconcl. Then followed the mildest cruelties. hiarios had a body-guard of slaves, \vhich he sent out to iilurder whomever he i~.ished. The houses of tlie rich were plu~lclercil, and the honor of noble families was exposed to the lnercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after lie entcrecl office, and tlre shedding of blood ceased. For the next three years Cirr~ia ruled Ron~e. Constitn- tional Sl~llarestricted the power of ihe nlagistrates to the ad- vantage of the Sznate. Scnaiors were alone madu eligible for the tribuneship, and no former Tribune could hold ally curule office. No one coulcl be Praetor withoot having first been Quaestor, or Cons~ilwitliout having held the praeior- ship. Every candidate for thc office of Quacstor must be at least thirty years old. The i~u~nberof I'raetors was in- creased from six to eight; that of Quaestois, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and Practors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. Three hundred new Senators, taken frolil the Equites, were added, and all who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Scnatc. 'The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the Senate. On the death of Sulla, in 78, Crassus and Lepidus were cliosell Co~lsrils;but sllch was the instability of the titrics that they were sworn not to raise an arluy during their con- sulship. Lepidos attempted to evade his oath by going to Gaul, and, when su~iirnonedhy the Senate to returll, inarclied against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by Crassus and Polnpey in 78, and soon after died. CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS. - SPART4CUS. - LUCULLUS. - POXPEY AXD CRASSUS. L TUS SERTORIUS (121-7z), a native of the Q"little Sabine vill:lge of Nursia under the i\pennincs, had joined the party of Marius, 2nd served u~lcicrI~im in the ca~npaignsagainst the Cin~hriand Teutones. In 97 Ire served in Spain. anil became acquainted with the country wit11 wl~icli his fanie is chiefly associated. In 91 ile ivns ()uaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. Hc \\,as a partisan of A'larios ilurj~~:,his troubles with Sulla, anti on Sulla's return iron1 thc East he left Ronie for Spain, where he took the lead of the hlal.iaii party. His bravely, kindness, and eioqi~ence plcnsed the Spaniards. Many Rornlur refilgees and desert- ers joined him. I-le defeated one of Sulla's gcncrals, and clrovc out of Lusitania (Portugal) Metellus Pius: wlro 1iad been spccialiy scnt against 11ii11 from Rornc. The object of Sertorius was to establish a government ill Spain aftcr tlrc Romni~model. 1Ie foriued a Sellale of three I~orldrcdmembers, and forindeii at Osca a school for native cl~ildrcii. He was strict and severe ton.ards his sol- diers, but kind to tlic people. A white fawn mas his fairoritc pet and constaiit foilotver. He 1.1rled Spain for six )ram 1 Son of hlctellus Kornidicus. Ile reccii~etlthe ag~~ome~ior Pius on account of the love nhiclr Ire rlieplaycd for liis iathct, \rhom Ire begged the people to recall from hallishment in 99. I11 71 lie war joiued by Perperna, a Roman officer. l'he same year Pompey, then a young man, was sent to co-oper- ate wit11 Mctellns. Sertorius proved more than a match for both of tllesc generals, and defeated thcm near Saguntr~m. 'The 11osition of the Rolnans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now forined a leaguc \villi tlie pirates of the Medi- terranean. He also entered into negotiatiolis with hlithra- ditcs, and opened col-respondcnce with tlie slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. Rut intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. Tlle out- come of these was that he rvas trenchci-ollsl!. ~nurderedby Perperna at a banq~~etin 72, and wit11 his death fell the Marian party iin Spain. lfean\vhile a dangerous elicn~ywas threatening Italy n~itliin her own borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under tlle leadership of one of their number, named Spartacus, es- caped !?om tlic traini~lgscliool at Capna and took up a strong position on h1o11ntVesiivius. They were joined by 1a1-ge nunibel-s of slaves and or~tcasts of every description, and were soon in a position to dcfcnt two Praetors who were sent against them. The ~icxtyear rhcy assunicd the offelisive ; and Spartacus found liilnsclf at the liead of roo,ooo men. Four generals sent against llim were defeated; and for t\vo years he rav- aged Italy at will, and evcn threatened Rome. Dut intestine division showe The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as it had been established, by a sol,lit.r. It mas the fortune of Pompey, a favorite officer of Solla, to cause the first violation of the laws laid down by his general. Gneius Polnpeius Magnus (106-48) led a soldier's life from his hoyhood to his rleath. ?1'lre11 a youth of scventeeri hc fought by his father's side in thc civil struggles between Marills and Solla. I-Ie mas a panisan of the latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. He defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 was alloived to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally qualified. Sulln then greeted hiln with the surname of Magnus, wlrich hc ever after~~~ardsbore. He was then sent to Spain, t~,ithwhat success we have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus were elected Consuls anlid great enthusiasm. Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed imn~enscwcalth by speculation, n~ining,dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice is said to have been his ruling passion, tlro~ighhe gave larp sums to tlie people for political effect. Neithrr Ponipcy nor Crassus, according to tire laws passe(l by Sulla, was cligible to the consulship. 'I'hc former hacl never been Qunestor, and was only thirty-five ycars old; the intter was still I'r:ictor, and oi~glitto 1ia1.e waited t~voyears. Thc work of Sulla iljas iioiv qr~ickiyundone. 'The Trib- unes regained their prerogative, tile veto. 'The colitrol of Lhe crilrlinal courts was transferreil again fron~tlie Senate to the Equites, and the for~ircrbody bras clcarccl of its innst i\,ortliless members, n.ho liad been appuiilted by Sulla. For three years (70-67) after tlic cil~iratiuiiof his consnl- ship, I'ompey rc~iiaiilcdquirtly at Iiorne. Ile a-as then llut in charge of an expedition against the Greelc piratcs. From the earlicst ti~ricsthese maraurlers liad been in llie habit of depredating on the sliores of the Nleditcrrancaii. Uuring the civil wars of Ro~iiethey liad become much liolder, so that the city was con~pelledto take an active part against them. l'hey had paralyzed the trade of the hlediterranean, and even thc coasts of Italy were not safe from thcir mirls. Gabinins, a Trihuile, prol~osedthat Pompe), should hold his co~nnrandfor three years; that lie should i~avesu- prelue authority over all Rollran magistrates in the pro\,- inces throughout the Mediterranean, and wer the coasts for fifty iniles inland. Ilc was to liave fifteen liei~tenants, :.I1 ex-praetors, tnro lrr~ndreil ships, and all the troops Ile ceded. In three months the pirates were swept fioiu the sen. 'The nexl year (66) Pornpry's powers \yere still further enlarged by the Manilia11 Law, proposed by the l'rihune Manilius. By this law thc entire control of tlie Ro~~raii policy in the ]Cast was give11 to Pompey. His appoi~~tment mas violently opposed by the Senate, esl~ccinllyby Catnlns, the "father of tlie Seiintc," an11 by tlie orator Hortensius; but Cicero rvith his first political speech (1'1'0 Af CAESAR. - CICERO. - VERRES. HE Caesars were a fa~nilybelonging to the Julian Aenkas. Eight gencrntions of Cacslrs had held prominent places in the cominonwealth. 'They had been Consuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the mod- erate i\'ing. Thc dircct ancestry of Gaius Julius Caesar can be tracer1 no furtlier back tliarl his grandfather. l'l~is gentleman, of tile sanle ~ialneas llic great Caesar, married Marcia, who claill~ed ilesccnt from il~rcus niarcius, the fourth King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the father of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife of Marius. Gaius Julius liel~l no higher office than l'raetor. Ilc was married to Aurelia, a stately woman of si117ple and severe tastes. 'Their so11 Gaius was born on July rzth, roo. 11~1ri11gCinna's COIISU$~I~[~(Q6),Caesar is first melltioned as a youth, tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, and features refilled and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father bclongcd, must have luaiie a deep i~npressiollupon him. One of his most iiitimatc colnpa~~iollswas Cicero, \iliu was six years his senior. hlarirls had seen ill his nephew the n~aterialsivliich make gwat nien, anrl deier~i~i~ieclto hulp iiiln to ~ro~iio~ioll.llc ~nadel~im, rvlicii scarcely firteen, a p~iehtof Jupllel- (/lti- ~iieiziiitrli~), \vliicli sacred ol'fice carried with it ;I ha~~dsome i~iconie. Sliortly after the dcatli of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, the daugl~tcrol C:iiioa. Hp this ~narringehc ma.; cuiincctcd irlorc closciy with tiic popnlar party, !vhosc cliaw- pi or^ Ire rel~~;lineil. bi'hen Sulla returncri lo Ro111e fro111 his );asten1 campaign, Caesar !!,as but eiglrteen. 111 thc ~rholt.sale murilcrs that folloived, liis party was ruined, ilis liearcst Srieiiils dispersed or killed. He himself urns yet ficc ilolil proscription, for Sillla ~visiied to wiii sucli a promising yoirog innn to his omn side. Hc iuade proposals tiat C:aerar divorce his \)rife and marry one \\liom lie might select. Caesar re- Si~scd. Force was tlie~rtl-icd. Ilis priestlioocl \\.as taken from hi~ni, alld his svifc's domry. Ilis estate was confis- cated, and, \\,lien this h.~d no effcct, he was himself declared an outlaiv, and a price urns set on liis head. In- iiuentinl friends, however, interceded in his bcl~alf,and the Uictator was finally pcrsuaded to pardon l~im; but ivitl~ reluctance, and with the remarl; that in Caesar was tlic mnkiing of Inany a biwius. The youth then left Italy, alirl joined the army in Asia. Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. Ho joined the forces of thc Praetur Ther~nus,wlio had bccn sent against the pirates tliat were mnl;ing their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Pmetor. finding his troops insui5cient lo accumplish liis worlc, sent Caesar to Nicomicles, a Moruati ally and the King of Bitl~ynia, to obtain additional forces. lie was successful in his mission, and, upon Iris returli to Lesbos, distii;goished himself for his bravery in the attack up011 Mitylene, and mas awardecl the oak wreath, a coveted ironor, for saving the life of a fclloxv-soldicr. Caesar is next seen iii Cilicin, serving uli~lerServilius, in a calrlpaign against the pirntcs ivho were marauding along tlic coast of that country. While here Ire mas informed of Si~lla'sdcatlr, a11d at once left the arluy and returned home (77). The next year he began 11is stn~~glcwith the no- bility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a Sorlller Gov- ernor of hlacedonia. Uolabclla was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause ivas theirs. Tlre best talent was engaged to riefend him, and Caesar lost rile case. Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar vent to Khodes and studied rhetoric under the fanioiis Apollonius. Ile had recovered his property an11 priestliood, and could i~cllaford the time. \\'liilc on his way he was captured by pirates, and not rclcnsed until a ransom of some Siso,ooo was raised and paid. U~I~IIarriving at Militus he at once got toget!~er solnc vessels, rctlirned to the island where he 11x1 been in captivity, seized lhe crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had tlieln tried, convicted, and cn~cified. He then res11111edhis journey to Rhorles, where lie rcmnined two rears in the pursuit of his stuclies. ?'lien the report of tile 1,1>riinl of >Iilhmdites rt:ached him, and he at once crossed over to the mainland, collected a body of volun- teers, and saved Cnria to Rotne. Haviug linislicd his studies, Caesar returned to Romc and lib-cd quietly for a tilll~with his wife and mother, wntching the course of ei,eilts. \Vliile Caesar mas thus preparing himself for tl~egreat struggle ill it~liich 11c rvas destinc TROURLES XI' IIOhIE. - COI[SI'IK.ACY OF' CATILINE. IlILE IJoiiipey was absent in tlie East, niatters at Ronle were daily becoming worse, and shaping them- selves for the speedy overthrow of the Kcpublic. There were Inany mho liad suffered under Sulla, an11 rvlio were anxious to regain wllat they liad lost, a1111 there were many who, en- riched by tlie llictator, llad squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited a leader to rcncw the assault upon tlie state. 'The Senate was jealous of the power of tlic people, and thc pcoylc distrusted the Senate. A~~iongthe patricians who were aspiring to thc consul- s11il1 was ~uciusSergius Catilina, a villain stceped iii every crime, but adroit, bold, and withal captivating. In 68 lie had been Practor, the next year Governor in Africa, wherc by his cxtortio~xIre had obtained enough money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On his return home Ire was in>peached for his misgover~iment,liut acquitted through Cicero's defence and tlie careful selection of a jury. He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of thc nest year (63) There were t\vo other candidates, Antonius, the t~ncieof Mark Antony, and Cicero hin?self. .411tooy mas sur? of an election, so llie strrlgglc mas rcally between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, owing CONSPIRACY OF LZ17TL/iLLEE 129 to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and his defence of the Manilim La\\.. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which he had been so long striving. Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he liar1 been Currilc Aedile, had built a row of costly col~uunsin front of the Capitol, and ercctcd a temple to the Uioscliri (Castor and Pollux). But mhat made him especially pleasing to the l~opulace was his lavisli display at tlre public games and exhibitions. Caesar was norv looked upon as a pro~ni~~entdemo- cratic leader. In 63 the office of Puntifex Maximus, the head of the statc rrligion, beca~i~evacant by the death of its occupant, h'letellus Pius. Caesar became a candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than both the rival candidates combined. He also received iur- tlrer evidence of the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). Cicero's consulsliip \~~ouldhavc closed without adding anything to liis faiile had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to bc elected caused hiin to enter into a plot to seize and burn ihc city. Ile had many follorvers, me11 of noble families, anlong whom wcrc the former Cunsul Lcn- trilus, \vl-lio hat1 been reccntly expelled from the Senate by tlre Censors, and Cetlregus, a baiikrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a fortune by a change in governlnent. 'Thcrr were veteraus of Sulla, starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws of every dc- scription. The coiispirators were dir-ided into two parties ; those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlirrs, whose head-quarters were at Faesulae (Fiesole), u~lierewas gatli- ered an army of trained soldiers; and those inside oi thr: 9 city, Ileatied by Catiline. Ecre secret meetings were held, tlie purpose of ~vhichwas to excite an uprisi~~g,kill tlie mngistrats, seize the government, and then unite with tlie army in Etruria. Cicero mas informed of these meetings by spies, and just before the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed thein to the Senate. Cntililie fled froni Rome but his accoml~lices,of whom Lentulus aud Cethigus \\,ere the no st proininent, mere ar- rested in the city. A serious difficulty now arose as to the dispositio~lof the prisoners. Lcntr~lusmas at that time Praetor, aiid tlie persons of public officers !\.ere sacred. 7'112 Semprooian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any Roman citizen without giving him a right of alipeal to the Assembly. 'Too lixany were inlplicated in the con- spiracy for this to be safe. In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, ancl Cicero. Cato and Cicero advocated ilnmediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for life. The n~otives of the men are so characteristic that they form a complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain nild selfish, weak in council, and distrustful of lhc temper of the people and of his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would becoll~e dangerous eiielnies to himsclf; Cato, desiring tlie refor~na- tioo of the state, i~~orildmake ail example aud warning for the future. The one, forgetful of the slate, was overcome by personal fears ; the other, r111111indild of self, ivould have purity at ally cost. Caesar, on the other band, wished e\~erythingdone in strict accorilance ivitll tlie laws; as a bolcl and wise states- man. he urged that ~lotlri~lgwas more impolitic than lawless violence on tlir part of the rillers. Cicero rvas the tilllid magistrate ; Cato, the injudicious reformer ; but Cacsar, \\-it11 his kcelier knoivledge and strongcr lla~~d,was thu safer guide. A se~ltellceof death was voted; and Cicero, with uil- srr~nlyilaste, caused tile conspirators to be strangled that same night (1)eccmber 5, 63). Thc srlppressioil of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat of tllc army in Etruria. Thitllrr Catiline had flcr!, a~ldthere lle fell fighting with desl~eratccourage at the head of his motley force of soldiers near Pistoria. 'I'lie nalne of "Father of his Conntt-y '""as gii~en to Cicero for tile vigilance s11om11 in this affair. The execution of Lentulus and Cethe'gus resulted as Caesar had expected. It rras a laa,less act on the part of the Co~lsu!and the Senate, and it rvas felt that by it the constitutioli was still luore endangered. Tlie people de- manded that Pornpep return. In him they tliought to have a deliverer from internal strifes. Cicero was mrapped up iu his own conceit, i~nagini~lg lii~~lselfa secolld Kotnnlus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the retiring Coasuls, he arosc in the Foruln to deliver a speech, reviewing the acts of his year of consulship. hIetcllus Nepos, a l'ribune, forbade his speaking, on thc groulld that one \\rho had put to deatli Komati citizens without n liearing did not deserve to be l~card. Amid the uproar Cicero could only shout t!iat lie had saved his country. Metcllus threatened to in~pencll hiln, and excitement in the city was at fever heat The Tribune moved before the Assembly that Pompey he re- called. 'l'hc Sellate feared l~iscoming. Caesar, who ivas now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly secollded the proposal of Metcllus. Cato, mlio was also Tribune, ordered Metellus to stop speaking, and sr~atchedhis ~na~l~~scriptfroin his hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. Constitutiotial laiv mas trampled il~lderfoot on all sides. Thc Senate mas riding rouglr-sliocl over all opponents. hletellr~s and Caesar were declared deposed fro111 their offices. The people, liomei,er, believed in Caesar. He was follorved to his home by crowds, mho begged him to be their leader, and iliake an exainple of the law-breakers in the Senate. Hut Caesar rcf~~seil.He would have notli- ing to do wit11 lawlessness ; he let his opponcntS play that ~dli.,and amaited the results. The Senate sooil saw its 1111s- take, and requested him to resume bls official duties. The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spaill as Propraetor. He had already left a tkvorable i~~lpression there as Quaestor. Portions of the country were still un- sohiiucd. Many of the inountniti gasses were held by robbers, milose depredations caused much trouble. He completrd thc su1)jngation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. I-Iis administration was tl~orol~glland complete, and a just reward for it mould, he ihopml, be the consulship. hIen1i1vhile Poml?ey had retllrned from the East. He 1:rncIerl at Hrundisium in December, 62, and proceeded nit11 a Inl.ge band of captured princcs and immense treasures to Rome, mhich lie entered in triuml~haiuidst the Sreatest cn- th!~siasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was per- mitted to wear his triumphal robe i11 that body whenever Ile ilieased. Caesar returl~edfrom Spain in 60, with wealtl~and military fame. Though fearer1 and detested by thc Senatc, he was the favorite of the people, and could depend upon their support. Pollipey liad the army behind him. Hc received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his career-. Cacsar lclt that, with the people and the avilly through Polnpey on his sidc, he only lieedeil tlie capitalists to makc his success sure. Crassus was counted as the richest man at Rome. Hc was won over. These three then forlncd what is knorvn as the First Triumvirate. -- "a union ol shrewdness, renowii, and riches," by which Caesar expccted to rise to great power, Polnpey to retain his power: anil Crassus to gain greater \vealth. CIIAPTER XXIX. TIIE FIJCST TRIUMVlR.~TE ORIPEY mas ostensibly at tlie liead of the first Trium- p viratc, and in rcturn supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was to contribute his \rrealtli to influence the election. Caesar was elected \vitliout oppo- sition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus Uibulils. Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political offices. He had shown lii~nself in all his course to be careful in keeping ir.it11in tlie bounds of the constitu- tion, never exerting liiniself in political quarrcls except to defend the law against la\vlessness. Now lie was in a posi- tion to push his ideas of reform, and to show the aristocracy of what stuff he laas made. It would have been i~,ellfor Cicero, and better for tlie state, had the orator heen ivilliiig to join hands with Caesar and Po~iipey; but he rvas too vain of his own glory to join hands with those bvho were his superiors, and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine there morc, and i~eliiore likely to redound to his owl1 personal fame. Caesar's consolsliip increased his popularity among all except thc aristocrats. His Agrarian Law, carehlly framed nncl worded, 1iras bitterly opposed by the Senate, cspeciaily by his colleague, Ribulus, alid by Cato. The Ian. provided that large tracts of the a@ $abtiizu, then held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distribuled a~nongthe vet- erans of Pompey. Caesar proposcd to pay the holclers a reasooable sun1 for their loss, though legally they had no claim \vliatever on tlie land. Although Bibrll~~sinterfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, still the Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be obliged to take an oath to observe it. The Leges Juliae were a code of laws \vh~chCaesar drew up during his year of oftice. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many crinles the commission of wbich had been for a long time undermining tlie state. The most illlportant of these was the Lex de Repe- tundis, aimed at the abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open for inspec- tion, the oilier to be kept at Rome. When Caesar's tern, of office mas ncarly cnded, he ob- tained froni the reluctant Senate his appointment as Pro- consul of Gaul for five years. He ~uustleave the city, liorvever, in safe hands, otherwise all his work would he uildone. He managed the consular elections for the next year (58) so adroitly, tliat Piso and Gabioius, on whose friendship he could rely, were elected. There were in Rome, however, t\vo nien whom it vot~ld be dangerous for Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. Ciccro, whose ambition was to lead the Senatc, a body only too willing to crush Cacsar, might do him great harm. It mas Caesar's goor1 fortune, or, as sonie believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these Inen were put temporarily out of tile way. Clodius Pulcher was a )'o~nlg aristocrat, notorious for his rrzildness. At one time, by ~ssu~ningthe dress of a woman, he had gained adn~ittanceto tlie festival of Bonn Den, which was celebratecl only by \\,omen. He was dis- covered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by lneaiis of open bribcry. Cicero had been instmmetltal in bringing him to trial, and Clodir~snever forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian family in order to hc a can- didate for the tribuneship, and mas successful. He then proposed to the .Assembly that any person who liad piit to death a Ronian citizel without allowi~ighim to appeal to the people he co~isidereda violator of tlie constitution. The proposal rvas carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he flcd at once to b1acedonia. His property was confiscated; his houses were destroyed, and his palace in the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. The kingdoni of Cyprus, which had long beeti attached to that of Egypt, had been berlueathcd to Rome at the death of Ptolelny Alexander in So. The Senate liad delayed to accept thc hequest, and meanwhile the island rrras ruled l)y I'tolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. Clodius, oil the plea that this king harhored pirates, persuadecl tlie Assembly to antiex the island, anil to send Cnto to take charge of it. IIe accepted tlie mission, and was absent two years. His duties were satisfactorily pcr- formeil, and he retilrned with about $7,ooo,ooo to increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of tlie city, the Scante was without a Ieadcr who coilld work injury in Caesar's absence. CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CI\DIF.AICSS IN GAUL. AESAR rvas now in the prime of manhood, in the full c vigor of 1ni11d and body His previoi~s experience in catnp life liad bcen comparati\.ely small. Iiis carly ser- vice in Asia, anti his nlore recent campaigns in Spaill, 11orv- ever, had sliomn his aptitude for iuilitary life. The Ronians hnd already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Si~lce118, the southern part of the country along tlie sea- board bad bee11 a. Roman province, called Gallia Narbo- nensis, from the colony of Narbo which tile Ro~i~anshad founcled. The rest of Gaul included all nod ern France, and a part of S~itzerland,Holland, litid Belgiuln. Tlle inhabitants \\,ere all of the Celtic race, except a few Ger- mans wlro liad crossed the Rhine and settled in the North, and the Aquitbni, who lived in the Southwest and \\zllo arc represented by the Basques of to-day. Tlie Gauls were n~oreor less civilized since they had come 11i1o contact with the Romans, hut they still had tlie tribal form of govenlmcnt, like the early Romans. There mere more than lifly of these tribes, \vhich were mostly hostile to one another: as mell as divide(l into factions n~uongthem- selves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions wcre freql~eiitlyRnnlan n~idnon-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the Aedui and Sequani. Tlie former bad been taken under the protectioii of Rome; the latter, impatient of control and Romaii influence, had invited a tribe of Ger- limns 11nder Ariovistus to come into Gad and settle, and hc their allies. l'liese Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken fro111 them hostages, and with the Se- quanialis were in the asccndci~cy. In Switzerland lived the Helvetii. They had so in- creased in numbers that their coiiiitry was too small for them. They tlicreiore proposed to ciiiigrate farther into Gaul, and tlie Sequanians, whose lands bordered on those of the Helvetians, gnvc them permission to march through their country. Sucli was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling that the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) tlirougli Gaul would be dangerous to the province (Gallin Narbonensis), he deter~lii~iedto interfere. The Helvetians were n~etat Bibracte, near Autun, and after a terrible battle, which raged froiii noon uiitjl night, were de- feated with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treated kindly, anrl most of them sent back to Switzerlancl. Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans rvho had settled west of the Khine. Aiter several fruitless nt- tempts at negotiation, doring nrhicli the had faith of Ari- ovistus became conspicuous, the forces came together. Though the Gernia~lswere brave, they were no match for tlie drilled legionaries, \vlio fought with the regularity of a macliine. Few of the barbarians escaped, but among these was iriovistus. Tlie canipaigns of this year being mded, the legions were sent into winter quarters among tlie Sequanians liiider 1FfE WAN WITZf TI38 BBLGdR. I39 Labidnus, the lieutenant of Caesar. He hiiuself \vent into Cisalpine Gaul to attc~ldto his duties as admiilistrator, 2nd to have coinlllunicatioll with his friends at Rome. THE\\'h~ WITH THE BELGAE. While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned froln La- hiellus that the Belgae were forming a league to resist the Romans. 'This people occupied the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of which the principal were the Remi, Bellovaci, Suessi6nes, and Nervii. The last wcrc the iiercest and lcast civilized. Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marcl~edagainst tile Bclgae as soon as thc spring opcned. Ilis sudden approach alarmed the Ke~ni,who lived nearest to Cslltral Caul, and thcy immccliately put tlielliselves under his protection. Froin them he learned that the Belgae could muster about 300,000 men. By skilful tactics and a successful attack lie put to flight and nearly annihilated the Sucssihncs. The Eellovaci now put tl~emselvcs under his protection, but the Nervii re- mained in arms. One day, while the six legions mere forlni~~gcamp on the hank of the ri\.er Sabis, the Ncrvii and their allies suddeilly rushed upon them from an ambus- cade in the rvoods on the opposite hank. 'l'he troops mere enlircly unprcpnretl, and so quick mas the enemy's charge tlmt the Romans liacl not time to put OIL their helmets, to remove the covering fro111 their shields, or to find their proper places in the ranks. Great co~rfusionfollowed, and they became almost panic-stricken. Caesar ruslrcd into their midst, snatched a shield from a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The Nervii were checkcd, and victory was assured. But the encn~y fought on with a bravery that excited the ad mi ratio^^ of Caesar. Of sixty thousand >men scarcely five liundrccl sur- vived. The wonlei1 and children were cared for kindly by Caesar, and setrled in ihcir own territory. The ilduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in thcir stmg- gie, were conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. Tlius ended the Belgian campaign (57) Tlle legions were put into winter quarters near where the war liad been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. In liis honor mas decreed a thanksgiving lasting fiftccn days. All the tribes in the nortlrwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except the veneti had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducing others to join them, seized somc Kon~anofficers scnt zrnong them by Crassns. Tlie campaign of the third year (56) mas directed against these people. They were lnostly sailors and fishermen, with vil- lages built on the end of promontories and easily dcfe~ided by land. Iii a naval engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet mas destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest mere sold into slavery. 'The legions spent the minter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Khine into Gaul. 'They had been driven TI-om their ZNZ'ASZOA~ OF BRITAIN. Iqr homes by a powerful tribe called the Suevi. I11 the spring of 55 Caesarcollected his troops and alivaliced to within twelve n~ilesof the Gernlan camp, and gave the invaders twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expi- ration of the time, they attackcd Caesar's outposts, killi~lg several I It was now August and Caesar occnpied the rest of the season by crossillg the Channel to Britain (England). Land- ing near Deal, with but little resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for ashort time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the rveather un- settled. The legions mere sent into winter q~~artersamong the Uelgac, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. During this \vinter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all preparations mere completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next day landed on thc island. Hc defeated the Britons under their leader Cassivelau~lus, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. In tl~crvi~iter of 54-53 the legions were distriboted anlong several tribes. That stationed in tlie territory of the lZbnr6- lies was co~iirnandedby the lieute:lwits, Gabinns and Cotta. Xews re:lclied the eiicampmeiit that tliere \!,as an uprisal of the Ehurhnes, It was decided to break up camp, and go, if possible, to tlie winter quarters of thcir nearest coinpall- ions. On tile luarcl~ they \vcre surprised and nearly all killed Only a few stmgglers carried the news to Labiknus, ii.110 rvas wintering with a legion alllollg tlic Ke~ni. This success mo\'ed tlic Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, thc lleuteliatlt \vho was ~vintcring with his legion aIllollg them. \Vord was sent to Caesar, mho liad fortunately not yet left Caul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. In 53 Caesar punished tlie EburOncs for their action in the previous winter. The tribe was completely desti-oycd, hut their leader, Amb~orix,escaped and !was never captured. During this sumnier Cacsar again crossecl the Rhine. At the close of tlie sulunler he rcturl~ed to Cisalpine Gnul, supposiiig tbnt the Gauls were totally s~~bd~~eil.IIe riras mistalwn. The patriotism of the people rras not yet ex- tinguished. The chicfs of all the tribes secretly cstnl~lished coinm~n~icationwith each other. A day mas settlcd upon for a gc~icraluprising. The Roman inhabitants of Gena- bum, on tlie Liger, ~vcrcmassacred. Thc leading spirit in this last struggle of the Gzuls was Verciagetorix, chief of tlic Averni. Cacsar hnstc~icri across the Alps, surmounted tlie diffi- ~:oltics of crossing ilie Ccvcnnes \vile11 the snow was very FIATAL .7TRUGGLES OF TllE GAULS 143 deep, collected liis legioiis, niarclled ~iponGenabum, and plu~lderedaiid burnt the to~vn. Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legio~is in open battle. He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the towns of the Uitoriges, 2nd lay- ing the country waste. Avaricunl alonc was spared. \Vithin its walls were placed tlie best of tlleir goods and a strong gar- rison. Tliitlier Caesar marched, and, aftcr a well defended siege, captured the town and killetl every l>ersoa in it, ex- cepting eight hnnilred, who escaped to the camp of Ver- cingetorix. Large quantities of corn merc taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He tlien marched against Gergovia, tlie capital of tile Avemi. As the to\1.11 mas on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, lie laid siege to it. A part of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault the place. Tlie battle whicli fol- lon~edwas disastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat Caesar received iii Gaul. Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious ]>osition for Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, lie formed a junction with Lahienus at Agendicrtm, and with all liis troops started for Gallia Narbonensis to protect it from invasion. On his route wZas Alesia. Ilere Vercingetorix \\'as in- trenched with eighty thousand troops. It mas, like Gergo- via, situateil on a hill and considcrcd impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). Vercingetorix appealeil to all Gaul for aid. Hardly liad the fortress been inr~esteclIVII~II Caesar's army was surrounded by an immcnsc force of Gauls that had comc to tlle rescue. Caesar ~lccdcdnow all liis skill atid genius. But they did not fail llim. Thc relieving army, though five times as large ns his, was driven back and sent flying home. Seeing that all was over, Vercil~getorixcallecl a coul~cil of his chiefs and advised surrender. A message 1vas sent to Caesar. He demanded u~~coliditionalsurrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into slavery, and the lnollep obtained distributed among tlic soldiers. Ver- cingetorix was kcpt to be exhibited in tlie triumph at .Rome, and after~rarclsdied in a dungeon. With the fall of .4lesia, the suhjugatioii of Gaul was prac- tically completed. The next year (5 rj Caesar honored several chiefs with l~rivileges;some of the nobles wcre graiiled the franchise, and some adn~ittedto the Senate. The work of Roman- izing Gaul was fairly hegun. TIVOprovinces were formed, Gallia and Uelgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of these was subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, and Latin became the official language. CHAYI" CLODIUS AND MILO. - DEATH OF CRASSITS. UKING the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul eat cosii rileat I ll~iRe- public needed a strong, firm hand, whlcli would stop the shedding of blood and insure security of persol1 and prop- erty. Po~npeyhad attempted to bring about this result, but liad failed. There wcre tmo prominent factions, one led by Clodius, the other by Milo. "Clodius is the niost cxtraordi~iary figure in tliis ex- traordinary period. He had no character. He had no distingi~ished talent save for speech; lie hail no policy; he mas ready to adopt any cause or person which for the ~liotnentwas conve~~ientto him; and yet for five years this lnan mas thc leader of tlic Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat the 'l'ribunes, paradc the streets rvitli a gang of armed slaves, killing persons disagreeable to him ; and in thc Senate itself he had high friends and connections, who threw a shield over him when Iris audacity had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as disreputal>le as Clodius. His chief fane had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs of arnied slaves accompanied hirn everylvhe~-e,ar~d tlrerr rver-e constant ml~ lisions between his retainers and those of Clocii~is. In 57 Cons,~Iswereelected who favored Ciccro, and his 10 recall was demaiidcd. Clodins ancl his followers opposed thc recall. 'l'l~e nobles, led by their tool Milo, prcsscd it. Ilay after day tlie opposing parties niet iii liloody affrays. For seven ~iio~~tlistllc brawl conti~illed, till hlilo's party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly m:is convened, and thc rccnll votcd. k'or seveiitecn n~ontlis(Cicero had been in Greece, lament- ing his hard lot. He landcd at Brul~disiurnon ilugust 5, 57, and proceedeil to Rome. Outside tlie city all Inell of note, except his avowed enemies, sere waiting to receive him. The Scnate voted to restore liis property, and to rebuild his palace on tlie Palatine Hill and his other villas at tile public cxpense. But Clodius, with his hands of ruffians, interrupted tlic rvork~iienengaged in tlie repair of his Pala- tine house, broke down the walls, and, attacliing Ciccro himself, nearly murdered him. At last Clodills even attemptcti to burn the house of Milo. The long struggle bctween tlirsc two ruffians c~il~nitiateil when hlilo mas a candidate for tlie consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. 'l'lie two lrieeting by accident in the Via ilppia at Hovillae, Clodius was murdci-ed, 20 January, 52. 'This act of viole~icestreiigthened I'ompey, who was nomi- nated sole Coiisul. Milo was impeached. His guilt rvas eviclent, and he \vciit illto exile at Massilia. Cicero pre- pared an elaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to dcliver it. During the interval between the t~roca~npaig~ls of 57 and 56, Caesar renewed his alliance wit11 his two colleagues in interviews that were held at Kavenna and 1,oca He rc- tailled the command of Gaul; Pompey, tliat of Spain; c-.,~ssns, . . tliat of Syria. Crassus liorrr undertook the w:lr against the I'arthians. He was accolnpa~iicdhy his son, who had done good scr- vice under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived at Zeugmn, a city of Syria, on the Eul,lirites ; and tlie Romans, scveli legions strong, with forlr tho~isandcavalry, drew themselves 11p along the river. Thc Qunestor, Cossius, n nrnn of ability, pro- posed to Crassus a plan of tile canrpaiyn, n,liich consisted in foilo~viirgthe river as fir as Seleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet anrl provisions, and to avoiil being surrounded by the cavalry of the encmy. But Crassus al- lorvecl liimself to be deceived by an Arab chief, rvlio lured him to the sandy plains of Mcsopotarnia at Carrhae. Tlre forces of tlie Partliians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed upon the Roman ranks, and drove thein back. The young Crassus attempted a charge at the l~ead of fifteel~hundrcrl Iiorsemcn. The Part1li:lns yielded, but only lo draw him into an aln~bush,where Irc perished, after. great deeds of valor. His lread, carried on the end of a pikc, was borne before the eyes of his unhappy fatiler, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave the command into thc hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orrlers for a general retreat. Tile Partlrians snl;jected the Roman nrniy to continual losses, and Crassus liimself \\,as killed in a co~iferencc(53). In this disastrous can~paignthere pcrished more than twenty thousand Romans. Ten tlio~isairclwere taken pris- oncrs and conipelled to serve as slaves ill thc army of tlic Partliians. l'he death of Crassr~s broke thc Triumvirate; that oi Julia, in 54, had sundered tlie family ties bct\rzecnCaesar and Pompey, who married Cornelia, tlie rviclow of tlie you~igCrassus, and dau~literof Mrtelh~sScipio. CHAPTER XXXII. OR'lPEY mas elected sole Consul in lTebruary, 52. He at once threw OK all pretence of a11 alliance wit11 Caesar, and devoted hirnself to the interests of the Senate and aristocracy. 'Uie brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had liiade a profoulid impression upon tlic nii~idsof the citizens, to whom the name of the northeni barbarians mas still fraught wit11 terror. Caesar liad won for liimself distilictioli as a soldier greater thaii the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. " He mas colning back to lay at his counlry's feet a provilice lnrger than Spain, not olily subdued, but rccoliciled to sub- jugation ; a nation of rvarriors, as much devoted to hi111 as his orvn legions." 'The llohility had watched his successes with bitter envy ; but they were forced to vote a thanksgiving of tventy days, which "the people made sixty." Cacsar now declared tlirough his followcrs at Ronic that Ile desired a sccolld coiisulsbip. Rut lie wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on this accoulit would not dis- band liis army ; for, according to the custom, lie could not triumpli without it. According to another cnstom, however, he must disband it before lie could offer liiinsclf as a candi- date for the consulsi~ip. But 11e asked permission to set aside this custom, and to become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. The law requiring a candidate to give up his coni~naiid had been suspended several times befol-e this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His enemies in the city were numerous aild powcriul, and he felt that, if he re- turned as a private citizen, his perso~iai safety rvould be in danger; mliereas, ~f he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. ?'he Senate, oil the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was to weaken Caesar, and to provide their chainpion, Pornpey, with a force in Italy, They voted tliat Caesar should return to Polnpcy a legion ivhich had been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. Tlie vote was taken on the ostensible plea tliat the troops wcre needed in Asia Minor against the Parthians ; but rvhen they reached Italy they were placed under Porn- pey's colllinalid in Camnpania. The Consuls chosen for the year 49 were both bitter e~le~nicsof Caesar. Hc had taken up his winter quarters at Ravelma, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. From liere he sent a mes- senger with letters to tlie Senate, stating that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. Tl~e messenger arrived at Rome, January I, 49, on the day in which tlie new Consuls entered upon tlieir duties. The letters rvere read in tlie Senate, and there followed a spirited discussion, resulting in a decree tliat Caesar should resign his comlr~and. The Tribunes opposed ; hut, being threatened by tllc Consuls, they \\,ere cotnpellcd to leave the city, and went directly to Ravcnna. \Vhen tlie action of the Senrite was reported to Caesar, lie called together liis soldiers, and aildressed them thus : "For nine years I and my army liave icrvccl our country loyally and with some degree of success. We liave drii-en the Germans across tlic Rliine ; rve have niade Gaul a prorr- ince ; and the Senate, for answer, has broken the constilu- tion in setting aside the Tribuncs \v11o spoke in niy defence. It has voted the state in danger, and has called Italy to arms, when no single act of lniiie can justify it ill lliis course." Tlie solclicrs liecanie enthusiastic, and mere eager to follow their leader without pay. Contributions were of- fcrcd him by both men and officers. LabiBnua, his trusted lieuteiiant, alone provcd false. He stole away, and joined Pulnpey. Caesar then sent for tivo legions from across tlie Alps. \Bith tliese legions hc crossed tlie Rubicon into Italy, and ~liarchedto Ariminum. hlea.nmhile tlie report of his moi~cmentsreached Rome. 'The aristocracy had i~iiagined that his courage irroold fail hilii, or that his army mould desert. Tlioronghly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators, - leaving wives, children, and lxoperty to their fate, -fled frorn the city to seek safety with Poinpey in Capun. They did not stop even to take the lnoney fro111 the treasury, 1~1tleft it locked. Caesar paused at ilriminum, and sent envoys to tlic Scnate, stating that lie mas still desirous of peace. If 1'0111. pey mould depart to his province in Spain, he would himself disband liis own troops. Hc was eveii ivilling to have a personnl interview wit11 Pompey. This niessagc mas re- ceived by the Senate after its flight frorn Rome. The sub- slnnce of its reply mas, that Pompey did not wish a per- sonal interview, but would go to Spain, arld that Caesar must leave Aritninum, returri to his province, and give se- curity that he mould dismiss his army. These terius seemed to Caesar unfair, and be mould not accept them. :\ccortlingly lie sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains to Arretium, on the road to Romr. 1-Te Iiimself pushed on to Anchnn, before Poml>ey could stop him. The towns that mere on Iris march threw open their gates, their garrisons joined his army, a~idtlreir officers fled. Steadily lie advancetl, with constantly in- creasing- forces, i~ntilwhen lie reached Corfininm his army lrnd sn.el1ed to thirty ~liousa~idtroops This place had bcen occupieil by Domitius rvitli a party of aristocrats and a few thousand men. Cacsnr surroui~dcd the town, aiid wheri Domitiiis endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered hi111 over to Caesar. 'The capture of Corliiiiu~uand the desertion of its garrison filled Po~npeyand his follomers will1 dismay. 'n~yhurried to Brundisium, tvhcrc ships were in readiness for them to depart. Hopitig to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival o~~tsideof the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already gone. Pompey, however, mas still within the place. nit11 twelve thousand troops, waiting for trans- ports to carry them away. He refused to see Caesar; and, thougl~the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. Thris Pompey cscaped. \Yitl~him were the Consuls, more than half the Senate, and tb: aristocracy. Caesar woilld have followed them, b~ita 3ett lnust first he obtained, and matters nearer honic il-manded his attention. In sixty days Caesar hnii ~nadcl~imself master of Italy. On his way to Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but he preferred to stay away. Caesar cntcred the city unattended, and assernbled the Senate ihrough the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius Longinus. 'The attendance rvas small, as nlost of tlre n~enlberswere with Pompey. In his address to tlre Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance and concessions, of their unjust de- ~~lauds,and their violent suppressio~iof the authority of the 'Tribunes. He was still rvilling to send envoys to treat with Pompey, but no one was found \villing Lo go. After three days spent i~iuseless discussion, Caesar decide11 to act for lriinselt By Iiis own edict, he restored the clrildre~~of tlie victims of Sulia's proscril~tionto their rights and property. The )money in the treasury was voted him by the Assen~bly of the people. Hc took as much of it :IS he needed, and started at once for Gaul lo joiu his troops on his way lo Spain. He had n~ucbto accomplisl~. Spain mas in the hands of Pompey's lieutenants, i\franius, Pctreil~s,and Varro, who had six legions and allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came ,nost of the gmin supplies of Rome, and it was im- portant to lrolcl these islands. To Sicily Ire sent Curio and to Sirrdinia Valeriils. Cato, rvho mas in charge of Sicily, ilumediately abandolied it and fled to Africa. Sar- dinia received Caesar's troops with open arms. C'11on his arrival in Gaul, Caesar for~ndthat the inhabit- ants of Massilia liad risen against his authority, led by tlie same Domitius whom he hail sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, leaving Ileci- mrls Brutus in cha~geof operations, continued Iris journey to Spain. He found Afranius and Petreios stro~igly in- trenched at Ilerda in Cataloliia (Northern Sl~ain). Witllin forly days lie brouglit tliem to terms, and Varro, who was iii Southern Sl~ain,was eager lo surrender. All Spain rvas at lhis feet. Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leadi~igSpan- iards and Romans to (:ordov;., for a conference. All proln- ised obedience to liis authority. lie tlien sel sail froill Gades to Tarragbin, \vliere he joined his legions and marched back to hiass~lia,which lie found hard pressed al~dready to surreniler. The gates were opeaed. All were pardoned, and Doruitius was alloived to escape a secor~dtime. Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and mith the rest arrived at Ko~nein the early winter of 49-48 Thus far he had been successful. Gaol, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy rivere liis. f-Ie had not succeeded, lionrever, in getting togetl~era naval force in the ridriatic, and he had lost his promising lientenant, Curio, \1,11o had becn s~~rprised and killed in Ahica, whither lie liad gone in 1)ursuit of Cato and Pompey's follo~vers. Iluring Caesar's absence, affairs at Ronle had resumed tlieir usual course. He had left the city under charge of liis lii:utenant, Acmilius Lepidus, and Italy in coinn~aiid of hiark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, when he Iearneil that the people of Koiue liad proclainied him Dictalor. Vi- 11anciaI troubles in the city had made this step necessary. t'oblic credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. Caesar allo\ved himself o~ilyeleven days in Rome. In this time estimates were drawn of all debts as they mere one year before, tlic interest was re- mitted and tlie principal der:lareci still due. This measure relieveil tlie debtors aornei\~hat. It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Kubi. con. Pompcy, during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from Brundisium, hac bee11 collecting liis forces in l.:pirus. Here had gathered many priliccs from the East, a luajority of the Senatorial families of Rome, Cato and Cirern, the vanq~~isbedAfranius, and the rene- gade Labikiius. There were nine fill1 legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, amounti~lgin all to ~oo,ouomen. Caesar reacl~edHrr~ndisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were ferver in ~u~mberthan those of l~isadversary, aniounting to not Inore 1ha11 15,000 infantry and Goo cavalry. Ilut his legionaries were all veterans, inured to toil and lianger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted to his Icader. On the 4th of January lie set sail from Brundisium, land- ing after an i~nevcntful voyage at !Icroccraunia. He ad- vanced at once towards Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apolloiiia, and intrenched liimself on the left l~ankof the river Apsus. The country was well disposed nncl fnrnished liim wit11 ample supplies. Caesar sent back the vessels on whicli he crossed to trans- port his reniaining troops, but they ivcre intercepted on their way across and many of them destroyed. He was there- fore compelled to confine lri~nself to trifling operations, nntil his lici~tcnalit, Ifark Antony, co~~ldtit out a secon.1 fleet and bring over the ren~ainderof Ris legions. IVIien Antony finally crossed, he landed one hundred lniles up the coast. Pompey's forces were betnecn liim and Caesar, and his position mas full of dangcr; but Cacsar mal-che~l rapidly ror~nrlllyrracliinm, an~ljoined him before I'o~npey knew of lhis movements. 'The great general was no\v ready for action. FIe built a line of strongly fortified forts around I'ompey's canili, block- ading him by laild. He tr~riiedthe streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenieiice as possible to tlie enemy. So tlle siege dragged on into June. Two de~crt~rsinformed Pompey of a weak spot in Cae- sar's line. At this point Po~npeymade a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were surprised and panic-strickell. Even 111s o!vn presence did not cause tlieu~to rally. Nearly one thousniid of his 11len fell, thirty-trvo standards, and a fern hundred soldiers were captured. This victory mas tlie ruin of Pompey's came. Its impor- lance was exaggerated. His follorvers were sure that tlie war was practically over ; and so certain \\.ere they of ulti- mate success that they neglected to follow up the advan- tage gained, alld gave Caesar opportllllity to recover from the blow. The latter norv retired from the sen-board into 'I'licssnly. Pompey followed, confident of victory. The nobles in 111s camp amused thcmselves with q~larrelling about the ex- pected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero remained hehind in Epirus, tlrc former disgusted at the actions of the de generate :lability, the latter pleatling ill health. The two armies encaiilped on a plain in Thessaly near the riser Enipeus, only forir miles apart. Between them lay a io~vhill called PharsAlus? which gave name to the battle wliich follorved. "'l'he battle of Pharsalia (August 9. 48) 11as acquired a special place in history, because it was fought hy the Ro- luan aristocracy in their oivn persons il~defence of their o\vn supremacy. Se~iatorsa~id the sons of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman families, the leaders of society in Ronlan salons, and the chiefs of the political party of the optimatzs (aristocracy) were here present on the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble n~ultitndewhose deaths were of less significance. l'he plains of Pharsalia were !\ratered by the precious hloo~lof tlie elect of the earth.'' For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. One nlorni~ig towards the end of May (August g, old style) Caesar noticed a movement in Po~n-- pey's lines that told him the expected attack was coming. The position of the Senatorial army was ~vclltaken. Its right wing rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on tlie plain. Pompsy himself co~nn~ancledthe left with the two legions the Senate had taken from Caesar. Outside him dn tlie plain were his allies covered by the cavalry. Opposite Potnpey was Caesar, n,ith the famous Tenth Le- gion. His left and centre mere led by his faithfi~l Trib- unes, Mark Antoll)' and Cassius Longinus. At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry charged, orltflankilig tlie enemy's right wing, and driving back the opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced flushed with vic- tory, Caesar's fourth line, which he bad held in reserve, and \vhich was rnade up of the flower of his legions, appeared in their way. So fierce wzs their ati~ckthat the Polnpeians wavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselves upon Pompey's left wing, which was nor!. unprotected. This wing, composed of Caesar's old veterans, \!,as probably in ilo ~iioodto fight its former comracles in RATTLE OF P/ZAh'.YALIA. I57 arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. I'ompey himself n~o~lllted11is Ilorse and rode off in despair. 'Tlius the battle ended in a rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand of the enemy lay dead on the field. The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxu- rious patricians had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect their delicate skins fro111 the su11.s rays; couches mere stretched out ready for them to take repose aftcr their expected victory, and tables were spread with dainty food and wlnes on which to feast. As he saw these preparations Caesar cxclainied, "These are the men who accused my suffering, patient army, which needed tile common necessaries of life, of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a portion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching hc cut off the retreat of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinilnir and Massilia, was killed trying to escape. Labitnus, Afra- nius, and Petreius managed to steal may by night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia. CHAPTER XXXIII C.\ESAR'S OF'ERATIOSS IN EGYP'I', ASI1\, ;\FIIICr\, AXI) SPAIN. OMPEY, in liis flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the anchor, embarked with a few cotnpanio~~snrho had accom- panied hi111 in his Right. He went to Mitylbne, and fro111 there to Egypt: hoping to obtain an asylum with tile young Ptolellly : but hc was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, 48. Just before his death Poml~eyhad completed his fift).. eighth year. "Thougli lie had some great and good quali- ties, 11e hardly deserved the surnanle of Great. He mas certainly a good soldier, and is said to have excelled in all atlilctic sports, but he fell short of being a first-class general. He won great successes ill Spain, and more cspecially in the East ; hut for these he mas, 110 doubt, partly indebted to what others hail already done. Of the gifts wbich malte a good slatesmall, he had really none. He was too mcak and irresolute to choose a side axid stand by it. Pitted against such a Inan as Caesar, lie could not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time lie never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." Meanwhile Caesar, pursi~ing liis victory with inclefaliga- ble activity, set sail for Egypt. Upoil liis arrival the head of his enemy was brouglit to him. He turned fro111 the OPBRA TX0N.S 111' EGYPT AND 4/;iZ/CA. 159 sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance a.ith his sister, the famous Cleop&tra. Caesar sided with her. 'rlre inliab- itanls of Alexandria revolted, and besieged Caesar in tlie palace; but with a hai~dfulof soldiers hc bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire to tlie neighboring buildings, lrc escaped to his ships. Aftcr\vards he returncd and wreaked vengeance upon tl~cAlexandrialls, establishing CicopAtia upon the throne (47). Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, where Phanlaces, son of Mitlrradtites, was incit- ing a revolt against Rome. Caesar attacked and defeated l~imat Zela (47), with a rapidity rendered proverbial by his words, Ver~i,auini, vici, I came, I saw, I concluered. He ]low passed quickly domn the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy before it \!,as known that he had let Pontus. During his absence from the capital there had been sonle nlinor disturbances ; but the Inass of the citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the getiiils and fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 lie had bear made Ilictator a secolrd time, and appointed Tribune for life. Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no 1x0- scription. He insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property respected. He restored quiet, and aftcr a brief stay of tlrrec months prepared to transport his arnly to Africa. The army rvas in Campania, but discon- tented and mutinous because of not receivilig the expected privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain promised rewards were received. The Tenth Lcgion broke out into open I-evolt, and marched fro111 Cam- pailia to Rome to obtain their riglits. Caesar rollected the111 in the Campus Martius, and asked them to state their grievances. They denlanded their discharge. " I grant it, citizens" (Qz~iiltes),said tlie Imperalor. Here- tofore he had always addressed them as "fellow soldiers,', and tlie ituplied rebuke was so keen, that a reactio~iat oncc began, and tlicy all begged to be rcceivecl again into his service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted to each soldier out of the ager pz~bZic~~s,or out of his own estates. Africa milst i~oivbe sub(1ued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King Jnba had found no one to dispute his author- ity. Around him now rallieil all the followers of Pompey, $letellus Scipio, Cato, Labi&nl~s,Afranius, Petreius, and tile slain general's two sons, Seatris and Gnaeus Pompeius. Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions of troops of miscellnncous character. Raids were niade upon Sicily, Sardinia, and the coasts of Ik~ly. Caesar's officers, if captured, were put to death without mercy. Cicero alone of the old Ponipeiao party protested against such cruelties. He remained in Ilaly, was denoilnced by them as a traitor, and charged with currying favor of the Dictator. Caesar sailed fro111 I.ilyhaeum (December lg), effected a la~ldingnear Leptis, and lnaintained himself in a fortified l~ositionuntil he forn~eduseful alliances amoug thc Maure- laniails. hlany Roman residents in the province came to him, indignant at bletellr~sScipio's pronlise to Juba to give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also c~lnein, enraged that precedence was givc~ito Juha over OPERA TION.. ZzV AFRICA. 161 Scipio in councils of war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica by Cato. For three months Caesar failed to bring oil the desired engagement ; Scipio had learned caution from Poml>ey's ex- perience at PI1ars:ilia. Finally, at Thapsus, one hundred llliles sol~theastof Carthage, April 4, 46, the armies met. Caesar's mcli were so cnthr~siastic that they ruslied to the charge mith one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted in his flight and slain. Juba anit Petreius fled together, but, finding their retreat cut of, en- gaged, it is said, in mortal combat ; when the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. LahiGnus and the two sons of Polnpey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius was captured and execnted. Cato, when lie heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and colnrnitted suicide. Thus ended the African campaign. On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four tri- umpbs, on four successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one over Phamaces, and one over Juba. I-Ie gratified his arnied followers mith liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty- tivo thousand tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. Then followecl sliows in the circus and theatre, conibats of wild beasts and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. Honors were now heaped upon Caesar n~itliout stint. .i thanksgiving of forty days was rlecreed. His statue was placed in tile Capitol. Another was inscribed to Caesar 1, Demigod. A golde~icliair was allotted to hi111 in tlie Sen- ate-House. The name of the fifth month (Q~riritiiis)of the Roinai~calendar was changed to Julius (July). He was appointed Dictator for tmo years, and later for life. He re- ceived for three years the oftice of Censor, which enabled him to al)poiilt Senators, and to be guardian of manners and morals. He had already been ~uadcTribune (48) for life, and Po~~tifexMaximus (63). In a rvord, lie was king in everything excepting name. Caesar's most re~uarkable and durable reform at this period was the Revision of the Calendar. The Ror~la~i method of reckoning time had been so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two moiltiis behind. Caesar cstablishrd a caleildar, ~vliich, wit11 slight changes, is still in use. It went into operation January ist, 45. Me employed Sosigencs, an Alexandria11 astronomer, to super- intend the refornr. \Vhile Sosigcnes mas at work on tlie calendar, Caesar purified tlic Senate. Many who were guilty of exlortion and corroptioil were expelled, and the vacancies filled with per- :ions of merit. Meaii\~hilematters in Spain wcrc not satisfactory. After the battle of Pllarsalia, Cnssios Longinus, 'Trebonius, anil hlarcus Aemilius J.epiilus liad been sent to govern tlic province. They coulcl not agree. 'The soldiers becanie mutinous. 'l'o Spain Rocked all ~vhowere dissatisfied rvitll I Caesar saw that he must make otle Inore struggle. He set out for the province accoml~aniedby his nephew Octavius (afterwards the Emperor Augustus), and by his trusted friend and officer, Decimus Brutus. The strugglc in S1rai11 was protracted for several months, hut the decisive battle IVOS fo~~glltat Ml~ilBa,17 Marc!>, 45, on Lllr Guatlalquir~ir, near Cordov~ The forces mere wcll matclred. The ad- vantage in position was on the side of the cnemy. 'The battle was stubbornly fougllt, most of it liand to liand, with short s~rrords. So equal was the struggle, so doi~btfulat onc ti~nethe issr~e,that Caesar llinlself sprang fro111 his horse. seized a stanclard, a~rdrallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labi6nus !was see11 to gallop across tlie field. It was tl1ouglit Ire was fleeing. Panic seized his troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousalld were slain, including three thousand Rosuail Knights, and Labie'nns l~iniself. Gnaeus Ponrpcy shortly after lost his life, but Sextiis lived for a nil~lrberof years. Caesar tarricil in Spain, regnlating affairs, until late in the autumn, when he returncd to Ronre and cnjoyed another triumph over thc Iberians (Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, r\41icl1 kept tlie populace in a fevcr of delight arid admiration. Marcus Portins Cato Uticensis' (95-46) "as the grcat- grandson of Cato the Censor. He \vas the last of the Ro- tnalls of the old scl~ool. Like his more famous ancestor, 1 Cato the Younger, callcd Uticensis on accaunt of his death at ' Ulica. 1~4 ANCIBzVT ROME. lie was fru~aland austere in his hnl,its, upright, linselfish, and incorruptible. Hut he was a fanatic, who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military exl~loits. He held various offices at Komc, as Quaestor and Praetor; bnt when candidate for the consul- ship he was defeated, because he declined to win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. Quiutus Caecilius Metellus Pius belonged to the illus- trious family of the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. Hc was one of the nlost 1nlju3t anrl dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was tnade a pliant tool against the great conqueror. CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR PON his return fro111 Spain, Caesar granted pardon to U all mho had fought against him, the most prominent of whom were Gaius Cassius, Marcus Srutus, and Cicero. He increased the nurnbcr of the Senate to nine hundred. He cut off the corn grants, tvliich nursed the city mob in idleness. He sent out impoverislied men to colonize old cities. He rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits mere marked by fru- galit).. l'he rich young patricians were forbidden to be carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libra- ries were formed. Enlinent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in Rome. The harbor of Ostia \\.as improved, and a road constructed from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apenni~les. 11 te~npleto Mars was built, and an iinmense amplriiheatre was erected at the foot of the 'hrpeian Rock. In the midst of this useful activity he was basely miirdered. Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brtitus were the leadcrs in tile conspiracy to effect Caesar's death. Cassius, a former lieutenant of Crassus, had slio\r.n great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At Plrarsalia he fought 011 the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned by Caesar. IIe was married to a bister of nrutus. The latter, a nephctv and son-i~~-Iawof Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, and also been pardolied by llim. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, and Brutus tyraiiny. l'hese conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; ant1 nlen who l:nd fought against each other in tile civil war now joined hands. Cicero ivas not tken illto the plot He mas of advanced years, and all w11o l As a general Caesar was probahly superior to all others, excepting possibly Hannibal. He was especially remark- able for the fertility of his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught liis enenlies how to conquer Iiim ; but Caesar's eiieluies never learned horn to conquer him, be- cause lie had not a mere system of tactics, hut a lie\\* stratagem for every emergency. He mas, however, not only a great general, hut a pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As a historian. lie wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also simple. Most of liis writings are lost ; but of those that remain Cicero said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise mall wo11lil attempt it. CHAPTER XXXV, TIIE 5ECOND TRIU\I\'IRATE. - PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. AESAR in his will had appointed Gains Octavius, c tlie granclso~i of his sister Julk, lieir to tliree fourth of his property ; and his other relatives mere to have the reniaining fourth. Young Octavius rvas in his ~liiietee~itliyear when Caesa~ \\.as murdered. He u!,eixt at once to Ro111e to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widon,, Calponiia, had iiitrusted to Mark Aiito~iyall the ~iro~ieyin the lio~~se,-a large sum, - and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's writings and memoranda. Octarrius usas cool and sagacious, without passion or aflec- rion, and sbowecl liiinself a niatch for all his opponents. His an-ivnl at Rome was disagreeable to Antony, !r~lio was un~villing to surre~iderCaesar's property. He clainied that he had already exlienllcd it for public ~~urposes.Octaviu, at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out of Iiis own fortunc, thus making himself very popular a~noi~g the people. He then joined tile party of the Scnate, and during the autumn and winter uf 44 was its cliief champion. He was helped by the cloqi~eiltCicero, who was deliveri~lg against Antony Iiis famous fourteen Philippics, - so called froin their rese~nblaiiceto the great orations of Demosthenes against Philip. D~~ringthe spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Ail- tony, who was at Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, n~aclefricnds will, Antony, and with him and Lepidus fornled (27 November, 43) tlie Second Triumvirate, nssulning full authority to govern and reorganize the stat?, and to hold office for five years. The provinces were divided as follows : Lepidus mas to have Spain and Gallia Narbonensis ; Antony, tlie rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia Cisalpina; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription follo\~ed. A~nongits victims rvere Cicero, who was surrenderecl to please Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. The Triumvirs could no\\) concentrate their energies upon the East, whither Brutus and Cassins, the ~nurderersof Caesar, had fled. These t\vo had organized in the prov- inces of the East an army anioui~ti~lgto 80,000 infantry and zo,ooo ca~jalry. They were employed in plunderitlg various totvns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring oi' 42, assembled tlieir forces at Sardis preparatory to an in- vasion of Eurol~e. After ~uarchingthroilgh Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found A~itoily and Octavius 011- l~osedto the111 at Philippi, ~vithan army of izo,ooo troops. There were two battles at Fliilippi in November, 42. In the first, Brut~~sdefeated Octavius; but Cassi~is rras de- feated by Antony, and, unaware of his colleague's victory, cominitted suicide. In the second battle, three \vee%s later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, and, following the example of Cassius, put an elid to his life. IVith Brutus fell the Repiiblic. The absolute as- cendency of individuals, ml~ich is monarchy, was then established. The i~nn~ediateresult of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman world among the Triunivirs. Antony pre- ferred the East, Octnvius took Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obsta- cles were to be oi,ercome. Sextus Pompeiils, who had es- caped fin111 Munda, was in cornnland of a strong naval force. He coi~trolleda large part of tlie Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn sliips bound for Rome, exposecl tlic city to great ck~iigerfrom famine. Octavius was obliged to raise a fleet a11d meet this danger. .At first be rvas rlcfeated by Pompey, but later, in 36, ill the great sea fight off Naulo- chus in Sicily, tile rebel was overcome. Ile fled to Asia with a few folloivers, but was tdkcn prisoner at Milt'tus by one of tlie lieute~iatits of Anton)., and put to Cicero's public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from tlie dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Kepublic. Altliougli endowed by nature with great talents, he was al- ways under the sway of the moment, and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not sufficient self- knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weak- ness. Thus it happened that he was used and then pushcd aside, attracted and repelled, deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of his adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which he tried to stecr 11is course. CHAPTER XXXVI. FTER enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, A xcording to the precedents of t11e Republic, have grven up tile title of Imperator: but he allowed the Senate, wh~chwas only too glad to flatter him, to give him that name for ten years, - a period which was repeatedly renewed. In this way lle becalne permanent commander of the na- tional forces. Next the Imperator (Emperor) caused him- self to be invested with the authority of Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore to this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property qualification for nlemliership. He placed himself at its Iread as Princeps (prince), a title which in~plied that the Emperor was the $?st citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any suspicions of the populace. The Senate still decided the nlost ilnportant questions. It had jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of rali- fying new laws. It was convened three times each month viz. on the ist, 5th (or 'jth), and 13th (or rgt11). Tlic Emperor voted with the other Senators. The Senate next conferred upon Octai~iiis the title of ~ugustus; then it made 1ii111 I'roco~~~ul(an officer wit11 the right to govern provinces), and Consul, \\-itti the privilege of Iiaving twelve lictors, and of sitting in the curr~lechair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of course, mere only too ready to follom his wishes. Finally, he was ~uadeYontifex Maxinlus, the head of the Roniati religion. Ili~g~st~swas now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. I'he Senate rvas practically subject to his rvill. The ass en^ blies gradually lost all voice in the government, and finally clisappearcd entirely. The Senate, however, continued nomi- ally to act until the time of 1)iocletian (284 A. D.). As Augustus llad exclusive command of the armies, lie chose to govern as Procoi~sul those provinces rvliich re- quired military forces. He himself resided at the capital, and sent depr~ties (LefctSrrii) to oversee them. Tile other provinces, callcd Senatorial, were governed by I'roconsuls appuintcd by the! Senate. These were at this time Sicily, 'Ifrica. Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), His- pania Ulterior, and Gallia Narbonensis. The city govcrnrnent norv included all Italy. In this iiugustus was assisted hy three PmFfects; one in cliarge of the corn supplies, a second in charge of the city proper, and a third in cliarge of his body guard of nine thousand inen, called the Praetorian Guard. These Praefects soon over- sliadorved all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus reigned supreme. The Roman Empire at this tinic included all the coun- tries bordering on the hlecliteranean, extending east to tlie I'nrtbian kitlgdom (tlie Upper EuphrAtes) and the Arabian Ilesert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and mest to tlie At- lantic Ocean. On tlic north the boundary was unsettled, aiid subject to inro:~ds of barbarians. In the early part oC his reign Augustus joinrd to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the territory along the Lower Danube, and ~iiakingnineteen in all. Augustus next devoted hi~l~selfto the task of conquering the territory betveen the Lower Rhine and hloesia, which \\,as occupied by hardy ~n~ountaineerswliose resista~~cewas likely to be stubboni. His tmo step-sons, Drusus and Ti- berius, were in charge of this ilnportalit work. They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B. c.). 'Tiberius also conquered tire valley of the Save, and ~inade it the province of Pannonia (Western Hungary), lo B. c. Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Panno-. ilia, made a canipaign against the Germans tiear the Rhine. He had nearly finished the conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, n. c.), and was suc- ceeded by 111s brother Tiherius, who completed his work. Drusus received the cognoinen of Germanicue for his conquests 111 Germany. His wife was ilntonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom lie had two sons, Gernna~iicusand Claudius, tlie latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. I11 7 A. D. Lucius Varns was appointed governor of the newly acquired territory in Germany. 1Vhe11 lie etideavored to subject these recently conquered peoples to tlie forms of the Roman provil~cialgovernment, they rose in rebellion under the lead of Arlnillius (Herman), a porverful chief. Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A. D.) into a pass in the Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddelily attacked on all sides. After three days' fighting, he suc- ceeded with grcat loss iii making his way through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy in fill1 force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Vari~s killed himself. Gernlany was practically lost and the Rhinc became again the Rolnan frontier. 'This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor is said to have ex- claimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! " Five years later (14 A.D.) A~igustus died. In his last morneuts he asked his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. Although 111arried three times, the Emperor had but one child, Julia (39 B. c. - 14 A. u.), by his second wife, Scri- bonia. She was noted for her beauty and talents, but infa- mous for her intrigues. She was niarried three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by whom she had five chilcll.en ; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She was banished oq account of her conduct, and died in want. Octavia, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and accon~plisl~ments,as well as for the nobility of her character. Her son Marcellns was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 n. c.). The f:i~lmous lines of Virgil npon this promising young mall (Aeneid VI. 869-887) were read before the Emperor and l~issister, mavins them to tears, and winning for the author a ~nunificentreward. After the death of ller first husband, Octavia was married to Mark Antony, by whom she had tivo daughters, through whom she was the ancestress of three Emperors, Claudius, Calignla, and Nero. Agrippa (63-r2), an eminent general and statesman, mas a warn1 friend and counsellor of Augusti~s. At the battle of .4ctii1111 hc comnr.mdcc1 the flect of Octavilis. He ~uarrieil Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had three sons, two of whom \Irere adopted by Augustus, but died before him; the third was ~nurderedby Tiberius. Allgilstus died at tlie age of seventysix. He mas frugal and correct in his personal habits: quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and anibitioi~s in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in the ability to ab- stain from abusing the advaotages presented by fortune, than in the genius which ~noulilsthe current of affairs to the will. His success depe~idedon tlie temper of the people and the peculiar circunistanccs of tlie time. His clearest title to greatness is found in the fact that he compelled eighty mil- lions of people to live in peace for illore than forty years He tilade tlie world to centre on one will, and the horrors ~vliichmark the reigns of his successors mere the legitimate result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He for113ed his empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thos it rvonlcl seem that the part he played wxs that of a shrewd politician, rat lie^. than that of a wise statesman. CHAPTER XXXVII. THE .kUGUSTAN AGE. INspeaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the Augusta11 Age a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign a brilliancy unmatclied in time, which is rather eiiha~icedthan diininished by the hme of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, \vho preceded, and that of Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who fol- lowed; for they belong to an epoch in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which pertains to the arts of peace, In literature the name of Virgil stands first in the Aupils- tan age. Born at Andes, near hlantua, I j October, 70, he ivas educated at Crern611a and Mcdiolini~m. After corn- pleting his education he retired to liis paternal estate. In the division of land anlong ihe soldiers after the battle of Philippi (qr), he iisas deprived of his property, ~vhichwas siibsequei~tlyrestored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly in Cnrnpania. His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-second year (22 September, 19 n. c.). Virgil had neither original nor creative geni~ls. Thougll he mainly imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloqiient, his tone inspiring and elevating. TllE AC%USTAN AGE. 179 In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable, - ~ a good son, a faithful friend, iionest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal interests. He was not, hornever, fitted to grapple ivith the tasks and dificulties of practical life. In his fortunes and friends he mas a happy man. Mu- :liIicwlt palrunags gavc llinl alnplc n~enn~01 c~ijoy~iiei~t al~d leisure; a~ldhe liad tlie friendship of all the most acconi plislied men of his day, among who~nwas Norace, ml~o c~itertai~ieda strong alfectio~i for Iiinl. His fame, which was establishcd in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in which every Ro~ua~ihail a share; and his works beca~lieschool-books even before the death of Augustus, and have continued sucli ever since. Horace (65-8 13. c.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at Ro~ueatid Athens. I-Ie rvas present at the battle of Philippi (421, where lie fought as Tribune uiider Brulus. His first writings were his S~ztliirts, These he read to his frienils, and tlicir tilerit was at once recognized. His great patron iiras Maecdnas, is110 introduced hi111 to the Emperor, and gavc liin: a fine coiintry seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Illountains. He (lied the salne year as his patron, and was buried beside him at tlie Esquiline Gate. The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in the Ronle of his time. They are unsur- passed in gracefultiess and felicity of thought. Filled with truisms, tliey mere for centuries read and quoted more than those of any othcr ancient writer. Ovid (43 n. c.- 18 A. o.), a iiatir-e of Sulmo, is far ill- ferior to Virgil aud Horace as a post, but ranks bigh oil accollnt of his great gift for nan-atioil. "Of the Latin poets 11e stands perhaps nearest to mod- ern civilization, partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of nature, and liartly because his subject is lore. His representations of this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other pocts in the prrfect elegance oi 11;s form, especially iii the char- acter and rhylhm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by A~ugustris for sonie reason now u11- known. So~ile of his iiiost pleasing verses were written duri11g lliis prriocl. One of t11c most noted lneli of the Aug~~stanage was Maecdnas, the warm frie~xland adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the literature and art of llis gen- eration. He \,:as very wcnltlry, ailri liis magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helped both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter is consta~ltlyrefcrring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. c.) childless, and left liis fortune to Augustus. The prose writers who lived at this period mere Livy, Sallust, and Nepos. Livy is the best of thcse. He was a native of Patavium (L'adua), a man of rhetorical training, \vho spent niost of ],is tinie in Kome. Tlie historical value of his work can- not be overestiillated, on account of the scarcity, and io many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on the ti~ilesof ~v\>icIilie wrote, His style is spirited, an(l alivays interesting. His accuracy, hoi~~cver,is not to be compared \\zit11 that of Cacsar. Olily thirty-five out of the onc h~urdredand forty-two books that lie wrote arc pre- serrred. Nepos was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, De 1lii.i~ Zll~~slr.iii~~s,has come down to us ; it is neither accurate nor interesting, aud of little value. Sallost left tmo historical productions, one on the con- spiracy of Catiline, the other on the war \\,it11 Jugurtba. His style is rhetorical. He excels in delineating charac- ter, but hc is often so concise as to be obscure. Gaius Asinins Pollio was a states~uan and orator of marked attainments of this tilne. He was strongly attachecl to the old republican institutions, a man of great indepen- dence of character, and a poet of no niean merit, as his contemporaries testify. Unfortui~ately,llolie of his writings are prisscved. The age of iiugustus is also noted lor the architectural irnprove~nentsin Rome. Augilstlls is said to have found n city of stone, and left one of marble. He hir~~selfbuilt twelve temples, and repaired ekhty-two that had fallen into decay. The Forum \vas beautified by five halls of justice (Basilicac), 1vhie11 were erectcd aroulld its borders. The most famous of these rvas the Basilica Julia, begun by Julius Caesar and finished by ilugustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the great Forum, the iinest of which was the Forum of Trajan, finished by the l3mperor of that name. The finest building outside of the city, in the 'Campus Martius, mas the Pantheon, built by Agrippa, and now usccl as a Christian church. Here are buried Inany distinguished men. Near by, Augustns erected a mausoleui~lfor himself. Here too mas a theatre, built by Poinpey,- the first stone theatre of Rome. CHAPTER XXXVIII. 'TI113 JULI.\N AN11 CI.I~UDII\N EMPERORS. UGUSTUS was succeeded by Tiberius Claudius Nero A Caesar (h1142 B. G), tlie son of Tibcrius Claudius Nero and Livia. His nlother obtained a divorce froin Ti- berius, alld ~narriedAugustus. ,llherius .. hacl great nlilitary talent. He was a severe dis- ci~~linarian,and commanded the lull confidence of liis sol- diers. As colnn~andcr in Cantabria, Arincnia, Khaetia, Dalmatia, and Gernlany, he conducted his carnpaig~lswill1 success, and honor to himself. Returnilig to Ronle in 7 e. c., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards niarried Julia, tlie dissolute daughter of August~is. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, deveiopilig everything that was bad in his character, and lnakilig him jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. Augustus, not relishing the changes in his characte~; sent hirn to Rhodes, \vllere he lived seven years in retirement. Through liis mother's iiifloence, homevcr, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended tlie throne at the age of fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and an~bitionsmere locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is salt. have taken counsel with his officers. He mas of dissimulation, and on this account an object of L and suspicion. But until his later years, his intellect w,. clear and far~seeing,penetrating all disguises. Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at large, and maintained with great care the con- stitutional forms which had been established by Augustus. Only t~vochanges of importance were made. First, the Im- perial Guard, hitherlo see11 in the city only in small bodies, was permanently encatnped in full force close to the walls. By this course the danger of riots was mucli lessened. Sec- ondly, the old Comitias were practically abolished. But the Senate was treated with great deference. Tiherius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a whol$sorne dread of pul~ishrneot,if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in pub- lic expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cher- ished, and his reign on the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for Majes- tas, on the slightest pretext. Mff,i>sfr~snearly corresponds to treason; but it is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one rvho had the impehm or potestns. Tiberius stretched the application of this offence even to words or condr~ctwhich could in any way be considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers (deintores) sprung up, and the lives of .ndered ansafe. The dark side of this roler's .cr is made specially pronlillrilt by ancient liistol-i.. . ; but their statements arc begilnrilig to be taBc11 with much allowance. After a reign of twe~~ty~tlireeyears, Tibcrius died, either in a fainting fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. Livia, the mollier of Tiberius, deserves more than a pass- ing notice. She exercised all~rosta boundless influence on her husband, Aogustus. Slrc had great ambition, and \!,as \,cry cruel ancl unscrupulo~is. Slie mallaged to ruin: one after another, the large circle of relatives of ,\ngustus, until finally the aged Lrnperor found himself aloire in the palace with Livia atid her son, 'l'iberius. All Ronrc execrated the Empress, nlrd her son feared and hate(l her. She survivecl Augustus fifteen years, and died in 29. 'I'iherius refused to visit her on her death-bed, niid was not preseut at her fimcral. Sejallus was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Til,erius. He mas trusted fully by the fi;orperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poisotr her husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his om11 wife to marry her. He so maligned Agrippina, the midow of Germanicus and daughter of Agrippa and Julia, that Tlberius ballisired her, with her sons Nero and Drusus. In 26 lie induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Cal~rcae,and he h~m- self became the real mister of Rome. Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejinus was arrested and executed in 31. His body was dragged througli the streets, torn in pieces by the mob, and thro\\-11 into the Tiber. TE/II CLA LrDI.4AT EVI'/ Tiberins having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaks Caesar, son of Gernia~iicus and Agrippina, graildson of Julia, and great~gralldsonof Angostus, as l<':mpemr. He is better known ns Calignla, - a nicknanx giver hi111 by the soldiers from the buskins lie more. lie was twenty-five years of age ~vliel~11e began to reign, of weak constitl~lion, and subject to fits. After squandering his o\lZ11wealth, he killed rich citizens, and confiscated thcir property. Hc seemed to revel in ijloodshetl, aorl is snid to have expressed a wish that the Ko~llalipeople had but one neck, that he might slay thcn~all at a blorrr. He was passionately fond of adulation, and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in tlie guise of a god, and clernanded morsliip. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He was liiurilered by a 7~.lr~bune of his Praetorian Guard. THE CIJ.4VDIAN EAIPERORS. A strong party was now in favor of returning to a repub- lican form of government; but ~vhile tile Senate was con- sidering this question, the Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming Clandins Emperor. Claudius was the uncle of Calig~tla and the nephew of 'Tiberius. He \,,as a man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and tlre slave of his tivo wives, who were both bad !vomen. His first \vife, Messalina, was so notol.ious that ircr naliie has Lecaille aliiiost a s!nonym fol- wicked- ness. His second wife, his niece Agrippina, sister of Ca- ligula, rras nearly as bld. 'l'liis woman had by her former linsband, Domitius, a son, whom she induced the Emperor to adopt under the nalile of Nero. The faithless wife then causcd lier husband to be poisoned, arid lier son to be pro- claimed Emperor. At Roine tlie rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In the goverlilrielit of the provinces he was rigorous a1111 severe. He undertook the Conquest of Brit- ain, and in a canipaign of sixteen days he laid tlie founda- tion ui its final subjugation, wliich occurred about forty years later, under the noted general Agricola. It remained a Koman province for four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Itoman customs, as did the Gauls, and when the Ro~nangarrisons \Irere witbdrnmn, they quickly returned to their former condition. Ho~rrever, many re- mains of Roman bllildings in the island show that it was for the time well under sul)jection. The public works of Claudius 11-erc on a grand scale. He constructed a new harbor at tlie ~uouthof the Tiller, and built the great aqueduct called the Aqna Claudia, the ruined arches of which can he seen to this day. He also reclainled for agriculture a large tract of land by draining the Fucine Lake. Nero was hut sixteen years old when he began to reign. For trro or three years he was under the influence of his tutor, Seneca, the author; and Burrhus, the Pracicct of the Praetorian Guard, and his government mas during this period the most respectable of any since tile time of Allgiistos. His masters kept tlie youiig Ern~lcroramused, and removed from the cares of state. 13ut he soon became infatuated with an uiiscrupulous woman, Poppaea Sabina, for whom he ~lcglectedand finally killed his \!rife, Octavia. It \vould be useless to follow in detail tlie crimes of Nero I~uizlthis linle. A rrcedman, Tigelliuns, bcca~~lehis adviser, and was tlie real ruler of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all liis vices and wickedness. Poppaea died fro111 a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhr~swas dis- posed of; Agrilipiila, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, mere iillirdere(l. The wealthy were plundered, and the rcelings of his subjects outraged in every con: ceivable manner. l'lie Emperor appeared in pnblic, con- teiidirlg first as n mnsician, an.1 aftern,arcls in tlie sports of the circus. The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, mas ascribcd to him, hut rvitlront sufficient evidence ; and the stories of liis coiidrict cluring the confla- gration are doubtless pure fictions. It mas necessary, how- ever, to fix the guilt on some one; so the Christians, then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were ac~ cuscd of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often e~lclosedin fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow minding alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply was also carefully regulated. In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero $ratified his love :br the magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the Golden House. Its \valls were adorned with gold, precious ~toncs,and masterpieces of art from Greece. The grounds around were n~arvellousin their meadows, lakes, groves, and distant views. In fi-ont was a colossal statue or Ncro llirn- self, one hundred and tell feet high. Conspiracies havii~gbeen formed in which Seneca and 1,ucnn \!.ere implicated, both mell were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greecr; ne coi~ductedhilnself so scan- dalously that eITenRoman morals were shocked, alld Roman patience could cl~diire hill1 110 longer. 'The (;overnor of Hither Spain, Oalba, proclain~ed himself Emperor, and luarched upon Rome. Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned him to death. He fled from the city and put an elid to his life, June 9, 68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, his name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him ended the Claudian line of Emperors. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (8 E. C. - 65 A. D.) was horn at Corduba in Spain, of a Spauish Roman family, and was edu- cated at Rome. His father mas a teacher of rhetoric, a mati of !vealtl~ and literary attainments. Seneca began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable reputation, rvhen in 41 he mas banished to Corsica. Eight years later he was recalled to he tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. He was Consul in 57, and during GALBA, OWO. AND VZTELLIUS. 189 tlie first years of Nero's reign he shared the adlilil~istratio~~ of affairs rvit11 the worthy Burrhus. His influence over Ncro, while it lasted, was salutary, though often maiu- tained by doubtful means. ln course of time Nero began to dislike him, and whet] Ilurrl~usdied his fate was sealed. By tlie Emperor's command he committed suicide. Open- ing the veins in his feet and arlns, 11e discoursed with his friends on the brevity of life till death ensued. Seneca is the most eminent of tlie writers of his age. He wrote lnoral essays, philosopliical letters, physical trea- tiscs, and tragedies. Of the last, the best are He~c~~les Furens, Phaedra, and Me&. Qalba entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on account of his parsimony and austerity he so011 became unpopular, and was luurdcred by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Ro~ue. He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerely regretted by the better eleti~entin the city. Otho, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection against Galba, \\.as nov cleclarcd Emperor. No sooner did the ncms of his accession reach Gaul than Vi- tellins, a general of the army of the Rhine, revolted. Otho ~narched against the rebels, was defeated, and corninitted suicide after a reign of three months. Vitellius liad beell a good soldier, but as a ruler lic WAS meal< aud incapable. He was killed after a rcign of less than a year, THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. HE East ~ioivmade a claim for the Emperor, and on T July 1, 69, the soldiers n~110 were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea proclaimed as Emperor tlieir commander, Titus Flavins Vespasi&nus. I-Ie left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at Ronie in 70. Here he overthrew and pnt to death Vitellius. In the course of this struggle the Capitol urns burned. This hc restored, rebuilding also a large part of the city. I11 his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxiiry and cxtravagaiice of the noblcs, and causing a marked improvement in the general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper members, replacing them by able men, among whom was Agricola In 70 he put down a formidable rebellio~iin Gar11: and when his son Titus returned from the capture of Jerusalem,l they enjoyed a joint triumph. TheTemple of Janus was closed, and peace prevailed daring the remainder of liis relgn. 1 Jerusalem ~vastskcn iii 70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which liave been graphically detailed by the Jewish histo- ria11 Jas&phus, irlro mas present iil the army of Titus. The city was destqed, and thc illIrabitants soid into slavery. TZ'E FLA V/AN IS'MPZROfIS. Igr Much money was spent on public \vorks, and in beautify- ing the city. A new Forunl was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous ColossBum was begun, receiv- ing its name fro111 the Colossus, a statue of Nero, which had stood near by. On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugal and virtuous in private life. The decade of llis reign was marked by peace and general prosperity. One of the ablest men of this age was Agricola (37-93). Horn at Forum Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, wliich he conquered, and governed with marked ability and modcra- tion, increasing the prosperity of tile peoplc and advancing their c~vilization. He remaincd in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. His life was written by Iris son-in~laiv,the historian Tacitus. Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, who emulated the virtues of his father. He finished the Colossium, be- gun by Vespasian, and built a triumpl~alarcli to commcmo- rate his victories over the Jews. This arcli, called the Arch of Titus, was built on the highest part of the Via Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred candlestick of the Jewish temple, wliicl~can still be seen. It was during this reign that Herculalleurn and Pompeii were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius. In this erup- tion perished Pliny the Elder, the most noteti writer of his day. His work on Nniurni H;jfory, tlie olily one of his writings that is preserved, shows that lie rvas a true student. His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, and caused his death. Domitian was the opposite of his brother Titus, -cruel, passionate, and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, during which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes and inconsistencies. In his foreign policy Doniitian showed considerable ability. He added to the Empire that part of Germany which corre- sponds to modern Daden and Wirtemherg: and built a line of iorlifications from Mentz on tlie Khille to Ratisbon on the Danube. With him ended the line of the Flavian Emperors, and he was also the last of the so called Twelve Caesars, a name given them by the historian Snctonius. CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GO013 EMPERORS. ERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed 130- N m~t~an,.. and was the first Emperor 1v11o did not owe his advancement to military Force or iilfluence. He asso- ciated with himself Marcus Ulpius Trajdnus, then in com- mand of the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only. sixteen months ; but during that time he reit6red tran~~illity~ ~~~ among the people, conferring happiness and prosperity upon every Nerva was succeeded by Trajan, whose character has its surest guaranty in the love a~id-vGerationof his subjects; and it is said that, long afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was that he was "more fortu- nate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." Trajan !!>as a soldier; and, if he lacked the refinements of a'peaceful life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube and the ?'heiss, the Carpathians and -~.~ . the Pruth. his territory became so thoroughly Roman- .~ ized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is founrlprl I? 194 ANCIENT ROME. on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago, It was in honor of tliis campaign into Dacia tliat the fa- nlous Column of Trajan, which still reniains, was erected. 'l'raja~ialso an~lexedto the Empire Arabia Pelraea, which afforded an important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, ho\vcver, resulted in no permanent advantage. During the reign of 'l'rajan the Ronian Elupire reached the summit of its power ; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, until in the next century they \!,ere r~d~iredto a condition of practical serfdom. The literature of l'rajan's reig~imas second only to that of the hugustan age. His time has often been called thc Silver Age. Its prose writers were, hornever, unlike those of tlie Augusta11 agc, far superior to its poets. The most famous prose writers were Tacitns, Plilly the Younger, and Quintilian. The poets,of this period were Jnvenal, Persius, Mar- tial, ~uGan,and Statius, of whom the last trvo were of an inferior order. Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, Hadrian, a na- tiG;f Spain. One of the first acts of Hadrian rvas to relin- quish tile recent conquests of 'Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasons for tliis were tliat they had reached the utmost limits which could lend strength to the power of Rome, or be held in s~~biectionwithout con- TffE FIVZ GOOD A,>IPFIZORS 195 stant and expensive military operations. The people occil- pying the new conrluests were hardy and warlike: scattered over a country easy of defence, and certain to strive con- sta~itlyagainst a foreign yoke. Hadrian- ~ displayed constant activity i,n travelling over the Empire. to overlook personally its adrninistrat(ol~anc112~xotec- tion. Ne visited Britain, mherehecrushed the inroads of the~Caledonians,.a~idbuilt a fortificcl line of works, known as the Picts' Wall, extending fro111 sea to scn. The re- mains of this grcat work are still to be seen, correspondi~ig nearly to the modern boundary bctrveeti England and Scot- land. Hc also visited the East, \vIicre the Jg!s-,were-tnnk- ing serious trouble, atid completed their overthrow. On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted hi~llself to its adornment. Scveral of his rr.orks, more or less com- plete, still rcmain. Tlie most fa~iiousof these is the Mau- sol6um (Tornb) of Hadrian, no~lvkllowil as the Castle of San Angelo. Hadrian was afflicted with bad health: suffering much from diseases fro111 which lie co~~ldfind no relief. On account of this, and to secure a proper succession, be associated with Iiin~sclf in the government Titus Aurelius Antoninus, atid required him to adopt Marcus Aiinius Verus and Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, I-Iadrian died, leaving the Enlpire to Titus. Antoninus,..~. a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeedeh to the throne. The cognonien Pius was con- ferred upon hi~nhy the Senat? on account of the afeotion- 196 ANCIENT ROME. ate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. He mas a Inan of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the afhirs of state moved slnoothlj~ On tlie death of Antoninus, Marcus Annins Verus suc- ceeded hill1 under the title ofMarcus Aurelius Antoninus. The Moors niade an invasion into Spain ; the barbarians broke into Gaul; the arluy in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and tlie Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Easter11 war, however, ended favora- bly, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding Meso- potamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a pestilence, which spread devastation tlirongbout the West. The Christians were charged with being the cause of the ,'~' plague, and were cruelly persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp at Smyrna. The deatli of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurclius from a colleague who attracted attention only hy his unfitness for his position. The Emperor was thus relieved of einbarrass- rnents which might well have become his greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less unhappy. The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greatcr arid greater. Rome had now passed thc age of conquest, and began to show inability even to defend what she had ac- quired. For fourteen years Aurelius was engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, ande~ldeavoringto check their advance. -.He -. died, . . aJVienna. .. , while thus occupied, in the fifty-ninth year of his life (180). Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbar, a peace bought with money; an example often followe~ later times, when Rome lacked the strength and courage ellforce her wishes hy force of arms. >larcus Aurelius was the Philosopher of the Empire. His % tastes were qoiet ; he was unassuming, aud intent on the good of the people. His faults were amiable weaknesses ; his virtues, those of a hero. His Meditatiorrs have made him known as an author of fine tastes a11d thoughts. With him ended the line of the Good Emperors. After his death, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. The Christians, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused~ ~ homage to the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. Aurelius gave his sanction to the most gen- eral persecution this sect had yet suffered. The last.~ ..com- .~...~~ bined effort to suppress them was under Diocletian, in 284, but it ended with the ~hictof Milan in 312, which famous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ..... CHAPTER XLI PERIOD OF mI.I'r-lfiY DESPWISII. -- DECLINE OF 'THE EMPIRE. N the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Koine, and was received by botli the Senate and army williout opposition. His character was the opposite uf that of his good father. I11 fcrocity and viiidictiveness he was alnlost unequalled, even among the Emperors of un- happy liomr. Hy means of informers, \!rho were well paid, lie rid lii~uself of the best me~nbe~sof the Senatc. His goi,ernment bccaine so corrupt, he liimself so notorious in ---.~~- ~ <:rime, that he was u~Gndurablc. His proudest boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitlieatre, and of his abil- ity to kill a liundrecl lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve years his servants rid the Nmpire of his presence. Pertinax, the Praefect of the city, ail old and expcri- cncecl Senator, followccl Conimodus. His reign of three months mas well meant, but as it was not supported by the .~ ~ military it was of no eKect. His attcnipted refol.ms were stopped by his murder. 'l'lie Praetorians now offered the crown to the highcil ibidder, who proved to be Didius JuliBnus, a wealthy Sell- ntor. He paid about a thousand dollars to each soldier of tlie Guard, txvelve thousand in nuniber. After enjoying the rostly lionor two months lie was deposed and executed. In tlie mean time several soldiers had been declared Eni- peror by their respective armies. .Among them was Sep- timius Sevdros. 3n African, belonging to the army of the Ilanube. Severus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praeto- rian~,banished them from Rome, and filled their place with fifly tl~oosandlegionaries, who acted as his body guard. The person ml~onilie placed in comma~idof this guard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, and finan- cial powers. 'The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. After securing thc capital, ScvCi-11s carried on a cam- paiqn against tlie Partliiaiis, and \!.as victorious over the rulcrs of hlesopotamia and Arabia. 111 203 he erected, in co~nmelnorationof these victories, a magnificent arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Ebora- culn (York), in Britain, while rnaking preparations for ;I campaign against the Caledonians. CARACALI.A,~~ALKINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS Scv6rus left two sons, both of wlio~n he had associated with himself in tile government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the elder, Caracalla, murdered the other with his own halid in tlie presence of their mother. Caracalla yas blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reigii (z r 1-216) he was niilrdered by one of his soldiers. By him \irere begun the iamous baths wliicli bore his name, and of wiiich extensive reniains still exist. Caracalla mas suc- ceeded by Macrillus, who reigned but one year, and uras foliowed by Heliogabalus (2 13-2 zz), a priest of the sun, n true Oriental, with but few virtues. His end mas like that of his predecessors. The Praetariaus revolted auld mur- . dered him. Alexander Severus was a good man, and well educated. 13ut lie endeavored in vain to checl the decline of the state. 'The military had become all powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign (222-~35)~the famous baths begun hy Caracalla were finished. Sevirus was killed in a mutiny led by Maximin, ~vho was Emperor for three pears ("35-~38)~and was then mur- dered by his mutinous soldiers. Gordian, his successor (238-z44), was also slain by his o:vn soldiers in his camp on the Euphrites, and Philip (244-249) and gecins (249-251) both fell in battle. Un- der Decius was begun a persecution of the Christians severer than any that preceded it. The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. Several generals in different proGinces were de- clared Emperor. The Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied withoui loss of territory. Its weakness, 11ow- ever, was apparent to all. This period is often called the Age of the Thirty Tyrants FIVEGoon E\IPERORS(268-283). ~ioe0006 Smperors now ruled and revived some- what the shattered strength of the govern~nent: Claudius (268-270) ; Aureliall (z70-z7j) ; Tacitos (275--276) ; Pro- bus (276-28'-)~; and Carus (282-293). ' ?\urcIian udddi- took a ca~npaig~ragainst the famous Zenobia, Queen of Palmpra. In her he found a worthy foe, one whose po- litical ability was rendered more brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself in Pal- or)ira, rvhicli mas taken after a siege and destroyed. Zeno- bia was carried to liome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was afterwards permitted to live in retirement. &%lian was the first who built the \\,ails of Rome in their present position. \\lith this ruler, tlie last vestige of the old republican form of goveri~nientat Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate liad lost the last renlnant of its respectability. Sccing the necessity of a more united country and a iirnier role, Diocletian associated wit11 himself Maximian, a gi- .antic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing a ilangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, Galerit~sand Constantins, whom he called Caesars, - one to have charge of the East, and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed all revolts, strengthened the waning power of tlie Empire, and imposed peace and good order upon the world. Diocletian and Masimian afterwards resigned, and allorved ll~eirtwo Caesars to assume the rank of Aogusti, and they in their turn appointed Caesars as assistants. Soon after his accession Constantii~sdiei, and his sou Constantine was proclaimed Caesar, aginst the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the Great. Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which should be worthy of him. He selected the site of Byzantium as offering the greatest advantages; for. being defender1 on three sides by the sea and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, \vhile as a seaport its advantages were ~~nri\.alled,--a feature not in the least shared by Rome. 'l'he project mas entered upon with energy ; the city was built, and named Constantinople, To people it, the seat of go\,ernnlent mas pernlanently removed thither, and every inducement \\.as olfered to immigration. 'Thus was born the Greek Empire, destined to drag out a misemlile existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallcn a prey to the barbarians. Its for~nderdied, after a reign of thirty years, in his sixty-fourth year (337). Constantine is entitled to great credit lor the nniforn: kindness \vith which he treated his Christian snbjects. It is said that his mother, Helena, was a Christian, and that it was to her infl~~cncethat this inil~inesswas d~~e.The sect, notwitl~standing many persec~~tions,llad kept on in- creasing, until no~r. we find then1 a numerous and quite influential hody. It \\,as during his reign that the Decree of Milall \\as isued, in 3'3, giviug the imperial license to tlie religion of Christ ; and also in this reign the famous Council of Nice, in Bithynia (325), nlet to settle questiolis of creed. In person Constantine was tall ancl majestic; lie iv:ir dexterous in all warlike nccomplisiimei~ts;intrepid in war, affable in peace ; p;ltient and prudent in council, bold and unhesit:~tin. in action. Anlbition alone lei1 him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked his course after liis success. He was filial in his affection to- wards liis mother ; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and liis son. If he was great in his \.irtiies, in his faults he was contemptible. Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, Constan- tine II.,Constantius, and Constans, who divided tlie Ellipire among themselves (337--353). Constantine and Constans allnost at once quarrelle~iover the possessioli of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the ileatli of the former. 'The other two brothers lived in har~nonyfor some time, because the Persian war in tlie East occr~piedConstanti~ts, while Constalls was satisfied with a life of indole~~ceand dissipation. Constans was l~~urderedin 350, and his brother was sole Enil~eror. lie died tell years later, and was suc- ceeded by liis cousin, Julia11 (360-363) Julia11 was a good soldier, and a rnan caiculated to !\.in the love and respect of all. But he atten~ptedto rcstore the old religion, and thus gained for himself the epithet of Apostate. The Christians, hori~er~er,hall loo firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. The failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His successor, Jovian (363-3641, ~.who was chosen by the army, died after a reign of only seven months. Valentiniau and Valens (364-375). After a brief inter- regnum, the throne was bestowed on Valentinian, who asso- ciated with himself his brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, \rrith Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the \Vest, making Milan the seat .. . of his governmeit. So completely had Rome fallell from her ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever visited the city during his reign.' He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son Gratian (375-383) SIC- ceeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under hini Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slairi in a battle against the Goths; but so conlpletely ivere the Eastern and Western Empires nor" separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself sole ruler, but appointed Theodosius to the empty throne. Gratian, like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, Maxi- mus (383-3S8), Valentinian 11. (388-3921, and ~ug&ius (392-394), were either deposed or assassinated, and again there mas, for a short time, one ruler of the whole Empire, Theodosius, whom Gratian had made Emperor of the East. - .., He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his death ' Since the building of Constantinople no Empelor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be tuistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincial city. DECLINE OF THE Erl INVASIONS AND UIbTRIBUTION OF I'HE BARBARIANS. HE sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present i~ia separate cliapter, instead of in the iiarrative of the F:mperors, because by this plan a better idea of tlie operatio~iscan bc given; and especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive concep- tion of the rise of the natioiis, which, tearing in pieces the Roman Empire, have made up Modem Europe. The Huns, who originated the movement which overtlwew the Western Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they moved westward, their inarch was irresistible. In 395 they met and dcfeated the Goths, a poiverful tribe that lived to the north of the Danube, and who were ruled by a king ~ia~iledHermanric. The ,Gothic nation co~lsistedof two branches, the Ostro- goths, Eastern Goths, and the Visigoths, \Vestern Goths Of these the Ostrogotlis were the niore powerful, but on the approacli oi tlie Huns they were obliged to submit. The Huns ~liovcd011, and fo11nd but little trouble in overru~i~iiiig the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideous appearance and mild shouts of the Huns that they fled to tlie Danube, and besought the Ronians to allow them to cross the river a~idtake refuge in their territory. The favor was granted, but tlie refugees were treated with in- dignity, and co~upelledto undergo every privation. Subsequently a relrlnant of tlie Ostrogoths arrived at the Iknube, also desiring to cross. 'Tu them permission \!,as refused, but they seized shipping and crosseci, despite thc prohibition of the Romans. They found the co~iditio~iof their brethren, the Visigotlis, so sad, that they u~litedwith them in open revolt, defeated a Roman artily sent against them, and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the ficld in person, and mas defeated (378). 'She Goths then moved southward and westward into Grecce, everywiiere pillaging tlie country. When 'Theodoci~is became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong points fro111 rx~liichto watch tlie enemy and select a favorable lnomelit for an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete victory. The Goths were take11 into tlie service of the Empire, and the first chapter of the barbarian invasioii of the Empire \+,as brought to a close. IiJe now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, Alaric and Stilicho. Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before tire end of the year the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens \vas compelled to pay a ransom ; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken and plundered. KO place was strong cnough to offer effectual resistance. At tliis juncture, Stiliciro, General of the Western Empire, hastened to tlie scene, and succcedcrl in surrounding the Gotlis, but Alaric burst through his lines and escaped. Ile the11 iilade peace mitli Constantinoplc, and tlie office of Master~General of lllyricum mas bestorved upon him, How sincere the barbarian was in hi-, offers of peace !nay be seen from the fact that in two years lie invaded Italy ((400). Honorius, rvlio was then F:~nlieror of the West, was a man so weak that even the genius of Stilicho could not save him. Xo sooner did he hear of the approach of Alaric, than lie hastened to n place of safety for himself, leaving Stilicho to defcnd Ronie. Troops were called from Brilain, Gaul, and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacant and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, was surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified tow11 of .ista, \\,as there besieged rilitil the arrival of tile brave Stiliclio, ml~oattacked the beseigers, and after a bloody fight uttcrly ro~~tedthem. In his retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Ver6na, but lie was again defeated, and escaped olily hy tlie fleetness of his horse. Hoiiorius re- turned home (404): and enjoyed a triunipli. Rome llarl scarcely ti~ncto congratulate licrself tipoll her escape f~omtlie Goths, when she rvas threatened by a nem enemy. The Hons, pusllil~gwestward, l?acl dislodged the northern tribes of Geriilany who dmelt on the Baltic. These were the Alaiis, Soeves, Vaiidals, and Burgondiaiis. Uilder thc lendersbip of Radagaisus, these tribes invaded Italy witli about tr\.o hundred thousand men They were met near l'lorcnce by Stiliclio, and totally defeated ((406). Rada- gaisns himself was killed. The suri3ivol-s torned backmard. bnrst into Caul, ravaged tlie lower portion of the country, and finally separated. One portion, the Rnrgundiails, re- mained on the frontier. and from their descendants con~es the name of Burgriody. The .Alan.;. Sl~e\res,and Vand;~ls ji~ishecl con into Spain, iJ 210 ANCIENT J~OIPZE where they established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves settled in the north- west of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from tlierc crosscd over to Africa, mliere they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Romc itself. Rome mas now for a time delivered fro111 lier enemies, and the Etnperor, no longer needing Siilicho, was easily per- suaded that be was plotting for the throne. He was put to death, rritii many of his friends. \Vith Stilicho Kome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaric again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve thc city into submission. Fa~uine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peace was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. 'l'lie city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became the second time a prey to tile barbarians (24 Au- GUSt, 410). 'L'lie city \\,as plundered for five days, and then Alaric \vithclrerv to ravage the snrroundin!: country. But the days of this great leader were almost spent. Before the end of the year lie died, and shortly after his army marched into France, where they establislied a kingdoin reaching fron~ the Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. 'l'he Germans, under their king, Clodion, prompted by the example of the Borgondians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to enlarge their boundaries. 'l'hcy succeedecl in estahlisliing themselves firmly in all the country from the Rl~ineto the Somme, and under the 11a1ue of Franks founded tlle present Vrench llatioll in Francc (447). Clodion left two sons, who quarre!led over the succession. The elder appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. The Huns at this time !\.ere rriled by Attila, "the Scourge of God." l'he portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore tl~emark of !)is Enstcm origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, small (leep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a icw hairs in the place of a beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body, of !lerx20us strength though disproportiolled iornr. 'This man wielded at tvill, it is said, an army of over half a inillio~ltroops. At the tiilrc he received from the son of Clodion the invi- tatio~~to interfere in the affairs of Garil, ~ttilawas already contemplating an invasioii of both the \Vestern and Eastern Empires ; brlt the prospect of an ally in Gaol, with an op- portunity of afterwards attacking Italy kom the west, was too favorable to be neglected. A march of six hundred nliles brought the Huns to the Rbine. Crossing this, they continued their prugress, sack^ ing and burning \vliatever citics lay in their route. The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining d~eRoinaiis un- der Aetius, n~ctthe Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 45 r, was fought a grcat battlr, ~vIiic11 savetl the civilization of ester^^ Europe. Attila be , gan the attack. He was bravely met by tllc Romans; and a charge of the Visigoths co~ilpletedthe discoinfiture of the savages. Aetius did not push his victory, but allo\ved the Huns to retreat in the direction of Italy. 'l'l~e" Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rrised to the grouild Aqizilein. He the11 scoured the whole country, sparing only those who preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. It was to this invasion that Venice owed its rise The inliabitants, who fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoons at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, and with his rleath the empire of the IIu~ls ceased to exist. The Vandals, we have seen, had establisl~edthemselves in Africa. 'They were now ruled by Genseric. Carthagc was their head-quarters, and they were continually ravaging the coasts of the Mediterraneail with their fleets. bIaximus, Emperor of Ronie (qjj), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow of the previous Eml~eror,Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge sent to Censeric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands on his promise to spare the property of the Church (Junc, 4j j), and for fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Ge~lseric then left Rome, takiug n,ith him Eudoxia. This was the last sack of the city by barbarianh. But twenty-onc years elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. PLAUTUS(254-184). LAU'TUS, the comic poet, was one or the earliest of P Ko~llan writers. Boni at Sarsinz in Umhria, of free parciltage, he at first worked on the stage at Rome, but lost his savings in speculatioil. Then for soine time hc worked in a treadmill, hut finally gained a livi~igby translatiug Greek comedies into Latin. 'Twenty of his plals have come down to us. They are lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek a~ldRoman life. 'TERENCE (195-159). Terence was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early age as a slave of the Sellator Terentius, by whom he was educateil and liberated. Six of liis corn?- rlies are preserved. Like thc plays of Plautus, they are free translatio~~sfrom the Greek, and of the same general i.liaracter. ENNIUS(139-69). Quintus Enniua, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Roine by Cato the Younger. Ilere he supported l~imselfby teacll- ing Greek. His epic poem, the Alzl~dles,relates the tradi- tional Roman history, from the arrival of Aeneas to thc poet's own day. Marcus Tullius Cicero, a native of Arpinn~l~,ranks as the first 11rose writer in Rolnali literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy i~aturaltalent. The extreme versatility of his inind, 11is lively imagination, his great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness uf expression, which \>.as ncvcr at a loss for a word or tone to suit ally circu~nstaticesor mood, his felicitoiis melnory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, all contril>utecl to render him a porverful speaker. He himself lclt nolhing uniloile to attain perfection. Not u~ltilIhe Iia(1 spent a long time in laborious study and prepa- tiition did lie nlake l~is,/c%/L/ as an orator ; nor did he ever rest a~lilthink l~i~nselfperfect, hut, alrvays working, liiade the rnost careful preparatiun for every case. Each success was to llim olily a step to ailother still liiglier achievement; and by co~itinl~alincditatio~i and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hence he succeeded, as is univer- sally admitted, in gaining a place beside I)eniosrhenes, or at all events second only to him. 'There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and frag- ments of twenty more. His famous Philippicr against ilntony caused his proscription by the Second li.iumvirate, ancl his inurder near his \.ill2 at Formiac, in December, 43. His chief writings on rl~etoricwere Dr Omtoye; Brzrtus N% Clnris O~afuriii/~s;and Oratov nd M Brnt,~vz. Cicero was a lover of philosophy, aid his writings 011 the subject rvere numerous. Those no st read are De S~rrzect~ite,De Amidin, and De 0ficii.c. Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they fnrnisli an inexhaustible treasure of contempora- neous history. (See pages 126 and 172.) Of Caesar's literary works thc most important are his Comnzentnrii, containing the history of tile first seven years of (lie Gallic war, and the history of tlic civil strife clown to the Alexaiidrine war. 'rile account of his last year in Caul was written probably by A~ilus Hiriius; that of the Alex- andrine, rlfrican, and Spanish mars, by solne unknow~~hand. As an orator, Caesar raulis next to Cicero. Cornelius Nepos, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, hut o111y his De Vit-iliS I/I~LI~~-Z~I/J-is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor good style. Titus Lucretius Carus has left a didactic poem, De Re- rum Nntzwn. The tone of the rvork is sad, and in many places bitter. CA.~UI.LUS(87-47). Gaius Valerius Catullus, of Ver6na, is the greatest lyric poet of Roma~iliterature. One l~undredand sixteen of his poems are extant. The great epic Roman poet was Virgil. His Ae7z&ss, iin twelve hooks, gives an account of the wanderings and ad- ventures of Aenc'as, and his struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem \\,as not revised when Virgil died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. Besides the Am&, Virgil wrote the Bi/ro/ic Quintus Horatius Flaccus left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two of Satires, two of Epistles, and the A~J. t'oelicu. (See page I So.) 'l'rnu~~us(54-29). Albius Tibullus, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. PROIJERI.IUS(49-15). Sextua Propertius, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and wrote mostly on love. Ovlu (43 li. c. - 18 A. u.) Publius Ovidius Naso left three books of A?>zores; one of Ner-oiiies ; the Ars Anlato& ; Ren~edi Txtus Livius left a history of Konie, of which thirty-fire Lrooks have been preserved. (See page 181.) PHAEDRUS. Phaedrus, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius (14-37). He was origil~nlly a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in number, and are written in iam- bic verse. SENECA(8 ri. C. - 65 A. D.) For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Xero, page 189. Quintus Curtius Rufus mas a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius (50 A. D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. Persius, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He wrote six satires, which are obscure ancl hard to understand. Lucan, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called Phnlmlin, upon the civil rvar betveen Cae- sar and Pompey. PL.INYTHE ELI)YR(23-79) Gaius Plinius Secnndos, of Kortherll Italy, mas a great scholar in history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. liis work on Nrrti~rnlZTisf,~r.y has colue dom11 to us. Statius (45-96), a native of Naples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the Th/ri.bniil, the Arhilieis ion- finished), and the SiZnne. Martial (42-~oz), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of ir~hichfifteen l~ooksare extant. He was a native of Sl)?iir. Quilltilial~(35-gs), \\,as also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of eloqr~eiicefor marly years in Rome. His work Oii the Traininc oj an Ovator, is preserved, Juvenal (47-130)~ of Aquiiiunl, was a great satirist, who described and attacked bitterly the vices of Rolnan society. Sixteen of his satires are still in existence. Cornelius Tacitus was the great Ilistorian of liis age. His birthplace is unkilown. His writings are interesting and of a high tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote, - I. A dialogue oil orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. 3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of the reigns of Gaiba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitiail (Nistori'ce). 5. Anniilcs, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. Pliny the Younger was the adopted soil of Pliny the Elder. He was a voluininous correspondent. We hare nine books of his letters, relating to a large number of sob jects, and presenting vivid pictrires of the tilnes in which he lived. Their diction is fluent and smooth. CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS. -PROVINCES HI? Ro~nanswere faillous for their excellent puhlic T roads, from tllirtee~~to fifteen feet wide. The road- bed was for~iied of four distinct layers, placed above the foundation. The upper layer was iliarlc of large polygonal blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to make an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewn with gravel. Stone blocks for tlir use of equestria~iswere at regular distances, and also mile- stones tclling the distance fiom Rome. There \\.ere four inail1 public roads : - r. Via Appia, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Taren- turn, and Brundisiuni. z. Via Latins, from Rome to Aquinum and TeRnum, joining the Via Appia at Reneventom. 3. Via Flaminia, the great norther11 road. In Unihria, near Ocrici~lu~nand Xarnia, a branch went east through Spoleliuin, joining the main line at Fulsinia. It then con- tinned through Failurn, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where it again divided, one branch going to IJanum Forthnae on the Adriatic, the other to .4nc6na, and from there along the coast to Fanmn Fortnnae, where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Arirninu~n through Pisaur~im. From here it was extended, under the name of Via Aemilia, into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, and Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to hte- cliolAnum. 4. Via Aurelia, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsiuin, following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, hy Genua, as far ns Farum Julii, in Gaul. After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first Praetors were appointed to gov- ern these provinces ; but afterwards persons who had been Praetors at Ronie were appointed at the expiration of their office, with the title of Propraetor. Later, the Consuls also, at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, with the title of Proconsul. Such provinces werc called Pruvimiile Cofzszrldt-es. The provinces were gener- ally distributed by lot, but their distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitled to them. The tenure of office mas usually a year, but it was frequelitly pro- longed. \Vl~ena new governor arrived in the province, his predecessor was expected to leave within thirty days. The governor was assisted by two Quaestors, who had charge of the financial duties of the government. Originally the governor mas obliged to account at Rome for his admin- istration, from his own books and those of the Quaestors; but after 61 n. c., he was obliged to deposit tmo copies of his accounts in the t\vo chief cities of his province, and to for- ward a third to Rome. If the governor misconducted himself in the performance PRO VZNCES. 22 I of his official duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and to influential Romans who were their patrons. The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain co~ltribntionsfrom the people of the provilice for the support of himself and his retinue, which consisted of quaes- tors, secretary, notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme in military and civil matters, and 11e could not be removed from office. But after hls term had ended, he coi~ldbe tried for mismanagement. Many of the governors were rascals: and obtained by 1111- fair means vast sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these mas Verres, against whom Ciccro delivered his Verrine orations. At the time of the battle of Acrium there were e~gliteen provinccs; viz. Sicilia (zzl1), Sardinia and Corsica ("27). Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (zog), Illyri- cr1111 (167), Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (r46), Gallia Citerior (80), Gallia Narbonensis (I r8), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Rithynia and Pontns (G3), Cy prus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (G3), Nulnidia (46), and Mauritania (46). Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, Pannonia. Moesia, Ilacia, Britannia, Ae- gyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, Rhodns, I.ycia, Judaea, Arabia. iVLesopotarnia. Armenia, and Assyria. The figures in parentlieacs ~ndicatethe date at which the prov. ince was established, CHAPTER XLV.' ROMAN OFFICEICS, ETC. HE magistrates of Rome mere of two classes ; the Mujo. , or iiier antie 0 or over. The foriner, except tlie Censor, had the Znlptri~~~~z;the latter did not. To the forllier class belonged the Consuls, Praetors, and Cell- sors, who were all elected iii tlie Coniitia Centuriita. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, viz. Curule and Ken-Cun~lc. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, Magister Fqit~tln,Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These officers had tlie right to sit in the seLZcz ci~?-liZis,chair of state. This chair mas displayed upon all public occasions, especially in the circus and theatre ; and it was tlie seat of tlie Praetor ~vlienhe administered justice. In sliape it mas plain, reseinblitig a comnio~ifoldi~ig camp-stool, with crooked legs. It mas oriiamcnted with ivory, and later overlaid with gold. Tlie desce~ida~itsof any one who had held a curule office were nobles, aiid had the right to place iii their halls and to carry at funeral processiotis a wax liiask of this ancestor, as well as of any other dcccascd nienibers of the family of currlle rank. 1 Most of the iniornration given in this chapter is scattered in rllfferent parts of the l~istory; but it sccms well Lo condense it into one chaoter far readier reference. ROMAN OFFICERS zz3 A person who first held a curule office, and whose ances- tors had never held one, was called a novus homo, i. e. a new man. The most famous new men were Marius and Cicero. The magistrates were chosen only from the patriciailr in the early republic ; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. Tlie plebeian magistrates, properly so called, mere the plebeian Aediles and the Tribi~niPlebis. All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January 1st. The Tribune's year be- gan December roth; that of the Quaestor, December 5th. The offices, except that of Tribune, forirred a gradation, through which one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding each was, for the quaestorsbip, twenty-seven years ; for the aedileship, th~rty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulslrip, forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealtlry could afford to hold office. The two Coilsuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was appointed, and mere the chiefs of the administration. Their power was equal, and they had tlie right before all others of suirr~~o~ri~~gtlie Senate and the Comitia Centurikta, in each of which they presided. "When both Co~lsulrwere in the city, they usually took tl~rlisin performing the official duties, each acting- a month ; and during this time the Consul was almays acco~rrpalried in public by twelve lictors, \\slro preceded him in single file, each carrying on his skoulders a bundle of rods (fasces), to 5igilify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signilying the power of the luagistrate to behead criminals." At the expiratioit of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a province for one year, alxi rvas then called the Proconsul. He was chief in his province in ail military, civil, and crilnil~alcases. There were eight Praetors, whose dutles were to adminis- ter justice (judges). Alter the expiration of their year of office, they !vent, as Profwaetorr, to govern provinces. The tilost importmit Praetor was called Prizetor Ciriiitnz~s, He hacl char~eof all civil suits between Roman citizens. In the absciice of 110th Cons~ilsfroin the city, he acted in their place. Each Praetor was attended by trvo lictors in the city, and by six outsidc. Thc Prnctor Pcref~,i~iushad charge of civil cases in which one or both parties !\,ere aliens. The other six Praetors presided over the perma- nent crimillal courts. The Aediles \\,ere foilr officers \\.ho had the general snper- intetlclence of the police of the city, and the care of the pub^ lic games and bnilclings. Two of the Acdiles were talken Con, the plebeians, and two, called Curule Aediles, ranked with the higher inagistrates, and might be patricians. l'hey \sere clected ill tl~eCo~uitia 'l'ribilta. Their supervision of ROhIA A' OFFICERS. zzs the pol, games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with the populace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. 4 small sum ivas appropriated from the poblic treasury for these games; but an Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make tlie slioi\- magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that of Praetor. Only the very mealthy could afford to liold this office. 'There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having charge also of tlie archives. The others were assigned to the different governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Tlirough tlieir clerks, the two city Qnaestors kept the accounts, received tile taxes, and paid out the city's nloney, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his quartermaster. The elections for Quaes- tors were held in the Comitia 'Sribbta. There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comilia 'Sributa. 'Shey were altvays plebeians, and their chief power lay in their riglit to veto any decrcc of the Senate, any lam of the Comitia, and any public act of a magistrate. Their persons ivere considered sacred, and no one could hinder them ii~ the discharge of their official duties under penalty of death. They called together the Coli~itia?'rib"ta, and they also lhad aotliority to conx7ene the Senate and to preside over it. S~llla succeeded in restricting their porrzer; but Pompcp rcstol-ed it. The Trihunes did no1 possess tlie iiiperii~iir. '5 There were two Cetisors, choseti from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period being called a h~st~unt They ranked as higher uiagistrates without possessing the impenj~m. Their duties were : (I) To take the census, i. e. register the citizens and their amount of property, a~idto fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) TO have a general over- sight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the mak- ing or repairing of public roads, sewers, etc. ; to let out the privilege of collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.' (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty parties from the Senate, the Equites, or the trihe. In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Con- suls to appoiut a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose teuure of office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was thought necessary. Sulla aud Caesar, however, revived the office, but changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. ' In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the Aedilea. PO~LIIICES. The priests forined a body (coflegit~nz)of fifteen mem- hers, at the head of \vhom mas the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenui-c of office mas for life, and they rrrerc responsible to no one in the discharge of their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. Inip~~mar. This was a power to command the armies, and to exer- cise judicial fui~ctionsconferred upon a magistrate (Dictator: Consul, or Praetor) by a special law passed by the Comiti:~ Curiita. The Z*@criwn could be exercised only outside of the city walls (pomoerir~n~),except by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a triumph. The one receiving the linperi,in~was called Imperator. POTESTAS. This was the power, in general, rvhich nil magistrates possessed. CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTI1'UTIONS, ETC. HE private houses of the Romans were poor affairs T untilafter the conqvest of the East, lrhen money began to pour into the city. Many houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these liouses are said to have cost as moth as two nill lion dollars. The principal parts of a Kolnati house \!,ere the Yesfi- bzdz~rn,Orfir~m, Afriz~w~, Alae, Ta[,Nir? 'The meals were tlle Jentaculum, Prandirnn, and Coena. 'The first was our breakfast: tliough served at an early ho~tr, sometimes as early as four o'clock. It consisted of breacl, cheese, and dried fruits. 'Hie prandium was a lo~;ch served about noon. Tlie coena, or dinner, served 1,etweeii three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first conrse consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives ; the second, which mas the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with coildi~nents;the third conrse was made up of fruits, nuts, siveetmeats, and cakes. At elaborate dinners tl~cgucsts assembled, cach with his napkin and full dress of bright colors. The shoes were re- ~llovedso as not to soil the couches. 'These couches usu- ally were adapted for three guests, who reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was served in a roo111 called the Triclinium. In Nero's " Golrlen House," the dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to change wit11 every course. The Roman men ~~suallywore two garments, the Tunica and Toga. The former was a short woolleil under garment wit11 short sleeves. To have a long tonic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. 'rile tunic was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman garment, and none hut citizens were allowed to vvear it. It n.as also the garment of peace, in distinction fro111 the Sagurn, which \\>asworn by soldiers. The toga was of \vhite mool and was nearly semicircular, but being a c~unbrous garruent, it became c:ustomary in later times to wear it only on state occasions. The poor \,,ore only the tunic, others more, iii place of tlie toga, the Lacenla, \vhich was an open cloak, fastened to the right sl~oulderby a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore n toga with a purl~lcliem. 'l'he women wore a Tunic, Stola, and Pulla. The stola was a loose garment, gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to the feet. The pulia was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, and to be worn out of doors. The ladies iildulged their fancy for ornaments as freely as their purses \\~orllrlallow. Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the Calcens and the Soleae, The former was much like our shoe, and was worn io the street. 'The latter were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor used wooden shoes. Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. The Saturnalia was the festival of Saturn, to lvhonl tlie inhabitants of Latium attributed the introduction of agri- cultiire and the arts of civilized life. It was celebrateti near the end of December, corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted seven days. During its colltinuance no piiblic business was transacted, the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were relieved froin all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to pleasure, and presents wrre interclianged among friends. The Luperoalia, a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, was celebrated on the I jth of February. It was one of the most ancient iestivals, and was held in the Luper. cal, where Romulus and Remus were said to have been nursed by the she wolf (irrjn). 'The priests of Luper. cus were called Luperci. They formed a collegium, hut their tenure of office is not kt~own. On the day of the festival these priests met at the Lupercai, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a ]meal, ~vithplenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats \vhiclr they had sacrificed. With sonle of these they covered parts of their bodies, and with others they made thongs, and, holding thein in their hands, ran through the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, especially women, as it mas believed tliis would render them fr~iitful. The Quiriualia was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Q~~irinus(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. Gladiators were men wvlio fought wit11 swords in the am- phitheatre anci other places, for the atilusernent of the peo. I. 'These shows were first exhibited at Ronle in 264 B.c., and were confined to public funerals : but afterwards gladi- ators \!,ere to be seen at the filnerals of most rnen of rank. Undcr the Empire the passion for this kincl of alnuse~ iueiit increased to such an cxient, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools (ludi) anti their trainers were called Lnlzistne. l'he persou who gave ail exhibition mas called an Editor. He published (tiitre), sotue tinie before the show, a list of the combatants. In the show tile fights began with wooden swords, but at the souiid of the trumpet tl~cse were exchanged for steel weapons. When a combatant was woundecl, if the spectators wished him spared, they held their thu~nbsdown, brrt tumed them up if they wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were often discharged and presented with a wooden sword (~udis). Hence they were called rudiarii. THEAAIPH~I.HEATRE, '~EX~RE, AND CIRCUS. The Amphitheatre was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, conlbats of \vild beasts, and naval en- sagemenis. Its shape was that of an ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word tlmphithealre was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Au- gustus built one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the inost celebrated a~nphitheatrewas built by Vespasian and 'l'itus, and dedicated in So A. u. It is still standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could seat ninety thousand peol~le. The name given to it to-day is the ColossBum. Tlic open space in the centre was called the Arhna, and was surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators frorn the wild beasts. Be- fore the ti~neof Caesar the shows rvere held in the Forum and in the Circus. The Theatre ivas never as popular \vith tl~cRomans as with the Greeks. l'he plays of Piautus and Terence mere xted on teniporary moodeil stages. The first stone theatre mas built by Polllpey in 55 13. i:..near the Canlpus Martius. It rvas a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty thousand. The seats iverc arranged in a semicircle, as at present, the orchestra being reserved for the Se~latorsand other distinguisl~edpersons. Then came fourteen rows of 234 ANCIZNT ROME. seats for the Eyuites, and behind these sat the ordinary crowd. The Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic con- tests. It was an immense structure, with galleries three sto- ries high, and a canal called Euripus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds of games were celebrated : st, chariot racing; zd, a sham-fight between young men on horseback ; sd, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry; 4th, athletic sports of all kinds; ~th,fights with wild beasts, such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal to float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemned to death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by the kindness of the Rmperor. The Imperator, when he returned from a successful cam- paign, was sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumph;il pro- cession, provided he had been Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. \Yhen a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrlne and image, and incense smoked on every altar. 'The Im- perator ascended the triumphal car and entered a city gate, where he mas met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by the magistrates. The procession then proceeded in the following order : - I. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. z. A troop of trumpeters. 3. Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. ti body of flute-players. 5. 1Vliite bulls and oxen for :.lcrifice. 6. Elephants and rare animals fro111 the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia of the leaders of the conqriered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator in single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. 'The Imperator himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled arith a laurel wreath. r I. The grown up sons and officers of tlre In~perator. rz. The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. The Ovation was a sort of smaller triumph. The corn- mander entered the city on foot, or in later tirnes on hone- back. He was clothed in a purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurei, and a sheep (ovis) was sac- rificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, in- side of which no person holding the ZnIperium was allo>ved to enter. It did not always run parallel to the city walls. Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (praeno~71e7z),as Lucius, Marcns, Gaius. 'I'he name of the gens (nomen), as Cornelius, Tullius: Julius. The name of the family (co,p~dnreii),as Scipio, Cicero, Caesar. To these iiames was sometimes added another, the npadnzen, given for some exploit, or to show that the person was adoptcil fro111 some other gens. 'I'hus Scipio the elder w.as called Africinus, and all his descendants had the right to the name. Africhnus the younger was adopted fron, the Cor- nelian gens into the Aetnilian gens ; therefore he added to his other names Aemiliinus. 'I'lie women were called only by the iialne of the~rgens. The [laughter of Scipio was called, for- example, Cornelia, and to distinguish her fro111 othew of the Cornelia11 gens she mas called Cori~eliadaughter of Scipio. It there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was added pripnn (first), to that of the next, secunila (secoiid), etc. Intermarriage (connudi2rrn) between patricians and plebei- ans was forbidden previous to 445, and after that tlre off- spring of such marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed to marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, the marriage con- tract was drarvn up and signed by both parlies. The rued- ding day rvas then fixed 11po11. This could not fall upon tlre ICalends, Sones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. 'rhe bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her future husband's home by three bops, one of \\~homcar- ried before her a torch, the other two supporting lher by the arm. They were accompanied by frie~dsof both pa- ties. The groom received the bride at the door, which she entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house !Irere then delivered to ller. The day ended with a feast given by the husband, after which the bride \!,as conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with iloivers. On the follomi~lgday another feast was given by the husband, and the wife performed certain reli~iousrites. Tiie positio~l of the Ko~uanrvonlan after marriage was very different from that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, crlucated her children, watched over and lxeservcd inc honor of the house, and shared the honors and respect sbow~lto her husband. IVhen a Roman was at the point of death. his nearest relative present endeavored to catch the last breath \!,it11 his ~noutl,. The ring was removed from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called opon the de- ceased by name, exclaiming " Farewell ! " The body was then washed, and anointed with oil and perfumes, by s1ax:es or undertakers. A small coin was placed in the mouth ol the body to pay the ierrym-n (Charon) in Hades, and thc body mas laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with it5 feet toward the door. In early times all funerals were held at night ; bot in later times only the poor followed this cus- tom, mainly because they could not afford display. l'lie funeral, held the ninth da). after the death, was headed by 238 ANCIENT ROBIE. musicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament and sing thc fnneral song. These were sometimes followed by players and buffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, and imitated his words and actions. T11en came the slaves whom the de ceased had liberated, each rvearillg the cap of liberty. Be. fore the body were carr~edthe images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown and military rewards rvhich he had gained. The conch on wh~chthe body was carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loud lamentations, the wonlell beating their breasts and tearing thelr hair. The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, and stopped before the Rostm, where a funeral oration was delivered. From here the body was carried to its place of burial, wh~chmust be outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times .~fthe Republic this became quite common. In carly times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, writing, and arithmetic ; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (paedagdgr') were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to teach them to converse in Greek. A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned above, and a careful study of the best Greek and Ldtm \vriters, besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. The most common material on which hooks were written \\,as the thin rind of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form one sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from voZvct.e, to roll). Letter writing was very common among Lhe educated. Letters were usually written with the sfyl~~s,an iron instru- ment like a pencil in size and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded together with the writing on the inside. The slips mere tied together by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special niessengers were employed to carry letters; as there was no regular mail service. Roman letters dif- fered fiolll ours chiefly in the opening and close. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the person addressed, and dosed with a simple " farewell," without any signati~re. Thus " Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey. CHAPTER XLVII. 0ME was built on seven hills, - the Palatine, the R Aventme, the Capitoline, the Lsquiline (the largest), the Quirinal, the Viminal, and tlie Coelian. There were various public squares (foi,rztm = srlrlare or park'). Solue werc places of resort for public business, and most were aclomecl with porticos. 'The most celebrated square was the Forum RomBnum, or sinlply The Forum. There were also the Forum Caesaris and Forum TrajAni. Some served as markets; as Forum Boarium, the cattle ~riarket;Forum Suarium, the hog market, ctc. Temples were numerous. l'he Pantheon (temple of all the gods), built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was situated outside of the city, in the Campus filartius, and is now uscd as a Christian churc11. The Temple of Apollo Palatinus, built by Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, whicl~was founded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiher; that of Concordia, on tlie slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 377 B. c., and restored by Tiberiils. 'The Ten~pleof Janus was an arclied passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times. once ill h'uma's reign, again at the close of the /'UALIC HUILI>IIVG.I, JQUAKOS, ETC 241 Second l'unic War, and after the battle of Actiuni. Ja~ius was one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with 'a face in front and another on the back of his head. Froni hi111 is iialiied the ~liontliof January. There were sevcral temples of Jupiter, tlie most fa~i~ous of wliich was that of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capi- tolinus, built during the dynasty of the Tarquins, and splen- didly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also numer- ous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. The Coloss6um was the largest building in Rome. (See page 233.) There were three theatres; that of Pompey (see page 233)) of Marcellus, and of Balbus ; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. (See page 234.) The Basilicae were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, wliich was situated on the south side oi the Forum, and the foundations of which can still be seen. The Curia, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, wlier? were discr~ssed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. The Publio Baths were numerous. There were Thermne (hot baths) of Nero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still exist. Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by fourteen different aqueducts, all of which werc well built, and three of which are still in use. The first aque- duct (Aguu A@iu) was built about 313 R. c., by Appius Claudius. 16 Sewers intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense size. The Cloaca Maxima, built by 'Tarquin, was the largest, and is still in use. Its im~ermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. There are said to have been twenty Triumphal Arches, or which five now remain. r. 'l'he Arch of Drusus, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of Claudius Dmsus. z. The Arch of Titus, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, built by ~. .11tus to commelnorate his conquest of Judaea. The bas- reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken fro111 the tem- ple at Jerusalem, carried in triun~phalprocession. 3. The Arch of Septimius SevBrus, built by the Sellate, in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in lionor of the Emperor arld his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. 'The Arch of GalliBnus. 5. The Arch of Constantine. There were two famous MaueolBa ; that of Augnstns, now in ruins, and that of Hadrian, which, stripped of its orna- Inents, is now the Castle of San Angelo. The Coluntns cornmemorating persons or events ivel-c niinlerous. The most remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called Colulu~laeRostrBtae. The one of Iluilius, in llonor of the victory at NIylae (261 8. c.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of 'hjan is perhaps best known. The Columna Milliaria was a lnilesto~ieset up by Au- gustus in the Forum, from whicl~all distances on the differ- ent public roads were measured. It was called Miiitarium Azlreum, or the golden milestone. CHAPTER XLVIII. CO1,ONIES. - 'THE CALENDAR. - RELIGIOK. OLONIES were established by Rome throughout its c woe history. They were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers ; a prac- tice which was begun by Sulla, and contiilued under the Emperors. No colony was established without a Lex, pLe6iscitzmm, or .reuatuzrs consuLtum. Religious ceremonies always accom- panied their foundation, and the anniversary was observed. The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin or military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman citizens; those of the latter could not rote in the Comitia at Rome. The Laiini, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to theni, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, pnaed in go B. c., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each month had three divisions, the Kalends, Nones, and Ides. The Kalends fell on the first of the iiionth; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days 6doi-e the divisio~ifollowing tlie event. The year was reckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B. c.), and often thc names of the Consuls of that year were added. The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses : Jupiter and Juno, the god and goddess of light ; Saturn, the god of seed-sowing; Tellus, the goddess of the nourishing earth ; Ceres, tlie goddess of growth ; Consua and Ops, who presided over the harvest; Pales, the god of the flocks; and Lupercus, tlie god of fertility. Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April ; and the 12upercalia, in February. Vesta was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar erected for her worship, so the state, as a com- bination of families, had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also worshipped the Penites and 1,ares. Tile Lares were special guardians of private houses. Some protected fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. 'The people honored them on the Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and hy KELIGZON. 245 offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon plates. The PenAtes were kept and worshipped only iu the in- most chambers of houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were also kept in the inner hall. The priestesses of Vesta were six in n~~mbrr,and were called Vestal Virgins. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose twenty young girls from high faini- lies. Of these one was chosen by lot to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had pri- vate seats in the public shows, and had the power of deliver- ing from punishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on the hearth (fonrspudlz~us)in the temple. They could not marry. The Flamines were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiata, and afterwards probably 111 the Tribtita. The most distinguished of all the Flamines was the Flamen DiAlis (Jupiter). He had the right to a lictor, to the seNa curdlis, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once rc- moved. This priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of liis own bed for three consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival'of Mars on the 1st of March, and for several successive days. Tar AIJG~RES. This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men ~vliowere believed to interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could he performed, no election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C. This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. CHAPTER XLIX. HE Legio was co~nposedof infantry, and, though lar- T ger corresponded to our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort illto three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in practice about fotir thousand. The usual order of hattlc was to dram 11p each legion in three lines (acies t7,@l'cc), the first consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four feet by two and a halF), greaves, and corselets of various material. The outer gar- ment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight t~vo-edged sword (g/udius), about two feet long, worn bv privates 011 the right side, so as not to interfere with the shield, hut on the left side by officers. The javelin (pilz~rn)was a heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fiilly ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Ronian citizens. The auxil- iaries were hired or drafted troops, and were almays light- armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time mas made up of auxiliaries taken fro111 the different provinces. The officers were : - I. The Imperator, or co~ii~nanderin chief. 2. The LegAti, or staff officers, varying in number. Cae- sar had ten. 3. The Quaestor, or quartermaster. 4. The Tribdni Militurn, nunlbering six in each legion, and assisting the Imperator i~ihis duties. 5. 'She Praefecti, who held various ~ubordinate com- mands. 6. The Centuri6nes, who were non-commissioned offi- cers, and rose in ra11k for good sewice. 'Tliere were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each cohort, and one in each century. Tlhey mere pron~otedfrom the ranks, but rarely rose above ce~~turionof the first rank. 411 the offi- cers, except the centurions, caine from either senatorial or equestrian families. The Cohors Praetoria was a body of picked troops that acted as body guard to the Imperator. The Standard (si~rzun~)of the legion was RII eagle with outstretched wings, perched upon a pole. The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made it rectangi~larin shape, and threw np fortifications always in the same way. It was surroon~led liy a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers encamperl next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus sur- rounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The general's tent was called the Praetorium, an11 the entrance to the canlp in front of ihis tent mas calleil the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the Uecuman Gate. CHAPTER L I.EGExDARY ROME. ENEG, soti of Anclilses and Venus, fled from Troy A after its capture by the Greeks (I&+?)and came to Italy. He was accolilpallied by his son Il(lus, and a num- ber of brave followers. Latinns, mho was king of tlie dis- trict where henkas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his daughter, Lavinia, in iilarriage. Aeneas founded a city, which he named Lavinium, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iblus, also callecl Ascanius, became Icing. He founded on Morint AlbAnus a city, whicli lie called Alba Longa, and to it transferred the capital. Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was Si!vius Procas, who left two sons, Numitor, tlie oldcr, and Amulius. They divided the kingdom; the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. N~iinitorhad two cliildren, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing that they might aspire to the throne, illurdered the son, and made tile daughter, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her marrying, for this was forbiddeli to Vestal virgins. She, hourever, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named Romulus and Remus. When AmuIius was informed of this, he cast their mother i~rto prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. At this time tlie river was swollen by rains, and had over. flowed its hanks. 'The 11oyswere tlirown into a sliallo\!, place, escaped drowning, and, tlie water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing their cries, ran to the111 and suckled them. Fanstulus, a shepherrl mho ma5 near by, seeing this, took the boys I~omeslid reared tlieln. IVhen they grew up and learned who they were, tliey killed !\rnulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Nu- uiitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount Palatinus, whicli they called Rome, after Komulus. I,\lhile tbcy were I~uil(ling a wall around this city, Remus was killed in n quarrel with his brother. Koniulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). He foulid the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their ilumber he opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But \vives were needed. l'o supply this want, he celebrated ganles. and invited the nei~hboriilg people, the Sabines, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in looking on, tlie Romans sr~ddenlylnade a rush and seized the Sabine virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Kon~ulusthen chose one hriiidred Senators, whom he called Patres. He also divi(lerl the people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year or his reign he disappeared, and was believed to have bee11 taken op into heaven. One year followed witliout any king, and the11 Numa Pompilius (716-673), a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. Tullus Hostilius (673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then canie Ancus Marcius (640-616), the grandso11 of Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged the city, and bnilt new walls around it. He was the first to build a prison, and to bridge the 'Tibet.' He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called Ostia. The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. Luciua Tarquinius Priscus (616-578) went to Rome first during the reig~iof Ancus, and, beconling a favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of rlncus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, car- ried on nlany wars successfully, and thus enlarged the terri- tory of the city. He built the CloAca Maxima, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also begar, the tern- ple of Jupiter Capitolinus, on the Capitoline Hill. He mas killed in the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of .incus, froin whom lie had snatched the kingdom. His successor was his son-in-law, Servius Tullius (578- 534), who enlarged the city still more, built a teniple to DiBna, and took a census of the people. It rvas found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, 'Tarquinii~s Superbus, son of Priscus. Tarquinius Superbua succeeded to the throne (534- 510). He was energetic in war, and conquered many neigl,boring places, anlong which was Ardea, a city of the Kutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his father. He also obtained the Sibylline Books. A woman 1 This bridge was called the pmii mliiiiius, i. e. a bridge restiug on piles. from Cumae, a Greek colony, came to him, and offered for 5ale nine books of oracles ancl prophecies; but the price icen~edexorbitant, and he refused to purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burned three more, and obtaincd from the monarch for hcr last three thc original price. 'These books were preservccl in the Capitol, and held in great respect. They were de- stroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Tivo men had charge of them, who were called d?~osfi,isn[?-drz~nl. The morslhip of the Greek deities, poilo and Latbng., among others, was introduced ihrough these books. In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tnrquin by Brutus, collatinus, ancl others, and the gates of the city were closed against him.' A Republic was then for~necl, with two Consuls at the head of the government. Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Kome, all unsuccessful.' In the last attempt (508), he \!.as assisted by Porsena, king of the Etruscaos. They advanced against the city from the north. Horatius Cocles, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (por~rsr~biici7rs) over the Tiber until it was torn down hehind him. He then swam the river in safety to his friends? lluring the siege of the city, Quintus Muciue Scaevola, a courageo~~syouth, stole into the camp of the enemy 1 The cause of thc conspiracy was the violence offered by Sextus, Tarquio's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatinus. Unable to bear tire humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of lrer family, having first appealed to them to aveuge her iriongs 2 The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been painted by i\.Iacao- lay in glowing colors, rvas gained over Tarquin in 509. "ee Ma~aulag'~" l.;~gs of Ancient Rome." with tlie intention of killing King I'orscna, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the Ijurning altar until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevoln told the king that three hundred other men as brave as him- self had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarnied, that he made peace, and withdrew from the city. biucius received his name Scaevola (left-Iianderi) on account of this loss of his right hand. 'Tarquill sent to Tiisculum, where he spent the jest of his days in retirement. In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by taxes and military service. .4 large part of them left the city, and crossed the Anio to a nrountain (Mons Sacer) near by. 'The Senate sent Mellel~iusAgrippa to treat with them. By his exertions' the people were in- duced to return to tlie city, and for the first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to represent their interests. These officers were called Tribdni Plebis. Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patri- cians, met and defeated tlie Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at Corioli. For this he received tlie name of Coriol6i1us. Iluring a famine, lie advised that grain should not be dis- tributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished their right to choose the 'Tribdni Plebis. For this he was banished. Having obtained command of a Volsciau army, lie marched against Rome, and came within five miles of the city. Here 1 Menenius is said to have related lor them the famous fable ni the helly and members. he was liiet by 3 deputation of liis own citizens, who begged hi111 to spare the city. He refused ; but, \\*lien his wife and mother added their tears, lie was induced to withdraw the army. He was afterwards killed I>y the Volscians as a traitor.' After the expulsion of 'l'artluin, the Fabii were among the most distinguished men a: Rome. There were tlirec brothers, and for seven consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian gens would get coi~trol of the government. The state took alarm, and the whole gens, numberitig 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius VibulAiius, alone sur- vived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. In 458 the Ko~nanswere hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory bad been overrun, and their Consuls, cut OH in some defiles, were in imminent danger of destruction. Lucius Quinctius CincinnAtus was appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roma~~warriors of this l~eriod. Thc ambassadors sent to inform him of his ap- !~oiiitmeut found him working with bare arms in his field. Cinciiniktus told liis wife to throw over him his mantle, that lle might receive the messengers of the state with proper respect. Such was the siniplicity of his character, and yet so deeply did lie reverence authority. The Aequi could not witlrstand his vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass under the yoke as a sign of humiliation. 'The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph. 1 Sce Shakespeare's " Coriolanus." In 451 one of the l)ecemviri, Appius Claudiue, rvas captivated by the beauty of a patrician maiden, Virginia,' a daughter oi 1,ucius Virginius, and the betrothed of 1,uciris Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infan~ousplot to obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. JVhen, in spite of all the eriorts oi the girl's father and lover, the Decemvir had, in his official capacity, t~djudgeclher to be the slave 01. his tool, Virginius ]~lungecl a knife into 111s daughter's bosom, in presence of tlie people in the l'orum. The enraged populace compelled the De- ccrnviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end to llis own life. Marcus Furins Camillus was a ialnous mall of a little later period. He was called a second Koni~ilusfor his dis- tinguished services. In 396 he captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he cclebratcd tlie most mag- nificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He mas afterrvards impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, and went into exile at Ardea. When Rotue was besieged by the Gauls under Urennus, in 390, Caniillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of forty thou- sand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the ad- vanced age of eighty-eight. Brennus was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gaols, wllo invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July 18, 3yo), aid captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besieged for six months. 1 See blacaolay'. "Lays of Ancient Rome." Tloring the siege lie tried to surprisc the garrison, but was repulsed by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peacc was filially purchased by the Ro- mauj by the paymelit of n thousand poulids of gold. To increase the weight, Rrennils is said to have throw^^ his sword on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appearcd with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Roliie must be ransomed with steel, a11d not gokl. In the battle wliich followed, the Gauls were defeated. CHRONOLOGY. vhe dates previous to 389 B. c. are uncertain.] B. C. 753, Foundation of Rome by Ron~ulus. 753-5 10. REGALPERIOD. 753-7 16. Romulus. 716-673. Numa Pompilius. 673-641. Tlillus Hostilius. 640-616. Ancus Marcius. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. 578-534. Servius 'l'ullius. 534-510. Tarqllioius Superbus. 5 10-30 HE RICPUBLIC. 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. 508. Porsena. Horatios Cocles. 494, Trib6ni Plehis. Menenius Agrippa. 492. Corioli. Coriolbnus. 477 Destruction of the Fabian Gens. 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnitus. 45' The Dece~nviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. 396. Capture of Veii. Camillus. 39O. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. 367, Tlie Licinian Rogations. 353, Caere : the first Municipium. 343-34 1. First Samnite IVar. 340-338 The Latin TT1ar. 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. 326-304. The Second Sa~nniteWar. 321. The Caudine Forks. 298-zgo. The Third Samnite War. I7 ANCIENT KO&IE. Heneventurn. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. I'criod of foreign conquest begins. First Punic War. Lipara ; Mylae. l'yildaris. Ecnomos. Regulus at Cli~pea. Drepana. Aegites Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial systelii establislied. Illyrican War. Iinportant results. Gallia Cisalpi~laacquired by battle of Telamon. Hannibal in Spain. Saguntum. Second Pi~nicWar. Ticinos. Trebia. Trasiminus. Casilinum. Cannae. Capture of Syracuse. Archimkdes. Uaecula. Metauros. Zama. First Macedonian iVar. Secoild Macedonia11 War. Cynosccl~halae. Magnesia. Death of AfiicAnus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. Third Macedonian War. Pydna. Third Punic iVar. Dcath of Cato the elder. Destruction of Cartlrage and Corinth. 'The Numantine War. The Servile War. Tiberi~~sGracchus. Death of AfricAnus the younger. r 23-1 2 I. Gaius Gracchus. I 18-104. The Jugurthine IVar. Metellus. Marins. Sulla. 102. Aquac Sextiae. 101. Vercellae. cia-So. l'he Italian or Social War. 66. ' Ueatll of Marius. 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradbtes 8a. 1)eath of Cinna. 80. Reforrns of Sulla. 78. Death of Sulla. 80-72. Sertorius in Soain , - ~. 73-71, Spartacus. 72-67. Cam~aienof Lucullus against MithradAtes . . . - u 67. Po~npeyconquers the pirates. 67-61. Pompey in the 15ast. 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. 59. First 'I'riumvirate fonned. Caesar's first Consulship. 5 9. -!-The Leges Juliae. Clodius. ( Cicero's banishment. Cato sent to Cyprus. 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. Death of Crassus. Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and 52. " 1 separation from Caesar. 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Rrundisium. 45. Victory of Pompey near the seaboard. 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept. 28) INurder of Pompey. Caesar establishes Cleopktra on the throne of 47. { Egypt. Battle of Zela. 47 (Sept.). Caesar retrirns to Rome. 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. 45 (Mar. 17). Mundn. 44 (Mar. IS). Murder of Caesar. 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. 43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. 42 (Nov.). Philippi. 36. Naulochns. 31 (Sept. 2). Actiutn. R.C. A.D. 30-41. THEJULIAN EMPERORS. 30-14. Angustus. A. D. 74-37. Tii~erius. 37-41. Caligula. 41-68. THE CLAUDIANE~IPERORS 41-54. Claudius. 54-68 Nero. 68-69. Galba. 69. 69-96. 69-79, Vespasian. Destruction of Jert~saleni. Tit~~s. Destruction of Ilerculaneurn and Eompeii. Domitian. THEPIVE GOODEMPERORS. Nerva. 'Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. Hadrian. Antoninus Pius. l\~larcusAmelius. Commodes. Fi-om Pertinax to Diocletian. Jliocletiao. Constantine the Great. Edict of Milan. Council of Nice. Froin Consta~itiiieto Ro~nulusAugustulus. SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. HARVARD COLI.E(;E. I. Place or cxplaili the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii ; Pliarsalus ; Colnitia Centuriata ; Decemvir ; law of hlajestas. With what important events was each connected? [Omit one ; answer very briefly.] 2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus ill Italy. 3. The causcs and results of tile Salnnite Wars. 4. Cato's efforts to refor111 the governtnent of Rome. 5. (n) Education in Rome. ] [~akeone.] (I) Amusements at Rome. I. Basilica ; Lex Publilia ; Patrician ; Triumvir ; Tribune ; Roman citizen, - what were they? [Take four.] 2. (a) How did Augustus obtain his power? (B) The reign of Hadrian ; (c) The first Pu~licwar. [Take one.] 3. (a) The Roman religioli ; ] [Take one.] (d) Decay of the Empire. . Sulla's rule 111 Rome. 5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War [4 and 5 are for '$additional readings. 1 1887. (a) [Take five.] The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Pla- centia, Cannae, Numantis, Massilia, -where? Mention (with dates) historical events connected with four of these places. [Take any two.] I. IIow were the ~ne~nbersof tlie Koinan Senate chosen at different times? 2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of tlie Praetor? 3. Describe or explain any five : Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, Equites, Flamincs, the Liciilian Laws, the law of hlajestas. Questio7zs OIL the "additional re~zdiug.'' [Candidates who have read the books recorninended for addi- tional reading may substitute one of the following questions for one oi the first three in this group.] 4. [TIGHE.]HOW did the practical powers of the Ro- man Senate differ from its tlieoretical powers? 5. [ULESLEY.] What can be said in defence of the Lex Frurnentaria of Gaius Gracchus? September, 1886. I. Give an account of the races rvhich inhabited Italy before tlic foundi~~gof Rome. 2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the sho1.e~ of tlie Mediterranean? For what were three of thein celebrated? 3. Describe the three forms of the Ronian comitia, and trace tlie developnient of the cornitin friduta. 4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The effect of this victory upon Italy? 5. Explain patria potestas, priurejs sc7zatus, mu7zicipium, apr Romanus, e~7rites. SPBC/&ZEN EXAMINATION PAPEKS 263 YALE COLLEGE. June, 1880. I. The Patricians and Plebeians : first causes of strife between them. Steps in the political progress of the Ple- beians. Censors. Tribunes. Licinian Laws. z. Greek il~fluences on Kolna~llife: what were they? In what ways and at what tiincs introduced? 3. The Second Punic IVar : its causes. Mannibal's great march. Battles in Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal fail? 4. Give some account of the membcrs of the First Triumvirate. 5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates : Act~um. The Gracchi. First Samnite War. Pliarsnlus liegulus. Teutones and Cinibri. Numantia. Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. 1887. [Time allowed, 30 minutes.] I. What powers did Octa\,ianus Angustus take to him- self? What change did 11e nlake in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make? 2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizen- ship, the causes of each extension, and datcs. 3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian era? How were they acquired, and when? 264 ANCIENT KOMR 4. Explain prneforinn guards; jrovincia; coiuniu; tf-i- 611izuspIebis; ~o7nitiuce~itu~itztn. 5. Altia, Beneventum, Snfu~itum,Metnurns, Pharsatia; where were they? what happened there, and when? I. Describe the circunhstances under which the tribunate was established. 2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between the Caesarians and Pompeisns occur? 3. Sketch briefly the career of Pon~peius. 4. What persons coniposed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential points did the Second Triumvirate dirfer from the First? 5. Whcn and for what reasons was the right of citizen. ship given to the provinces? 6. What radical changes in thc government were made by Diocletiai~? I. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). 2. Explain tribuntlspiebis, censor, dictator, 2illperaior. 3. Flow were the provilhces governed under the Republic, and how under the Empire? 4. \Vhat were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? 5. When and where did the follo!ving events take place : the defeat of Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrlrus; tlhe dcath of Brntils aild Cassius; the conquest of the first Romxn province? SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAIDERS. 265 UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. November 22, 1889. -Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. r. Mention tivo pron~inentcharacteristics of the Ro- man people ...... 2 2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to ihe civilization of the world ...... I 3. hlention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil ; state the result in each contest .....4 4. Describe the situation of any two of the follo~ving places, and state an in>portant historical event con- nected mitlr each : Candine Forks ; Pharsalia ; Pompeii ; Cannae ...... 4 5. \J~hic11occurred first: (I) Fall of Carthage, or cap- tiviiy of Jugurtha; (2) Rattle of Actium, or battle of Phi!ippi ; (3) Death of Antony, or death of Ciccro? . . 3 6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? hlcntion the two which occur in Ronlan history ... 3 7. What were gladiators? who rvas their leader when they rebelled? ...... 2 8. What notable service was rendered to his collntry by Camillus ; Tiberius Gmcchus ; Marius ; Cicero? . 4 g. Mention two lams that are landmarks in Ron~an history...... a 10. Give the boundaries of the Kolnan Empire at the beginning of the Christian era ...... 3 11. Briefly describe the systcnl of slavery as it existed inRome ...... 2 12. What rvas the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? ...... a 13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what ground were the Christians punished? z 14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. Describe two engines used by them for this purpose ...... 3 15. Whence did Rolne derive literature and art?. . 2 16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? ...... I 17. Tell something of tlre reforms which Ire i~rstitnted. 2 18. Menti011 two wars in which Sulla was engaged . . z 19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and hour it came to an end ...... z 20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla .... z June 14, 1889. -Time, g 30 A. M. to 12 M., only. I. Give a brief account of ally tivo races which inhab- ited Italy before thc founding of Ronie ...... z z. On how Inany hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them ...... 4 3. Narrate the circumstances undcr which the Triii~ nnes were first elected ...... I 4. What were the " public lands " ? rvhat political question arose in connection with them? ..... 2 5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he for hoping to succeed? . 3 6. Mention two reasons why Hannihal hoped to over- come Rome. Why did he fail? ...... 3 7. What importance in Rornail history is attached to the following dates: n. c. 55, 44, 42? ...... 3 8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the Rubicon. What mere the chief conse- quences of his act? what was " the Ilubicon"? ...3 g. What power \+-as intrusted to a Roman Uictator? Mention two instances of this ...... 3 10. Give tlie names of the Flavia~~Emperors, with some account of one of them ...... 4 11. What radical change in tlie Roman government was made by Diocletian? ...... r 12. Give a brief description of Julian tlie Apostate; tell why he rrras so called ...... 2 13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus ...... 3 14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of the writings of each ...... 6 15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of Rome ...... 2 THELIFE AND PUBLICSERVICES OF CAIUSMARIUS. 16. To what class of the ljeople did Marius belong? . I 17. In what war did he first gain great disti~iction? . 1 18. By the defeat of !!,hat peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of his Country "? ...... I 19. How many ti~ueswas Xfarirls elccted Consul? . I 20. What prolonged struggle had it5 beginning in the quarrels of Marius aud Sulla? what mas the result to the Republic?...... z March 8, 1889. -Time, 9-30 A 11. to rz &I., only. 44 a-mifs ; ~l?resso~yto pass, 33. I. What was the early for111 of government in Rome? . I z. Tell what you know about the (a)Patricians, (d) Ple- beians, (c) Tribune, (2)Consul ...... q 3. Givc a br~efaccount of the origin of the Coinitia Tribiita...... z 4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? ...... 2 5. \Vho compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? . . 2 6. Tell briefly the storyof Cincinnatus ..... z 7. Describc the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their effect upon the Rcpublic ..z 8. Givc the ini!~lcdiate cause of the First Punic War. \Vhat was its rcsult? ...... 2 g. Give the name of Rome's first province , . . , I 10. In what battle did the Ron~ansfinally overthrow MacecIonia? What Rolunn general commanded in this battle? ...... 2 rr. Briefly describe the siege of Nummtia. .... 2 12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of the Ko~nanpeople? ...... z SPEC1MIIN EXAMINATION PAPERS 269 13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war ...... z 14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against tlie pi- rates, giving the cause of the campaign, its length, and the result ...... 3 15. What great religious event occurred during thc rclgn of the En~perorAugustus? ...... I 16. For what mere the follouring men noted : (a) Ju- venal, (4) Scneca, (c) Cato the Censor, (a') Fahius, (e) Caligula ? ...... 5 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the Gracchi form a part? ...... I 18. What nleasure was proposed by Tiberius Grac- chus? what nieajure by Caius Gracchus ? ....z ig Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi . z zo. With mh~cli order of the Roman people were the Gracch~allied by birth ? with which, by sympathy? . . z 21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great significance? ...... z 31st Advanced Academic Examination. June 15, 1888.- Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. 48 credits ; ?zect.ssary to pass, 36. I. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of Italy he divided? To what great race d~d they belong? ...... 4 z. Who established tlie cornitin centtwiatn 1 How did it differ from the cornitia ciwiata 3 ...... 2 3. Who inade the first code of Roman law? ...I 4. \Vhat king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was the result of the war? .....z 5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of the siege? Give the name of a famous Illan who mas slain, and state the circumstal~ces of his death ...... 4 6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, 266-133 B. c...... 5 7. Give the effects upon Ronie of the Eastern coil- quests, in regard to literature and morals ...... z 8. \\'hat political parties did bIarius and Sulla rep- resent?...... 2 g. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius? 2 10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war be. tivee~lPoinpey and Caesar? ...... I 11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious mar was slain in their proscription? ....4 12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? . I 13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the Christians? ...... I . 14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? ...... 3 15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? . . I 'THE SAAINITEWARS, AND THE RELATIONSOF ROMETO SUBJECTSTATES. 16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War toan end? ...... I I 7. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of tihe treaty made therc ...... 4 18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the final peace between tlie Komans and the Samiiites ...... 3 19. In the Roman State \vhat three rights did Rome reserve for herself? ...... 3 20. Distiiiguish between Eunzniz citizcizs and st'hjects (ur Latiizs) ...... z 30th Advanced Academic Examination. March 2, 1888. -Time, 9.30 A. &I. to I 2 M., only. 48 cyedits; necessary topass, 36, I Dram an outline map of Italy, and upoil it indicate the location of Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outli~ieof Latium ...... 6 2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? ...... 3 3. What was tlie cause of the first Secession, and what were the two conditions of the return? ...... 3 4. Glve an account of the appointment of the Decetn- virs and the powers intrusted to the111 ...... z 5. NIeiitio11 two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations ...... z 6. What part of Italy did the Sainnites possess, and what was the cause of the First Saliinite War? .... z 7. Give tlie name of one of the Roman lnilitary roads, tell in which directioii it led, and what towns were at its extremities ...... 3 8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? ...... I 272 ANCZBNT ROME. g. hlention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct of the First Punic War ....z 10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle ...... z 11. Mention two reforms or lueasures favored by the Gracchi ...... 2 cz. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla z 13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what ele- ment of strength did each contribute to it? ..... 3 14. What cause was assigned for the assassinatiol~of Caesar?...... I 15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following : Nero ; Trajan ...... z 16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, and what part of Italy did they occupy? 3 17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome ...... z 18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it modelled? ...... z 19. How did the Senate direr from the Cornitin Cz~riatn in its membership? ...... 2 20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate perform? ...... z 21. Ilescribe the religlon of the early Kornans ...I 20th Advanced Aeadernio Examination. November 18, 1887.-Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 m., only. 48 credits; necessary topass, 36. I. When was Rome founded? ...... I 2. Under what king was the constitutioil remodelled, and what was the basis of the new constitution? ...z 3. Who was the last king? Ry whom was the govenl- ment by kings overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? ...... 3 4. What causcd the struggle between the patricians and plebeians: how loilg did it continue, and how did it result? ...... 3 5. Give brieAy the story of Coriolanus ..... z 6. Lliliat inrluced the Gauls to ~nvadeItaly 390 8. c., where did they colitc~ldvirith tlie Roman army, and with what result? ...... 3 7. IVhcre was Carthage, by what mea~lsdid it attain its power and rvealth, and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? ...... 3 8. Under what circumstances Fabius sent against Hannibal, what policy did he pursue, and with what result? ...... 3 9. Compare Publius Scipio hfricanus with Marcus Cato in character and habits ...... s 10. What was tlie object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul mas it defeated, and in what manner? . . 3 I I. 12~hatcauses led to tlie formation of the First Tri- umvirate? ...... I 18 2 74 ANCIENT BOMB 12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? ...... a 13. Dcscrihe the i~~ailnerin which Octavius Augustus became E~npcror,and the character of his reign ...2 14. Ry what Emperor was Jerusale~ucaptured, and in what year? ...... 2 15. Describe the custonis of the Koinails al meals, and mention some articles used hy tlieln for food ...2 16. Draw a niap oi Italy, and 11pon it sketch the Apen- nine mountains, ;ind the rivers 'l'iber and Ariio .... 4 7, Upon the map indicate the location of the follow- ing : Rome, Naples, Tarentun] ...... 3 18. What three races occupied Italy m the earliest known tiri~es,what part of Italy did each occiipy, and iron1 wliich of these were the Latins descended? ...7 INDEX.- Ar.abia. 199, 221 Baths, 24, Arabia Petraea, 194. Beilovaci, rj9 Arcadias, zoj, 208. Benevantonr, j, 42, 219. Archeibui.r 13. Btbnctc, ,;8 Arciler, 24;. Bib,1lur, '5,. ArchimCdes, 68. Bithynia, rzr, 124, 221, Ardea, Ij,, 2.5 liucc!,or, 102. Argos, 42,20d. Hoian iiaulr, 38. Aricia, 7. Uon"ni;l, 220. Arirninum, 3, j6, 150, 219. Books. 2jq. AriobarrSoe,, 11r, Buvill;~e,146. Ariouistun, 1~8. Iirennor, zij. Aristobliius, izr. Bridge, Rilrlle, 141. Armenia, 22, Bridge, Tiber, 8, 12, -51. zjz. *Arrninius, 175. Britain, rqr, 186, 197, rqj, zaj, Armor, 14, 247. Uiitanni;%,22, nrrny, 13. 247. Brita~~nicas,18,. Amus, K.,z. Blith">, 140, Arpi, 3. Bnlndiriom, j. ~jr.219, Arpinum, roo, 214. B~nttiaar,i. Arretium, 3. Brilto*, nephew al Tarqain, zja. Arsanias, I<., 119. Brotus, I~eclm,is, 1-2 16~. Aryan Kace, 6. Rn~tos.Decirnus Jii,ha~,90. Ascaniur, 249. Brutur, hlarcos, ~bj,166, 167, 169. Arcuiom in Apulia, j, 4z. Dargond~ans,zag. Aria, yg, 121. Bsnlrins. 1S6, 187. Arsvna. 221 Byzantl,,m, 202 Ate;nub I<,z. Athens, 56, I 13,za8. Ati,rsis, K.,2. Atrium. 228. Attaittdli., 99. Attalus 111.,99, la,. Attila, 211. Aufidus, K., 3. Augurs, 30, 246. Aug~tstanAge, 17s. Aitgusta Taulinhum, *. Aiagosri, 201. Awgustss, r63, 168, '73, 177. Aulerci, 140. Aareliu, 123. Aorelian, 201. Ailrelian Way, am. hmeiius, 11. Antoninus, 196. Avarici~rn, 143. Averni, 142. Avernus, Lake, 3. B. F,iel>,2j4. Fabillr,Conctdtol., 62. 6;. Fabitis Oi8iatoi. 1;. 38. Fabius fib~liiou;,ij4. Fnbricioi, 42, 16. Dnc7.4, 193, 221. Faerulae. ;, 129. Ilanloi~hilur,92. farm in^ tile revenues, 14. Deal, I.,,. Fauces, 228. Debts, Ilebtors, 19, zo. Faurtalul, 250. Ilccemvirs, 26, 27, zjj Festivals, 7, ay, 232 l>ecios, Emperor, zoo. Fetiales, 246. Decius, Publilt+ 3,. Decree of the Seoate, 9;. ITiieGoad Emperors, ?or. Flamen Dillis, 2qj. Deiotarus, 12, rianri.er, 21 j. Dentllur; 3S, 4?, +6., FIalui~~iamWay, 56, 279. Dependent Cumnion~tles,43. Fiamiainos. jj. Dictator, IS, 30, 94, 222, 126. Flaminias, 5 j. 61. i>iocietian,20, Flavisn Emperors, 190-lq2. Dolal>cila, 12j Domitian, ,pa. Floors, 228 Florentia, 3; zoq nomitius, Ij,, '52, rj;, Zj?. Foleiglierr resident at Rome, 12, 44 nvepma, 52, jj Formiae, 34, 4: Ilresr, 230. Forom, ,a. !j, IS,, 240. Drarur, Gelm,nic,,s, r,j. Forum Boarlom, )j, 2.jo. Droiils, Marclls Lirios, 10s. I>t,ili,,~,5". Farl~mCacaaris, zja. ;j. 13ouiiri Srcr6rom, 2jz. For1,m iioiitori,,m. juiii, in G~UI,220. Dyuachiom, ij4. rnrulrr Farti~nJuiii, in Vcnctia, 2, 193. Forum Suarioin, 210 Folom of Tlaja., 181, 240. I~,~UR"\.ES,rjz. Forom of Vcspasian, 19,. Ecniilmis, 50. Franks, 2, r Edict of Milan, r97. F!ced!nc!n, 12. Editor. 232. Fundi, 3,. Edacation. 238. Fanerals. 237, Egcrts, ', Flirnitlile 229. Fenatios, 3,. Egypt, 731 71, '7'. Eiba, q. Elections, q, Enipeur. I<.,'55. Fnnn, 4, 92 Ennios, 213. ~~lba,Emperor, 188, 189. Hirtins, 5,. Galba, Seroias, 90 Hispanis Cltelior, 221 Hlipania Uiterlor, 221. Gallia ~i~al~ina,2; jj, 227. Honorius: 2oj 22%. Iloracc, 179,216. Gallia Sarhouensis, 137,~ 14j,~ ~aol,rj?, roo, zoj. Moratius Codes, 2j2. Gauls, 31,37, 56, zjj. 1~102tensius, Qt#~~~t~ts,30. (;a%,,es, 231. ~l~~tensias,the Orator, Tit Gels, 4. ilomesteadr, 24. 228. Genabum, '.,Z. Houses, ccns, Gentes, 9, 10,27. Hun?, 207, 209. (ienseric, zr?. iIy,dn,,s, 121. cenaa, 2, 220. Gerlocias, 2j. apucln, j. Gergovia, 743. Gclmanicui, Unisos, r7j. Ib(.rus, I<., 89. G~~~~,~~~~,s,sou of Drusui Gnm., I 75. Icilios, 2jj. Germans, 210. Igilium, 4. (;k,l,rio, 7s Ilenia, rj3. Gladialors, n7, 232. llly~~ical7\var, jj. Gla~,229. Illyricl~m,jj: zaj, 221 Glaucia, lo( II,,?. 4. ~0lde11Mouie of Ncro, 18% 23n. l,,,i'"'ifor, 2,s. Good Emperors, 197, 201 Inrl>eriuln.227. 1iur'Iian, zoo. Lnfermnrrlaee- 2s. iiot1,s.. 207. . 1,,terest, zag. iiracchi, So, 93. lateire\, 30, 94. (iraccbus. Gains, 95,~16. Iwxa, I<.: 59. (iricchui; Tibeviui (ienior), dii. Isailli',, 121. liiacclios, TiBeriar, 94. Isthmian Games, j j. Gratian, 204. Italians, j, 6. <;rccce, 75, i6. lt;tly, 1. Greek Emplre, 202. Lilies, 249. HI\DXIAU,194. Jns~cu~unr,6, 8. Hadrom61t>lll,71.. Jlnlls, 172, 190, 240, 241. Halnilcar Uarca, ,2! j6. Jentaculo~n,229. 11;,nnib;1l, con of Giico, 49, 50. ler~~ralsm,121, 190. II~~~~II~I,sou ,of llsrnilcar, 17, jS. 77, eirr, ,903 19:. 83. ]c%>6]>l>us919". ilanno, 49, 68. J,>vI~I>,20,. i~~~d~,,hi,~011.in1aw of iiamilcar, j6, JIIIX, 160, r61 172, 190, 22,. 37- 1 J,'<~,>cx. ~~~d~~b~i,b~otirerof HianIb.d, 66, 6S, 1 J~lgartila,99, 102. 69, 70. Jolia, daughter of Czellr, 147. Ilasd~ob~l,roll of tiiaca, 69- JL~,daugluer of A~taustus,176 202. 182-rSj. Helena, JL~I~ZIIEn,pevors, 203. ~~~i~~~iiaius,200. julian ti,e .\poitatc, IIel"ctii, 138. J,,lian I.ii"i.108. Henclha, 4, 4r, 49. Jnl!i\,~#s,19c). Hcvcuianeihm, 3, 191. J~IIXI,1% 244. IIerrn6an Proinontoiy, 52. Hlem~iral,700. L!ILC" 9;. Hiero II., 4S,67. Hierolryllnn, 67. Juveu;~l,144, 217. tiasso (lainctiu~,26. Lucretius, 21j. King of Kame, g, zja-aj*. Lucullur, go, 113,118, irg I , ,, Ocrai.~~,slrtcr of Augustui, I,i Piaccnti;~,2, SG, 270. I 16. I I'lrutiaa-Papirralr Law,lag. Octavi;?, wife of Nero, 18~. I'laurus, 213. Octavii~a,162, 168, 173, 177 Plebeiaas, i;, rp, 20. Oclo~~cer,206. I'lebiicita. 27. 30 Officer and oliicers. 222, 221. Pibng, the elder. 191, 217. OPS, 214. Plloy. the ~oonqer,ip,, 21s. Orcliomenoi, ~r3. P0lli0, ,8,. ilrca, 116. Poi~bioi.S:. as. Octia, 3, ir, 16j. 251. 282 INDEX. pomoerii~m,227, 23j. I Keite, 46. cia, 12;. llefor~niof Czsar, 165. Pompeii, 3, 102. K-i alms of Solla, n j. G"aeils, ' j, pampeius, 760, 163. , Kegillus, Lake, zjz pompeios, Sestor, r60, 163, 170. Ilegnlus, 51. Pompey tlic Great, 94, 1r4, 119, 127, , Remi, 139. ~46,>17,148, 158. ; Kemos, 249, zja. Pomptlne Marshes, 3. Rents, 23. Pontifices, 227. Republic, zjz. Pontios, 36. Kilaetis, ,7j, 221. Pontns, 121, 221. Kilea Silria, 249. Poppaea Sd~ina,IS?. Rhegiaiu, 4, 49. Po~sena,aja, 2jj. Riorles, 22,. ~osl~~~uii~~s,36, 40. Kicimer, zoj. Potestas, 227. Roads, 44, 219. ~'raeiect, I 74, 248. I