Something Old, Something New Collecting and Commissioning the Book of Routes and Realms in Ottoman Libraries from the Fifteenth Century Onwards

Chapter 4 Something Old, Something New Collecting and Commissioning the Book of Routes and Realms in Ottoman Libraries from the Fifteenth Century Onwards

1 Claiming Space and Knowledge for the Ottoman Court

In the late fifteenth century, the Book of Routes and Realms appeared in Sultan Mehmed II’s (r. 1444–46 and 1451–81) treasury in Istanbul. Until the turn of the nineteenth century, collections in the Ottoman capital held fifteen copies of al-Iṣṭakhrī’s work in total,1 suggesting the Book of Routes and Realms appealed to rulers many centuries after its composition. In addition to collecting old Arabic and Persian copies of the Book of Routes and Realms, officials commissioned new manuscripts, including the Ottoman translation that was presented to Mehmed III (r. 1595–1603) in 1598. As we will see below, at least ten of the fifteen copies were acquired or commissioned between the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Rather than indicating a craze for al-Iṣṭakhrī’s work specifically, the copies epitomize Mehmed II’s vision for absorbing knowledge from all realms and the massive influx of manuscripts to Istanbul due to the Ottoman expansion that continued under his successors. Considering seven of the ten copies maintained both al-Iṣṭakhrī’s text and images, the audi- ence aimed at preserving the Book of Routes and Realms as part of a cultural heritage – very much like the Persian translations some two hundred years be- fore. However, as three copies combine al-Iṣṭakhrī’s map design with other car- tographic material that circulated in Istanbul, the Book of Routes and Realms also embodied the entanglement of traditions in a city that had become the hub for manuscripts, scholars and artists. After conquering Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II set out to transform the city into the scholarly and artistic center of the Islamicate world. By study- ing history, geography and philosophy, Mehmed II promoted the idea of a uni- versal empire that merged traditions from the Islamicate and Greco-Roman worlds. For this purpose, Mehmed II required his courtiers to learn the history of ancient Rome and held sessions with scholars twice a week to discuss

1 Fifteen copies correspond to ca. 25% of the manuscripts in my survey.

© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2021 | doi:10.1163/9789004440098_006 Something Old, Something New 139 science and religion.2 In addition to inviting scholars to Istanbul, Mehmed II ordered libraries to be built in the capital as well as other centers, such as Bursa and Edirne. Upon completion in 1470, the mosque complex Fatih Camii ve Külliyesi in Istanbul included sixteen madrasas and four libraries. Moreover, the Pantocator monastery was transformed into the Zeyrek madrasa and the Hagia Sophia church into the Ayasofya madrasa. To fill the libraries and make sure knowledge circulated at the court, Mehmed II commissioned books on religion, science and literature. Copyist usually duplicated one book several times to provide the material for educating chancellery scribes and other officials. As Mehmed II promoted translations into Arabic, Persian and Ottoman Turkish, the palace library included grammar books and dictionaries as well. Among others, Mehmed II commissioned Georgios Amirutzes (d. 1475) to translate Ptolemy’s Geography from Greek to Arabic in 1465.3 Geography and paintings fascinated Mehmed II. When the Venetian Giacomo de Languschi met Mehmed II shortly after the conquest, he de- scribed the sultan as eager to shape his rule after kings like Alexander the Great. Probably to scout out territories he could conquer, Mehmed II would ex- amine a map showing where the Pope and European kingdoms were located.4 To advertise his rule in Europe, Mehmed II commissioned medals as well as canvasses with his portrait, usually accompanied by Latin inscriptions. As part of the diplomatic exchange with the Habsburg Empire, Mehmed II sent his portrait to Frederick III, who returned the gesture.5 This practice continued

2 Babinger, Franz (1953): Mehmed der Eroberer und seine Zeit. Weltenstürmer einer Zeitenwende. Munich, p. 507; Necipoğlu, Gülru (2012): Visual Cosmopolitanism and Creative Translation. Artistic Conversations with Renaissance Italy in Mehmed II’s Constantinople. In Muqarnas 29, pp. 1–9; Ocak, Ahmet Y. (2011): Sultan Meḥmed the Conqueror. The Conquest and the Centralization of Power in the Ottoman Empire. In Binbaş, İlker E., Kılıç-Schubel, Nurten and Togan, İsenbike (Eds.): Horizons of the World. Festschrift for İsenbike Togan = Hudûdü’l-âlem: İsenbike Togan’a armağan. Istanbul, p. 373. 3 Emiralioğlu, Pınar (2014): Geographical Knowledge and Imperial Culture in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Farnham, Surrey, p. 6; Fetvacı, Emine (2013): Picturing History at the Ottoman Court. Bloomington, Indianapolis, Ind., p. 33; İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin (2000): Osmanlı coğrafya literatürü tarihi. Vol. 1. Istanbul, pp. 12–13; Necipoğlu, Visual Cosmopolitanism, p. 11; Yoltar, Ayşin (2002): The Role of Illustrated Manuscripts in Ottoman Luxury Book Production. 1413–1520. Dissertation. New York University, New York City, p. 77; 82–83. 4 Barkey, Karen (2008): Empire of Difference. The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, p. 67; Emiralioğlu, Geographical Knowledge, pp. 52–53; Necipoğlu, Visual Cosmo politanism, p. 7. 5 Necipoğlu, Visual Cosmopolitanism, p. 4; 35; 75.