FACTIONS and FAVORITES at the COURTS of SULTAN AHMED I (R. 1603-17) and HIS IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS
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FACTIONS AND FAVORITES AT THE COURTS OF SULTAN AHMED I (r. 1603-17) AND HIS IMMEDIATE PREDECESSORS DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Günhan Börekçi Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2010 Dissertation Committee: Professor Jane Hathaway, Chair Professor Howard Crane Professor Stephen F. Dale Copyright by Günhan Börekçi 2010 All rights reserved ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the changing dynamics of power and patronage relations at the Ottoman sultan’s court in Istanbul between the 1570s and the 1610s. This was a crucial period that many scholars today consider the beginning of a long era of “crisis and transformation” in the dynastic, political, socio-economic, military and administrative structures of the early modern Ottoman Empire. The present study focuses on the politics of factionalism and favoritism at the higher echelons of the Ottoman ruling elite who were situated in and around Topkapı Palace, which served as both the sultan’s royal residence and the seat of his imperial government. It is an effort to shed light on the political problems of this period through the prism of the paramount ruling figure, the sultan, by illustrating how the Ottoman rulers of this era, namely, Murad III (r. 1574-95), Mehmed III (r. 1595-1603) and Ahmed I (r. 1603-17), repositioned themselves in practical politics vis-à-vis alternative foci of power and networks of patronage, and how they projected power in the context of a factional politics that was intertwined with the exigencies of prolonged wars and incessant military rebellions. My main contention is that, under new political circumstances, these three sultans employed new ruling strategies in order to impose their sovereign authority on the business of rule, an end which they achieved, with varying degrees of success, mainly through the mediation of their royal favorites and the court factions led by them. ii To Meral iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have seen the light of day without my advisor Professor Jane Hathaway. Since the day I became her student in 2002, she has considered me one of her younger colleagues and provided every possible kind of support and encouragement for my academic advancement as an historian. While shaping and writing my dissertation, I tremendously benefited from her constructive criticisms and suggestions, and above all from her erudition and guidance. She meticulously read and commented on every single page of numerous unfinished chapter drafts, even if they were nothing but a jungle of ideas. She never fell short of directing me to the right course, especially when I was confused. Moreover, she patiently taught me how to express myself more effectively in academic writing in English. I still may not be able to compose as well as a native English-speaker, yet whatever there is of eloquence in the subsequent pages is her work. I will always remain in her debt for being such an exemplary and supportive academic mentor to me. Sağolun Hocam. I consider myself very fortunate to have studied with Professors Stephen Dale and Howard Crane, who played indispensible roles not only as members of my dissertation committee, but also in my intellectual training in the stimulating academic environment of the Ohio State University from the very beginning. Prof. Dale’s seminars on pre- modern Turco-Mongolian and Persian-Islamic state formations and political cultures iv opened up new vistas for me. Likewise, Prof. Crane offered great insights with respect to understanding the Ottoman sultans’ pious foundations as well as the complexities of the history of Islamic art and architecture. They both carefully read this dissertation and made insightful criticisms. However, the present form of this study is short of reflecting the true scale of their contributions, which I promise to fully incorporate into the future development of this dissertation. I owe lasting gratitude to Professor Geoffrey Parker, who has been a central scholarly figure for me and many others in our department. Besides his support for my grant applications and his invaluable answers to my many questions regarding this and other individual projects, I am indebted to him for offering me the opportunity to work as one of his research assistants, which not only provided me with a tuition waiver for several quarters, but also allowed me to observe and learn from a master of European history at work. He endowed me with insights into several topics pertaining to the comparative study of early modern empires that I will surely explore in my future academic career, following in his footsteps. As a graduate student, I was first introduced to the intricacies of studying Ottoman history in my home country, Turkey, at the hands of several prominent scholars in the field. Between 1996 and 2002, my professors at Boğaziçi and the Sabancı Universities in Istanbul worked hard to imbue me with the necessary qualifications to penetrate the different periods of Ottoman history in a critical manner. Without the training and support I received from Professors Edhem Eldem, Metin Kunt, Hülya Canbakal and Tülay Artan, I could not have come this far. I would also like to extend my v gratitude to Yücel Demirel and Dr. Metin Berke, who generously spent their time to teach me Ottoman Turkish. Professors Gábor Ágoston (Georgetown University), Feridun Emecen (Istanbul University), Cornell H. Fleischer (University of Chicago), Mehmet Genç (now at Istanbul Şehir University), Gülru Necipoğlu (Harvard University), Erol Özvar (Marmara University), Oktay Özel (Bilkent University), Leslie Peirce (New York University) and Baki Tezcan (University of California at Davis), never turned me down when I contacted them with my questions. I thank them for their encouragement, for kindly sharing their erudition, and for helping me locate certain primary sources or clarifying certain questions. Unfortunately, I am not able to thank one of the most encouraging professors of Ottoman history in Turkey, Günhan Danışman, who was always a special source of inspiration and support for me. He passed away on January 17, 2009. Mekanı cennet olsun. Throughout all these years, I have also accumulated many debts to many wonderful friends, without whom I could have never completed this Ph.D. adventure. I also know that I cannot enumerate the kind of support, help, motivation and companionship that each one so generously brought into my life and this dissertation; thus, in no particular order, I offer my personal gratitude to Ahmet Arslantürk, Dr. Kahraman Şakul, Dr. Şefik Peksevgen, Dr. Tijana Krstić, Howard Morhaim, Hasan Karataş, Mehmet Sait Türkhan, Ömer Faruk Bölükbaşı, Dr. Tülün Değirmenci, Yiğit and Zulal Akın, Müfit Balabanlılar, Dr. Arif Çetintaş, Drs. Yücel and Derya Demirer, Dr. vi Ahmet Mümtaz Maden, Nedret Emin İşli and members of the Turkuaz Sahaf Ailesi, Dr. Caroline Finkel, Stephan Loewentheil, Sırma Gülgül, Cem Bayol, Dr. John Hunt, and all the müdavims of the “legendary” Columbus Rakı Table. I am sure I have forgotten others; please accept my apologies in addition to my sincere thanks. The research and writing of this dissertation were made possible by grants and fellowships from the Ohio State University Department of History (2005-2006); the American Research Institute in Turkey (2006-2007); the Koç University Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations (2007-2008); and the Ohio State University Presidential Fellowship (2008-2009). I would like to thank various archives and libraries for facilitating my research: the Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Arşivi and its director Sevgi Ağca and her staff; the Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi and its director Zeynep Çelik and her staff; the T.C. Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri and its researcher-friendly staff; the former and the current directors of the Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi, Nevzat Kaya and Emir Eş, respectively; İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi; and İstanbul Üniversitesi Kütüphanesi. My special thanks to Dr. Dona Straley and Patrick Visel of the Middle East Studies Library of the Ohio State University for their emotional support as well as for acquiring library resources whenever I needed them; and to Dr. Maurizio Arfaioli, for his superb research assistance at the Venetian State Archives in Italy. Finally, my father, mother and elder brother, Mustafa, Zeynep and Gökhan Börekçi, have always fully supported my pursuit of an academic career abroad, even if they had to endure long periods of my absence, especially when they needed me nearby vii at their most difficult times. I cannot thank them enough for being such a loving, understanding and united family. Most of all, to Meral Çetinel, my partner in life, I owe so much that I should perhaps simply thank her for accepting me for who I am. viii VITA 1996....................................................B.A., Political Science and International Relations, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul 1999....................................................M.A., History, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul 1999-2002 ..........................................Ph.D. Program in History and Graduate Teaching Associate, Sabancı University, Istanbul 2002 to present ...................................Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, the Ohio State University Publications Articles: “A Contribution to the Military Revolution Debate: The Janissaries’ Use of Volley Fire during the Long Ottoman-Habsburg War of 1593-1606