In Other Words: Maltese Primary School Teachers’ Perceptions of Cross-linguistic Practices and Flexible Language Pedagogies in Bilingual and Multilingual English Language Classes. Michelle Panzavecchia A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield School of Education September 2020 Abstract As a result of globalisation, bilingualism and multilingualism are becoming more of a norm rather than an exception and speaking two or more languages is associated with multiple benefits. Bilingual social identities are shaped by language acquisition and socialisation, and educators construct their own teacher identities and pedagogies through their past personal, educational, and professional experiences. This study provides a basis for critical reflection and discussion amongst English language primary school Maltese teachers, to explore how their bilingual identities affect their pedagogical practices. The study probes into teacher’s perceptions on whether, why and how cross-linguistic pedagogies are beneficial within bilingual and multilingual language classroom settings. Data was collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with nine purposely selected primary school teachers, each with over ten years teaching experience, to explore their bilingual identities and beliefs, how being bilingual may affect their pedagogical practices, and to investigate whether they believe they are using cross-linguistic practices during English lessons. The process of data collection and analysis highlighted the fact that educators’ perceived pedagogies, beliefs, and language preferences stem from their own personal, educational, and teaching experiences, and are embedded in Malta’s socio-cultural context. Maltese teachers believe that they use fluid language practices in their classrooms as a natural part of their daily communicative practices, and as a means of reaching out to all their students. However, they are uncertain about the benefits of these practices, and of how they can strategically utilise them in a structured manner. Furthermore, as a result of recent demographic shifts in Malta, teachers are raising concerns about the new challenges they are facing related to multilingualism. This study supports previous research advocating the use of fluid and hybridised language practices such as translanguaging as the way forward in meeting the super-diversity of today’s classrooms. Demographic changes on the island call for an appraisal of the pedagogical use of judiciously hybridising languages in order to provide a socially just and equitable education for all. In view of these findings, recommendations are made to policy makers, stake holders and practitioners to improve the effectiveness of initial teacher education programmes and professional practice. In conclusion, in view of the limitations of the study, recommendations are made for further research, as to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the subject. i Dedication This work is dedicated to my papa, who flew to a better place half way through my PhD journey. A man of very few words, but with a heart of gold, and patience beyond compare. His love will sustain me forever. I also dedicate this work to my beloved nanna who was a great scholar of L-Universita tal- ħajja (The University of Life). Although she had little formal schooling, she was a wise, clever, and compassionate woman, with ideas that were way beyond her time. Her teachings and advice will always form an essential part of the woman I am today. ii Acknowledgements The research work disclosed in this publication is partially funded by the ENDEAVOUR Scholarship Scheme – Group B – National Funds. The writing of this thesis would not have been possible without the support, patience, and guidance of the following people. It is to them that I owe my deepest gratitude. I am very grateful to my supervisor Dr Sabine Little for her invaluable and thorough academic support, especially given the distance. She believed in me, and always encouraged me to pursue various opportunities throughout the course of my doctoral journey, thus enabling me to grow on both a professional and personal level. Her wisdom, knowledge and commitment to the highest standards inspired and motivated me to no end. I would like to thank all my wonderful participants for their cooperation and for keeping my spirits high. I feel privileged that I was given the opportunity to delve into their lives, as they so graciously and generously gave me an insight of their personal and professional experiences, of the many challenges they face, and how these are impacting their teaching. I would also like to thank my beautiful children Francesca and Luca for their unconditional love and support, and for being my “study buddies” during long nights fuelled by tea and mutual words of encouragement. I am grateful to my mother for believing in me, even if she does not always understand my constant quest for knowledge and lifelong learning. A special, loving thought goes my father in heaven, who supported me in his own quiet way during the beginning of this journey, before he abruptly departed this life. It was not easy to carry on pursuing this journey without his physical presence, but I know that his spirit will always live on inside my heart. I would especially like to thank my loving and patient partner Patrick for encouraging me to embark on this journey, for his constant support and pragmatic advice, for providing me with invaluable technical support, for patiently reading my work over and over again, for grounding me, and for always believing in me. Finally, although she cannot possibly know how much of a help she has been, I would like to thank my furry baby Mittens for her companionship, for her comforting purrs, and for keeping my lap warm during the many late nights I spent working on this thesis. iii Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i Dedication ................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ iii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... ix Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aims of the Study ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Structure of the Thesis...................................................................................................... 3 1.3 The Research Questions Guiding my Study .................................................................... 4 1.4 My Biography and Positionality ...................................................................................... 5 1.5 Background and Context of my Study ............................................................................. 9 1.5.1 Malta’s linguistic heritage ......................................................................................... 9 1.5.2 Malta’s bilingual situation ....................................................................................... 10 1.5.3 Defining L1 and L2 within the Maltese context ...................................................... 15 1.5.4 Malta’s educational System ..................................................................................... 19 1.5.5 Comparison of postcolonial bilingual countries ...................................................... 23 1.6 Teachers’ Backgrounds, Biographies, and Identities ..................................................... 31 1.6.1 A teacher’s sense of self .......................................................................................... 31 1.6.2 The Relationship between teacher identity and language teaching ......................... 34 1.7 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 38 Chapter 2: The Literature Review ....................................................................................... 39 2.1 Chapter Introduction ...................................................................................................... 39 2.2 Bilingualism ................................................................................................................... 41 2.2.1 The field of bilingualism ......................................................................................... 41 2.2.2 Definitions and dimensions of bilingualism ............................................................ 47 2.2.3 Bilingualism in education ........................................................................................ 49 2.2.4 Policies in education ................................................................................................ 58 2.2.5 Benefits of bilingualism ........................................................................................... 61 2.2.6 Bilingualism and identity........................................................................................