Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present, and Future

Patrick Burlingame

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At-Large University of Szeged [email protected] H-6725 Szeged Tisza Lajos krt. 103 Adviser: Dr. György Szo˝nyi ......

1. Introduction O¤Today, there are roughly 5 million O¤This presentation seeks to answer ethnic living outside the what the future holds for ethnic national borders of Hungary Hungarian minorities in neighbor- ing countries given their past and O¤Most of these Hungarians live in current realities neighboring countries of the Danube Basin. In particular: Roma- nia (Transylvania/Erdély), , 2. The and Serbia (Voivodina/Vajdaság) O¤In 1920, the victorious allies of O¤In many cases, portions of these WWI drafted and imposed the countries are predominately Hun- Treaty of Trianon to punish Hun- garian and have substantial histori- gary and Axis powers for their par- cal and cultural importance for all ticipation in the war Hungarians O¤France, Italy, the United States, and O¤Unfortunately in a region known for the United Kingdom were the prin- its and recent conflicts, ciple allied powers present at the Hungarian minorities have suffered Treaty. Also present were states that from discrimination and ethnic con- stood to gain including , flict and the newly formed Serb-Croat- Slovene and Czechoslovakian states 49 Student Conference 2003

O¤The victors of WWI , in particular the from the Carpathian Basin, Transylvania French were eager to weaken the former became part of the Austrian empire in Austro-Hungarian Empire and wanted 1711 and by the mid 19th century a key to reward various nations that had part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. assisted in the war O¤Throughout the 18th century ethnic O¤Hungary lost approx. 2/3 of its former Romanians (who first appeared in the 1 territory (325,411 to 92,916 sq. km) , ⁄2 late 13th century) immigrated in greater of its population (20,880,487 to and greater numbers to Transylvania to 8,522,230 people), and 90% of its natu- represent 58% of the population by ral resources (including industry, rail- 1780 (49.6% in 1720). Nonetheless, ways, and other infrastructure) most Romanians refute these historical facts (wrongly) and claim the ancient O¤Likewise, Trianon is the basis for the Romans of Dacia (Transylvania) as their substantial Hungarian ethnic minorities ancestors of present (1/3 of the population lost was Hungarian speaking) O¤Transylvania prospered greatly under the Austro-Hungarian empire until it’s col- O¤Although the treaty made Hungary an lapse in WWI and delegation to Roma- ethnically homogenous state, it seems nia under the Treaty of Trianon. A dec- small adjustments to Hungary’s borders laration of Transylvania’s union with as specified in the treaty could have Romania was made by the Romanian been drawn to include many more eth- assembly in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia) nic Hungarians on December 1, 1918 (currently Roma- nia’s national holiday to the dismay of ethnic Hungarians) 3. The Hungarians O¤The Alba Iulia Declaration, considered to of Romania be the starting point in the creation of (Transylvania/Erdély) the modern Romanian state, promised Historical Background broad–range rights to the “co-habiting nations” but Romania never ensured O¤ In the 10th century Hungarians settled these rights. The 1923 Constitution in Transylvania declared Romania a unitary nation-state O¤Transylvania was part of a powerful and made no mention of the rights medieval Hungarian Kingdom with 3 promised in the Alba Iulia Declaration. historic communities 1.) the Hungarians Furthermore, the successive Romanian 2.) the Szekleys 3.) the Saxons. Hun- governments also ignored the minority gary’s most famous king Matyas Korvi- agreement, which was signed before the nus was born in Kolosvar Transylvania Trianon Treaty on November 9th 1919, and was never ratified by the Romanian O¤Following the invasion of the Turks in legislature 1526, Transylvania became an inde- pendent principality ruled by elected O¤After 1918, the national minority policy Hungarian princes of the successive Romanian govern- ments was aimed at depriving the Hun- O¤Following the expulsion of the Turks 50 Patrick Burlingame: Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present and Future

garians of Transylvania of their financial itself the interest protection and politi- resources and network of institutions cal representation of Romania’s ethnic O¤The Second Vienna Award of August 30, Hungarians. Even though the DAHR is 1940 which returned Northern Transyl- made up of several different interest vania and the Szekler Region (43,000 sq groups and platforms, it has to this day km with a population of 2.5 million, preserved its unity including 1 million Romanians) to Hun- O¤Current Situation- Some Positive Devel- gary, and the events which followed left opments indelible marks in the memory of Tran- sylvania’s Romanian, Hungarian and O¤The Hungarian Consulate opened in German population. To this day Kolosvar in 1996 Romanian nationalists manipulate the O¤The Democratic Alliance of Hungarians Romanian masses through the one-sided (DAHR) participated in the ’96-’00 and distorted description of those Constantinescu government in Romania wartime events O¤Romania has signed and ratified numer- O¤ After 1945, as a result of Soviet pressure, ous international treaties concerning Romania regained Northern Transylva- most notably including nia, including the Szekler Region. For a The Framework Convention for the Protec- brief moment, it looked as if the new tion of National Minorities (1997), Euro- Romanian government would seek a pean Charter for Regional or Minority more equitable solution to the nationali- (but still to be ratified), The ty problem. No. 86 adopted on 6 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of February 1945 (Nationality Statute), National, Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic which has not been formally rescinded Minorities (1992), and The Bi-lateral to this day, for the first time guaranteed Friendship Treaty between Hungary and collective rights for national minorities. Romania (1996) In practice, however, the Nationality Statute was never implemented O¤Economically, Hungarians are one of the best off groups in Romania (linkages O¤ The events of December 1989 ending with Hungary/work ethic). There are Ceaus¸escu’s dictatorship did not bring over 3000 Hungarian ventures in Roma- the anticipated liquidation of the com- nia amounting to more than 140 million munist–nationalist minority policy. The in Hungarian capital investment. new Constitution and the legislation of the 1990s lagged far behind the rightful O¤The development of a strong Hungarian demands of the Hungarians in Romania civil society with more then 300 NGO’s and the promises of the Romanian polit- O¤Substantial Hungarian media ical elite which carried out the changes has surfaced though with limited of 1989. At the same time, the self- Romanian financial support organization of Romania’s ethnic Hun- O¤ garians once again became possible Thriving Primary and Secondary Hun- O¤In December 1989, the Democratic garian language schools, and some Hun- Alliance of Hungarians in Romania garian language faculties at Babes-Bolyai (DAHR) was established, and took upon University in Kolosvar

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O¤Current Situation- Some Negative 4. The Hungarians Developments of Slovakia O¤Romanian Policy of resettling ethnic Historical Background Romanians has continued to a certain extent (offering economic incentives) O¤The Hungarians of Slovakia first became a minority in 1918 with the establish- O¤The ethnic Hungarian population has ment of the state of Czechoslovakia. been decreasing due to lower birthrates Until then, their political, cultural, and (esp. when compared to ethnic Romani- national existence was similar to that of ans) and massive emigration (over Hungary proper 100,000 people since the 1970’s) O¤Of the territory of the Kingdom of O¤Though the new Romanian Constitution Hungary which was part of the Aus- promises many minority rights, it is not tro–Hungarian Monarchy, 61,633 observed or practiced to a great extent square kilometers were attached to in actuality. Window dressing? Czechoslovakia, with a total population O¤The public administration law, adopted in of 3,517,568 according to the data of 1991, mandated the exclusive use of the the previous census. Of these, 30.3% Romanian language. Only recent were Hungarians, 7.4% , changes in 2001 have made an exception 48.2% , and 12.3% Ruthenians for areas where Hungarians consist of O¤Czechoslovakia assumed obligation more then 20% under Trianon to observe minority O¤Still no adoption of a proposed National rights but this obligation was ignored by Minority Law proposed by the Democ- the government. By the end of Decem- ratic Alliance of Hungarians ber 1920, 105,000 Hungarians were eth- O¤Continued racism and discrimination by nically cleansed and forced to leave ultra-nationalist Romanian political Czechoslovakia leaders (Funar the mayor of Kolosvar/ O¤On January 1st 1923, the country’s ’00 presidential candidate Vadim Tudor) administrative arrangement was and local Romanian police in Hungari- changed. The creation of large counties an-majority areas with territory apportioned in a north- O¤Substantial controversy still persists over south direction aimed at ensuring that a watered down Hungarian “Status Law” the Hungarian population would remain and an independent Hungarian Universi- a majority in few areas ty in Transylvania (The Sapientia) O¤The dissatisfaction of Czechoslovakia’s O¤Romania’s increasing importance as a numerous minorities was exploited by future and highly strategic NATO ally, Hitler’s Nazi Germany. This resulted in and possibly Romania’s substantial oil the First Vienna Awards made in 1938, infrastructure, has made minority issues 11,927 square kilometers with 869,299 a distant issue in the eyes of the U.S.A inhabitants (86.5% of them of Hungari- and other international powers an mother-tongue) were given back to Hungary

52 Patrick Burlingame: Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present and Future

O¤Following World War II, these territo- O¤Slovakia has been given a 2004 EU entry ries were returned to Czechoslovakia, date. EU membership could well allevi- which resulted in the total deprivation ate many problems for the Hungarian of the civic rights of the Hungarian minority as the Slovakian government population and in a substantial second will have to answer to EU regulations of Hungarians. Presi- and institutions dent Eduard Benesˇ of Czechoslovakia O¤In 2001 Slovakia joined the European advocated the complete removal of Charter on Regional and Minority lan- Hungarian ethnics minorities guages despite the fact that Slovakian law O¤Under the so-called re-Slovakisation still directly conflicts with the charter in decree of June 1946, 327,000 persons several areas were obliged to renounce their Hungar- O¤On October 11, 2001 – Slovakia in part- ian nationality nership with Hungary rebuilt the Maria O¤Following the complete communist Valeria bridge between Esztergom and takeover in February 1948, the open Parkany (Sturovo), the old remains of deprivation of civil rights suffered by which had served as a bitter symbol to the Hungarians diminished for a while the bad relations between the two coun- tries due to the minority issue O¤However, after the famous “Prague Spring” of 1968, nationalism in the now O¤Since 1998 and the replacement of ultra- dual Czech-Slovak state began to grow nationalist Vladimir Mecˇiar (strongly and further disenfranchise ethnic Hun- anti-Hungarian), relations have garians improved somewhat. The Hungarian Coalition Party (MKP) even maintained O¤This hatred would later be compounded 15 seats in parliament, making it the 4th with the independence of the Slovak biggest party in the country. state from Czechoslovakia on January 1, 1993 and the ultra-nationalist tenden- O¤Current Situation- Some Negative cies of PM Vladimir Mecˇiar and his fol- Developments lowers O¤There has been a slight decline in the O¤However, with the collapse of commu- Hungarian population, mostly accredit- nism in 1989, the Hungarians living in ed to “assimilation” (In 1961 Hungari- Czechoslovakia were able to start organ- ans made up 12.4% of the population as izing themselves. In the wake of the opposed to 9.7% in 2001) change of political regime, they set up O¤Hungarian education has been in a poor four political parties which merged 1998 state ever since WWII. There are inad- to become the Hungarian Coalition equate and poorly funded Hungarian Party (MKP) primary and secondary schools. In addi- O¤Current Situation- Some Positive Devel- tion, 20% of native Hungarian speaking opments children in Slovakia are attending Slova- kian-only schools. There are no Hun- O¤Slovakia and Hungary signed a bi-lateral garian universities in Slovakia (only friendship treaty in 1995 making special some cross-border cooperation with references to minority rights

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schools in Hungary) and no Hungarian 5. The Hungarians faculties at Slovakian Universities despite a government promise for one at of Serbia (Voivodina/Vajdaság) Konstantin University in Nyitra Historical Background O¤The recent Slovakian Constitution spells O¤ out minority rights in VERY general The Voivodina (Vajdaság) region has terms and fails to draft any definite legal constituted the southern part of historic guarantees. Serious amendments need Hungary for a thousand years. During to be spelled out in the years to come the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian basin, this territory has been O¤ Economically speaking, Hungarian the border region for both the Byzan- regions are significantly worse off due to tine and Bulgarian empires 1.) Previous ethnic cleansing of landed O¤ peasantry and middle class before and By the end of the 14th century, the after WWII 2.) Very little government southern half of the vast territory investment in Hungarian regions 3.) between the Danube and Tisza Rivers Principally being agricultural regions had become the wealthiest, most densely with little opportunity and high unem- populated and entirely Hungarian- ployment inhabited part of the Kingdom of Hun- gary O¤State-funded Hungarian media and cul- O¤ tural activities almost non-existent The immigration of Serbian ethnic groups fleeing from the Turks began at O¤ has persisted in the past the end of the 14th century several years (vandalism of Hungarian O¤ consulate in Kassa/defaced Petofi San- The 1514 peasant revolt led by György dor statue near ) Dózsa and the subsequent arrival of the expanding Ottoman empire in the fol- O¤ The Law on Re-privatisation which came lowing decades led to the destruction into force in January 1991 allows only and depopulation of the region for the restitution or reclaiming of O¤ properties nationalized or collectivised The area between the Danube and Tisza after 1948. This is clearly detrimental to rivers was liberated from the Turks after the Hungarian population. Likewise, the Prince Eugene of Savoy’s victory at Zen- Land Law adopted in 1991 stipulates ta in 1697. Likewise, the region became that lands whose owners are unknown a military border region for the Austrian or whose legal status is unsettled will Empire become the property of the State Land O¤Between 1703 and 1711 the region Fund and not of the local self-govern- between the Danube and Tisza rivers ments. To this category belong all the south of the Szeged–Szabadka (Suboti- lands confiscated from the Hungarian ca)-Zombor (Sombor) line became population between 1945 and 1948 depopulated once again as a result of the mutually brutal campaign against Ferenc Rakoczi’s war for Hungarian independ- ence and a subsequent plague.

54 Patrick Burlingame: Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present and Future

O¤The 19th century was overall a positive as very dangerous given it bordered era (esp. after 1867), characterized by Soviet aligned Hungary population growth, prosperity, and eco- O¤However, autonomy was swept away in nomic development. Peaceful relations 1988 by the “yoghurt” revolution, char- between nationalities prevailed in spite acterized by the collapse of Tito’s com- of opposing national reform movements. munist Yugoslavia and the rise of The region became the rich food-pantry extreme Serbian nationalism at the of the entire Austro–Hungarian Monar- hands of Milosˇevic´ chy, with plenty left for export to the European markets. While retaining its O¤The Yugoslav civil war of the 1990’s dominantly agricultural character, its ended with the disintegration of rich villages, modern cities, dense rail- Yugoslavia, sanctions by the internation- road network and busy waterways elevat- al community, aerial bombings by ed this region to the level of the devel- NATO, and the fall of Milosˇevic´. Thus oped European countries Ending one of the most difficult periods in contemporary history for the ethnic O¤Under the 1920 Treaty of Trianon fol- Hungarian population of Voivodina, lowing WWI, the predominantly Hun- while making possible the development garian and German-inhabited Voivodina of a qualitatively new and better politi- (55.4% of its population in 1910) came cal atmosphere in the region into a disadvantageous situation within the new Southern Slav State. Develop- Current Situation- Some Positive Develop- ment came to a halt even in Szabadka ments (in 1910 the third largest city in Hun- gary), now located on the fringe of O¤Since the early 1990’s various Hungarian Hungary’s southern border. During the political parties have appeared and par- interwar period more then 80,000 Ser- ticipated in the Serbian government. Of bian “colonists” re-settled in Voivodina particular significance is the Alliance of Hungarians in Voivodina (VMSZ) O¤At the start of WWII the Kingdom of which since the elections of 2000 (post- Yugoslavia fell apart and capitulated as a Milosevic) has gained 3 seats in the Fed- result of the attack by Germany, Italy, eral Parliament and 6 seats in the Ser- and Bulgaria. Hungary re-occupied the bian Parliament as well as significant northern part of the Voivodina region regional posts in Voivodina between the Danube and the Tisza O¤The Parliament of the Serbian Republic on February 24, 2001 repealed the ill- O¤Retribution followed WWII with thou- famed law on information. This made it sands of executions and internments of possible for information in minority lan- Hungarians by Serbs, already decimated guages to no longer come into conflict by war losses. Both the substantial Jew- with discriminatory legal rules ish and the German populations had dissapeared O¤On February 4th 2002 the Serbian par- O¤Under Tito’s Yugoslavia, Voivodina was liament under the post-Milosevic gov- given substantial autonomy and thrived, ernment passed a law returning regional though Hungarian nationalism was seen

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spheres of authority abolished under National Parliament. Voivodina merely Milosevic. However, this has not meant a geographical term by Serbian legal a return to Autonomy nor the full recov- standards er of rights guaranteed under Tito’s gen- O¤With the recent assassination of Serbia’s erous 1974 Yugoslav Constitution reformed minded Prime Minister Zoran O¤On February 26th 2002, both houses of Djindjic in March 2003 minority issues the Yugoslav Federal Parliament passed in addition to most reforms could suffer the law concerning the protection of the a severe set-back rights and freedoms of national minorities. O¤Possible return to more nationalistic In itself the law represents significant Serb attitudes depending on the out- progress in the field of Yugoslav minori- comes of autonomy or independence for ty protection and its most important Kosovo and Montenegro element is the recognition of the right of self-determination O¤Reminiscent of the recent Milosevic era, the January 25th 2001 ruling of the Ser- O¤Relations between Hungary and Serbia bian Constitutional Court prohibited have improved since the fall of Milose- the official and public life usage of Hun- vic. The Hungarian government has garian locality names donated 500 million HUF to assist and promote ethnic Hungarians in Voivodi- O¤Hungarian media suffered greatly under na the Milosevic regimes hated “informa- tion law” (including loss of funding) O¤The final version of the autonomy con- from which it has not been able to cept for Voivodina’s Hungarians was recover. In addition, the consequences completed in 1999 with the participa- of the bombing of Hungarian radio and tion of experts from Hungary. The doc- broadcast infrastructure in Voivodina by ument entitled “Agreement on the Politi- the US during the NATO air campaign cal and Legal Frameworks of the Self-Gov- remains ernment of Voivodina and the National Communities of Voivodina” puts the O¤A decreasing Hungarian population emphasis on the restoration of the accredited to ongoing assimilation tac- provincial autonomy of Voivodina on tics, mass emigration (between 50,000- the basis of an agreement with the gov- 100,000 people since 1991 in response ernment. The concept contains three to the war and to avoid military service), forms of autonomy: personal self-gov- census manipulations, and the subsi- ernment, territorial self-government, dized influx of “Serbian refugees” from and provincial autonomy for Voivodina Bosnia and Croatia O¤Continued ethnic tensions against Hun- Current Situation- Some Negative Develop- garians, esp. by “Serbian refugees” who ments often have weapons. Examples include O¤The issue of renewed Autonomy for Hungarian grave desecrations, black- Voivodina has not been granted or even mail, and racist Graffiti been seriously considered by the

56 Patrick Burlingame: Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present and Future

6. Future Scenarios… tives to remain in native countries has failed for the most part (the status law) Migration Under this scenario, Hungarian minori- Assimilation ties will continue to immigrate to Hun- In this scenario, ethnic Hungarian gary or the west until essentially there minorities feel abandoned or choose to are very few if any ethnic Hungarians in stay behind for a number of reasons. neighboring countries. Regions where Eventually they are assimilated into ethnic Hungarians have lived for hun- their respective countries of residence. dreds of years will be abandoned. A sad prospect. Why this scenario might unfold… O¤ Why this scenario might unfold…. It may be argued that the massive waves of post-communist migration has ended O¤There have already been tens if not a leaving an aging and unskilled popula- few hundred thousand migrants since tion with no desire or reason to leave the changes of 1989. The German com- munity of Transylvania may serve as a Refuse to leave family, friends and their good example of what may happen home town/village behind O¤ O¤It is relatively easy for ethnic Hungari- Undoubtedly, once Hungary becomes a ans to migrate as they 1.)Require only 5 member of the EU, stricter barriers and years of residency in Hungary to achieve conditions will prevail for those wanting Hungarian citizenship 2.) Speak the lan- to leave Romania and Serbia. Hungary’s guage/understand the culture 3.) Often 2001 Status Law was passed in order to have substantial contacts and family stem migration. members in Hungary O¤Many ethnic Hungarians from neighbor- O¤Educational and economic opportunities ing countries feel rejected and looked in Hungary are significantly better then down upon in Hungary. Accused by in neighboring countries some of “stealing” jobs due to their will- ingness to work for less. Why leave O¤Continued ethnic discrimination and home? harassment in neighboring countries O¤ gives people reason to leave Many ethnic Hungarians come from O¤The benefits of EU citizenship via Hun- agricultural villages with no prospects in garian citizenship. Out of the neighbor- an urbanized Hungary. Better opportu- ing countries, only Slovakia stands to nities at home (esp. for those who enter the EU at the same time as Hun- choose to assimilate) gary, Romania has been given a 2007 O¤Slovakia, Romania, and Serbia have all entry date (highly subject to change) , employed to varying degrees tactics of whereas Serbia is very far from EU assimilation in their educational sys- prospects tems. A slow but on-going phenomenon O¤Hungary’s attempts to stem migration by O¤Imposition of national pop-culture via introducing educational/financial incen-

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the media and the changing demograph- European Charter for Regional or Minority ics of Hungarian towns and villages Languages, and The United Nations Decla- ration on the Rights of National, Ethnic, Integration Religious and Linguistic Minorities insure In this scenario, nationalism dissipates future Integration of which Hungary’s and regional partnership and trade neighbors are signatory (to varying increases. Regional Hungarian minori- degrees) ties become protected and cherished O¤Prospects for regional autonomy are dis- multi-cultural elements of historically tinct possibilities in some localities, in multi-cultural regions. Hungarians may line with EU norms even serve as a “bridge” between Hun- gary and neighboring countries bringing O¤It may be argued that neighboring states a never scene before age of prosperity have made significant attempts to and understanding. improve the situation of their minorities given their transitions from communist Why this Scenario may unfold… dictatorships not so long ago. Naturally, this is an ongoing process where only O¤EU membership seeks an agenda of time is needed integration, democracy, and regional prosperity. Hungary and neighboring Disintegration countries are on an irreversible path to As witnessed in nearby countries, rela- membership (Hungary/Slovakia in 2004, tions between ethnic communities Romania in 2007, Serbia at some later might become inflamed and lead to date). Might EU membership make the independence, or reintegration with issue of minorities irrelevant? Hungary proper through regional refer- O¤Hungary and it’s neighbors have already endum. made significant strides in improving their bi-lateral relationships through Why this scenario may unfold… friendship treaties guaranteeing minori- O¤Similar scenarios of “disintegration” ty rights and continued partnership have recently occurred in the region O¤Hungarian investment and trade has sig- including the violent break-up of the nificantly increased, especially in rela- former Yugoslavia or Slovakia’s break tion to ethnic Hungarian regions from Czechoslovakia O¤Attempts by Hungary to introduce legis- lation (such as the Status law), and by O¤Many Hungarian majority areas border offering substantial aid and grants shows Hungary in Romania, Slovakia, and Ser- a commitment to support minorities in bia neighboring countries O¤In Serbia, Kosovo may become inde- O¤International treaties protecting minori- pendent as well as Serb speaking Mon- ties such as the The Council Of tenegro leaving the Hungarians as the Europe’s Framework Convention for the only significant minority population. Protection of National Minorities, the Why will they remain?

58 Patrick Burlingame: Ethnic Hungarian Minorities: Past, Present and Future

O¤Ethnic violence in the recent past, ethnic The Europe of the future will be more discrimination continues. Governments united, stronger, more democratic and clos- moving slowly to guarantee protection er to the citizens than the present one. A for minorities Europe in which the notion and importance of absolute territoriality will fade away while O¤The possible election of ultra-nationalist at the same time the units above the state politicians that would severely alienate and the smaller ones below the state will ethnic Hungarians (some past examples become stronger. This will resolve the old – Vadim/Romania (run-off in last presi- dilemma of having to choose between the dential election), Milosevic/Serbia, “nations of Europe” or the “Europe above Meciar/Slovakia) and push them into nations” because the Europe of the 21st cen- scenarios leading to independence or re- tury will be a “community of communities.” integration Furthermore, disintegration is almost out of the question given the set nature of Hun- 7. Conclusion gary’s borders and the regions disposition for peaceful unity. It seems the scenario In a world where the is often would only be remotely possible if danger- an entity based on one language, ethnicity ous and unlikely events unfolded (such as the and religion it will be important for Hun- failure of the European Union or the rise of gary’s neighbors to give special attention to an ultra-nationalist dictator). their ethnic Hungarian minorities that On the other hand, while it appears there remain central to Europe’s rich cultural her- has been some limited assimilation, migra- itage. In many instances, Hungarians have tion will continue to be a the scenario of played substantial historic and cultural roles most probability in the near future. That is, in these traditionally multi-ethnic regions. until significant quantities of freedom as Countries should see their minorities as a well as economic and educational opportu- strength rather than a weakness. This is nities have become sufficiently institutional- especially important given the atrocities tak- ized for ethnic Hungarians in neighboring en against minorities in 20th century Europe Romania, Slovakia, and Serbia. Perhaps, from the World Wars to as recently as the these countries can take the positive exam- conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo. ples of other European minorities as an That said, of the four future scenarios out- example (most notably the Swedes of Fin- lined in this presentation, integration is the land and the Alånd islands autonomous most likely outcome in the long-term not to region). mention the most optimistic. This is espe- cially true given the agendas of neighboring governments and their drive for member- ship in the European Union. In accordance, Tibor Szabo, chairman of the government office for Hungarian minorities abroad has stated that:

59 Selected References

Act on Hungarians living in neighboring Countries (The Status Law). www.hungary.com/corvinus/lib/status/status.pdf Biró, Zoltan & Lôrincz, József D. (editors) (1999). Szeklerland In Transition. Miercurea-Ciuc, Romania: Pro-Print Cadzow, John F. (Editor) (1983). Transylvania: The Roots Of Ethnic Conflict. Ohio” The Kent State University Press. Council of Europe website. www.coe.int Including: - European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1992) - ETS No. 14 -Framework Convention on the Protection of National Minorities (1995) - ETS No. 157 Daruvar, Yves de (1971). The Tragic Fate Of Hungary. Pennsylvania: Alpha Publications. Ethnic cleansing in post-World War II Czechoslovakia: the presidential decrees of Edward Benes, 1945-1948 . www.hungary.com/corvinus/lib/cze.htm European Union Website. www.europa.eu.int Government Office for Hungarian Minorities Abroad. www.htmh.hu Including: -Treaty on Good Relations and Friendly Co-operation between the Republic of Hungary and the Slovak Republic (March 19, 1995) -Treaty between the Republic of Hungary and Romania on Understanding, Co-operation and Good Neighbourhood (Septem- ber 16, 1996) -Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Hungary and the Government of Romania (December 22, 2001) -Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (1992) - Reports on Hungarians living abroad for Slovakia, Romania, and Serbia-Montenegro - All Graphs and Diagrams presented in this presentation Hevizi, Jozsa: Autonomy in Historic Hungary. A comparison of the treatment of minorities in the rest of Europe and Hungary. Jeszenszky, Géza (Hungarian Ambassador - June 28, 2001 remarks): “Restoration of Voivodina’s Autonomy: Model of Multi-Eth- nic Stability”. The Capital building in Washington. Kálman Janics. (1982) Czechoslovak Policy and the Hungarian Minority. New York: Columbia University Press. Köpeczi, Béla (editor) (1994). History of Transylvania. : Akademiai Kiadó. Ludanyi, Joó (editor) (1994). The Hungarian Minorities Situation In Ceausescu’s Romania. NewYork: Columbia University Press. Magyarody, S. J.(ed.)(2001):The East-Central European Syndrome.Unresolved Conflict in the Carpathian Basin. Toronto: Math- ias Corvinus pub. Molnár, Eva (editor) (2001). Hungary Essential Facts, Figures, and Pictures. Budapest: Kossuth Printing House. Talks with various Hungarian University Students in Szeged from Transylvania and Voivodina. Treaty of Peace Between the Allied and Associated Powers of Hungary signe on June 4, 1920 (Treaty of Trianon) www.hungary.com/corvinus/lib/trianon/trianon.pdf Vadkerty K. (1993). Re-Slovakization. Bratislava/Pozsony: Kalligram Vago, Raphael (1989). The Grandchildren of Trianon. New York: Columbia University Press.

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