University of Alberta Rescue of Jews in the Slovak State (1939 – 1945) by Nina Paulovicova A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Department of History and Classics ©Nina Paulovicova Spring 2012 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. The author reserves all other publication and other rights in association with the copyright in the thesis and, except as herein before provided, neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatsoever without the author's prior written permission. Abstract This dissertation targets the topic of rescue of Jews in the Holocaust in World War II. It offers a thorough examination of the defiance mechanics of rescue and looks at how precisely rescuers undermine the pillars of totalitarian regimes. The locus for the empirical part is the Slovak State, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. This dissertation scrutinizes the mindset behind efforts to assist Jews, the obstacles on paths to rescue as well as strategies applied in order to overcome legal and societal persecution of Jews. This project builds on the premise that agencies of any individual fluctuate, merge and change accordingly with the developments of the war. This study also undermines the widely accepted view of the rescue of Jews as static and one-dimensional and highlights rescue acts’ heterogeneous and amorphous nature. Weaving the shades of compliance of Slovaks with the clerico-fascist regime into the story of the assistance/non- assistance to Jews aims to produce a “collage of multiple ambiguities” and “grey zones” of rescue. Rather than celebrating acts of rescuers, this dissertation focuses on the path to rescue of which the acts of rescuers were just one piece in a long chain of events in wartime Slovakia. What are the silenced facets of the rescue of Jews that have not been acknowledged, and why have they not been? Why did the topic of rescue emerge as a prominent theme in public forums in recent years? This dissertation not only looks at rescue more broadly, engaging with models of defiance of totalitarian states, but also sheds light on the controversy over the understanding of the Slovak World War II milieu. Acknowledgements My journey from a problematic postcommunist milieu to Canada was not only a journey to greater economic opportunities in North America, but more important, a journey of intellectual enlightenment. I am sincerely thankful to my supervisor, Professor John-Paul Himka, a prominent scholar of the Ukrainian Holocaust, whose guidance throughout my studies has enabled me to develop a deeper understanding of Holocaust history. I benefited from his courses on the Holocaust as well as the University of Alberta Holocaust and Memory workshop that he initiated. Perhaps most important, Professor Himka turned my attention to avenues of investigation previously unknown to me. In short, I would never have been able to finish my dissertation without intellectual direction from such a knowledgeable scholar and the general support of such a wonderful person. In addition, I am grateful to my advisory committee. Professor Dennis Sweeney’s outstanding course on Nazi Germany allowed me to set forth the history of the clerico-fascist Slovak state within a broader perspective. Professor Beverly Lemire opened my mind to the fascinating topic of gender, which was terra incognita in the Central European postcommunist era. Professor Guy Thompson’s course on material culture – the first course I ever took on American soil – provided a sobering view of methodology in history. I would also like to thank a number of other people whose support gave me much needed energy to overcome the often sad, tragic and depressing nature of the topic in question. Holocaust survivor Pavol Hronec, who unfortunately passed away this year, encouraged me in my work during times of personal tragedy; I dedicate this work to the memory of this exceptional person. I am thankful to the director of Hlohovec Museum, Jozef Urminský, who not only facilitated contact with Pavol Hronec in Jerusalem but also pointed out useful material. I owe much to Professor Eduard Niž ňanský at Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia: besides his outstanding work on the Holocaust in Slovakia, to which I am indebted, he became a great friend, helping me establish academic relations with Holocaust scholars in Slovakia such as Ivan Kamenec, Martina Fiamová and Martin Macko while offering advice and support without which I would not have been able to overcome obstacles I faced along the way. I offer my regards and blessings to all who supported me during the completion of the project. I am greatly indebted to dear friends and colleagues Sarah Waurechen, Sean Atkins, Rob Desjardins and Tanya Henderson. Sarah’s informal breakfast club at Good Earth alleviated the pressures I was exposed to during my studies and brought more light and humour to my life. Per Anders Rudling, Srdja Pavlovic, Heather Coleman, Marya Melentyeva, Bryan Gold, Kamila Štulerová, David Buchanan, Igor Jakab and Alan Rutkowski assisted me or contributed to my work in various ways. I am thankful to the people outside academia who supported me in difficult times. I would not be able to withstand the pressures of emigration, academic life and motherhood without the support of my mother, Mária Paulovi čová, as well as my husband Martin Ková č, Stanislava Stan čeková, Jana Rychlikova, Henrich Rychlik, Denisa Larišová, Ingrid Pagá čová, Katarína Psicová, Miloš Rácik, Ivana Gergi čová, Miroslav Tomašovi č, Martin Štipák and Rišo Stolárik. The attitude of staff members at various archives in Slovakia made a huge difference, helping me to overcome challenges that arose during the completion of this project. Despite the cold reception and unaccommodating assistance offered at the Slovak National Archive, I was lucky to come across enthusiastic and supportive staff in the State District Archive in Trnava, the Regional Archive in Bratislava and Nadácia Milana Šime čku. I have benefited from a number of awards and scholarships that helped me to conduct research in Slovak archives and complete this study, including: a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Doctoral Fellowship, the Andrew Stuart Memorial Graduate Prize, the Queen Elizabeth Graduate Scholarship, the David Marples Travel Award, Stipendium Gizely Fleischmanovej and Štipendium Park Uš ľachtilých Duší. Portions of the introduction to this dissertation are forthcoming in Bringing the Dark Past to Light: The Reception of the Holocaust in Postcommunist Europe , edited by John- Paul Himka and Joanna B. Michlic (University of Nebraska Press). A very short section of Chapter 2 was translated from my previous work Židovská komunita v dejinách mesta Hlohovec. (1938 – 1945) Príbeh, ktorý prešiel tmou published in 2009. Table of Contents Introduction Chapter I, From Marginalization to Mythologization: Mapping the Rescue Discourses in Postwar and Postcommunist Slovakia / 1. Chapter II, “The Grey Zone of Assistance to Jews.” On the Path to the Rescue of Jewish Doctors / 48. Chapter III, “Undisciplined Aryanizers.” Mapping the Terrain of Assistance to Jews within the Context of Aryanization Policies / 111. Chapter IV, The Silenced Phenomenon of Cross-National Rescue: “Leaking Border” and Paid Smugglers / 176. Chapter V, “On the Path to the Cross.” Baptism as a Means of Rescuing Jews from Deportations in 1942 / 245. Conclusion / 307. Bibliography / 315. List of Figures Figure 1, 1 March 1943 - Religion of 18,945 ethnic Jews Figure 2, An insight into the denominations of 8002 baptized Jews not concentrated in labour camps dated from 1 March 1943. Figure 3, More detailed look at Figure 2. An insight into the denominations of 2,568 Jews baptized prior 14 March 1939. Figure 4, An insight into the denominations of 5,434 Jews baptized between 14 March 1939 and 1 March 1943. Table 1, Number of Jews in Slovakia on 1 March 1943 (after the 1942 deportation) Introduction On 25 October 1996 I was invited to a tiny one bedroom apartment on Vinohradská Street in Hlohovec, a small town situated in Southwestern Slovakia. As I reached for the doorbell I realized that the apartment doors were open. The calm voice of Rabbi William Glück encouraged me to step inside. Rabbi Glück apologized for his unusual welcome and explained that on Saturdays his actions were restricted by the need to respect the Sabbath and avoid any activity that might be considered “work.” He kept his door opened so that his nieghbours could hear him if he called for assistance. The purpose of our meeting was to discuss a taboo theme – the fate of the Jewish community in Hlohovec in World War II. Despite his age, Rabbi Glück’s mind was extremely sharp. We discussed his father’s effort to alert the Slovak president Jozef Tiso about the fate of the deported in an unanswered letter. We also discussed the fate of many Hlohovec Jews and the Rabbi’s own painful experience in Auschwitz in 1944 – 1945. When I asked him how he managed to survive, Rabbi Glück replied that his survival was God’s will. Somewhat puzzled by the Rabbi’s answer I personally believed that it was this very tiny man’s spiritual strength that helped him to endure his suffering. It was this discussion that piqued my curiosity about exactly how some survived the Holocaust when so many others perished.