Acknowledgments 1 Background

NOTES Acknowledgments 1. Science and Science Policy in the Arab World , published by Centre for Arab Unity Studies 1979 and Croom Helm, 1980; and The Arab World and the Challenges of Science and Technology: Progress without Change , published by Centre for Arab Unity Studies, 1999. 1 Background 1. These numbers, as we shall see, are approximate. 2. “10 Emerging Technologies 2009,” Technology Review 102, 2 (April 2009), 37–54. 3. For a report on the ongoing debate in Germany on this issue, see Carter Dougherty, “Debate in Germany: Research or Manufacturing,” New York Times , August 12, 2009. 4. See Alvin and Heidi Toffler, Revolutionary Wealth (Currency Doubleday, 2006), 94. 5. Ibid., part 6, 146ff. 6. Gavin Weightman, The Industrial Revolutionaries: The Making of the Modern World (Grove Press, 2007). 7. It is speculated that the steam engine may have been invented earlier by Pharaonic priests and that knowledge of this invention was available to Hero of Alexandria at about 10 to 60 CE 8. It seems that cats became domesticated around 1450 BC and were used at that time to protect granaries in Egypt. See, for an interesting account of the cat in Egypt, Jaromir Malek, The Cat in Ancient Egypt (London: The British Museum Press, 2006), 54–55, Revised Edition. 9. Research concerning the conversion to steam shipping was already well under way. See Christine Macleod, Jeremy Stein, Jennifer Tann, and James Andrew, “Making Waves: The Royal Navy’s Management of Invention and Innovation in Steam Shipping, 1815–1832,” History and Technology , 16 (2000), 307–333. 10. Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (Allen Lane, 2007). 204 NOTES 11. Ibid., 15. 12. Mayssun Succarie, “Winning Hearts and Minds: Education, Culture and Control,” PhD dissertation, Berkeley: University of California, 2008. 13. For example, there was not a single Arab university in the top 500 universities list before 2008. See Said El-Sidiqqi, “Arab Universities and the Quality of Scientific Research,” al-Mustaqbal al-Arabi 350, 4 (2008), 70–93. By 2011 a few Egyptian and Saudi universities joined the top 500 universities in the Shangai list. 2 R&D in the Arab World 1. The literature on R&D in the Arab countries is a lively subject and does receive attention, but there is little effort to improve the available data. Furthermore, there are no bibliographical compilations of sources. 2. The reader is directed to the footnote to *Table A (*Appendix 1) on the accuracy of this data. 3. I have discussed the output during this period in my Science and Science Policy in the Arab World (Croom Helm, 1980). 4. ISI is often referred to as the Web of Knowledge and/or Science Citation Index. It is owned by Thompson Reuter. 5. This table, along with all other tables preceded by an asterisk, may be found online at http://us.macmillan.com/sciencedevelopmentand sovereigntyinthearabworld/ABZahlan. 6. The shift in the slope of the curve in figure 2.1 at 1995–1996 shows the extent of the difference in SCOPUS and ISI counts. SCOPUS gives higher counts than ISI, probably because it includes more of the peri- odicals published in the region. 7. See footnote to *Table A in *Appendix 1 for further details. The Jordan and Lebanon data show substantial advances; however, it was found that much of the increase from these two countries arises from errors result- ing from the inclusion of sources not based in Jordan or Lebanon. 8. See E. B. Worthington, Middle East Science: A Survey of Subjects other than Agriculture (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1946). 9. It is often forgotten how recently the United States established its great organizations of advanced scientific research and education. It did not have significant graduate schools until the First World War. These were established by emigrant scientists and by American students who pursued their graduate work in Europe (mostly in Germany, the inventor of the graduate school). For comparison, it is useful to note that some 100,000 Arab students are enrolled in OECD postgraduate schools. During the period of the initial rapid growth of American graduate schools (1880–1914), the newly established US graduate schools graduated some 14 PhD students for each American who studied abroad for a PhD (Unpublished work by A. B. Zahlan on foreign study of American students, 1880–1914). NOTES 205 Considerable private donations to support the establishment of US graduate schools were made to both the “old” universities (Harvard, Yale, and Princeton) and to pioneer the establishment of graduate schools and new universities. Interestingly, research in the United States was spontaneously integrated into the economy. Self-reliance was already an American trademark. 10. The expression “technology-free turnkey contracts” is used through- out the book to imply that a particular contract did not involve the acquisition of technology by relevant organizations in the host country. 11. This affiliation gives us the numbers we obtain from the citation indices, whether ISI or SCOPUS. 12. In 2005, some 684 publications (47 percent of the total) were wrongly included in the listing of Lebanon and some 153 (13 percent of the total) were included in those of Jordan. These errors were corrected in *Table A (*Appendix 1). This anomaly arose from a systemic error caused by the search engine. 13. Papers that fall in two or more subject areas are counted once under each area. 3 R&D and Its Functions 1. See A. B. Zahlan, Acquiring Technological Capacity: A Study of Arab Consulting and Contracting Firms (Macmillan, 1991). 2. Nicholas Nassif, The Republic of Fuad Chehab (Dar al-Nahar: Institute of Fuad Chehab, 2008). 3. Searches for titles of publications using key words have limitations. Furthermore, using only the publications of two years (2000, 2005) for the search emphasizes fluctuations in research output per subject area in small research communities. The results yield a worst case scenario. The reality should be slightly better. A survey of a decade of output would naturally give a better assessment. 4. “The GCC Likely to Pump $200 Billion into Renewable Energy,” The Emirates Business 24/7 Newsletter , July 8, 2009. 5. It is noteworthy that during the 1970s the Arab countries had a boom- ing program in solar energy. See M. Ali Kettani and M. A. S. Malik, Solar Energy in the Arab World: Policies and Programs (Kuwait: OAPEC, 1979). This Report has 199 pages of information on these activities. But this effort seems to have evaporated leaving little trace. The cur- rent efforts have no relation to hundreds of earlier projects. The earlier programs were propelled heavily by local expertise. 6. This work by Moza al-Rabban, director of ARSCO, was undertaken to investigate mechanisms for networking researchers in the Arab world. I am grateful to Dr. Al-Rabban for this contribution. 206 NOTES 7. Jeffrey Mervis, “An Insider/Outside View of US Science,” Science , 325 (July 10, 2009), 132. The survey inquired into a wide variety of American perceptions concerning US science. 8. C. N. R. Rao. “Science in the Future of India,” Science , 325 (July 10, 2009), 126. 9. Travel by Arabs within the Arab countries is far more controlled than travel by foreigners. 10. Arab universities graduate some 100,000 engineers annually in various fields. The accumulated number of Arab engineers is of the order of 1.5 million or more. The absence of adequate statistical information leaves us in the dark as to their actual location and employment. 4 Science, Universities, and Enterprise 1. Clement M. Henry and Robert Springborg, Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East (Cambridge University Press, 2001), provide the type of analysis that exhibits the functioning of the triad subject to political culture. Some readers may disagree with some of the analysis presented by Henry and Springborg; what I would like to highlight here is the nature of the processes that determine triad output. Kevin Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny provide a concise explication in “Why is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?” American Economic Review 83, 2 (1993), 409–414. A seminal paper on the dynamics of the processes is provided by William J. Baumol, “Entrepreneurship: Productive, Unproductive, and Destructive,” Journal of Political Economy 98, 5, pt. 11 (1990), 893–921. These different approaches provide a useful explication of how triad relationships are dominated by the political economy. 2. A. B. Zahlan, “Established Patterns of Technology Acquisition in the Arab World,” in A. B. Zahlan and Rosemarie Said Zahlan (eds), Technology Transfer and Change in the Arab World (Pergamon Press, 1978), 1–27. 3. Linant de Bellefonds was a self-taught engineer who devoted his life to working in Egypt during the nineteenth century. He was essen- tially a high-ranking civil servant in the government of Muhammad Ali. He has written a comprehensive study of the civil engineering history of the canals and lake systems of Egypt from their beginning during the Pharaonic period to the end of the period during which he served in Egypt. His account provides details and on-site observa- tions that are both interesting and unique: Linant de Bellefonds Bey, Memoires sur les principaux travaus d’utilité publique executes en Égypte depuis la plus hautes antiquité jusqu’a nos jours , ed. Arthus Bertrand (Paris, 1972–1973). 4. A. B. Zahlan, Science and Science Policy in the Arab World (Croom Helm, 1980), 37. NOTES 207 5. In fact, much of the information presented in this book seeks to dem- onstrate that the Arab countries have had, and continue to have, mas- sive opportunities to activate their triads, but they constantly reject the option.

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