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Marhasi Et La Civilisation De L'oxus

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Marhasi Et La Civilisation De L'oxus Iranica Antiqua, vol. XLV, 2010 doi: 10.2143/IA.45.0.2047119 MARHASI ET LA CIVILISATION DE L’OXUS PAR Henri-Paul FRANCFORT* & Xavier TREMBLAY** (*CNRS ArScAn, Asie Centrale, Nanterre & **Université de Cologne)1 Abstract: Marhasi and the Oxus Civilization (BMAC) are proposed to be identi- fied on the basis of textual and archaeological evidence dating of the Akkadian, Ur III and Isin-Larsa periods, between ca. 2300 and 1750 BC. Part I is a fresh review of all the literary sources mentioning the kingdom of Marhasi in the Mesopotamian documents in various languages. Part II discusses the archaeo- logical evidence from Eastern Iran and Central Asia, regarding the location this kingdom and its relationships with the Indus Civilization, Iran, and Mesopotamia. Agreeing that Marhasi is located East of Elam, both parts conclude however that the identification of Marhasi with the Kerman or Baluchistan province of Iran propounded by P. Steinkeller and F. Vallat is not only insufficiently established, but does not fit well with the archaeological evidence as well as with some texts (esp. Narâm-Sîn's royal inscriptions, Enki and Ninhursag and the Curse of Akkad) and therefore propose a better alternative, the Central Asian Oxus Civilization. As the first part also points, it is as a matter of fact possible that the very name Margiana may derive from Marhasi. In the third part, the whole evidence about the language of the Oxus civilization is gathered; the evidence from the personal names seems to point towards an Eastern variant of Hurrian. Key words: Marhasi, Oxus Civilisation, BMAC, Bronze Age, Central Asia, Bactria, Margiana, chlorite, lapis lazuli, leopard, tulip, trade routes, Elam, Meluhha, Gonur Depe, Dashly Tepe, Kerman, Jiroft, Tepe Yahya, Hurrian, Urar- tian, Akkad, Ur III, Rimus, Iranian, loanwords in Indo-Iranian, Mesopotamian onomastics, Enki and Ninhursag, Indo-Iranian migrations towards India and the Near East. 1 La première partie (hormis l’introduction) et la troisième ont été rédigées par Xavier Tremblay, l’introduction liminaire (chap. I A) et le second chapitre par Henri- Paul Francfort; l’article en son entier exprime des convictions communes. Grand merci à Michael Jursa (Université de Vienne) pour son aide. 22497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd 5511 115-04-20105-04-2010 009:34:549:34:54 52 H.-P. FRANCFORT – X. TREMBLAY I. Le toponyme Marhasi, av. Mouru- et le nom de la Margiane A. Introduction Voici un quart de siècle, P. Steinkeller2 a publié un article fondateur dans lequel, reprenant les sources cunéiformes mentionnant le pays de Marhasi, il proposait de ne plus le localiser en Mésopotamie du nord, mais de le chercher à l’est, au-delà de l’Elam. A l’aide des informations textuel- les et archéologiques à sa disposition, il proposait de situer Marhasi en Iran du sud-est, dans le Kerman. Cependant, les découvertes archéologiques effectuées depuis vingt-cinq ans en Asie centrale et en Iran conduisent les auteurs à rouvrir le dossier et à proposer une identification alternative de Marhasi, cette fois avec la Civilisation de l’Oxus (ou Bactro-Margian Archaeological Complex alias BMAC). Les découvertes et les fouilles de la vallée du Halil Roud (Jiroft), ainsi que celles faites en Margiane deman- dent pour cela d’être comprises dans le contexte des relations internationa- les de ces périodes, de la Mésopotamie à l’Indus. Les arguments de Steinkeller pour situer Marhasi à l’est d’Elam et Ansan, c'est-à-dire dans l’Est de l’Iran ou à l’est du plateau Iranien, sont corrects et il nous semble important d’en résumer les points les plus saillants. Le pays de Marhasi ou Barahsi (akk. Parahsum) se rencontre dans les sources d’époque akkadienne, d’Ur III et Paléobabylonienne (Isin- Larsa). Ces sources sont détaillées et discutées plus bas (I). Selon une inscription akkadienne, Naram-Sin était en possession de «la totalité du pays d’Elam jusqu’à Marhasi et du pays de Subartu (la Méso- potamie du nord) jusqu’à la ‘Forêt des Cèdres’ (Amanus)» (infra, iv). Le royaume de Kindattu, roi simaskien d’Elam et adversaire d’Ibbi-Sin, s’étendait «d’Arawa, la porte d’Elam (probablement Urua dans le NO de la Susiane) jusqu’à la frontière de Marhasi» (infra, xxii). D’autres sources confirment la localisation orientale, par rapport à l’Iran central, de Marhasi, pays d’où proviennent des pierres semi-précieuses et divers animaux et plantes exotiques, ainsi que son association constante avec des contrées lointaines (Makkan, Meluhha = la Civilisation de l’Indus). P. Steinkeller s’orientait donc vers «eastern Fars and Kerman». Cette localisation générale est confirmée par les contacts que Marhasi a entretenus avec la Mésopotamie. Les textes présentent Marhasi comme une 2 Steinkeller 1982. 22497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd 5522 115-04-20105-04-2010 009:34:559:34:55 MARHASI 53 puissance politique majeure qui contrôlait la partie orientale du plateau Iranien et qui agissait comme un intermédiaire entre d’un côté la Mésopo- tamie et l’Elam, à l’ouest, et de l’autre Meluhha, à l’est. Les plus anciennes mentions de ce pays datent du règne de Sargon (2334-2279) (infra, 0°). Pendant sa campagne en Elam, qui vraisemblablement ne dépassa guère la Susiane, ce souverain vainquit l’armée du frère du roi de Marhasi (infra, ii). Sous Rimus (2278-2270), le conflit se poursuivit. Le roi de Marhasi et son «gouverneur», alliés à Zahara, Elam, Kupin et Meluhha furent vain- cus; Rimus se targue même d’avoir «arraché les racines de Marhasi du pays d’Elam» (infra, iii). Marhasi apparaît encore sous le règne de Naram- Sin (2254-2218) (infra, xxvi, xxxii) et sous celui de Kindattu qui désigne la frontière de Marhasi comme l’extrémité la plus orientale de son empire (infra, xxii), tout comme le fait Hammourabi (infra, xxiv). Dans la 18ème année de son règne, Sulgi (2094-2047), donna sa fille en mariage à un roi de Marhasi dont nous ignorons le nom (infra ix). Sous Amar-Sin (2046- 2038), Su-Sin (2037-2029) et Ibbi-Sin (2028-2004), des émissaires du roi de Marhasi voyagèrent et séjournèrent en Mésopotamie (infra, x à xix). Les textes d’Ur III mentionnent des détachements de soldats de Marhasi servant comme troupes d’élite en Mésopotamie (infra, xix). Après Ur III, Ilum-muttabbil de Der, allié de Marhasi, prétendit avoir défait les armées d’Ansan, Elam et Simaski (infra, xxiii). Dans la trentième année de son règne, Hammurabi (1792-1750), se dit victorieux des armées d’Elam «jusqu’à la frontière de Marhasi» (infra, xxiv). Plus tard, les sources his- toriques cessent de citer Marhasi, ce qui indique soit que ce royaume cessa d’exister, soit que les contacts avec la Mésopotamie prirent fin. P. Stein- keller date l’apogée de l’influence politique du royaume de Marhasi de la période akkadienne ancienne, mais Marhasi continua d’être un «key Ira- nian power to at least as late as post-Ur III times». La mention datée de l’an 30 du règne d’Hammurabi (1762) peut donc donner un terminus rai- sonnable. Récemment, P. Steinkeller3 a de nouveau abordé la question, croyant renforcer l’identification au Kerman en reprenant, entre autres, la question de la mystérieuse pierre-duhsia de Marhasi, qu’il prend maintenant pour la chlorite et non plus pour l’agate comme il le faisait auparavant. Il donne ensuite une nouvelle vue d’ensemble des contacts historiques entre Marhasi, 3 Steinkeller 2006. 22497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd497-09_Iran_Antiq_45_04.indd 5533 115-04-20105-04-2010 009:34:559:34:55 54 H.-P. FRANCFORT – X. TREMBLAY Makkan et la Babylonie. À l’exception notable de F. Vallat, qui tient pour le Baloutchistan iranien4, de nombreux auteurs se sont ralliés à l’identifi- cation de Marhasi au Kerman. Ainsi en est-t-il de Timothy Potts, dans sa synthèse des rapports de la Mésopotamie avec l’Orient5. Daniel Potts, dans divers écrits6, élimine l’hypothèse du Kerman comme pouvant être le pays d’Aratta et finit par tenter une identification de la Civilisation de l’Oxus avec Simaski7. Pierre Amiet, pour sa part, a suggéré dernièrement très prudemment que Marhasi pourrait plutôt être la région de Shahdad8. La question est donc mûre pour un nouvel examen, d’autant plus que l’équi- valence Marhasi = Kerman commence à paraître comme admise et allant de soi dans des textes destinés au grand public, qui ignorent les découver- tes de l’archéologie de l’Asie centrale. C’est pourquoi l’hypothèse de Marhasi = Civilisation de l’Oxus doit être exposée sans plus attendre. B. Attestations anciennes du toponyme Dans la littérature et la géographie mésopotamiennes du premier millé- naire, Marhasi dénommait, à côté de Makkan et Meluhha, un pays fabu- leux et lointain, proverbialement connu pour ses bêtes fauves et ses mines. Son nom du reste a survécu jusqu’à nos jours, via le syriaque ˚ marqsita (var. maqsita) puis l’arabe, dans la dénomination de la marcasite, sulfure de fer FeS2. Jusqu’au règne d’Hammourabi à l’orée du XVIIIe siècle avant l’ère vulgaire cependant9, Marhasi désigna indubitable- ment une contrée précise et réelle, quoiqu’extérieur à l’orbite des empires du croissant fertile. La forme de ce toponyme varie pourtant considérable- ment dans les sources10. 4 Vallat 1993. 5 Potts 1994b. 6 Potts 2004; Potts 2002. 7 Potts 2008b. 8 Amiet 2007; voir auparavant: Amiet 1986b: 137; 148. 9 La mention dans l’inscription sumérienne MDP XXVIII no 9 de Kurigalzu II d’Elam (Ku-ri-gal-zu | lu.gal kis | sag-gis-ra | MÙS.ERENKI | [NIM]KI-m[a]-bi-da | [mu]-na-qir | [Mar]-ha-si “Kurigalzu, roi du monde, qui a abattu Suse et l’Elam, qui a ruiné Marhasi”) est une simple réminiscence littéraire des inscriptions vieil-accadiennes de Sargon I et de Rimus (Scheil, MDP XXVIII, 11; Steinkeller 1982: 263 n.
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