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Bibliography

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Aacharne W early tools Acerenza S archbishopric Aelia Capitolina (modern ): Aachen NW Gennany early settlement, Achaea ancient country of SW Greece Palestine Roman city Carolingian capital, archbishopric SE Greece Athenian Aenus (modern ) NW Ab-yanah N Persia fire temple settlement Greek colony Abadiya U Egypt ancient temple Achenheim SW Gennany early tools Aerodrome E , Abaj Takalik S Guatemala early Achenheim III W Gennany hunter-gatherers hieroglyphs, Maya settlement site Aetolia ancient country of SW Greece AbbeviUe N early tools Achupallas C Ecuador Inca tambo Aexone SE Greece Athenian settlement Abdera NE Greece Greek colony AcigOl SE site Malou-bou-Rhummel N Africa, AbertTraw N Wales Ackman SW USA Pueblo farming site tools settlement Acolman C Mexico Aztec center Afanas'yeva Gora S Siberia Abitibi Narrows C , Ontario Acrae E Greek colony settlement Archaic site Acragas (als Akragas) S Sicily Greek Afareaitu Society I. early site Abivard NE Persia Parthian city colony Afikpo W Africa, early C France hunter-gatherer Acre Palestine early port Afontova Gora E hunter- site Adab C Mesopotamia early city, gatherer site Abrigo do Sol S early tools ancient palace, early writing Agades (Agadez) W Africa, Niger early Abu Dulaf Mesopotamia mosque of Adamgarh C Mesolithic site town Samarra Adana SE Anatolia Islamic town Agano W Korean Abu Ghosh S Palestine Neolithic site Aden SW Arabia early trade center, Agathe (modern Agde) S France Greek Abu Rawash L Egypt Islamic port, maritime trade colony Abu Salabikh C Mesopotamia early Adena NE USA, Ohio Adena site Aggersborg N Denmark Viking fortress city, early settlement, palace, early Adichanallur S India megalithic tomb Aggersund N Denmark shell writing Adilcevaz E Anatolia Uratian fortress Aggsbach hunter-gatherer site Abu Salem S Palestine Neolithic site Adloun Neanderthal site Aghtamar E Anatolia Byzantine walled Abu Seiyal U Egypt copper mine W Anatolia Byzantine town Abu Simbel U Egypt temple town Agop Atas NE Borneo Neolithic Abu Sir L Egypt pyramid, early burial Adrar Bous Africa, Niger Acheulian settlement Abydus (als ) U Egypt ancient tools, stone age tools, early cattle, early Agra C India Mughal , temple livestock Agris C France Celtic Acacus N Africa early pottery Adrar Madet N Africa, Niger wavy• Agua Bendida C Mexico Pre-Classical Acalan N Guatemala Aztec trade center line pottery site Acanceh Mexico, Yucatan Maya Adrar Tioueiine N Africa, Algeria Agua Blanco Ecuador early farming settlement early livestock settlement Acanthus (als Akanthos) NE Greece Adria N Italy Roman empire Aguilcourt NE France Greek colony Adulis ancient port, early trade cemetery Acari C Inca center Adwuku W Africa, hunter- Ahicchatra N India early city Acasaguastian S Guatemala Maya gatherers Ahllit E Anatolia Sinan mosque settlement Aegina (Aiyina) SE Greece ancient Ahmadabad W India Mughal mint Accra W Africa, Ghanna early port fortress, Greek temple Ahraura NE India rock edict

623 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 624

Ahteut Alaska Thule site Akreijit W Africa, Mauritania Troas NW Anatolia Easter I. early site Hellenistic city Ahu Ko Riku Easter I. early site Akroterion W Greece tholos tomb Ali Kosh NW Persia Neolithic site Ahu Te Pito Kura Easter I. early site Akrotiri NW sacred cave Ali Murad NW India Harappan site Easter I. early site Aksha U Egypt temple Alibates S USA, Texas Archaic site Easter I. early site Akshak C Mesopotamia early city Alice Boer S Brazil early settlement Ahuelican C Mexico Pre-Classical site Aksu C Asia early trade center, Alice Springs C Aboriginal Ahuriri , South I. Buddhist center site Ahutoru Society Is. early site Aktash SE Russia steppe settlement Aligrama N India later farming village Ahwaz W Persia Sasanian city Aktobe C Russia steppe settlement Alisar Hiiyiik E Anatolia Assyrian Aibunar C early copper mine Akun I. Aleutian Is. arctic culture colony, Hittite city Aila (modern Aqaba) Islamic Anbar (peroz Shapur) N Aljezur S rock-cut tomb town Mesopotamia Sasanian city Alkali Ridge SW USA Pueblo farming Aillevans E France megalithic tomb AI Fostat (Cairo) Egypt Islamic town site Ain Abou Jamaa NE Syria early tools AI Hira Islamic town AUahabadIPrayaga C India pillar edict Ain el Atroos N Africa, hunter- AI Huraydah SW Arabia temple remains AUahdino NW India early city, gatherers AI Kowm SE Syria early tools, Harappan site Ain Fritissa NW Africa, Neolithic site Almeria S medieval trade Stone Age tools AI Mada'in Iraq Islamic town Almizaraque SE Spain carved ivory Ain Hanech N Africa, Algeria Al Mina NW Syria ivory, Greek colony Almondbury N medieval town Acheulian tools AI Musharrahat Mesopotamia palace S Spain Carthaginian Ain Maarouf NW Africa, Morocco of Samarra cemetery Stone Age tools SW Anatolia Hellenistic city Alpiarca Portugal early tools Ain Mallaha S Syria Natufian site alabaster sources Anatolia and Syria, Alta N rock engraving Ain Taboos N Syria early tools Egypt Altamira NW Spain hunter-gatherer art Ainu hill forts N Japan Alaca Hiiyiik C Anatolia Hittite city Altamira SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Air W Africa early kingdom Alaka Guyana shell midden Altamura SE Italy rock-cut tomb and Aisne Valley NE France Iron Age N Syria early city carved ivory farming Alalia Greek colony Altar de Sacrificios E Mexico Maya Ail Garet N Algeria megalithic tomb Alamgirpur N India early city, settlement Aithaia SW Greece tholos tomb Harappan site Altbachtal W Romano- An Raouna N Algeria megalithic tomb Alandskoye C Russia barrow burial Celtic shrines Aix S France archbishopric Alapraia C Portugal beaker burial, Altenburg N Germany Celtic Ajanta W India rock-cut temples rock-cut tomb and carved ivory Altendorf N Germany megalithic tomb Ajbunar SE early copper mine Alborg N Denmark flint mine, Viking Altenritte N Germany Celtic site Ajdabiya N Africa, Islamic town center Altheim SE Germany defensive Ak Yum Neolithic settlement Alcaide S Spain rock-cut tomb enclosure Akan (Akanland) W Africa early Alcala S Portugal megalithic tomb Altintepe NE Anatolia Uratian fortress, kingdom Alcantarilla E Spain Roman dam Achaemenid city Akapana temple complex of Alcester I. New Guinea Kula gift Altin- C Asia Achaemenid palace Tiahuanaco exchange Alttrier W Germany Roman village Akaribaru SW Japan fishing site Aleksandropol SW Russia barrow Altun E Mexico Maya center Ake Mexico, Yucatan Maya settlement burial Altxerri N Spain hunter-gatherer art Akhalgori Caucasus and silver Aleksandrovka S Siberia steppe Altyn Tepe C Asia steppe settlement work settlement Alum Creek NE USA, Ohio Adena site Akhmim U Egypt noble's tomb, ancient (Beroea) N Syria early city, Amada U Egypt temple city, silk find Islamic town, Sinan mosque Amadzimba C Africa, Akhshtyr S Russia Neanderthal site Alexandria L Egypt Hellenistic city, hunter-gatherers Akita N Japan Heian fortress Roman provincial capital, Roman Amalfi S Italy archbishopric Akjoujt W Africa, Mauritania Islamic empire, early trade, early trading Amalucan C Mexico early town trade, early settlement capital, early iron, patriarchate, Islamic Amanzi S Africa Acheulian tools Akkermen SW Russia steppe town Amapa C Mexico early town settlement Alexandria Areion (modern Herat) Amara NW India Harappan site Akragas (Acragas, Agrigentum, Hellenistic city Amara U Egypt ) W Sicily Greek temple Alexandria (, Modern Amarapura C Burma Neolithic (Acrae) SE Sicily Greek colony Mary) S Russia Hellenistic city settlement 625 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Amaravati S India Buddhist site, early early pottery, , early S trade center, Buddhist stupa civilization, Assyrian empire, early Antwerp (Anvers) Viking Amarna see EI-Amama writing, , Greek mint Amasia (Amasea) NE Anatolia colonies, Hellenistic influence, Roman Anuradhapura N Ceylon early city, Byzantine walled town cities and fortresses, , early capital and Buddhist center, Amastris N Anatolia Roman provincial Ottoman empire Buddhist stupa capital Anaz E Anatolia Assyrian stela Anxi NW early trade center Amatitlan S Guatemala Maya C Peru early farming, Anxi SE China Sung kiln settlement preceramic site, Chavin site, Inca Anyang N China early city, early Ambilobe Ming pottery center writing, Shang capital, steppe bronzes Ambitle I. Lapita Ancona C Italy Roman city Anyar W early metal site site Ancylus Lake Baltic Anza W Bulgaria farming site, early Amboise C France Celtic oppidum Ancyra (modern Ankara) C Anatolia pottery Ambon (Amboina) E Indies, Moluccas Roman provincial capital, Byzantine Aotea New Zealand, North I. defended maritime trade walled town settlement Amchitka Aleutian Is. arctic culture Andernach (Antunnacum) W Apa N metal hoard Amecameca C Mexico early town, Germany hunter-gatherer site, hunter• Apache Creek SW USA Pueblo Aztec center gatherer art, Roman village farming site Amekni S Algeria early pottery, early Andrews N USA, Michigan Archaic W Syria Hellenistic city cereals site Apan C Mexico early town Amendola S Italy defensive enclosure Andronovo S Siberia steppe settlement Apatzingan C Mexico early town Amfreville N France Celtic art Angel W USA temple mound Apaxco C Mexico Aztec center (modern Diyarbakir) E Angers NW France monastery Aphidna SE Greece Athenian Anatolia Assyrian provincial capital Anghelu Ruju N rock-cut tomb settlement Amiens N France Viking trading Angkor Indo-China, Cambodia early SW Anatolia Neolithic monumental site, Khmer capital site, Roman city Amiklai S Greece metal vessels Buddhist center Apizaco C Mexico early town Amman Jordan Islamic town Angkor Borei Cambodia early Apodhoulou C Crete Minoan village Ammassalik (Angmagssalik) SE monumental site 11 Cave SW Africa, site Angkor Wat Cambodia temple complex Stone Age tools, Stone Age site Amnisos N Crete Linear B tablets Angles-sur-I' Anglin C France NE Africa Greek colony Amose E Denmark pollen core site Neanderthal site, hunter-gatherer art Apollonia (modern ) E Amoy SW Norway rock art Aniba U Egypt fortification Bulgaria Greek colony Amphiareion SE Greece theatre, Anjar Syria Islamic town Apollonia NW Greece Greek colony Athenian sanctuary Ankara (Ancyra) W Anatolia Islamic W Anatolia Hellenistic city Amri NW India Indus Valley town, Sinan mosque Apologos S Mesopotamia early trade settlement, early city, Harappan site Anlu N China early settlement Aptera NW Crete Linear B tablet Lebanon Neanderthal site Annagassan N Ireland Viking center Apulum (modern Alba lulia) Romania Amsa-dong C Korea shell mound Annapolis E USA, Maryland colonial Roman city and legionary fortress Amsterdam Holland early trade settlement Aquateca C Guatemala Maya Amud N Neanderthal site Annau C Asia steppe settlement settlement An Carra NW Scotland Anopolis N Crete Minoan village Aquileia (modern Aglar) NE Italy An Najaf S Mesopotamia holy city Ano Zakro E Crete Minoan village Roman city, archbishopric An Nhon (Binh Dihn, Vijaya) S Anta de Marquesa C Portugal Aquiles Serdan SE Mexico Pre• early site megalithic tomb Classical site Ana Iraq Islamic town Anta dos Gorgions S Portugal (modern Budapest) 'Anaeho'omalu Hawaiian Is. megalithic tomb Roman provincial capital and Antalaha Madagascar Ming pottery legionary fortress, silk find Anahulu Valley Hawaiian Is. early site Antinoe L Egypt silk find Arachosians ancient people of Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska Ipiutak site (Antiochia, modern Afghanistan Ananatuba E Brazil early horticultural Antakya) SE Anatolia Hellenistic Aracu W Brazil early settlement village city, Roman provincial capital, Roman Aradus (Ruad, Arvad) W Syria Anaphlystus SE Greece Athenian empire, early trading capital, Byzantine Phoenician city settlement walled town Arago SW France early tools and Anatolia early hominids, Neolithic and Antium (modern Anzio) C Italy human remains Palaeolithic settlement, early farming, Roman colony Arakamchechen I. E Russia Thule site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 626

Araouane W Africa, Mali early town Arkharinskiy SW Russia steppe Ashur N Mesopotamia pyramid, early Araphen SE Greece Athenian sanctuary settlement city, early writing, Mitannian city, Arapuni New Zealand, North I. rock Arkin U Egypt Archeulian tools Assyrian capital, Parthian city art Arkin 5-6A NE Africa, Egypt Stone Asikli Hiiyiik C Anatolia Neolithic site Araxos C Greece Mycenaean fortress Age tools Asine SE Greece Mycenaean tomb Araya C Japan early man Arkines SW Greece tho los tomb Askitario E Greece ancient fortress Arbela (Nad Ardashir, modern Arklow E Ireland Viking center Askiz S Siberia steppe settlement Arbil) N Mesopotamia Sasanian city Arkoudiotissa NW Crete sacred cave Aspendus SW Anatolia Hellenistic city, Arbil (Irbil, Arbela, Arba'i1u) N Arku Cave N Neolithic Roman city, Mesopotamia Mitannian city, Assyrian settlement S Peru pyramid, platform provincial capital Aries S France archbishopric mounds Arcadia region of S Greece Arlit N Africa, Niger early livestock Asprokhaliko C Greece Neanderthal Archaic Stage culture N America Arion (Orolaunum) S Belgium Roman site Archanes (Arkhanes) C Crete Minoan village Aspropirgos SE Greece Athenian village Armagh N Ireland archbishopric settlement Arcy-sur-Cure NE France Neanderthal Armant (Hermonthis) U Egypt ancient Assebakte N Norway Saami settlement site, hunter-gatherer site cemetery, ancient city Asselar N Africa, Algeria bone Ardabil N Persia Islamic town Armavir-Blur Urartian harpoons Ardales S Spain hunter-gatherer art fortress NW Anatolia Greek temple, Arelate (modern Aries) S France Armenia Assyrian empire Hellenistic city Roman city under Achaemenid empire Astakapra NW India early trade NW Italy hunter• Armstrong C Canada, Ontario Archaic Astana NW China Buddhist center gatherer site, hunter-gatherer, farming site Asuka-ltabuki C Japan Yamato palace settlement Aromaton Emporion (Mart of Asuncion Paraguay early trade Arequipa S Peru early trade Spices) NE Africa early trade Aswan (Syene) U Egypt granite site, Argalykty E Russia barrow burial Arpa Valley C Asia steppe settlement ancient mine, Islamic town, gold Argaru (modern Tiruchchirappalli) S Arpachiyah N Mesopotamia pottery Asyut U Egypt noble's tomb, ancient India early trade remains city early settlement Arpad (modern Tel Rifaat) Syria Atapuerca N Spain early human (modern ) Assyrian provincial capital remains NE France Roman legionary fortress Arpi S Italy Roman empire Atargan E Russia Thule site Argillite New Zealand Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk) N Atashgah N Persia fire temple Argissa N Greece farming site, early Mesopotamia early town, Assyrian , Atele early site pottery provincial capital Atfih U Egypt early capital Argoeuvres N France early tools Arras N England Celtic art Athos NE Greece Byzantine monastery Argolis region of S Greece Arras N France Frankish pottery kiln Athr Arabia Islamic town Argos S Greece anfortress, Arretium (modern Arezzo) C Italy Athribis L Egypt ancient city Hellenistic city, city-state Etruscan and Roman city Atlihuayan C Mexico Pre-Classical site Arguin W Africa, Mauritania early Arslantas NW Mesopotamia Assyrian Atlixco C Mexico early town town city Atranjikhera N India early city Arhus C Denmark Viking center Artajona N Spain megalithic tomb Atsinna SW USA Pueblo farming site Arians Ancient people of Afghanistan Artemita (Chalasar) C Mesopotamia Attalia (modern Antalya) SW Anatolia Arica N maritime trade Hellenistic city, Parthian city Hellenistic city, Roman city Aridos C Spain early tools Artik SW Russia steppe settlement ancient country of SE Greece Ariendorf NW Germany early tools Arvad W Syria Egyptian control Attigny N France Viking mint Arikamedu (Poduca) S India early Arvi S Crete Minoan village Attock NW India Harappan site city Arzhan E Russia barrow burial Atwetwebooso W Africa, Ghana Iron Ariminum (Ariminium, modern Asabon SE Arabia early trade Age site Rimini) N Italy Roman city Asahitokoro N Japan rice farming site Atzcapotzalco C Mexico early town, Arinberd Armenia Urartian fortress, Asejire W Africa, Nigeria hunter- Aztec town Achaemenid city gatherers Auch SW France archbishopric Ariste NE Brazil early settlement Ashdod S Palestine early port, Assyrian Auckland New Zealand, North I. Arita kilns W Japan Korean pottery provincial capital defended settlement Ariusd Romania Cucuteni-Tripolye Ashishik Point Aleutian Is. arctic Praetoria (modern Aosta) N village culture Italy Roman city Arkalochori (Arkalokhorion) C Crete Ashkelon (Ashqaluna) Palestine Augusta Treverorum (modern sacred cave Egyptian control Trier) N Germany Roman city 627 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Augusta Vindelicorum (modern Azanqaro C Peru Inca center Bairat N India early city ) S Gennany Roman city Azmak SW Bulgaria farming site, early Baishizidi E China E Chou burial Augustodunum (modern Autun) E pottery Baitu N China Tang kiln France Roman city Azmaska Mogila C Bulgaria tell Baker's Hole SE England early tools Aulnat E France Celtic site settlement Baksei Chamkrong Cambodia Aulnay-aux-Planches NE France Aznavur (Patnos) E Anatolia Urartian transitional settlement Bronze Age settlement fortress Bala W Egypt temple Aurangabad C India Mughal mint Aztalan N USA temple mound Balakot NW India Indus Valley Aurar NW India Harappan site Aztec Ruins SW USA Pueblo farming settlement, early city, Harappan site Aurignac S France hunter-gatherer site site E India early trade Ausculum (modern Ascoli Satriano) C S Russia early tools, Balat W Egypt noble's tomb Italy Roman empire Neanderthal site Baldegg lake dwelling Austrheim W Norway rock art W China Han city NE Scotland and Austronesian Language group Babadan N Japan early man Auvernier W Switzerland corded ware Babil N Mesopotamia Assyrian stela Balita (modern Varkkallai) S India settlement Babino SW Russia steppe settlement early trade Auximum C Italy Roman colony Babueski NW Turkey Sinan mosque Balkakra S Sweden metalwork Ava N Bunna Buddhist center Fossatum L Egypt, Roman Balkh (Bactra, Zariaspa) Afghanistan Avakana C Ceylon Buddhist site legionary fortress Islamic town, early trade Avaldsnes SW Norway early settlement Bacare (Bakare, Porakad) S India Ballmoos E Switzerland pollen core Avalites (Aualites) NE Africa, Somalia early trade site ancient port, early trade Bac Son N Indo-China, Vietnam cave W Scotland stone circle Avarua Cook Is. early site site Ballynagilly N Ireland pollen core site Avdeyevo C Russia hunter-gatherer art Bactra (Zariaspa, modern Ballynoe NE Ireland stone circle S England stone circle and Balkh) Afghanistan Achaemenid city, Ballyscullion N Ireland pollen core site henge Hellenistic city, early trade center Balmori N Spain shell midden Avennes N France flint mine Bad Bertrich W Gennany pagan shrine Balomir C Romania copper Avrille W France menhir Bad Nauheim C Gennany Celtic site Baluchistan Indus civilization Avukana N Ceylon Buddhist remains Bada N Celebes early metal site Balve Hohle W Gennany Neanderthal Awal N Mesopotamia early writing Badagri W Africa, Nigeria early town site Awamoa New Zealand, South I. moa Badegoule C France hunter-gatherer art Balyma C Russia steppe settlement bones Badopal NW India Harappan site Bamako W Africa, Mali Islamic trade, Awatobi SW USA Pueblo farming site Badorf N Gennany Rhenish pottery early settlement, early town Awdaghost W Africa, Mauritania kiln Bambata Cave SE Africa, Zimbabwe Islamic trade, urban center Bad-tibira S Mesopotamia early city Stone Age tools, Stone Age site Awlil W Africa, Mauritania early Badulla S Ceylon Buddhist remains Bamiyan Afghanistan Buddhist site, settlement Baeterrae S France native settlement rock-carved temple Axim W Africa, Ghana early port Bagarre N France early tools Bampur SE Persia Achaemenid city Axima SE France Roman provincial Bagh C India Buddhist center Chiang NE early plow, capital Baghouz E Syria pottery remains transitional settlement, moated site Axum NE Africa, early state, Bagneux NW France megalithic tomb Ban Don Ta Phet C Thailand early site early trade, rock-cut churches Bagor N India Mesolithic site Ban Kao S Thailand cave site Ayacucho Peru early farming Bagum C Mesopotamia pottery remains Ban Kao C Thailand early metal site Ayaviri E Peru Inca center Bagumbayan C Philippines Neolithic Ban Muang Fai C Thailand moated Ayia Gala S Aegean Neolithic site settlement site Ayia Irini SE Greece Mycenaean Bahariya Oasis W Egypt early Ban Na Di N Thailand transitional fortress cultivation settlement Ayia Marina NE Greece Mycenaean Baia Farta SW Africa, Angola Ban Prasat N Thailand transitional fortress Acheulian tools settlement Ayios Ilias W Greece tholos tomb Baijiacun N China E Chou cemetery Ban Ta Luang N Thailand transitional Ayios Ioannis NE Greece Mycenaean Baile Herculane Romania Mesolithic settlement fortress settlement Ban Tamyae C Thailand transitional Ayios Nikolaos SW Greece tholos tomb Bailongdong N China erectus settlement, moated site Ayios Theodhoros N Greece tholos Baimasi W China E Chou burial, Ming Ban Thamen Chai C Thailand moated tomb tomb site Ayutthaya C Thailand Buddhist stupa Baimiaofancun N China E Chou Banahilk N Mesopotamia pottery Azaila NE Spain native settlement bronze hoard remains Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 628

Banavali N India Indus Valley Barranc Blanc E Spain hunter-gatherer Beginners Luck Cave SE Australia settlement, Harappan site site early man Banavasi W India Deccan city Barton Ramie Maya settlement Begram (Bagram, Kapisa) Afghanistan Banbhore NW India Islamic port Barumini Sardinia fortified site Graeco-Bactrian city, early trade center Bandarawela S Ceylon Mesolithic site Barus N Sumatra early port Behistun (Bisitun) NW Persia rock Bandwai N Mesopotamia Assyrian rock Barygaza (Eng. Broach, Bharuch) inscription, , relief NW India early trade Beicaogou E China E Chou burial Banepi (Ngalo) Solomon Is. Lapita site Basi Corsica farming site, early Beicaopo N China Chou burial Banjul see Bathurst pottery Beidha S Palestine Natufian and Banks I. Solomon Is. Lapita obsidian N America Neolithic site Bafiolas N Spain Neanderthal site Basra S Mesopotamia Islamic port, Beisamoun S Syria Neolithic site Banpo N China early settlement, early Sinan mosque Beishouling N China early settlement kiln Bass Point SE Australia early man Beit el-Wali U Egypt temple Bantam E Indies, Java maritime trade Bassae SW Greece temple Beixinbao NE China E Chou cemetery Banteay Prei Nokor Cambodia early Basse-Yutz NE France Celtic site Beiyinyangying E China early monumental site Bastam E Anatolia Urartian fortress settlement, Longshan site Banting SE Canada fluted points Bastura Chai N Mesopotamia tunnel Beizhou N China Tang prefecture Baofeng N China Sung kiln Bat Cave SW USA, New Mexico Bekasmegyer E Hungary Copper Age Baoji N China Chou burial Archaic site, Pueblo farming site cemetery Baozitou SW China early pottery Bata C Hungary Celtic site Bel'kacha E Russia arctic culture Baqitun N China E Chou cemetery Batavia (Jakarta) E Indies, Java early Belbasi SW Anatolia Palaeolithic site, Bara-Bahou C France hunter-gatherer trade early pottery art Bathurst (Banjul) W Africa, Sierra Belcher S USA temple mound Barakaccha NE India Mesolithic site Leone early port Beldibi SW Anatolia Palaeolithic site, Barake NW India early trade Bathurst Head NE Australia early pottery Barapedi cave S India Mesolithic site Aboriginal site Belevi W Anatolia Hellenistic Barasimla C India Mesolithic site Batu Buruk C Malaya transitional mausoleum (Barbarikon) NW India settlement Bell N Canada Thule site early trade center Batu Ejaya S Celebes early metal site Bella N England medieval village Barbas C France Neanderthal site Batungan C Philippines Neolithic Bellefonds C France Mesolithic Barbegal S France Roman water mill settlement settlement Czechoslovakia hunter-gatherer Bau Tro N Vietnam Neolithic Belle-Roche Belgium early tools site, fortified site settlement Bellona I. Solomon Is. Lapita site Barca (Barke) NE Africa Greek colony Bau-de-l' Aubesier SE France Bellote E Mexico Maya settlement NE Spain medieval trade Neanderthal site Bellows Beach Hawaiian Is. early site N Wales Baulmes Switzerland Mesolithic Bellsas N Sweden Mesolithic settlement megalithic tomb settlement Belsk Ukraine Greek imports Bard-i Nishandah W Persia fire temple Baum E USA temple mound Beluga Point Alaska Pacific Eskimo Barger-Oosterveld N Holland early Bauma-Bonne SE France early tools, site temple Neanderthal site Belur S India Hindu religious site Barhorst E Germany early settlement BaumhotT's SW USA, Bendemeer E Australia Aboriginal site Bari S Italy archbishopric prehistoric diet Ben Do S Vietnam Neolithic settlement Baringo E Africa, early man Baz-i Hur NE Persia fire-temple Benevento (Beneventum) C Italy Barium (modern Bari) S Italy Roman Bazitou SW China cave site archbishopric empire Beaker burials Europe Beneventum (modern Benevento) C Barleben E Germany early tools Bear Is E Russia Thule site Italy Roman empire Barlovento N early Beaumetz-Ies-Loges N France early Benguela SW Africa, Angola Acheulian settlement tools tools Barm-I Dalak S Persia rock relief Beaurieux NE France Iron Age Beni Hasan U Egypt noble's tomb Barnack E England beaker burial cemetery Bennekom S Holland corded ware Barnaul S Siberia steppe settlement Beauvais N France Viking mint burial (Barnenes) NW France Becan E Mexico Maya center Bent NE USA, New York Archaic site megalithic tomb Bedeilhac SW France hunter-gatherer Benten N Japan Ainu Baror NW India Harappan site art Berbati S Greece tholos tomb Barqa N Africa, Libya Islamic town Bedford C USA, Illinois Hopewell site Berdyzh W Russia hunter-gatherer Barrancas C Venezuela early Bedsa S India rock-carved temple site horticultural village Begho W Africa, Ghana early city Berelekh E Russia hunter-gatherer art 629 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Berenice Red Sea ancient port, early Binglingsi NW China rock-carved Bodo Ethiopia trade center temple Boelkilde SW Germany bog body Berestnyagi Ukraine Greek imports Birbhanpur E India Mesolithic site ancient country of C Greece Berezan Ukraine Greek imports Birch Michigan Archaic site Bogazkoy C Anatolia Assyrian colony, Berezhnovka C Russia steppe Birdlip W England Celtic oppidium early writing, Hittite city settlement Birdsall N England medieval village Bogdnovka C Russia barrow burial Berezovka E Russia barrow burial Birka S Sweden Islamic trade, Viking Bogong Cave SE Australia Aboriginal Bergamo N Italy Celtic oppidum trading emporium site Beringia Asia-America land bridge Birkalein E Anatolia tunnel Bohai N China Han city Berkeley Point NW Canada Thule site Birkenfeld W Germany Roman village Boirra Lapita site Berkhat-Ram S Syria early tools Birket Habu U Egypt artificial harbor Bois du Rocher NW France Bern-Engelhalbinsel C Switzerland Birnin Gazargamu W Africa, Nigeria Neanderthal site Celtic oppidum early town Bolkar Dag S Anatolia Neolithic site Bernifal C France hunter-gatherer art Bir Sahara NE Africa, Egypt Bol'shaya Rechka S Siberia steppe Beroea (modern Aleppo) C Syria Acheulian tools, Stone Age tools settlement Hellenistic city Birsay Orkney Is. Viking center Bol'shoy Ulagan E Russia barrow Berry--Bac NE France Iron Age Birsmatten Switzerland Mesolithic burial settlement, defensive enclosure settlement, megalithic site Bolton N England medieval town (Beruta, modern ) Bir Tarfawi Egypt Acheulian tools, Bomaderry SE Australia Aboriginal Lebanon Phoenician city Stone Age tools site Berzine W Syria early tools Bisceglie S Italy, Neanderthal site, Bombo Kaburi Iron Age site Besanlton E France Celtic oppidum, megalithic tomb Bonampak E Mexico Maya settlement archbishopric SW Persia, Sasanian city Bonna (modern ) NW Germany Bechtasheni SW Russia steppe Bismantova N Italy urnfield Roman legionary fortress settlement Bisovaya C Russia hunter-gatherer site Bono Manso Ghana early town Besuki E Java early metal site Bissau Guinea-Bissau early port Bononia (modern Bologna) N Italy Betatakin SW US Pueblo farming site Bitburg (Beda) W Germany Roman Roman city Beth-shan (Beth-shean, Scythopolis) N village Bonteberg S Africa Stone Age site Palestine Egyptian fortress, Levantine Bitorri Cave Congo hunter-gatherers Boomborg-Hatzum NE Holland terp city and temple Biysk S Siberia steppe settlement settlement Betijoque NW Venezuela early Bizen C Japan pottery kiln Boomplaas S Africa Stone Age tools settlement Bizerta N Tunisia, Carthaginian city Boone Iowa Hopewell site Betuiov Spodmol Yugoslavia Bjerre N Denmark flint mine (Boudobriga) W Germany Mesolithic settlement Black Head New Zealand, North I. Roman village Buene Valley C France pollen core site early site Boqer Takhtit Israel Stone Age tools Beverley N England medieval town Black Patch SE England flint mine Borax Lake California Archaic site Beycesuitan W Anatolia farming site Black Rocks New Zealand, North I. Borazjan S Persia Achaemenid palace Bezeklik NW China rock-carved temple shell midden Borba C Brazil early settlement Bhagatrav NW India Harappan site Blackburn S Africa Iron Age site Cave S Africa Stone Age tools Bhaja S India rock-carved temple Texas Palaeo-Indian Borg in-Nadur fortified site Bhimbetka C India Mesolithic site site Borj Qinnarit Lebanon early tools Bhogavardhana W India Deccan city Blaka Kallia Chad Acheulian tools Borneo early settlement, early metal Biache-Saint-Vaast N France early Blea Tarn NW England pollen core site sites, early ports tools and human remains Blisnietsova Cave C Russia hunter- Borno Nigeria early state Bianzhou N China Tang perfecture gatherer site Borodayevka C Russia steppe Biepi W Africa, Nigeria early town Blistrup E Denmark musical settlement Bigo E Africa, Uganda Iron Age site instruments Borodino SW Russia metal hoard Bihourel N France early tools Bloody Fall N Canada Thule site Boroughbridge N England medieval Bilbilis (modern Cataiayud) C Spain Blucina W Czechoslovakia fortified site town native settlement Bluefish Cave NW Canada early Borremose NW Denmark early Billig (Belgica) W Germany Roman settlement settlement village Blue Jay Zimbabwe Iron Age site Borum Eshoj W Denmark barrow Bilma C Africa, Niger Acheulian tools, BlutT SW USA Pueblo farming site burial early settlement, early town Bobo Diouiasso Burkina early town Bosa Sardinia Carthaginian city Bilzingsleben E Germany early tools Boca del Rio SE Mexico early farming Bostra (modern Busra) S Syria Roman and human remains site provincial capital Bingley N England medieval town Bockstein S Germany Neanderthal site Bosumpra Cave Ghana early food Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 630

Bouar C Africa early settlement Bryncelli Ddu N Wales megalithic Cabeza del Plomo SE Spain ancient Bouga C Greece tholos tomb tomb fortress Bougon W France megalithic tomb Buang Bep S Thailand early metal Cacamahuilpa C Mexico Pre-Classical Boun Marcou S France beaker burial site site Bou Nouara NE Algeria megalithic Bubanj Hum E Yugoslavia tell Cacheu Guinea-Bissau early port tomb settlement Caddington S England early tools Bouqras SE Syria Neolithic site, early Bubastis L Egypt ancient city Caere (modern Cerveteri) C Italy pottery Buchanan N Canada Dorset site Etruscan city Boussargues S France ancient fortress Bucy-Ie-Long NE France Iron Age Caesaraugusta (modern Zaragoza) Boviolles NE France Celtic oppidum settlement NE Spain Roman city Boxgrove S England early tools Budakalasz W Hungary Copper Age Caesarea (modern ) N Boy Tepe E Anatolia Neolithic site cemetery Algeria Roman provincial capital Brahmagiri S India megalithic tomb Biidelsdorf N Germany defensive Caesarea Cappadociae (modern Branc E Czechoslovakia Copper Age enclosure Kayseri) C Anatolia Roman cemetery Budino N Spain early tools provincial capital, Byzantine bishopric Brand Arkansas Archaic site Buhen U Egypt early city, ancient city, W Palestine Brandskogen C Sweden rock art fortification Roman provincial capital Brankysek W Czechoslovakia corded Bui Ceri Uato SE Timor Caf Taht el Ghar Morocco farming ware burial cave site, Neolithic settlement site, beaker burial Brass Nigeria early town Bukit Chuping N Malaya cave site Cafer Hiiyiik E Anatolia Neolithic site Brassempouy SW France hunter- Bukit Tengu Lembu N Malaya early Cagny-Ia Garenne N France early tools gatherer art metal site C USA temple mound C Czechoslovakia Celtic site Bulbjerg N Denmark Bronze Age S Peru Paracas site Braughing E England Celtic oppidum settlement Cahyup C Guatemala Maya settlement Braunsberg E Austria Celtic oppidum Bull Brook Massachusetts Paleo-Indian Caimito N Peru early settlement Brauron SE Greece ancient harbor site Cairnpapple E Scotland stone circle Bredmose NW Denmark bog body Bulltofta SW Sweden barrow burial Cajamarca N Peru Middle Horizon Breisach (Hochstetten) W Germany Buni Complex W Java early metal site site, Inca center Celtic site Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) W C Peru pyramid, Middle Brenig N Wales barrow burial France Roman provincial capital Horizon site, Inca center Brescia N Italy Celtic oppidum Buret E Russia hunter-gatherer art Caka E Czechoslovakia barrow burial Bretteville-Ie-Rabet N France flint Biirgiischisee-Siid NW Switzerland Calabar W Africa, Nigeria early town mine farming settlement Calakmul Mexico, Yucatan Maya Brigetio (modern Szony) Hungary Burke's Cave C Australia Aboriginal settlement Roman legionary fortress site calcite sources Egypt Brili SW Russia steppe settlement Burrill Lake SE Australia early man Calico Hills SW USA early settlement Brillenhohle W Germany hunter• Bush Barrow S England barrow burial Calicut (Kozhikode) SW India gatherer site Bushman Rockshelter S Africa Stone Mesolithic site, maritime trade Brno Czechoslovakia hunter-gatherer Age tools Calixtlahuaca C Mexico pyramid, Pre• art Bussa Nigeria early town Classical site, Aztec town Broach (Barygaza) W India early city Bust Afghanistan ParthianiSasanian city Callanish NW Scotland stone circle and Broadbeach E Australia Aboriginal site Buto L Egypt ancient city alignment Brodgar, Ring of Orkney Is. stone Button Point NE Canada Dorset site Callao Peru maritime trade circle and henge Buxentum (Pyxous, Pyxus) S Italy Calleva (modern Silchester) S England Broederstroom S Africa Iron Age site Roman colony Roman city Brohm Ontario Archaic site Buzhaozhai N China Longshan site Callipolis S Byzantine town Broken K Pueblo SW USA early Bwana Mkubwa Iron Age site Calpulalpan C Mexico early town settlement, Pueblo farming site (Gubla) SW Syria Neolithic Calydon C Greece temple Bronocice S corded ware burial site, Phoenician city, Achaemenid city Camargo NW Spain hunter-gatherer Brooks River Alaska arctic culture Byci Skala C Czechoslovakia vehicle site Broom S England early tools burial Camarina (Kamarina) S Sicily Greek Broxbourne SE England Mesolithic Bykovo C Russia steppe settlement colony settlement Bynum Mississippi Hopewell site Cambous S France farming settlement, Brundisium (modern ) S Italy Caballito Blanco C Mexico stone early settlement Roman city source Cameixa N Portugal native settlement Bruniquel SE France hunter-gatherer Cabeco da Arruda C Portugal Cameron Creek SW USA Pueblo site megalithic tomb farming site 631 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Camerota S Italy Neanderthal site W Africa, Ghana Casa San Paola S Italy early pottery Caminade C France Neanderthal site early port Casainhos W Portugal megalithic tomb Caminero C France Neanderthal site Cape Denbigh Alaska Thule site Casarabe C Brazil early settlement Camirus E Mediterranean Hellenistic Cape Dorset E Canada Dorset site Cashel S Ireland archbishopric city Cape Hangklip S Africa Acheulian Casma C Peru Chavin site Camp d'Artus NW France Celtic tools (Kasmenai) E Sicily Greek oppidum Cape Kellett NW Canada Thule site colony Camp de Caledon NE France Celtic Cape Krusenstem Alaska Thule site Casper W USA, Wyoming kill oppidum Cape Nome Alaska Thule site site Camp de Laure SE France ancient Cape Prince of Wales Alaska Thule Caspians ancient people of C Asia fortress site Cassenga C Africa, Angola Camprafaud SW France farming site Capelletti N Africa, Algeria early cattle tools Camster Long N Scotland megalithic Capertee SE Australia Aboriginal site Cassington S England beaker burial tomb Cappadocians Ancient people of E Castelluccio Sicily rock-cut tomb and Camulodunum (modern Anatolia bone artefacts Colchester) SE England Roman city Capsa (modem ) S Tunisia Castillo NW Spain early tools, hunter- Camutins E Brazil early settlement Roman city gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Can L10bateres NE Spain Dryopithecus Capua C Italy Roman city, Castillon N France Celtic oppidum Can Ponsic NE Spain Dryopithecus archbishopric Castle Cavern S Africa Iron Age site Canca E Anatolia Ottoman mint Caracas Venezuela colonial settlement Castle Eden NE England claw beaker Cancuen C Guatemala Maya settlement Caracol Belize Maya settlement Castle Hill New Zealand, South 1. rock Candamo NW Spain hunter-gatherer art Caralis (Carales, modem ) S art C;andir N Anatolia Ramapithecus and Sardinia Greek colony Castlepoint New Zealand, North 1. Carapito N Portugal megalithic tomb shell midden Cane SW Arabia early trade E Anatolia early city, Castlerigg NW England stone circle Canegrate N Italy umfield Assyrian provincial capital Castlerock N Ireland bog body Canete S Peru Paracas site (Kardia) NW Turkey Greek Castrum Novum C Italy Roman Cangzhou N China Tang prefecture colony empire Canhasan S Anatolia Neolithic site, Carenque W Portugal rock-cut tomb C;atal Hiiyiik S Anatolia Neolithic site, farming site ancient country of SW Anatolia early pottery Cannonball Island NW USA midden Carians ancient people of SW Anatolia C;atalca NW Turkey Sinan mosque Canon de C Mexico Pre• Carigfiela S Spain Neanderthal site Catana (Katana, modem ) E Classical site Carigfiela de Pifiar S Spain farming Sicily Greek colony Cantalouette C France early tools settlement Cathedral Cave E Australia Aboriginal Canterbury New Zealand, South 1. C;ark'in SW Anatolia Palaeolithic site, site rock art early pottery Catigny N France Neanderthal site Canterbury SE England archbishopric Carlisle N England monastery Cau Sat S Vietnam Neolithic settlement and center Carnac NE France stone circle and Caucasus Early hominids Canton (Guangzhou) S China early alignment (Kaulonia) S Italy Greek trade center, Islamic trade, Buddhist Camuntum (modern colony center, Ming provincial capital Deutschaltenburg) Austria Roman Cauma C Africa, Angola Oldowan Canusium (modern Canosa di provincial capital and legionary fortress tools Puglia) S Italy Roman empire Carrhae (modem ) N Caunus SW Anatolia Hellenistic city Canyon de Chelly SW USA Pueblo Mesopotamia Cave Pompi C Italy early tools and farming site Carrion de los Condes N Spain human remains Caoxieshan E China early settlement, monastery C;avdarhisar W Anatolia Roman dam rice farming site W Ireland megalithic Cave Bay Cave SE Australia early man Cap Blanc C France hunter-gatherer tomb Cave Creek SW USA Pueblo farming site, hunter-gatherer art Cartagena Colombia maritime trade site Cap Blanc N Africa, Tunisia Stone Age (Carthago) N Tunisia Cave of S Africa early man, tools Phoenician city, Carthaginian city, Stone Age tools Cap Ragnon S France early pottery Roman provincial capital, Roman Ca'Verde N Italy Neanderthal site Capacna C Mexico early farming site aqueduct, early iron, early trade C;avustepe E Anatolia Urartian fortress Cape Andreas Neolithic site Carthago Nova (modern C;ayonii E Anatolia Neolithic site Cape Bol'shoy Baranov E Russia Cartagena) SE Spain Roman city Cedral N Mexico early settlement Thule site Casa Grande SW USA Pueblo farming Ceiba Grande SE Mexico Pre-Classical Cape Bon N Tunisia Carthaginian site site site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 632

Cejkov Czechoslovakia hunter-gatherer Changbong-do N Korea early Chengdu W China Han city, Buddhist site settlement center, Tang prefecture, Ming Celebes early settlement, Neolithic Changge N China early settlement provincial capital settlement Changling NE China Ming tomb Chengdufu W China provincial capital Cellino San Marco SE Italy rock-cut Changsha C China Han kingdom, Chengqiao E China E Chou burial tomb Buddhist center, Tang kiln Chengzlya N China Han city Cemenelum SE France Roman Changshan N China Han city Chenliu N China Han city provincial capital Changtaiguan C China E Chou burial Chercheli N Algeria Roman aqueduct Cempoala C Mexico pyramid, Aztec Changzhou E China Tang prefecture Cheremushny W Russia barrow burial town Chanhu-Daro NW India early city, Chermoozerye C Russia barrow burial Centenillo C Spain Roman mines Harappan site Chernovaya S Siberia steppe settlement Centumcellae (modern Civitavecchia) Channel Is. standing stones (Khersonesos, modern C Italy Roman city Chantsa NE Greece Mycenaean fortress Kherson, ) S Russia Cephisia (Kephissia) SE Greece Chao'an SE China cave site, Tang kiln Hellenistic city, Byzantine town Athenian settlement Chaozhou S China Sung kiln Chertomlyk (Alekseyevka) SW Russia Cercinitis (Kephissia) S Russia Charakopio SW Greece tho los tomb barrow burial Hellenistic city Charanke N Japan Ainu hill fort Chervonyy Yar SW Russia barrow Cernavoda E Romania Copper Age Charavines SE France farming burial cemetery settlement Chesowanja E Africa, Kenya Cernica C Romania Copper Age S Mesopotamia Hellenistic city robustus, Oldowan cemetery Charleston E USA, S Carolina colonial tools Cerrig Duon S Wales stone alignment settlement (Deva) N England Viking mint Chak Purbane Syal NW India Charlottetown E Canada, Prince Chetumal Mexico, Yucatan Aztec trade Harappan site Edward I. colonial settlement center Chakipamka S Peru Middle Horizon site Charsadda (Charsada) NW India Chevdar W Bulgaria farming site Chalcatzingo C Mexico Pre-Classical Archaemenid city, Graeco-Bactrian Chezarla S India Buddhist site site city, early city, early trade center Chezieu E France Celtic site (modern Kadikoy) N Chartres N France archbishopric Chhani Sahnpal NW India Mughal Anatolia Greek colony, Byzantine town Charukorohoi N Japan Ainu hill fort mint Chalchihuites C Mexico early town Chassemy NE France Iron Age Chiapa de Corzo SE Mexico early Chalchuapa El Salvador Pre-Classical settlement farming site, Maya settlement, early site, Maya settlement Chassey E France defensive enclosure town SE Greece city-state Cbateauneuf-Ies-Martigues SE France Chiautla C Mexico Aztec center Chalco C Mexico Aztec center Mesolithic settlement, farming site Chibuene SE Africa, Chale Gar W Persia early copper mine Chateauneuf-sur-Charente C France Islamic trading post Chalk Hollow S USA, Texas Archaic Neanderthal site Chicama N Peru Chavfn site site Chatelperron E France hunter-gatherer Chichen Itza E Mexico sacred , Challans W France metal hoard site Maya settlement, early town Chalon E France Celtic site Chau Say Tevoda Cambodia Neolithic Chiconautla C Mexico Aztec center Chaluka Aleutian Is. arctic culture settlement Chidambaram S India Hindu religious Chama C Guatemala Maya settlement Chavez Pass Ruins SW USA Pueblo site Champ Durand W France defensive farming site Chiem Son S Vietnam early site enclosure Chavin de Huantar C Peru pyramid, Chiengmai N Thailand Buddhist center Champoton Mexico, Yucatan Maya Chavfn site Chigna Jota S Peru Inca center settlement, early town Chedzurgwe E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Chikayevo E Russia arctic culture NW Peru pyramid, Inca Age site Chikugo W Japan shogunate provincial capital Chegitun E Russia Thule site capital Chan Sen N Thailand transitional Chekka Jdide Lebanon Neanderthal Chilca S Peru early farming, preceramic settlement, moated site, early site site site Chanapata SE Peru early farming site Chelles N France early tools Chilecito N Argentina Inca tambo Chancelade C France hunter-gatherer Chelyabinsk C Russia steppe settlement Chilhac C France early tools site Chemagal E Africa, Kenya Iron Age Chiliktinskaya E Russia barrow burial Chandragiri S India Vijayanagara site Chimalhuacan C Mexico Aztec center center Chemeron E Africa, Kenya Chimney Rock Mesa SW USA Pueblo Chang'an (Xian) N China early trade Australopithecus farming site capital, Han city, Islamic trade, Tang Chenachane N Africa, Algeria wavy• Chimu empire S America capital line pottery China Lake NW USA fluted points 633 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Chinguetti W Africa, Mauritania early CipolUane di Novaghie SE Italy Col du Coq SE France Mesolithic town Mesolithic settlement settlement Chiniot NW India Mughal mint Circeo C Italy Neanderthal site Colchester (Camulodunum) E England Chinkultic SE Mexico Pre-Classical (modem Constantine) N Algeria Celtic oppidum, slik find site, Maya settlement Roman provincial capital Colchi (Kayal, Korkai) S India early Chinooka C Japan Yamato tomb Ciry-Salsogne NE France Iron Age trade Chios C Aegean Greek city cemetery Coles Creek S USA temple mound Chiozza N Italy hunter-gatherer art Cishan N China early settlement, early Colless Creek C Australia Aboriginal Chiquitoy Viejo N Peru Inca tambo pottery site Chirand E India later farming village Cissbury S England flint mine, Celtic Coloe N Ethiopia early trade Chirikof I. Alaska Pacific Eskimo site hill fort Colonai Agrippina (modem KOIn, Eng Chitam-oi N Korea early settlement Citania de Briteiros N Portugal native Cologne) NW Germany Roman city Chobi E Africa, Uganda Iron Age site settlement (Kolophon) W Anatolia Chocobi S Guatemala Maya settlement Cite-de- NE France Celtic Greek city Choga Mami Mesopotamia pottery oppidum Columbeira Portugal Neanderthal site remains, canal Citium () Cyprus early port, Columnata NW Africa, Algeria hunter• Choga Mish W Persia early settlement, Assyrian stela gatherers early kiln, early settlement Citrus SW USA Pueblo farming site Comalcalco E Mexico Maya settlement Choga Sefid W Persia early settlement Cizhou (Cixian) N China Sung kiln Combarelles C France hunter-gatherer Choga Zanbil W Persia pyramid Clacton SE England early tools art Chokurcha S Russia Neanderthal site Claiborne S USA, Mississippi Archaic Combe Capelle C France hunter• Chola empire S India site gatherer site Chollerford Bridge N England Roman Clairvaux-Ies-Lacs E France farming Combe-Grenal C France early tools, water mill settlement Neanderthal site Cholula C Mexico pyramid, early town Clarence River Mouth New Zealand, Comenda SE Portugal megalithic tomb Chondwe C Africa, Zambia Iron Age site South I. defended settlement Compiegne N France Viking mint Chongok-ni N Korea early Palaeolithic Clava N Scotland megalithic tomb Concobar NW Persia Parthian city site, early settlement Clavering I. NE Greenland Thule site cone Mesopotamia Chongoyape N Peru Chavin site Clay Mound E USA temple mound Conelle C Italy early settlement Chopaoi-Mando NE India Mesolithic Claypool W USA, Colorado Palaeo- Conimbriga (modem Coimbra) C site Indian site Portugal native settlement Chorasmians Ancient people of NE Clazomenae (K1azomenai) W Anatolia Con Moong N Indo-China cave site Persia Greek city Constantine N Algeria Roman aqueduct Christos S Crete Minoan village Clermont-Ferrand C France Celtic site () NW Chrysovitsa NW Greece tholos tomb Clifden New Zealand, South I. rock art Turkey Roman empire, early trading Chucalisssa SE USA temple mound Clogg's Cave SE Australia early man, capital, Byzantine capital, Islamic town Chucuito S Peru Inca center Aboriginal site Consuegra C Spain Roman dam Chufin NW Spain hunter-gatherer art Clovis C USA fluted points Conthey Switzerland silk find Chugachik Alaska Pacific Eskimo site Clunia C Spain native settlement Conza C Italy archbishopric Chukhurkabala S Russia steppe Cluny E France abbey Copan Honduras pyramid, Maya center settlement Clusium (modern Chiusi) C Italy Coppa Nevigata S Italy shell midden, Chuluwasi W Africa, Ghana early Etruscan city farming site settlement Cmielow C Poland farming settlement Coptus (Koptos) L Egypt early trade Chumnungwa E Africa, Zimbabwe Cnidus () SE Aegean Greek city Corbiac C France hunter-gatherer site Iron Age site Co Loa N Vietnam transitional Corcyra (modem Kerkira) NW Chup Thmar Pich Cambodia Neolithic settlement, early site Greece Greek colony settlement Coari C Brazil early settlement Cordoba (Corduba) S Spain Islamic Chupas SE Peru early farming site Coatepec C Mexico Aztec center town Chupiuaro C Mexico early farming site Coatlinchan C Mexico Aztec center Cordova Ridge SW USA Pueblo Chust C Asia steppe settlement Coba Mexico, Yucatan Maya farming site Chutixtiox C Guatemala Maya settlement, early town Cork S Ireland Viking center, bishopric settlement Cochabamba N Bolivia Inca center Cornelia S Africa Acheulian tools Chyulu E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Cochin SW India maritime trade Corozal C Venezuela early settlement Ciftlik SE Anatolia Neolithic site Cogull NE Spain Mesolithic settlement Cortaillod W Switzerland farming Cilicians ancient people of S Anatolia Cohuna SE Australia early man settlement Cilvituk Mexico, Yucatan Maya Coimbra N Portugal monastery Cortes de Navarra N Spain Bronze settlement Coincy N France Mesolithic settlement Age settlement Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 634

Cortona N Italy Etruscan city Cuautitlan C Mexico Aztec center NW Anatolia Byzantine town Cos (Kos, Asclepius) SE Aegean Greek Cuautla C Mexico early town Da But N Vietnam Neolithic settlement city, sanctuary Cudi Dag E Anatolia Assyrian rock relief Dabaotai NE China Han burial Cosenza S Italy archbishopric Cuello C America, Belize early farming Dabarkot NW India Harappan site Cottingham N England medieval town settlement, Maya settlement Daboya W Africa, Ghana early town Cotzumalhuapa E Mexico Maya town Cuernavaca C Mexico pyramid Dacun N China early settlement Cougnac C France hunter-gatherer art Cueva blanca C Mexico early Dadianzi NE China E Chou cemetery Cova Negra E Spain early tools and settlement Dadiwan NW China early pottery human remains Cueva de la Menga S Spain megalithic Dadongze N China early settlement Coventina's N England Celtic tomb Dahan-i Ghulaman E Persia religious site Cueva de la Sarsa E Spain farming site Achaemenid palace Coveta de I'Or E Spain farming site Cueva de las Lechuzas NE Peru early Dahe N China Han city Cow Point E Canada, New Brunswick farming site Dahecun N China early settlement Archaic site Cueva de Nerja S Spain farming site Dahlak Is. Red Sea monolith Cowick N England medieval pottery Cueva de Romeral S Spain megalithic Dahshur L Egypt , burial, Coxcatlan C Mexico early settlement, tomb royal capital early cave settlement Cueva Luna C Mexico Pre• Daigi-gakoi NE Japan early settlement Coyoacan C Mexico Aztec center Classical site Daima W Africa, Nigeria early Coyotopec C Mexico Aztec center Cueva Morin NW Spain Neanderthal livestock, Iron Age site, urban center, Coyuca de Catalan C Mexico Pre- site early town Classical site Cueva Remigia E Spain Mesolithic Dainzu SE Mexico early farming site, Mexico, Yucatan early town settlement Pre-Classical site Crab Orchard C USA, lllinois Cuicuilco C Mexico Pre-Classical site Dakhla Oasis NE Africa, Egypt Stone Hopewell site Cuina Thrcului Romania Mesolithic Age tools, early cultivation Cracow Poland hunter-gatherer site settlement Dal'verzin C Asia steppe settlement Crag Point Alaska Pacific Eskimo site Cuiry-Ies-Chaudardes NE France Dali N China early man Craig Harbor NE Canada Thule site farming site Dalkey I. E Ireland shell midden Cranganore S India early city Cukurkent SW Anatolia Neolithic site Dalles NW USA, Washington Archaic Crayford S England early tools Culduthel Mains N Scotland beaker site Cremona N Italy Celtic oppidum, burial Dalton C USA, Missouri Palaeo-Indian Roman city Culebras N Peru Preceramic site site Cresap NE USA, Pennsylvania Adena Culhuacan C Mexico Aztec center Daly River N Australia Aboriginal site site Cullalvera NW Spain hunter-gatherer Damascus S Syria early town, Egyptian Crestaulta Switzerland Bronze Age art control, Assyrian provincial city, settlement Culverwell SW England shell midden, Hellenistic city, Roman city, early Crewe N England railway development megalithic site trade, Islamic town, Sinan mosque Crkvina N Yugoslavia Neanderthal site Cunani NE Brazil early settlement Damb Sadaat NW India Harappan site Cro-Magnon C France hunter-gatherer Cuplanique N Peru Chavin site Dambarare E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron site Curacchiaghiu Corsica farming site, Age site Cromford C England planned industrial early pottery Dambwa C Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age settlement Curracurrang SE Australia Aboriginal site Crooked Ridge SW USA Pueblo site Damghan NE Persia Islamic town farming site Currarong SE Australia Aboriginal site Damingfu N China provincial capital Cross River W Africa, Nigeria monoliths Curua E Brazil early settlement Dammwiese W Austria Celtic site Crouy NE France Iron Age cemetery Cusibamba S Ecuador Inca center Dandara (Dendara, Tentyra) U Egypt Crozon NW France Celtic oppidum Cuzco S Peru Paracas site, Inca capital, ancient cemetery Cruz del Negro SW Spain Carthaginian trade Danebury S England Celtic hill fort cemetery Cynosura (Kynosoura) SE Greece S Denmark Frontier dyke Crvena Stijena SW Yugoslavia Athenian settlement W USA, Archaic site Mesolithic settlement, farming site Cyrene (Kyrene, modern Shahhat) Daojali Hading E India later farming Crystall II E Canada Thule site NE Africa Greek colony, Roman village Crystal River SE USA, Florida provincial capital Dar -Soltane NW Africa, Morocco Hopewell site (Kyrrhos) SE Anatolia Stone Age tools Ctesiphon C Mesopotamia Parthian! Hellenistic city, Roman city and SW Greece tholos tomb Sasanian capital legionary fortress Dara U Egypt pyramid Cu Lao Rua S Vietnam transitional Cys-Ia-Commune NE France Iron Age Dara-i-Kur C Asia later farming settlement cemetery village 635 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Darabgird S Persia Sasanian city Derry N Ireland monastery Dishasha U Egypt noble's tomb Dariush Kabir SW Persia remains of Derrynahinch SE Ireland megalithic Divostin C Yugoslavia farming site bridge tomb Diyarbakir E Anatolia Sinan mosque Dastagird C Mesopotamia Sasanian city Dertona (modem Tortona) N Italy Djado C Africa early settlement Datong N China Buddhist center, Sung Roman Empire Djanak C Asia steppe settlement kiln DesaIpur NW India early city, Djebila NW Morocco Carthaginian Daura W Africa, Nigeria early town Harappan site cemetery Davding W Denmark musical Deszk-OIajkut Hungary farming site Djeitun C Asia steppe settlement instruments Detzem (Ad Quintum) W Germany Djougou W Africa, Benin early town Davis USA temple mound Roman village Dobranichevka W Russia hunter- Dawenkou NE China early settlement, Deva (modem Chester) N England gatherer site early kiln, Longshan site Roman legionary fortress Doc Chua S Vietnam transitional Dawn W Africa, Ghana early town Deve Hiiyiik SE Anatolia cemetery settlement Daxi N China early settlement Devil's Dyke S England Celtic hill fort NW Greece Greek temple, De Hangen S Africa hunter-gatherers, Devil's Lair SW Australia early man, sanctuary Stone Age site Aboriginal site Doerschuk SE USA, North Carolina Debert E Canada, Nova Scotia Palaeo• Devil's Tower Gilbraltar Neanderthal Archaic site Indian site site Dog River Lebanon Assyrian rock Decelea (Dekeleia) SE Greece Athenian Downs S Australia Aboriginal relief settlement site Dogubayazit E Anatolia Urartian Dedan W Arabia early trade Dewa N Japan Heian fortress fortress Deepcar C England meso lithic Dhal NW India Harappan site Dogunbaden SW Persia fire temple settlement Dharanikota S India Deccan city DOIauer Heide N Germany defensive Deh Morasi Ghundai Afghanistan later Dhlodhlo E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age enclosure farming village site, Ming pottery de Sota SW Spain megalithic Dehua SE China Sung kiln Dhokathismata SE Greece bronze tomb Deir el-Gabrawi U Egypt noble's tomb daggers Dolni Vestonice Czechoslovakia hunter• Deir el-Malik U Egypt noble's tomb N Crete ancient port gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Deir el-Medina U Egypt workmen's Bay E Canada Dorset site Domburg Holland Viking trading village Diara W Africa, Mauritania early town emporium Delagoa Day SE Africa, Mozambique and kingdom Domebo S USA, Texas Palaeo-Indian maritime trade Diaurum SE Brazil early settlement site Delc~bo C Africa, Chad wavy-line Diaz Ordaz C Mexico stone source Domu s'Orku S Sardinia dry-stone pottery Dickson C USA temple mound fortress Delhi C India Mughal capital Dictaean E Crete sacred cave SE Anatolia Neolithic site Deling NE China Ming tomb SW Anatolia Greek temple, Dona Clotilde E Spain Mesolithic S Aegean harbor and temple, Hellenistic city settlement Hellenistic city Die Kelders S Africa Stone Age tools, Doncaster N England medieval town C Greece theater and temple, Stone Age site Dondo E Africa, Kenya Ming pottery sanctuary Dieng (Dijeng) W Java early site Dong N China Han city Demetrias N Greece Hellenistic city Dieng Plateau C Java early Dong Dau N Vietnam transitional Dendenchofu C Japan mound cemetery monumental site settlement Dendera U Egypt Ptolemaic temple Dieskau N Germany metal hoard Dong Duong Indo-China, S Vietnam Dendra S Greece Mycenaean fortress Diji-Ii-takri NW India Harappan site early site, Buddhist center Dengfeng N China early settlement, Dikbosch S Africa Stone Age site Dong Lakhon C Thailand moated site, Tang kiln, Sung kiln Dimbulagala N Ceylon Buddhist early site Dengkil C Malaya early metal site remains Dong Son N Vietnam transitional Dent W USA, Colorado Palaeo-Indian Dimolit N Philippines Neolithic settlement, early site site settlement Donghai N China Han city Deqing E China Tang kiln Ding (Dingxian) N China Sung kiln Dongshankou NE China E Chou Der (Badra) E Mesopotamia early city, Dingcun NE China early man cemetery Assyrian provincial capital Dingling NE China Ming tomb Dongsimucun NE China Ming tomb Derby C England Viking center Dinorben N Wales fortified site Dongsunba W China E Chou cemetery Dereivka SW Russia steppe settlement Diomede Is. AlaskalRussia Thule site Dongxiang NW China Shang copper Derenberg N Germany defensive Dire Dawa (Porc Epic Cave) E Africa, source enclosure Ethiopia Stone Age tools Dongxing SW China cave site Derring Alaska Ipiutak site Direkli Cave E Anatolia Palaeolithic site Dongyang E China Tang kiln Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 636

Dongzhuangcun N China early Dust Devil Cave SW USA, Utah Egebak SW Denmark metalwork settlement Archaic site Egil E Anatolia Assyrian rock relief Donja Slatina SW Yugoslavia fortified Dutchess Cave E USA, New York Egnatian Way (Via Egnatia) Thrace site Palaeo-Indian site Byzantine highway Donnersberg C Germany Celtic Dutchess Quarry NE USA fluted Egolzwil N Switzerland farming oppidum points settlement Doornlaagte S Africa Acheulian tools Dutton C USA fluted opints Egou N China early settlement Dorestad N Holland Viking trading Duvensee W Germany Mesolithic Egrand W Africa, Ghana early port emporium settlement Egtved C Denmark barrow burial Dorginarti I. U Egypt fortress Duyong Caves W Philippines cave site, Egusi N Africa, Chad bone harpoons Dortmund NW Germany ritual Neolithic settlement Ehi Kournei N Africa, Chad Acheulian metalwork Dyer C USA, Indiana Archaic site tools Doruthy SW France hunter-gatherer Dyrholm Denmark Mesolithic Ehringsdorf E Germany early tools and site settlement human remains Dostrup NW Denmark scratch plows Dyrrhachium (Durazzo, modern Eiland S Africa Iron Age site and salt Douara Cave S Syria early tools Durres) Albania Roman city, mine Double Adobe SW USA, Arizona Byzantine walled town Eilat Israel ancient port Archaic site Dzhruchula S Russia Neanderthal site Eileithyia, Cave of N Crete sacred cave N Tunisia megalithic tomb Mexico, Yucatan Maya Ejsbol W Germany weapon hoard Downpatrick N Ireland Bronze Age settlement, early town Ekain N Spain Neanderthal cave site, settlement, monastery Dzibilnocac Mexico, Yucatan Maya hunter-gatherer art Dowris C Ireland metal hoard settlement Ekallatum N Mesopotamia early town Dowth E Ireland megalithic tomb Dzvonetskaya Balka SW Russia steppe Ekven E Russia Thule site Dragonby E England Celtic site settlement EI Abra W Colombia early settlement Dramont S France Roman shipwreck Early Khartoum NE Africa, EI Aculadero S Spain early tools Draved S Denmark pollen core site hunter-gatherers, early pottery EI Alia E Tunisia megalithic tomb Drehem C Mesopotamia early writing East Cape Alaska Thule sites EI Arbolillo C Mexico early farming Drunken Point C Canada, Ontario Ebbou E France hunter-gatherer art site Archaic site Ebla W Syria early city, early writing EI Argar SE Spain fortified site Dry Creek Alaska early settlement Eburacum (modern York) N England EI Badari NE Africa, Egypt early Duandian N China Tang kiln Roman provincial capital & legionary cereals Dublin E Ireland Viking center, fortress EI Barranquete SE Spain megalithic archbishopric Ebusus W Mediterranean Phoenician tomb Duggleby N England medieval village city EI Baul S Guatemala Maya settlement Diiliik E Anatolia early tools Ecatepec C Mexico, Aztec center EI Bosque Nicaragua early settlement Dunbar S Scotland Celtic fortress Echidna Dreaming NE Australia EI Castillo NW Spain Neanderthal site Dundas Is. NE Canada Dorset site Aboriginal site EI Cayo E Mexico Maya town Dunhuang NW China early trade, Han Echigo N Japan shogunate provincial EI Ceibo S Argentina early settlement frontier port, rock-carved temple capital EI Chayal E Mexico Maya town Diinsberg C Germany Celtic oppidum Echizen C Japan pottery kiln EI Conde NW Spain Neanderthal site Dur Kurigalzu C Mesopotamia zigurrat Ed Debba NE Africa, Sudan wavy-line EI Encanto Ecuador early farming site Dura-Europos (modern Salahiyah) E pottery EI Garcel SE Spain farming settlement Syria early trade center, Roman city, Ede S Holland beaker burial EI Guettar N Africa, Tunisia Stone Hellenistic city Edfu (Idfu, Appollinopolis) U Egypt Age tools Durango SW USA, Colorado early city, ancient city, Ptolemaic EI Hamel N Africa, Algeria hunter• Basketmaker site temple gatherers Durham N England monastery Edinburgh S Scotland medieval trade EI Heneal NW Venezuela early Durkhumid E Anatolia Assyrian colony Edirne NW Turkey Sinan mosque settlement Durostorum (modern Silistra) N Edjek C Philippines Neolithic EI Inga SW Colombia early site Bulgaria Roman legionary fortress settlement EI Jobo NW Venezuela early settlement Durovka W Russia barrow burial Edjeleh N Africa, Algeria bone EI Jobo S Guatemala Maya settlement Durras North SE Australia Aboriginal harpoons EI Khattara NE Africa, Egypt early site Eext N Holland corded ware burial cereals Durrington Walls S England stone Effigy Mounds N USA, Iowa Hopewell EI Khiam C Palestine Natufian and circle site Neolithic site Diirrnberg E Austria Celtic site Eflatun Pinar S Anatolia spring EI Khril NW Africa, Morocco early Dushizi S China cave site sanctuary livestock 637 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

EI Meco Mexico, Yucatan Maya SE Greece Athenian settlement Erganos S Crete Minoan village settlement Eleutherae SE Greece Athenian fort Ergili NW Anatolia Achaemenid city EI Mermouta N Algeria early pottery Elis SW Greece theater and temple Eridu S Mesopotamia zigurrat, pottery EI Mirador N Algeria early pottery Elk Island C Canada, Manitoba remains, early city and palace EI Mries N Morocco megalithic tomb Archaic site Erjiacun N China early settlement EI Oficio SE Spain fortified site Ellamma Temple of Vijayanagara Erlangpo N China Shang goldwork EI Openo C Mexico early farming site Ellerbek N Germany megalithic site Erligang N China early pottery EI Palito NW Venezuela early Ellerton N England medieval town Ertebolle N Denmark shell midden, settlement Elliniko SW Greece Mycenaean fortress megalithic site EI Palmar Mexico, Yucatan Maya Ellora C India rock-carved temple Erueti Lapita site settlement W Africa, Ghana early port Erzincan E Anatolia gold and silver EI Paraiso S Peru early public building Elp N Holland Bronze Age settlement work EI Pendo NW Spain Neanderthal site Eis Antigors Balearic Is. ancient Es Sinn SE Syria Neolithic site EI Penon N Venezuela early settlement fortress Es-Skhul Israel Stone Age tools EI Pozuelo SW Spain schist plaques Els tudons Balearic Is. megalithic tomb Escoural Portugal hunter-gatherer site, EI Reguerillo C Spain hunter-gatherer Elsloo S Holland farming site hunter-gatherer art art Elvina NW Spain native settlement Escuintla E Mexico Maya town EI Riego Cave C Mexico early Emain Macha E Ireland Celtic Esh Shaheinab NE Africa, Sudan settlement religious site harpoons and pottery, early livestock EI Salvador Maya settlement Embrun SE France archbishopric Eshmoun SW Syria temples EI Tajin C Mexico pyramids, early Emei Shan W China holy mountain Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar) C town, Aztec town Emerald Mound S USA temple mound Mesopotamia early city and palace, EI Trapiche C Mexico early farming Emmen N Germany pollen core site early writing site, Pre-Classical El'Ubaidios site ' Gev N Palestine Natufian site Esie W Africa, Nigeria early settlement EI-Amarna (Tell el-Amarna) U Egypt Engaruka E Africa, Tanzania Iron Age Esparragalejo C Spain Roman dam ancient city, early city, noble's tomb, site Este N Italy Celtic art royal capital Engel's (Pokrovsk) C Russia steppe Estonia Mesolithic settlements EI-Amra U Egypt ancient cemetery settlement Etiani Kephala E Crete peak sanctuary EI-Ashmunein U Egypt ancient city Engis Belgium Neanderthal site, hunter• Etia C Mexico Pre-Classical site EI-Badarl U Egypt ancient cemetery gatherer site Etowah SE USA temple mound EI-Ballas U Egypt ancient cemetery Enmylyn E Russia Thule site Etzmi Mexico, Yucatan Maya EI-Derr U Egypt temple Enneri Toboi N Africa, Chad wavy-line settlement EI-Hammamiya U Egypt noble's tomb pottery Eudaemon Arabia (modern Aden) EI-Hiba U Egypt early town Enneri Togou N Africa, Chad wavy• SW Arabia ancient port, early trade EI-Khokha U Egypt court tombs line pottery Eutresis (Evtresis) NE Greece EI-Kula U Egypt pyramid Enserune S France Celtic oppidum, Mycenaean fortress EI-Lahun U Egypt pyramid, royal tomb native settlement Eva C USA, Tennessee Archaic site EI-Lisht L Egypt pyramid, early burial, Entzheim W Germany hunter-gatherer Evora C Portugal archbishopric royal capital, early capital site Evreux N France Viking mint EI-Mahasna U Egypt ancient cemetery W Anatolia Achaemenid city, Evron N Israel early tools EI-Masloukh Lebanon Neanderthal site Greek city, Hellenistic city, Roman Evtresis C Greece metal vessels EI-Matmar U Egypt ancient cemetery provincial capital, aqueduct, Byzantine Exeter SW England Viking mint, EI-Mo'alla U Egypt noble's tomb bishopric monastery EI-Mustagidda (EI-Mostagedda) U (AscIepius) SE Greece Exloo N Holland beaker burial Egypt ancient cemetery theater, sanctuary Eynsham C England beaker burial EI-Sebua U Egypt temple Episkopi N Crete Minoan village Ezero E Bulgaria fortified site EI-Sheikh Ibada U Egypt temple Eppelsheim W Germany Dryopithecus Ezerovo E Bulgaria lake dwelling EI-Tarlf U Egypt royal tombs Lannic NW France stone circle and Ezinge N Holland terp settlement EI'beidiya N Israel early tools henge Ezira W Africa, Nigeria early town Eland's Bay (Elandsbaai) S Africa Erbaba Tepe S Anatolia Neolithic site, Faaa Society Is. petroglyph Stone Age site early pottery Faesulae (modern Fiesole) N Italy Elandsfontein S Africa early man Erciyas Dagi SE Anatolia Neolithic site early temple Elandskloof S Africa Stone Age tools Erd Hungary Neanderthal site Fafos S Yugoslavia tell settlement Elatia C Greece farming site Erebuni Armenia Urartian fortress Failaka (Faylakah) S Mesopotamia Ele Bor E Africa early food Eregli S Anatolia Sinan mosque early trade, ancient site Elephantine U Egypt early city, ancient Erfurt E Germany farming site Faiyum L Egypt early cattle, early city, early iron Ergani SE Anatolia copper source agriculture Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 638

FaIeasi'u Lapita site Fingira E Africa Malawi hunter• Frieze Cave SW Australia Aboriginal Falefa W Samoa early site gatherers site Fallahogy N Ireland pollen core site Finsterlohr S Germany Celtic art Froarp S Sweden musical instruments False Island New Zealand, South I. Flagstaff SW USA Pueblo farming Fromms Landing S Australia shell midden and moa bones site Aboriginal site Faneromeni (Phaneromeni) SE Greece Flattop SW USA Pueblo farming site Fudodo C Japan early settlement Athenian fort and sanctuary Flint Run E USA, Virginia Palaeo- Fufeng N China early settlement Fangel Torp C Denmark bronze Indian site Fuguodun SE China shell mound figurines Fliigein NW Germany terp settlement Fuji, Mount C Japan holy mountain Fanning I. (Tabuaeran) C Pacific early Flomborn W Germany farming site Fukui W Japan early man site Florence SE USA temple mound Fukui Cave W Japan cave site, early Faras U Egypt temple, fortress Florence (Firenze) N Italy medieval pottery Fardal NW Denmark bronze figurines trade, archbishopric Fulin W China early man Farnham SE England Mesolithic Floreshty SW Russia farming site, Fulinbao N China Chou burial settlement Cucuteni-Tripolye village Furfooz Belgium hunter-gatherer art Farrashband SW Persia fire temple Florisbad S Africa Stone Age tools C Portugal farming Fatehpur Sikri C India Mughal mint Folsom S USA, Texas bison kill site settlement Fatherland S USA temple mound Fond-de-Foret Belgium Neanderthal Furuichi C Japan mound cemetery Fayda N Mesopotamia Assyrian rock site, hunter-gatherer site Fushikokotan N Japan Ainu hill fort relief de Gaume C France hunter• Fussell's Lodge S England Faylakah (Failaka) Kuwait sanctuary gatherer art Fiizesabony E Hungary Bronze Age Feddersen Wierde NW Germany terp Font Robert C France hunter-gatherer settlement settlement site Fuzhou (Foochow) SE China early Federsee S Germany lake dwelling Fontanaccia Corsica megalithic tomb trade center, provincial capital Feicheng E China W Chou site Fontareches S France early tools, Fycklinge C Sweden claw beaker and Feigne d' Artimont SE France pollen Neanderthal site metalwork core site Fontechevade C France early tools and Fyrkat N Denmark Viking fortress Feletoa Tonga early site human remains Gabrong N Africa, Chad early pottery Fell's Cave S Chile early settlement Forbes Quarry Neanderthal Gadamotta E Africa, Ethiopia Stone Feng--t'ou early settlement, site Age tools Longshan site Fort Abbas NW India Harappan site Gaddesden Row SE England early Fengate E England farming settlement, NE USA, Ohio Hopewell tools Bronze Age settlement site Gadeb NE Africa, Ethiopia early tools Fenghuang Shan W China Ming tomb SE USA, Florida Hopewell Gades (modern Cadiz) SW Spain Fenghuangling E China E Chou bronze site Phoenician city, Roman city hoard Fort Harrouard N France fortified site Gagarino C Russia hunter-gatherer art Fenghuangshan E China E Chou Fortaleza E Brazil early settlement Gagraun C India Mughal mint burial Fortrose New Zealand, South I. moa Galaz SW USA Pueblo farming site Fenghuangzui E China E Chou burial bones Gambell Alaska Thule sites Feniak Lake Alaska Ipiutak site Fosso Conicchio C Italy beaker burial Gamble's Cave E Africa, Kenya Fere-en-Tardenois N France Mesolithic Fossum W Sweden rock art hunter-gatherers and pottery settlement N England Gangaikondacholapuram SE India Fergana C Asia steppe settlement, early monastery, Cistercian abbey Chola center trade Fourmile SW USA Pueblo farming site Gangguancun NE China Tang kiln Fergusson I. New Guinea Kula gift Fourneau du Diable C France hunter• Gangoh N India Mughal mint exchange, Lapita obsidian gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Gangwayaocun N China Tang kiln Fernando Po (Biyoko) W Africa, Foxton New Zealand, North I. shell NW Persia Neolithic site, Equatorial Guinea early port midden and moa bones early pottery Ferry Berth Samoa Lapita site Fraeer NW Germany bog body Ganj Nameh NW Persia rock Fez (Fes) N Africa, Morocco Islamic Fragtrup NW Denmark Bronze Age inscriptions town, urban center, early town, settlement Ganovce Czechoslovakia Neanderthal Ottoman trade Frankhthi S Greece shell midden, site S Corsica fortified site farming site, early pottery Ganties-Montespan SW France hunter• Fimber N England medieval village Frannarp S Sweden rock art gatherer art Finca Arizona S Guatemala Maya FreniIlot S France early tools Gao W Africa, Mali Iron Age site, settlement Fridaythorpe N England medieval Islamic trade, urban center, early town Finca de Paloma C Spain metal hoard village Gaocheng N China early city 639 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Gaojiabao N China W Chou site Ghat N Africa, Libya early settlement, Gorbunovo C Russia steppe settlement Gaozhuang N China E Chou burial early town Gordium C Anatolia Achaemenid city Gar Cahal Morocco beaker burial Ghazi NW India Harappan site Gordon's Bay S Africa Stone Age site Garalavouni SW Greece tholos tomb Ghent (Gand, Gent) Belgium Viking Goree W Africa, Senegal early port Gargamelle Cove E Canada Dorset mint, medieval trade Gornja Thzla C Yugoslavia tell site Gheo Shih C Mexico early settlement settlement Gargas SW France hunter-gatherer art Ghiardo Cave N Italy early tools Gotenyama N Japan Ainu hill fort Gatlin SW USA Pueblo farming site Gidalur S India Mesolithic site Gough's Cave S England hunter• Gaudo S Italy rock-cut tomb Gila Bend SW USA Pueblo farming gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Gavimath S India rock edict site N Algeria Carthaginian NW France megalithic tomb Gilgal N Palestine Neolithic site cemetery Gaza (Ghazzati) Palestine Egyptian Gilgit NW India Buddhist center, early Gouy N France hunter-gatherer art fortress, Levantine city, Hellenistic trade Goyem Barak W Africa, Mali bone city, early trade Gilimanuk Bali early metal site harpoons Gazel S France Mesolithic settlement Girikihaciyah N Mesopotamia pottery Goyet Belgium hunter-gatherer site, Gazi (Gazion) N Crete Minoan village remains hunter-gatherer art Gebel Barkal NE Africa, Sudan Girnar W India Deccan city Goyty (Staryye Atagi) S Russia barrow temple, early iron Girsu S Mesopotamia early writing burial Gebel el-Silsila U Egypt ancient mine Giza L Egypt pyramids, early burial, Goz Kerki N Africa, Chad harpoons Gebel el-Teir U Egypt noble's tomb early writing, temple and pottery Gebel el-Zeit Red Sea copper mine Gla NE Greece Mycenaean settlement Gozleve (Yevpatoriya) S Russia Sinan Gebelein (Pathyris) U Egypt noble's Glanum C France Roman dam mosque tomb Glen Elliott S Africa hunter-gatherers, Griichwil Switzerland bronze hydria Gebze W Anatolia Sinan mosque Stone Age site Gradeshnitsa W Bulgaria tell Gedebjerg E Denmark metalwork Glenaire S Australia Aboriginal site settlement Gedi E Africa, Kenya Islamic trading Gnewitz NE Germany megalithic tomb Grado NE Italy archbishopric post, Ming pottery Go Mun N Vietnam transitional Grafton Regis C England monastic S Sicily Greek colony settlement burial ground Gelidonya, Cape SW Anatolia Goa W India maritime trade C USA, Illinois Archaic shipwreck site Goareva NW France Neanderthal site site Gemeinlebarn N Austria Bronze Age Gobedra NE Africa, Ethiopia hunter- Grai Resh N Mesopotamia early cemetery gatherers, early cereals settlement Genay E France Neanderthal site Gobyoyama C Japan Yamato tomb Graig Llwyd N Wales Geneva W Switzerland Celtic site W Persia early city Graman E Australia Aboriginal site (Genva, Genoua) NW Italy Gods Lake C Canada, Manitoba Gramari SE France Mesolithic Roman city, medieval trade, Archaic site settlement archbishopric Gokomere SE Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Grammatiko SE Greece Athenian Geoksyur Oasis C Asia steppe Age site settlement settlement Gol Ba'it C Malaya rock shelter Grand Congloue S France Roman Gerasimovka SW Russia steppe Goldberg S Germany defensive shipwreck settlement enclosure Grand Gulch SW USA, Utah Gerf Husein U Egypt temple Gombe Point C Africa, Zaire Iron Age Basketmaker site Gerona NE Spain archbishopric site Grand Menhir Brise NW France menhir Gesher Benot 'aqov N Israel early Gombroon S Persia maritime trade Grand Pressigny NW France flint mine tools Gomolava C Yugoslavia farming site, Grand Village S USA temple mound Gezer (Gazri) Palestine Egyptian Bronze Age settlement Granite Point Rock Shelter SW USA, control, royal fortress of Israel Gongen-yama C Japan early man Nevada prehistoric diet Ghadames (Ghadamis) N Africa, Gongzian N China rock-carved temple, Grapevine SW USA Pueblo farming Libya early settlement, early town Tang kiln site Ghaligari cave N India later farming Goni S Sardinia dry-stone fortress Grasshopper SW USA Pueblo farming village Gonies N Crete peak sanctuary site Ghar Cahal Morocco farming site Gonnersdorf N Germany hunter- Gratriisk N Sweden Saami site Ghar-i-Asp Afghanistan early farming gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Grauballe NW Denmark bog body village Gontsy W Russia hunter-gatherer site Grave Creek NE USA, Pennsylvania Ghar-i-Mar Afghanistan early farming Goodall N USA, Indiana Hopewell site Adena site village Goodenough I. New Guinea Kula gift Great Barrier Island New Zealand, Gharmachi W Syria early tools exchange North I. shell midden Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 640

Great Driffield N England medieval Gua Lawa E Java Neolithic settlement Ha'ata'live'a Marquesas Is. early quarry town Gua Musang C Malaya early metal site Ha'atuatua Marquesas Is. early site Great Langdale NW England farming Guajaraa S Brazil early settlement Habuba (Habuba Kebira) N Syria settlement Gualupita C Mexico early farming site, early kiln, early town Great Mercury Island New Zealand, Pre-Classical site SW Anatolia Neolithic site, North 1. defended settlement Guangchongcun S China Tang kiln farming site Great Zimbabwe E Africa, Zimbabwe Guanghan W China Han city Hackness N England medieval town Iron Age site, Ming pottery Guanyindong W China early Hadar E Africa, Ethiopia Green Ant NE Australia Aboriginal site Palaeolithic site Australopithecus afarensis Gresik E Java early port Guarita E Brazil early settlement Hadda Afghanistan Gandharan art, Grevensvaenge S Denmark bronze Gudenus-Hohle Austria early tools, Buddhist stupa figurines Neanderthal site Haervej S Denmark military road Grewe SW USA Pueblo farming site Gudzheyli C Asia steppe settlement Haftavan Tepe NW Persia Urartian Grimaldi N Italy hunter-gatherer site, Gut! du Plantin N France defensive fortress, Achaemenid city hunter-gatherer art enclosure Haga E Sweden megalithic tomb, Grimes Graves E England flint mine Guignicourt NE France Iron Age barrow burial Gritille E Anatolia Neolithic site cemetery, Celtic oppidum Hagarsa U Egypt noble's tomb Gritsa N Greece tholos tomb Guila Naquitz C Mexico rock shelter Hagi Kilns W Japan Korean pottery Grodek Nadbuzny E Poland farming GuUin S China Ming provincial capital Hahei New Zealand, North 1. shell settlement Guillassou C France hunter-gatherer midden Gronhoj E Denmark megalithic tomb site Haifeng S China cave site Gros Guignon C France vehicle burial N Peru early Haij Creiem N Africa, Libya Stone Grosmont N England medieval town settlement, early farming Age tools Grossbrembach C Germany Bronze Gujjar N India rock edict Hajdusamson C Hungary metal hoard Age cemetery Gujrat NW India Mughal mint Hajii Muhammad S Mesopotamia Grosser PlOner See N Germany pollen Guhikra Mosse SW Sweden musical pottery remains core site instruments Hakatarewa New Zealand, South 1. Grosser Segeberger See N Germany Guldhoj SW Denmark barrow burial moa bones pollen core site Gulf E Canada Dorset site Halakal Mexico, Yucatan Maya Grossmehring S Germany beaker Gumla NW India early farming village, settlement burial Harappan site Halar NW India Harappan site Grotta Azzurra di Samatorza Italy Gummididurru S India Buddhist site Halawa Hawaiian Is. early site Mesolithic settlement Gunda C Africa, Zambia Iron Age site Halawa Valley Hawaiian Is. early Grotta Corruggi Sicily Mesolithic Gundeshapur W Persia Sasanian city irrigation settlement Gundestrup NW Denmark ritual Haldern NW Germany claw beaker Grotta dei Piccioni N Italy farming metalwork Haldorf NW Germany corded ware settlement Gunung Kidul C Java early metal site burial Grotta dell'Uzzo Sicily farming site Gunung Piring Bali early metal site Haleakala Hawaiian Is. early quarry Grotta della S Italy Gure Makeke NE Africa, Somalia HaIele'a Hawaiian Is. early site Mesolithic settlement hunter-gatherers (Halikarnassos) SW Grotte Arnaud S France beaker burial Gure Warbei NE Africa, Somalia Anatolia Achaemenid city, Greek city, Grotte des Fees S France rock-cut tomb hunter-gatherers Hellenistic city, Roman city S France hunter- Gurti Aqua S Sardinia dry-stone Halifax E Canada, Nova Scotia colonial gatherer cave fortress settlement Grotte Dufour C France hunter- Gossage All Saints S England Celtic site Halin N Burma early monumental site gatherer site Guyana Early farming Halleis S Greece temple and harbor Grotte Gazel SW France farming site Guyum S Persia rock relief Hallstatt C Austria early cemetery Griindberg N Austria Celtic oppidum Gwalior N India Mughal mint Hallunda C Sweden Bronze Age Gruta de Furninha Portugal farming Gwato W Africa, Nigeria early town settlement site Gwisho C Africa, Zambia hunter- Halsnoy W Norway boat burial Gua Bintong N Malaya early metal site gatherers Haltwhistle Burn N England Roman Gua C Malaya rock shelter, early Gypsades C Crete tholos tomb water mill metal site Gytheum (Gytheion) S Greece theater Hama W Syria Neolithic site, Roman Gua Kechil C Malaya cave site, early Ha'amonga-a-maui Tonga early site aqueduct, Islamic town metal site Ha'apai Tonga Lapita site Hamadan (, Hagamatana) N Gua Kepah N Malaya shell midden, Ha Long N Vietnam Neolithic Persia Achaemenid palace, Islamic Neolithic settlement settlement town 641 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Hamadine C Syria early tools Hatnub U Egypt alabaster, ancient Hengzhen N China Longshan site Hamansumo NE Japan early settlement mine Hengzhencun N China early settlement Hamath (modern Hama) Syria early Hatra N Mesopotamia Parthian city Herrerias NW Spain hunter-gatherer art town, early city, Assyrian provincial Hatun Cafiar C Ecuador Inca tambo Hertenritz Fr. Guyana early settlement capital Hatuncolla S Peru Inca center Hesar NE Persia metal hoard site Hambledon Hill S England defensive N Africa, Libya Stone Age Heuneburg S Germany Hallstatt site enclosure tools, hunter-gatherers, early livestock SW USA, Nevada N Germany Viking trading Hausen N Germany early tools prehistoric diet emporium, medieval trade Havana C USA, Illinois Hopewell site W Germany farming site, Hamel N France Neanderthal site Havelte Holland Mesolithic settlement, defensive enclosure Hammam Kebir NW Syria early tools megalithic tomb Hieraconpolis (Hierakonpolis) U Hamwic (modern Southampton) S Havsa NW Turkey Sinan mosque Egypt early city, ancient city England Viking trading emporium Hawara U Egypt pyramid, early burial, Higgins Flat SW USA Pueblo farming Hanatekua Marquesas Is. early site royal tomb site Hanaui Marquesas Is. early site Hawikuh SW USA, Pueblo farming site High Lodge C England early tools Hane Marquesas Is. early site Hawken NW USA, Wyoming bison kill High Rochester N Scotland Roman fort Hang Chua Cave N Indo-China, site Himmelstalund E Sweden rock art Vietnam cave site Hawks Burn New Zealand, South I. Hindana NW Mesopotamia Assyrian Hang Gon S Vietnam transitional moa bones city settlement Hayaz E Anatolia Neolithic site Hings Fen N Germany early settlement Hangenbieten SW Germany early tools HaYonim N Anatolia Natufian site Hio NW Spain metal hoard Hangzhou (Hangchow) E China plow, Hazendonk C Holland megalithic site Hiratsuka C Japan Yamato tomb early trade center, Buddhist pagoda, Hazor N Palestine early town, Egyptian Hirschlanden S Germany Celtic art Ming provincial capital control, royal fortress of Israel Hirsiz Kale (Varto) E Anatolia Hanzei C Japan Yamato tomb HeaIaugh N England medieval town Urartian fortress Haobi N China Tang kiln Heaphy River New Zealand, South I. Hissar N Persia early settlement Har Qedumim Israel Stone Age tools shell midden and moa bones Hiwassee I. SE USA temple mound Haraldskjaer W Denmark bog body Heathrow SE England Celtic religious Hjortspring C Denmark boat burial Harappa NW India Indus Valley site Hoa Binh N Indo-China, N Vietnam settlement, early city, early writing Hecatompylos (modern Shahr-i Qumis) early site Harar NE Africa, Ethiopia Iron Age N Persia Parthian city, early trade center Hoa Luu Indo-China, Vietnam cave site site Hede C Sweden ritual metalwork Hochdorf C Germany Hallstatt site Harbaka S Syria Roman dam S Denmark Islamic trade, Hochdorf (Eberdingen) SW Germany Hard Scrabble SW USA Pueblo Viking trading emporium silk find farming site Hedon N England medieval town Hochob Mexico, Yucatan Maya Hardaway SE USA, North Carolina Hegra W Arabia early trade settlement Archaic site Heidetrlink C Germany Celtic oppidum Hockham Mere E England pollen core Harewood N England medieval town Hein S Norway Mesolithic settlement site Haritalyangar NW India Ramapithecus Helena Crossing S USA, Arkansas Hodges SW USA Pueblo farming site and Sivapithecus Hopewell site H6dmezovasarhely Hungary farming Harmony S Africa Iron Age site Helendorff SW Russia steppe site, Copper Age cemetery Harness NE USA, Ohio Hopewell site settlement Hoedic NW France Mesolithic Harran (Haran, Carrhae) N Syria Helgo S Sweden Viking trading settlement, megalithic site, megalithic early town, Assyrian provincial city, emporium tomb Islamic town Helin Belgium early tools W USA, Utah Archaic Harris SW USA Pueblo farming site Heliopolis L Egypt early city, ancient site Harting Beacon S England Celtic hill city, early city and temple Hohen Viechein N Germany Mesolithic fort Hell Gap W USA, Wyoming Palaeo- settlement Hasanli NW Persia early settlement, Indian site Hohenasperg C Germany Hallstatt site ivory Hellouanndji N Syria early tools Hohmichele S Germany Hallstatt site, Hashidate C Japan rock shelter Helmsdorf E Germany barrow burial silk find Hassi Youba W Africa, Mali bone Hemudu E China early settlement, Hohoupounamu New Zealand, South I. harpoons lacquer working, rice farming site shell midden Hassuna C Mesopotamia pottery Henderson I. S Pacific early site Hokkaido Ainu hill forts remains, early pottery Hengistbury Head S England hunter• Hokurikudo NE Japan early highway Hathaway NE USA, Maine Archaic gatherer site, Celtic oppidum and hill Holborough SE England silk find site fort Holingol N China Han burial Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Tenns 642

Holme N England medieval pottery Howard Lake N USA, Wisconsin Hull (Kingston upon Hull) N England Holmegard Denmark Mesolithic Hopewell site medieval town, canal development settlement Howieson's Poort S Africa Stone Age Humantia C Mexico early town Holmul N Guatemala Maya settlement tools SW USA, Nevada Holyhead N Wales railway Hoxne E England early tools prehistoric diet development Hoyo de la Mina S Spain Mesolithic Humpata SW Africa, Angola Oldowan Holzgerlingen C Germany Celtic site settlement tools Holzhausen SE Germany Celtic Hrazany W Czechoslovakia Celtic Hunam C Korea rice farming site religious site oppidum Hundisburg E Germany early tools Hombori W Africa, Mali early town Huaca Alta S Peru, Aspero platform Hungary Hall C Canada, Ontario Homolovi Ruins SW USA Pueblo mound Archaic site farming site Huaca de los Idolos S Peru, Aspero Hunguza E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age Horns (Emesa) Syria early town, site Roman dam, Islamic town Huaca de los Reyes (Caballo Muerto) Huon Peninsula New Guinea early Honaunau Hawaiian Is. early site N Peru preceramic site and public man Hong C Denmark musical instruments building Huoxian N China Sung kiln Hong-i Kamalvand W Persia rock Huaca de los Sacrificios S Peru, Hurst Fen E England farming relief Aspero platform mound settlement Hong-i Nauruzi W Persia rock relief Huaca Negra N Peru early farming site Hurunui River Mouth New Zealand, Hong Kong S China early settlement N Peru preceramic site South I. moa bones Honopue Valley Hawaiian Is. early and early agricultural settlement Hutouliang E China early man irrigation Huachenggang C China early kiln Hutton N England medieval town Hooghly E India early trade Huacho S Peru early farming site Huy Belgium Rhenish pottery kiln Hooper Bay Alaska arctic culture Hminuco Pampa N Peru Inca center Hvidegard E Denmark barrow burial Hoopper Ranch SW USA Pueblo Hualla Tampu N Bolivia Inca tambo Hvorslev NW Denmark scratch plows farming site Huamachuco N Peru Middle Horizon Hyakkengawa C Japan rice farming Hope Fountain C Africa, Zimbabwe site, Inca center site Oldowan tools Huangdao N China Tang kiln E Africa, Kenya Neolithic Horaia early trade Huangniangniangtai NW China Shang site, Iron Age site Horby NW Denmark bog body copper source lassa Tepe C Bulgaria tell settlement Honnuz S Persia Safavid trade Huangpi N China early settlement Ibarissene N Algeria megalithic tomb Horner NW USA, Montana Palaeo- Huangtupocun NE China W Chou Balearic Is. Carthaginian site Indian site burial Ibrakaj C Russia steppe settlement Hornos de la Pena NW Spain Huangxian NE China early settlement Ica C Peru Inca center Neanderthal site Huangyan E China Tang kiln Ichinosawa Cave NE Japan early Horobetsu N Japan Ainu hill fort Huargo Peru early settlement settlement Hortus SE France Neanderthal site Huari C Peru Middle Horizon site, pre- Ichpaatun Mexico, Yucatan Maya Hoshino C Japan early man Inca center settlement Hoshiriya N Japan Ainu hill fort Huaricoto N Peru early public building Idaean Cave C Crete sacred cave Hostyn C Czechoslovakia Celtic Huanney N Peru early farming site Idah W Africa, Nigeria early town oppidum Huating N China Longshan site Idanskiy S Siberia steppe settlement Hot Water Beach New Zealand, North Huatingcun N China early settlement Idjil NW Africa, Mauritania salt I. moa bones and shell midden Huaymil Mexico, Yucatan Maya deposit, early town Hotta N Japan Heian fortress settlement Idojiri C Japan early settlement Houbirg C Germany Celtic oppidum Hue Indo-China, N Vietnam early site Ife W Africa, Nigeria urban center, Hougang N China early settlement, Huehuetoca C Mexico Aztec center early town Late Neolithic site SW Spain metal hoard Iga C Japan pottery kiln Hougudui E China E Chou burial Huenta S Peru Paracas site Igbaja W Africa, Nigeria early Houhora New Zealand, North I. early Huexotla C Mexico early town, Aztec settlement site center Igbo Ukwu W Africa, Nigeria early Houppeville N France early tools, Huexotzingo C Mexico early town settlement Neanderthal site Hueypoxtla C Mexico Aztec center Igloolik NE Canada Dorset site Hov N Denmark flint mine Huggate N England medieval village Iharana Madagascar Ming pottery Hove NW Denmark musical Huitzilopochco C Mexico Aztec center Ihnasya el-Medina U Egypt noble's instruments Huixian N China early city, Shang city tomb, early town Hovenweep Sites SW USA Pueblo Hujra NW India Mughal mint Ijebu Oda W Africa, Nigeria early farming site Huldremose NW Denmark bog body town 643 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Iji N Japan Heian fortress (Constantinople) NW Turkey Jauari E Brazil early horticultural village Ikaruga C Japan Yamato palace Ottoman capital Jauja C Peru Inca center Ikegami C Japan rice farming site Isturits SW France hunter-gatherer site, Jaunpur NE India Mughal mint Ikolivrunveen E Russia Thule site hunter-gatherer art Jawsaq al- Mesopotamia de Riou S France early pottery ltacoatirara C Brazil early settlement palace of Samarra lIeret E Africa, Kenya Australopithecus ltaituba E Brazil early settlement Jebba W Africa, Nigeria early boisei and early man, early livestock, ltasuke C Japan Yamato tomb settlement, early town Neolithic site ltazuke W Japan rice farming site Jebel et Tomat NE Africa, Sudan early Ilicapinar C Anatolia Neolithic site Itford Hill S England Bronze Age cereals lIIerup W Denmark weapon hoard settlement Jebel Idriss W Syria early tools IImova Pad E Russia barrow burial Ivuna E Africa, Tanzania Iron Age site NW Africa, Morocco lIovatka C Russia steppe settlement and salt mine Stone Age tools IIskaya S Russia Neanderthal site Iwafune N Japan Heian fortress Jebel Jibtaa W Syria early tools lIyintsi SW Russia barrow burial Iwajuku C Japan early man Jeitun C Asia early pottery In Guezzam N Africa, Algeria bone Iwanowice S Poland barrow burial Jemdet Nasr (Jamdat Nasr) C harpoons Iwatsuchihara W Japan early Mesopotamia early settlement, early Inchtuthill N Scotland Roman settlement writing legionary fort Iwo Eleru W Africa, Nigeria hunter- Jenderam Hilir S Malaya early metal Incoronata S Italy Greek shrine gatherers, early food site Independence Fjord N Greenland Ixkun C Guatemala Maya settlement Jenne (Djenne) W Africa, Mali early Dorset site Ixtapalapa C Mexico Aztec center cereals, early town C USA, Kentucky Ixtapaluca C Mexico Aztec center Jenne-jeno W Africa, Mali Iron Age Archaic site Izamal Mexico, Yucatan Maya site, urban center Indian Point Alaska Thule site settlement Jericho C Palestine Natufian and Indraprastha N India pillar edict Izapa SE Mexico early farming site, Neolithic site Ingaladdi Shelter N Australia Maya settlement Jewett Gap SW USA Pueblo farming Aboriginal site Izawa N Japan Heian fortress site Ingombe lIede C Africa, Zambia Iron Izembek Lagoon Aleutian Is. arctic Jhang NW India Harappan site Age site culture Jhukar NW India Harappan site Inkawasi (Incahuasi) C Peru Inca Izvoare N Romania Cucuteni-Tripolye Jiangchengbao N China Chou burial center village Jiangjiawan N China early man Inugsuk W Greenland Thule site Izykh E Russia Han find Jiangling C China Han burial, Inverhuron C Canada, Ontario Archaic 'farabad W Persia early settlement, provincial capital site early kiln Jiangou N China Longshan site lolkos N Greece Mycenaean settlement Jablines N France flint mine Jiangxi'an SW China cave site Iparu C Brazil early settlement Jabrud C Syria Natufian site Jiangyin E China Ming tomb Iping Common SE England Mesolithic Jackrabbit Village SW USA Pueblo Jiangzhai N China early settlement, settlement farming site early kiln Ipswich E England Viking trading Jackson NW Canada Thule site Jianyang SE China Sung kiln emporium JatIna N Ceylon Mesolithic site Jiaozhi SW China Han city Irkutsk S Siberia steppe settlement, Jaina Mexico, Yucatan Maya settlement Jilotzingo C Mexico Aztec center arctic culture Jais NE India Mughal mint Jinan N China Han city, Ming Irmen' S Siberia steppe settlement Jaketown S USA, Mississippi Archaic provincial capital Isamu Pati C Africa, Zambia Iron Age site, Hopewell site Jincamocco C Peru Inca center site JalahalJi S India Mesolithic site Jincun N China E Chou cemetery Isca (modern Caerleon) SWales Jalilpur NW India early farming Jingcun N China early settlement Roman legionary fortress village, Harappan site Jingdezhen C China Tang kiln, Sung Isernia la Pineta C Italy early tools Jamal Garhi N India Gandharan art kiln, Ming pottery Ishango C Africa, Zaire hunter• Jambi S Sumatra cave site, early port, Jingjiazhuang N China Chou burial gatherers Buddhist center Jingling NE China Ming tomb Isimila E Africa, Tanzania Acheulian Janislawice S Poland Mesolithic Jingshan (Kingshan) N China early tools settlement settlement, bronze hoard Isin C Mesopotamia early city Jarishof Shetland Is. Bronze Age Jingzhizhen N China Longshan site Isipatana NE India pillar edict settlement, Viking center Jinhua E China Tang kiln Isleham E England metal hoard Jarmo N Mesopotamia Neolithic site, Jinjan SW Persia Achaemenid palace Isoyama C Japan early man early pottery Jinniushan NE China early Palaeolithic Ismllosko Hungary hunter-gatherer site Jatinga Ramesvara S India rock edict site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 644

Jishiliang C China E Chou burial Kaisariani SE Greece Athenian Kanchalan E Russia Thule site Jiuliandun W China E Chou bronze settlement Kanchipuram S India Pallava center, hoard Kaitote New Zealand, North I. Buddhist center Jiulidun E China E Chou burial defended settlement Kancikli E Anatolia Urartian fortress Jiuyan E China Tang kiln Kakimbon W Africa, Guinea hunter- Kandahar Afghanistan Achaemenid Jizhou C China Sung kiln gatherers city, Parthian city, rock edict, Islamic Jizhou N China Tang prefecture Kakovatos SW Greece tholos tomb town Jonquieres N France defensive Kakubetsu N Japan Heian fortress Kandana C Africa, Zimbabwe hunter• enclosure Kal-i Jangal E Persia rock relief gatherers Jonuta E Mexico Maya settlement Kalala Island C Africa, Zambia Iron Kandy S Ceylon early capital and Joppa (, modern Yafo) Palestine Age site Buddhist center, Buddhist center Egyptian fortress E Africa, Tanzania Kangaamiut SW Greenland Thule site Jordhoj N Denmark megalithic tomb Acheulian tools, hunter-gatherers, Iron Kangaba W Africa, Mali early town Jos Plateau W Africa, Nigeria Age site Kangila C Africa, Zambia Iron Age site Acheulian tools Kalanay C Philippines early metal site Kangling NE China Ming tomb Joss N Canada Dorset site Kalasasaya temple complex of Kanheri W India Buddhist site, rock- Joubbata S Syria early tools Tiahuanaco carved temple Joubbe Jannine Lebanon early tools Kalathiana C Crete tholos tomb Kankan W Africa, Guinea early town Jourama NE Australia Aboriginal site Kalibangan N India Indus Valley Kanli Kastelli C Crete Minoan town Judeirjo-Daro NW India Harappan site settlement, plow marks, early city, Kano W Africa, Nigeria urban center, Juktas (Yiouktas) C Crete peak Harappan site early city sanctuary Kalinovka C Russia steppe settlement Kansanshi C Africa, Zaire Iron Age Juli S Peru Inca tambo Kalliena (modern Kalyan) W India site Junapani C India megalithic tomb early trade Kantharos SE Greece Athenian fort Junin Peru early farming Kalmetsky Brod C Russia steppe Kao Phu C Thailand transitional Junnar C India rock-carved temple settlement settlement Jurjan NE Persia Islamic fortress Kaloko Hawaiian Is. early site Kapeni E Africa, Malawi Iron Age site Juxtlahuaca C Mexico early farming Kalsi N India rock edict Kapitan Dimitrievo C Bulgaria tell site, Pre-Classical site Kalumpang C Celebes Neolithic settlement Juyan NW China Han fort settlement Kapovaya E Russia hunter-gatherer art Ka Lae (South Cape) Hawaiian Is. Kalundu C Africa, Zambia Iron Age Kapthurin W Africa, Kenya early man early site site Kapwirimbwe C Africa, Zambia Iron Kabah Mexico, Yucatan Maya Kalyana W India early city Age site settlement Kamabai W Africa, Sierra Leone early Kara'in SW Anatolia early tools, Kabul Afghanistan Sivapithecus, food Palaeolithic site, early pottery Islamic town, Mughal mint, early trade Kamares Cave S Crete sacred cave Kara-Ukok S Siberia steppe settlement Kabwe C Africa, Zambia early man Kamari SW Greece tholos tomb Karaagach C Asia Han mirror find Kada N Africa, Chad wavy-line pottery Kambos SW Greece tholos tomb Karabara W Africa, Mali early town Kadero NE Africa, Sudan early Kamenka SW Russia Greek imports, Karabulak S Russia Han mirror find agriculture steppe settlement Karabur Syria Assyrian rock relief Kaedi W Africa, Mauritania early town Kamenskoye SW Russia steppe Karadepe C Asia steppe settlement Kafiavana E New Guinea swamp site settlement Karaganda SE Russia steppe settlement Kagrak-Kumy C Asia steppe Kami-Kuroiwa W Japan cave site, Karagodevash S Russia barrow burial settlement early pottery Karahiiyiik C Anatolia Hittite city Kahana Valley Hawaiian Is. early site Kamilari (Kamilarion) S Crete tholos Karako C Japan rice farming site Kabun U Egypt early city, early capital tomb Karakol E Russia barrow burial Kaifeng N China early settlement, Kaminaljuyti Guatemala pyramid, Karanovo E Bulgaria farming site, tell provincial capital, Ming provincial Maya center settlement capital Kamnama C Africa, Malawi Iron Age Karaoglan C Anatolia Neolithic site Kaikoura New Zealand, South I. site Karasuk S Siberia steppe settlement defended settlement Kamo E Japan early settlement E Anatolia Hittite city Kaileuna New Guinea Kula gift Kamoa C Africa, Zaire Acheulian tools Karats N Norway bear grave exchange Kampong Sungai Lang S Malaya Karatsu W Japan Korean pottery Kailua Hawaiian Is. early site transitional settlement Karbuna SW Russia copper hoard Kaingaroa New Zealand, North I. rock Kanab SW USA, Utah Basketmaker site Karchat NW India Harappan site art Kanapoi , Kenya Kariandusi E Africa, Kenya Acheulian Kaipara New Zealand, North I. rock art Australopithecus tools 645 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Karim Shahir N Mesopotamia Kaybely C Russia steppe settlement Khania (Chania, Hania, Canea) NW Neolithic site Kayes W Africa, Mali early town Crete Minoan town Kliringsjon SW Sweden scratch plows Kayrakum C Asia steppe settlement Khapuz-depe C Asia steppe settlement Karitane New Zealand, South I. Kayseri C Anatolia Sinan mosque Kharg SW Persia fire temple defended settlement Kazanluk W Bulgaria farming site Kharga Oasis W Egypt Acheulian Karkarichinkat W Africa, Mali early Kazarun SW Persia fire temple tools, Stone Age tools, early cultivation livestock Kbal Romeas S Indo-China, Cambodia Kharkha N Mesopotamia Sasanian city Karlbyneder N Denmark bog body shell midden Khartoum NE Africa, Sudan harpoons Karle S India rock-carved temple Ke W Africa, Nigeria early settlement, and pottery Klirlich W Gennany early tools early town Khashm el Girba NE Africa, Sudan Karistein W Austria Celtic site Kealakekua Bay Hawaiian Is. early site wavy-line pottery, early food Karluk I. NE Canada Thule site Kebibat NW Africa, Morocco Homo Khatanga E Russia arctic culture Karmis-Blur Annenia Urartian fortress erectus Khattab W Syria early tools Karnak U Egypt temples Kedungbrubus E Java Homo erectus Khirokitia Cyprus Neolithic site Karos (Keros) SE Greece cemetery Keet Seel SW USA Pueblo farming site Khocho NW China rock-carved temple Karphi (Karfi) C Crete peak sanctuary Kefar Menahem C Israel early tools Khodzhasu C Asia steppe settlement Kartstein W Gennany Neanderthal site Kehe N China early Palaeolithic site Khor Abu Anga NE Africa, Sudan Kashgar (Kashi) NW China early trade Keilor SE Australia early man Acheulian tools center, Buddhist center, early trade Kel-a NE Mesopotamia stela Khor Musa NE Africa Egypt Stone Kashmir N India early trade Kelainai W Anatolia Achaemenid Age tools Kasori C Japan early settlement, fishing palace Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrukin) N site Kelang S Malaya transitional settlement Mesopotamia zigurrat, Assyrian royal C Tunisia Roman dam Kelermes S Russia barrow burial palace, Assyrian capital Kassope NW Greece theater and temple Kelheim C Gennany Celtic oppidum Khotan () NW China early trade Kastraki N Greece tholos tomb Kellali W Syria early tools center, Buddhist center, early trade Kastri NE and S Greece Mycenaean Kemp E USA temple mound Khotnitsa (Chotnica) C Bulgaria tell fortresses Kenchraei S Greece temple and harbor settlement Kastritsa C Greece Neanderthal site Kendenglembu E Java Neolithic Khotylevo C Russia hunter-gatherer art Kastro S Greece Mycenaean fortress settlement Khrishteni (Hristene) C Bulgaria early Kasur NW India Mughal mint Kenk SE Anatolia Assyrian rock relief copper mine Katakolou E Greece tholos tomb Kenkol C Asia barrow burial, Han Khrisoskalitissa SW Crete Minoan Katanda E Russia barrow burial mirror find village Katsambas N Crete ancient port Kenniff Cave E Australia early man, Khristos SE Greece Athenian Katsina W Africa, Nigeria early town Aboriginal site settlement Katsurakoi N Japan Ainu hill fort S England early tools, Khurama E Anatolia Assyrian colony Katsusaka C Japan early settlement hunter-gatherer site Khutor Baryshnikovii C Russia barrow Katuruka C Africa, Tanzania early iron Kephali (Kefali) S Crete tholos tomb burial Kaupang S Norway Viking trading Kephalos SE Aegean theater and Khutor-Druzhba S Russia steppe emporium temple settlement Kaupokonui New Zealand, North I. Keppel Is. E Australia Aboriginal site Khyashchevka C Russia steppe defended settlement Kerameikos cemetery of settlement Kauri Point New Zealand, North I. Keratea SE Greece Athenian settlement Kialegak Alaska Thule site defended settlement N Persia Se1eucid Kiatuthlanna SW USA Pueblo farming Kausambi E India early city inscription site Kavalla N Greece Roman aqueduct Kernonen NW France barrow burial Kibbanahalli S India Mesolithic site Kavat C Asia steppe settlement Kervouster NW France Neanderthal Kibiro E Africa, Uganda Iron Age site Kaveripattinam S India early city site and salt mine Kavrochori (Kavrokhorion) N Crete Kesslerloch W Gennany hunter- Kiffa W Africa, Mauritania early town Minoan village gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Kiik-Koba S Russia Neanderthal site Kawa NE Africa, Sudan fortress and Kexingzhuang N China Longshan site Kilepwa I. E Africa, Kenya Ming temple, temple remains, early iron Khafajah C Mesopotamia early city pottery Kawakawa New Zealand, North I. Khairla Hill N India Mesolithic site Kili Gul Muhammad NW India early early site Khalandri SE Greece ancient fortress farming village Kawela Hawaiian Is. early site Khalandriani SE Greece ancient Kilombe E Africa, Kenya Acheulian tools S Korea early state fortress Kilwa E Africa, Tanzania Islamic trade, Kayalidere E Anatolia Urartian fortress Khami C Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age early trading post, Ming pottery Kayatha NW India Harappan site site, Ming pottery Kimhae S Korea rice farming site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Tenns 646

Kimmswick C USA fluted points Knapp Mounds SE USA temple Konya C Anatolia Ottoman empire Kincaid E USA temple mound mounds E Africa, Kenya Kings Mound SE USA temple mound Knight C USA, Illinois Hopewell site Australopithecus boisei and early man, Kings Rock New Zealand, South I. Kobadi W Africa, Mauritania pottery Oldowan tools shell midden and harpoons S Australia ancient King's Table SE Australia early man Kobadian-I C Asia Achaemenid city flint mine Kinishba SW USA Pueblo farming site Kobyakovo SW Russia steppe Kophinas (Kofinas) S Crete peak Kinnarkheda NW India Harappan site settlement sanctuary Kinnikinick SW USA Pueblo farming Kodak S Russia Neanderthal site Korakou C Greece Mycenaean fortress site Kodekal S India cattle pen site Kore Kore New Zealand, North I. Kinosoura SE Greece walled settlement Koguryo N Korea early state defended settlement Kinowa N Japan Heian fortress Koh Ker Indo-China, Cambodia early Korolevskoye W Russia barrow burial Kinsale Farm SE Africa, Zimbabwe site Koroni SE Greece fortified camp Iron Age site Kohika New Zealand, North I. Koropi SE Greece Athenian settlement Kintampo W Africa, Ghana early defended settlement Korovinski Aleutian Is. arctic culture livestock Kok Charoen N Thailand Neolithic Korselitse (Corselitze) SE Denmark Kinuni E Africa, Kenya Ming pottery settlement bog body Kipushi C Africa, Zaire Iron Age site Kok Phanom Di C Thailand Neolithic Korshevo W Russia hunter-gatherer site Kirchseeoner Moor S Germany pollen settlement Koru Kenya core site Kok Pleb C Thailand transitional Korziit Kalesi (Korzot) E Anatolia Kirillovskaya C Russia hunter-gatherer settlement Urartian fortress art Kokand C Asia steppe settlement Kosegasawa C Japan cave site Kiriwina New Guinea Kula gift Kokcha C Asia steppe settlement Kosipe New Guinea early man exchange Kokchetav SE Russia steppe settlement Kiisk SE Anatolia Neolithic site Kisapostag S Hungary urnfield Kokkinopolis C Greece Neanderthal Koster C USA, Illinois Archaic site Kiseiba U Egypt early pottery site Kostienki W Russia hunter-gatherer Kisesse E Africa, Tanzania hunter- Kokonovka C Russia barrow burial site, hunter-gatherer art gatherers Kol SW USA Pueblo farming site Kostromskaya S Russia barrow burial Kisesse II E Africa, Tanzania Stone Koldihwa NE India early farming Kotabangun E Borneo Buddhist center Age tools village Kota Cina N Sumatra port Kish C Mesopotamia zigurrat, early Kolhapur (Brabmapuri) W India Kot Diji NW India Indus Valley city, early city and palace, early Deccan city settlement, early city, Harappan site writing KOin-Lindenthal W Germany farming Kota Tongkat C Malaya rock shelter Kishama W Japan early settlement site, defensive enclosure Kotasur NW India Harappan site Kit's Coty SE England megalithic tomb KOin-Miingersdorf W Germany Roman Koth NW India Harappan site Kita W Africa, Mali early town villa Kothingeichendorf S Germany Kita-Shirakawa C Japan early Kolomoki SE USA temple mound defensive enclosure settlement Kolomyshchina W Russia Cucuteni- C Peru precerarnic site, Chavin Kitamae N Japan early man Tripolye village, steppe settlement site Kitava New Guinea Kula gift exchange Kolonna SE Greece Mycenaean fortress Koufonisi SE Crete ancient port Kivik S Sweden barrow burial, rock art Koltubanka C Russia steppe settlement Koukounara SW Greece tholos tomb Kiyevka SW Russia steppe settlement Kolyma River Mouth E Russia Thule Koukya W Africa, Mali early town Kizil C Asia rock-carved temple site Koulen Indo-China, Cambodia early Kizilkaya SW Anatolia Neolithic site Kom el-Hisn L Egypt ancient city site Kjelmoj N Norway Saarni settlement Kom Medinet U Egypt early Koumasa S Crete peak sanctuary K1asies River Mouth S Africa caves town Kouphia Rachi N Greece tholos tomb and rock shelters Kom Ombo U Egypt Ptolemaic temple Kourounkorokale W Africa, Mali bone K1ausennische S Germany Neanderthal Kommos S Crete ancient port harpoons, hunter-gatherers, early food site Komunmoru N Korea early Kouroussa W Africa, Guinea early Kleine Scheuer W Germany hunter• Palaeolithic site town gatherer site Komurhan E Anatolia Urartian site Kow Swamp SE Australia early man K1ementowice NE Poland farming Kondapur W India Deccan city Koya, Mt. C Japan holy mountain settlement Kondon E Russia arctic culture Koyagaugau New Guinea Kula gift K1ipplaatdrif S Africa Acheulian tools Kone (Garibaldi) E Africa, Ethiopia exchange K1ipriviersberg S Africa Iron Age site Stone Age tools Kozuke N Japan shogunate provincial K10sterlund Denmark Mesolithic Kong W Africa, Ivory Coast early town capital settlement Konin S Poland Mesolithic settlement Krabi Cave S Thailand cave site 647 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Kragehul C Denmark weapon hoard Kukova SE Europe burial Kiitahya W Anatolia Sinan mosque Kragelund W Denmark bog body Kukulik Alaska Thule site Kuuiiua River N Canada Thule site Krankmartenhogen N Norway Saami Kul Oba (Nevskoye) S Russia barrow Kvarnby S Sweden Bronze Age grave burial settlement N Yugoslavia Neanderthal site Kulam Mali S India Islamic trade K wale E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Kraske Spilje Yugoslavia Mesolithic Kulchurdo E Africa, Kenya Stone Age K wangju C Korea capital of early state settlement site Kyamil-Tepe S Russia barrow burial Krasnaya Gora SW Russia steppe Kuldja (Gulja, Vining) C Asia early Kyo-dong C Korea early settlement settlement trade center Kyongju S Korea capital of early state, Krasnokutsk SW Russia barrow burial Kuli'ou'ou Hawaiian Is. early site Islamic trade, Buddhist center Krasnopol' W Russia Han mirror Kulli NW India Indus Valley settlement, Kyoto C Japan early capital find Harappan site Kyozuka C Japan Yamato tomb Krasnoyarsk S Siberia steppe Kulna Cave Czechoslovakia early tools, L' Aldene S France hunter-gatherer art settlement Neanderthal cave site, hunter-gatherer L' Angle W France defensive enclosure Kremikovci SE Europe farming site site L'Escale S France early tools Krepice E Czechoslovakia iron-working Kiiltepe SE Anatolia early trade, early La Adam Romania Mesolithic site town and palace settlement, megalithic site Kreshchatyk SW Russia steppe Kumara E India Buddhist site La Arboleda C Mexico Pre-Classical settlement Kumara-Kaiamo New Zealand, North site Kreuznach W Germany early tools, I. defended settlement La Baume de Gigny E France Roman village W Africa, Ghana early town Neanderthal site Krimeng N Africa, Chad bone Kumbakonam S India Chola center La Baume de Peyrards SE France harpoons Kumbi Saleh W Africa Islamic trade, Neanderthal site Krisa C Greece Mycenaean fortress urban center La Baume Latrone S France hunter• Krishna Bridge S India Mesolithic Kumgang-san N Korea holy mountain gatherer art settlement Kumidu Syria Egyptian control La Breche N France farming settlement Kristel-Jardins NW Africa farming Kumma U Egypt temple La Cabrera NW Venezuela early site, early pottery Kummukh (modern ) E settlement Kromdraai S Africa Australopithecus Anatolia Assyrian provincial capital La Chaise C France early tools and robustus Kumtura C Asia rock-carved temple human remains Krutaya Gora C Russia hunter-gatherer Kumul (Hami) NW China early trade La Chapelle-aux-Saints C France site Kumyer SW Anatolia road bridge Neanderthal site Krzemionki C Poland flint mine Kuna E Mexico Maya settlement La Chaussee-Tirancourt N France Akil Lebanon Neanderthal site Kunar Siyah S Persia fire temple megalithic tomb Ksiaznice Wielkie SW Poland farming Kunda NW Russia Mesolithic La Clape S France megalithic tomb settlement settlement, megalithic site La Cocina E Spain Mesolithic Ku Bua Thailand moated site Kungsan N Korea early settlement settlement Kuala Muda N Malaya early site Kuningan W Java early metal site La Copa N Peru Chavin site Kuala Selinsing W Malaya early site Kunling Protectorate C Asia trade La Cotte de St. Brelade Kuala Terengganu C Malaya with China Neanderthal site transitional settlement Kunming (Yunnanfu) SW China Ming La Couronne S France early settlement Kucha (Kuqa) NW China Buddhist provincial capital La Crouzade S France Mesolithic center, early trade Kunnattur S India megalithic tomb settlement Kuchizakai C Japan rice farming site N Peru Chavin site La Era C Mexico Pre-Classical site Kudaro Cave S Russia early tools, Kununurra NW Australia Aboriginal C France Neanderthal site Neanderthal site site La Flecha NW Spain Neanderthal site Kudatini S India cattle pen site Kupang NE Borneo early port La Florida S Peru early farming site Kudus Java Islamic trade Kupgal S India cattle pen site La Frebouchere NW France megalithic Kufa Iraq Islamic town Kuratoy S Siberia steppe settlement tomb Kuh-i Khwaja S Afghanistan fire Kurkh E Anatolia Assyrian stela La Galgada N Peru early public temple Kurkihar N India Buddhist center building Kuizhou C China provincial capital Kiirtiin Cave S Anatolia Palaeolithic La Gravette C France hunter-gatherer Kuk E Canada Thule site site site Kuk New Guinea early man Kuru~y SW Anatolia Neolithic site La Grive-Saint-Alban C France Kuk Swamp E New Guinea early site, Kusano W Japan fishing site Dryopithecus Neolithic settlement Kusinagara NE India early city, La Grotta de Broion N Italy Kukak Alaska Pacific Eskimo site Buddhist center Neanderthal site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 648

La Grotte d' Aldene C France early Labwe WW Syria Neolithic site Lamphun N Thailand early site, tools Lachish (Lakishi) S Palestine early Buddhist pagoda La Grotte de I'Observatoire SE town, Egyptian control, Levantine city, (Lampsakos, modern France early tools Achaemenid palace Lapseki) NW Anatolia Greek colony, La Grotte du Docteur Belgium Laconia Ancient country of S Greece Byzantine town Neanderthal site LaetoliI E Africa, Tanzania Lang Ca N Vietnam transitional La Grotte du Prince SE France early Australopithecus afarensis, early man settlement tools and human remains Lagash S Mesopotamia early city, early Lang Vac N Vietnam transitional La Gruta C Venezuela early town, early writing settlement horticultural village Lago Agrio Ecuador early settlement Langdon Bay SE England early La Halliade SW France megalithic Lago di Biandronno N Italy pollen shipwreck tomb core site Langhnaj NW India Mesolithic La Hogue N France megalithic tomb Lago Grande de Vila Franca E Brazil settlement La Hoguette N France megalithic tomb shell midden LanglOs Norregard SE Sweden La Honradez N Guatemala Maya Lagoa Santa S Brazil early settlement musical instruments settlement Lagoon NW Canada Dorset site Langtandong E China Homo erectus La Hoz C Spain hunter-gatherer art Lagoon Flat New Zealand, South I. Langton N England medieval village La Jolla W USA, California Archaic shell midden and moa bones Langweiler W Germany early tools, site Lagos W Africa, Nigeria early town farming site, defensive enclosure La Madeleine C France hunter-gatherer Lagozza N Italy farming settlement Lantian N China Homo erectus site, hunter-gatherer art Laguna de los Cerros C Mexico Laodicea (Katakia, modern AI La Madeleine NW France stone Olmec site Ladhiquyah) W Syria Hellenistic alignment Laguna Francesa SE Mexico Pre- city, Roman city La Magdeleine SW France hunter- Classical site Laodicea S Anatolia Hellenistic city, gatherer art Lahore NW India Mughal mint aqueduct La Mar E Mexico Maya settlement Laish N Palestine early town Laodicea (modern Nihavend) NW La Masque SE France Neanderthal site Lake Alakul' C Russia steppe Persia Hellenistic city La Micoque C France early tools settlement Lapakahi Hawaiian Is. early site La Mouthe C France hunter-gatherer Lake Argyle (Miriwun) NW Australia Lapita New Caledonia Lapita site art Aboriginal site Lappland Saarni culture La Belgium Neanderthal site Lake Condah S Australia Aboriginal Lapstone Creek SE Australia La Nauterie C France early tools site Aboriginal site La Paya N Argentina Inca tambo Lake Hauroko New Zealand, South I. Larne N Ireland Mesolithic settlement, La Pileta S Spain hunter-gatherer art early site Viking center La Pitia N Colombia early settlement Lake Jackson SE USA temple mound Larsa S Mesopotamia early city, early La Plata (Sucre) Bolivia colonial Lake Kerinci C Sumatra cave site, city and palace settlement early metal site Larzicourt NE France farming site La C Mexico early town Lake Mangakawere New Zealand, Las Bocas C Mexico Pre-Classical site La Quercia S Italy defensive enclosure North I. defended settlement Las C Mexico early town C France Neanderthal site Lake Mohave W USA, California Las Haldas N Peru precerarnic site La Salpetriere E France hunter-gatherer Archaic site Las Palomas S Spain hunter-gatherer site Lake Mungo SE Australia early man art La Starza S Italy early settlement Lake Rusa E Anatolia Urartian stela Las Plassas S Sardinia megalithic tomb La nne C Switzerland Celtic site Lake TytyI' E Russia Thule site Las Sabanas C Mexico Pre-Classical La Tranche NW France farming site Lakeba (Lakemba) Lapita site site La Venta C Mexico pyramid, Olmec Lalibela NE Africa, Ethiopia early C France hunter-gatherer art center cereals, rock-cut churches Lashkari Bazar (Bust) N India Islamic La Victoria Guatemala early farming Lalo N Philippines Neolithic settlement town site Lalomanu Samoa early site Lassicourt N France early tools Laang Spean S Indo-China, Cambodia Lamar SE USA temple mound Lastingham N England medieval town cave site, Neolithic settlement W USA early settlement Latamne W Syria early tools Labastide SW France hunter-gatherer (Lambese, modern Latma N Africa, Chad bone harpoons art Tazoult) N Algeria Roman legionary Latvia Mesolithic settlements Labna Mexico-Yucatan Maya fortress Laugerie Basse C France hunter- settlement Lambourn S England beaker burial gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art SW Anatolia Hellenistic Lamoka Lake NE USA, New York Laugerie Haute C France hunter• city Archaic site gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art 649 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Laura NE Australia Aboriginal site Leeds N England medieval town, Les Matignons W France defensive Lauricocha Peru early fanning railway development enclosure Laurium (Laureion) SE Greece silver Lefkanki E Greece early port Les Trois Freres SW France hunter- mines Leggett SW USA Pueblo farming site gatherer art Lauriya-Araraj NE India rock edict Legio (modem LeOn) N Spain Roman Leskovo Bulgaria early copper mine Lauriya-Nandangarh NE India Asokan legionary fortress Lespugue C France hunter-gatherer art column Legio Palestine Roman legionary Let Romania farming site S Italy Greek colony fortress Letoon SW Anatolia Hellenistic city Laussel C France hunter-gatherer art Lehner SW USA, Arizona Palaeo- Leubingen C Germany barrow burial Lautereck S Germany Mesolithic Indian site Leuca S Italy Neanderthal site settlement, megalithic site Leicester C England Viking center Leucaspide S Italy megalithic tomb Lazaret SE France early tools and Leigudun C China E Chou burial Leucate SW France fanning site human remains Leipsydrion SE Greece Athenian fort Leucecome Red Sea ancient port, early Lchashen Armenia steppe burials, Late Leiria E Spain native settlement trade center Bronze Age Leiyang C China Tang kiln Leucos Limen (modem Quseir el- Le Baratin S France farming site Lekhahia NE India Mesolithic Qadim) Red Sea early trade center Le Bernard W France Celtic religious settlement Leuluasi Western Samoa early site site Leki Male NW Poland barrow burial Leuwiliang W Java early metal site Le Breuil C France hunter-gatherer site Lekka W Africa, Nigeria early town Levant Early cities and states Le Cerislier C France hunter-gatherer Lekkerwater E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Sicily hunter-gatherer art site Age site Levkas W Greece bronze daggers Le Colombare N Italy early settlement Lelang NE China Han burial Levroux C France Celtic site Le Conquette S France farming Leles W Java early site Lewan NW India Harappan site settlement Leman and Ower E England Lezetxiki N Spain Neanderthal site Le Figuier E France hunter-gatherer Mesolithic settlement Lhasa Tibet Buddhist center site Lemnos N Aegean Greek theater Li Loighi N Sardinia megalithic tomb Le Flageolet C France hunter-gatherer Lenderscheid N Germany early tools Li Muri Sardinia megalithic tomb site Lengerich NE Germany ritual Liangcheng N China Longshan site Le Gabillou C France hunter-gatherer metalwork Liangzhu E China early settlement, art Leninabad C Asia Han mirror find Longshan site Le Havre N France early tools Leonard Rock Shelter SW USA, Lianjiang SE China Sung kiln Le Mas C France hunter-gatherer site Nevada early man Liare Valley E Africa, Kenya Iron Age Le Mas d'Azil SW France hunter- Leoncito C Chile Inca tambo site gatherer art, Mesolithic settlement Leone American Samoa early site Libenice W Czechoslovakia Celtic Le Mas Viel C France Neanderthal site Leontini (Leontinoi, modern religious site Le Menec NW France stone alignment ) E Sicily Greek colony Licun N China W Chou burial C France Neanderthal site Leontium S Greece theater Lie Siri Timor Neolithic settlement Le Petit-Puymoyen C France 's Kopje SE Africa, Zimbabwe Liepen NE Germany megalithic tomb Neanderthal site Iron Age site Ligor SW Thailand early site Le Placard C France hunter-gatherer Lepenski Vir Yugoslavia Mesolithic Lijiacun N China Shang burial art settlement Lijialou N China E Chou bronze hoard Le Poisson C France hunter-gatherer art Leptis (Leptis Minor, , Lilybaeum (modem ) W Le Tillet N France early tools, modern Lamta) NE Tunisia Sicily Carthaginian city Neanderthal site Cathaginian city Limages SW Africa, Angola Acheulian Le Thc d'Audoubert SW France (Lepcis, modem tools hunter-gatherer art Labdah) N Libya Phoenician city, Limerick SW Ireland Viking center Le Vallonnet SE France early tools Roman city, Roman dam, early iron Limnae NW Anatolia Greek colony Leang Buidane S Philippines early Lerida NE Spain monastery Limonum (modem Poitiers) C France metal site Lerna S Greece ancient fortress Roman city Leang Burung E Indonesia, Celebes Les Avaix C France pollen core site Lincoln (Lindum) E England Roman cave site, Neolithic settlement Les Comaux C Switzerland Celtic site Aqueduct, Viking center Leang Thwo Mane's S Philippines Les Fouaillages Channel Is. megalithic Lindenmeier W USA, Wyoming bison Neolithic settlement tomb kill site Lebena Crete marble figurines Les Hoteaux E France hunter-gatherer Lindholm N Denmark Viking center Lebous SW France ancient fortress site Lindisfame S Scotland Celtic fortress Lechaeum S Greece harbor and temple Les Lauzieres SE France ancient E Mediterranean Greek city, Ledro N Italy lake dwelling fortress Hellenistic city Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 650

Lindow Moss NW England bog body Loe Band N India later farming village Lough Cur SW Ireland farming Lindum (modern Lincoln) E England Lofthoj E Denmark swords settlement Roman city Logan Creek C USA, Nebraska Loulan NW China silk find, Buddhist Lingjing N China early settlement Archaic site center Lingshan SW China cave site Lohri NW India Harappan site SW USA, Nevada Lingshanwei E China E Chou bronze Lohumjo-Daro NW India Harappan prehistoric diet hoard site Low Flat Site Kermadec Is. Linhai E China Tang kiln Lokri Epizephyril SW Italy Greek Lowasera E Africa, Kenya harpoons Linhuai C China Han city colony and pottery, early pottery Linnasaiva N Sweden Saami site Lolokoka C Pacific Lapita site Lower Lena Valley E Russia arctic Lintong N China Chou site Loltun Cave Mexico, Yucatan Maya culture Linyi NE China Han burial settlement Lowry Ruins SW USA Pueblo farming Lion Cave SE Africa, Swaziland Stone Lorna Larga C Mexico stone source site Age tools Lommersum N Germany hunter• Luanza C Africa, Zaire Iron Age site Lios SW Ireland stone circle and henge gatherer site Luatuanu'u Western Samoa early site Lipara (modern ) SW Italy Londinium (modern London) SE Lubaantun Belize Maya settlement Greek colony England Roman provincial capital Lubnli Czechoslovakia hunter-gatherer (Lisboa) C Portugal Islamic Long Meg and her Daughters NW site town, medieval trade, maritime trade England stone circle Lubusi C Africa, Zambia Iron Age site Liscuis NW France megalithic tomb Long Wittenham C England Celtic Luca (modern Lucca) N Italy Roman Lishan N China Han burial religious site colony Lishui E China Sung kiln Long's Drift E Africa, Kenya early Luderov C Czechoslovakia beaker Lisnacrogher N Ireland Celtic art food burial Little Bighorn NW USA battle site Longmen N China rock-carved temple Lugdunum (modern Lyon) E France Little Kelk N England medieval pottery Longquan E China Tang kiln, Sung Roman provincial capital Little Papanui New Zealand, South I. kiln Lugovoye-Muzhichi S Russia barrow early site Longquanwucun N China Tang kiln burial SE USA fluted points Longxingfu C China provincial capital Luk'yanovka SW Russia steppe Little Swanport Tasmania Aboriginal Lop Buri C Thailand early site, settlement site Buddhist center Luka Vrublevetskaya W Russia Liuchengqiao C China E Chou burial Lop Buri artillery center C Thailand Cucuteni-Tripolye village Liufeng W China Ramapithecus and transitional settlement Lukenya E Africa, Kenya hunter• Sivapithecus Lorlyan Tangai N India Gandharan art gatherers, Neolithic site, Iron Age site Liujiacha N China early man Los Casares C Spain hunter-gatherer Liileburgaz NW Turkey Sinan mosque Liujiazhuang N Japan early settlement art Lululampembele E Africa, Tanzania Liulichang W China Tang kiln Los Higos Honduras Maya settlement hunter-gatherers Liulige N China E Chou cemetery Los Millares SE Spain defensive Lumbini NE India pillar edict, Buddhist Liulin N China early settlement, enclosure center Longshan site Los Morteros N Peru early farming site Lumigny N France Celtic site (modern ) NW Morocco Los Muertos SW USA Pueblo farming Luna NW India Harappan site Carthaginian city site Luna SW USA Pueblo farming site Liyu NE China E Chou bronze hoard Los Murcielagos S Spain farming Luna (modern Luni) N Italy Roman Liyuan N China early settlement settlement colony L1atas E Spain Mesolithic settlement Los Placeres del Oro C Mexico Pre• Lund N Denmark Viking center Llyn Cerrig Bach N Wales Celtic Classical site Lunde C Denmark rock art religious site Los Soldados C Mexico Olmec site Lundfors N Sweden Mesolithic Loanhead of Daviot NE Scotland stone Los Terrones C Mexico Pre-Classical settlement circle site Lundi E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age Lochard C Africa, Zimbabwe Los Toldos S Argentina early site Acheulian tools settlements Lunel Viel C France early tools Lochhill SW Scotland megalithic tomb Lothagam (Loktang) E Africa, Kenya Luni C Italy early settlement S Italy Greek colony Australopithecus, harpoons and pottery Lunteren S Holland beaker burial Ancient country of C Greece Lothal NW India early city, Harappan Luojiajiao E China rice farming site LOddenkoppinge S Sweden Viking site (Lo-yang) N China early center Lotofaga Western Samoa early site settlement, early city, Shang city, early Lodenice W Czechoslovakia iron• Lou I. Papua New Guinea Lapita trade capital, Han burial, Buddhist working site obsidian center, Tang capital 651 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Luparevo SW Russia barrow burial Madsebakke E Denmark rock art S Africa Lupemba C Africa, Zaire Stone Age Madura (Madurai) S India early city, Australopithecus africanus tools Pandya capital Makgwareng S Africa Iron Age site Luqurmata N Bolivia early town NW Turkey Greek colony Makotukutuku Valley New Zealand, Lurin C Peru Chavin site, Inca center Maes Howe N Scotland megalithic North I. shell midden Lushan N China Sung kiln tomb Maksyutovo C Russia steppe settlement Lutetia (modern ) N France Magadha early state of NE India Makwe C Africa, Zambia hunter• Roman city Magarida W Japan rice farming site gatherers Luxembourg Roman Magdalenenberg C Switzerland Malaca (modern Malaga) S Spain village, Roman Empire Hallstatt site Phoenician city and harbor Luxor U Egypt temples Magdalensberg S Austria Celtic Malacca S Malaya Islamic trade, Lycia ancient country of SW Anatolia oppidum maritime trade Lydenburg S Africa Iron Age site Magdeburg E Germany archbishopric Malao (modern Berbera) NE Africa, ancient country of NW Anatolia Magheralin NE Ireland bog body Somalia ancient port, early trade Lykkegardens Mose N Denmark bog Maglehoj E Denmark barrow burial Malapati SE Africa, Zimbabwe Iron body the Greek colonies of Age site Lyon (Lugdunum, Lyons) E France S Italy Malaren E Sweden Bronze Age Roman aqueduct, medieval trade, Magnesia SW Anatolia Greek temple, settlement archbishopric Hellenistic city Malatya SE Anatolia Islamic town Lysolaje W Czechoslovakia corded Magosi E Africa, Uganda Stone Age Malazgirt E Anatolia Uratian fortress ware burial tools, hunter-gatherers Male Kosihy E Czechoslovakia fortified Lyubimovka C Russia barrow burial Magoula SE Greece Athenian site Ma'in SW Arabia early state settlement Malerualik N Canada Thule site Ma'rib SW Arabia ancient dam Magsuhot C Philippines early metal Maligawila S Ceyton Buddhist remains Ma'yan Barukh N Israel early tools site Malinalco C Mexico pyramid, Aztec Maba S China early man Mahadaha NE India Mesolithic town Mabaruma Guyana early horticultural settlement E Africa, Kenya Islamic village Mahagama S Ceylon Buddhist site trading post Mablyyat W Arabia Islamic town Mahagara C India early farming Malkata U Egypt royal palace Mablaqah SW Arabia early trade village Mallia () N Crete Minoan palace Mabo Mosse S Sweden pollen core site Mahana Hawaiian Is. early site Malo Vanuatu Lapita site Maboko Island Kenya Proconsul and N Africa, Tunisia Islamic town Maloye Okulovo C Russia steppe Kenyapithecus Mahismati C India Deccan city settlement Mabveni SE Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Mahurjari C India megalithic tomb Malta ancient temples, Bronze Age Age site Mai Lumba W Africa, Nigeria Stone Mal'ta E Russia hunter-gatherer site, Macao S China maritime trade Age tools hunter-gatherer art MacArthur Cave W Scotland Maiden Castle S England defensive Maltai N Mesopotamia Assyrian rock Mesolithic settlement enclosure relief Macassar E Indies, Celebes maritime Maidum (Meidum) U Egypt pyramid, Maltepe S Anatolia Neolithic site trade early plow, early burial, early town Malthi SW Greece tholos tomb Machalilla Ecuador early farming site Maiji Shan N China rock-carved Malton N England medieval town Machanggou NE China W Chou temple Malyy Koytas S Siberia steppe bronze hoard Mailhac S France urnfield, Celtic settlement Machaquila C Guatemala Maya oppidum Mamallapuram S India Pallava center settlement Maininskaya E Russia hunter-gather art Mamaodong SW China early man C Peru Inca center (Mogontiacum) W Germany Mambrui E Africa, Kenya Ming Machupo S Brazil early settlement Roman town, archbishopric pottery Macon E France Celtic oppidum Maioro New Zealand, North I. Cave SW Australia early Macon Plateau SE USA temple mound defended settlement man Macun {,;ay N Anatolia Palaeolithic site Maisieres Belgium hunter-gatherer site Mamutowa Poland hunter-gatherer site Madai NE Borneo cave site, early Maizy NE France Iron Age cemetery Manares E Crete Minoan villa metal site Majiabang E China early settlement Mancheng N China Han burial Madhava temple of Vijayanagara Majiabin E China Longshan site Manchester C England railway Madhavpur W India Deccan city Majiawan NW China early settlement development Madrague de Gien France shipwreck Majiayao NW China early settlement Manching SE Germany Celtic oppidum excavation Makaha Valley Hawaiian Is. early Manda E Africa, Kenya Islamic trade Madras SE India early trade irrigation Mandagora W India early trade Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 652

Mandalay N Bunna Buddhist center Marlborough Downs SW England C Africa, Zaire hunter• Mandeure E France Celtic site source of stones gatherers Mandeville SE USA, Hopewell Marmagen (Marcomagus) W Gennany Mauer SW Gennany human remains site Roman village Mauern S Gennany Neanderthal site, Mandheera NE Africa, Somalia hunter• Marmariani N Greece tholos tomb hunter-gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art gatherers Marmes NW USA, Washington Mauna Kea Hawaiian Is. early quarry Mandra SW Greece tholos tomb Archaic site Maungaroa Valley Cook Is. early site Manekweni SE Africa, Mozambique Maronea NE Greece Greek colony Maupiti Society Is. early site Iron Age site Marquesas Is. early settlement Mavesyn Ridware C England defensive Mangakino New Zealand, North I. rock Marsala W Sicily shipwreck, monastery enclosure art Marseilles (Marseille) S France Mawangdui C China Han burial Mangueiras W Brazil early medieval trade Mawudzu E Africa, Malawi Iron Age horticultural village Marsh Pass SW USA, Arizona site Mangzhang C China Shang Basketmaker site Maxela C Mexico Pre-Classical site lacquerware Marsiliana N Italy Etruscan city Ma'yan Barukh N Israel early tools Mani Mexico, Yucatan Maya settlement Marte W Africa, Nigeria early town Mayapan Mexico, Yucatan Maya Manika C Greece rock-cut tomb Martelange S Belgium Roman village settlement, early town Manikpur NE India Mughal mint Martinez Rockshelter C Mexico early Mayen NW Gennany Roman village, Manikyal N India Buddhist site settlement Rhenish pottery kiln Manila Philippines maritime trade Marton N England medieval town Mayenne Sciences N France hunter• W Anatolia Sinan mosque Marzabotto N Italy early temple gatherer art Mann C USA, Indiana Hopewell site Masal Hiiyiik N Anatolia Hittite palace Mayfa'ah SW Arabia early trade Manothi NW India Harappan site Mashan C China E Chou burial Maykop SW Russia steppe settlement, Mansura N India Islamic town Masjid-i Sulaiman (Masjed-e barrow burial Mantinea S Greece theater and temple Soleyman) W Persia religious site, Mayo Louti W Africa, Stone Manton Swamp New Guinea Neolithic fire temple Age tools settlement Maski S India megalithic tomb Mayor I. New Zealand, North I. shell Manukau South Head New Zealand Massilia (modern Marseille) S France midden shell midden and moa bones Greek colony, Roman city, early trade Mazagao E Brazil early settlement Manunu Society Is. early site center Mazarakata W Greece tholos tomb Maodigou N China early settlement Mastyugino S Russia barrow burial Mazghuna L Egypt pyramids Maoling NE China Ming tomb Masulipatam (Masalia, modern Mazorayeh W Persia early mine Mapela SE Africa Iron Age site Machilipatnam) SE India early city, Mazouco N Portugal hunter-gatherer art Mapungubwe S Africa Iron Age site early trade center, maritime trade Mazukari C Japan fishing site Marae-Mahaiatea Society Is. early site Maszycha Poland hunter-gatherer site, Mbande Hill E Africa Iron Age site Marande W Africa, Niger urban center hunter-gatherer art McConnell N USA, Ohio Archaic site Maras E Anatolia Assyrian provincial Matacapan C Mexico early town McKean NW USA, Montana Archaic city Matala SW Africa, Angola Acheulian site Marash SE Anatolia Islamic town tools Mcquorquodale S USA, Mississippi Marathon SE Greece Athenian Matara NE Ethiopia temple remains Hopewell site settlement Matarrah C Mesopotamia pottery Me'ae Pekia Marquesas Is. early site Marathus W Syria Levantine temple remains Meadowcroft NE USA fluted points Marcey Creek E USA, Virginia Matarrubilla SW Spain ancient fortress Meaux N England Cistercian abbey Archaic site Matauros S Italy Greek colony Mecca (Makkah) W Arabia Islamic Marcoing N France Neanderthal site Mathura C India early city, early trade town, Sinan mosque Mardan N India Gandharan art center, Buddhist center Mechta el Arbi N Africa, Algeria Mareth N Africa, Tunisia hunter- Matieni ancient people of NW Persia hunter-gatherers gatherers Matjiesrivier S Africa hunter-gatherers, Medemblik N Holland Viking trading Mareuil N France early tools Stone Age site emporium Mari N Mesopotamia early city, early Matola SE Africa, Mozambique Iron Medigiriya N Ceylon Buddhist remains city and palace, early writing Age site Medina (Madinah) W Arabia trade, Marillac C France Neanderthal site Matougang S China E Chou burial Islamic town MarkkIeeberg E Gennany early tools Matsuoka C Japan mound cemetery Medinet el·Faiyum early town Markopoulon SE Greece Athenian Mattie Canyon SW USA Pueblo Medinet Habu U Egypt temple settlement farming site Medinet Ma'adi U Egypt temple Marksville S USA, Louisiana Hopewell Mattocks SW USA Pueblo farming Mediolanum (modern Milano, Milan) site, temple mound site N Italy Roman city 653 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Mediolanum (modern Saintes) W Menneville NE France Iron Age Mikhaylovka SW Russia steppe France Roman city cemetery settlement S Italy Greek colony Mercin-et-Vaux NE France Iron Age Mikonos (Mykonos) SE Greece ancient Meerut N India pillar edict, Buddhist cemetery fortress center Merida W Spain Roman aqueduct, Mikro Kavouri SE Greece Athenian Megalopolis S Greece theatre and Islamic town settlement temple, Hellenistic city Merimda NE Africa, Egypt early Mila Mergi N Mesopotamia Assyrian SE Greece city-state, walled cereals rock relief settlement Merkour SE Greece Athenian Mila NW Greece tholos tomb E Sicily Greek colony settlement Milan (Milano) N Italy Celtic oppidum Megaris district of SE Greece Meroe NE Africa, Sudan temple medieval trade, archbishopric Megiddo C Palestine early town, remains, early trade, early iron W Anatolia Classical state, Egyptian fortress, royal fortress of Merrivale SW England stone alignment early port, Achaemenid city, Greek Israel and menhir city, Hellenistic city, Roman city Mehi NW India Harappan site Merry Maidens (Dawns Men) SW Miller S USA, Mississippi Hopewell NW India early farming England stone circle site village, early city, Harappan site Mersa Gawasis Red Sea temple Millstream W Australia Aboriginal site Meinarti, Island of U Egypt fortress Mersin SE Anatolia Neolithic site, Mimasaka C Japan shogunate Meir U Egypt noble's tomb farming site, early pottery provincial capital Mejiro W Africa, Nigeria hunter- Merv (Margush, Alexandria, modern Mimot Cambodia Neolithic settlement gatherers Mary) C Asia Achaemenid city, Mina Perdida S Peru early farming site Mejlgard N Denmark shell midden ParthianiSasanian city, early trade Mina E Brazil shell midden Melanesia W Pacific early settlement center, Islamic town Mindeddu E Sardinia dry-stone fortress Meldon Bridge SE Scotland defensive Mesa Verde SW USA Pueblo farming Mindif W Africa, Cameroon Stone Age enclosure site tools Meliddu (Melitene, modern Mesas de Asta SW Spain early Minisink E USA, Delaware Palaeo• Malatya) E Anatolia Assyrian settlement Indian site provincial city Mesembria Bulgaria Greek colony, ( Minoa) W Sicily Melilli Sicily ancient fortress Byzantine walled town Greek colony Melitene (Meliddu, modern Meshed NE Persia holy city Minturnae (modern Minturno) C Italy Malatya) E Anatolia Roman Messene S Greece theater and temple Roman colony legionary fortress Messenia region of SW Greece Mirabib SW Africa, Namibia Stone Melitopol SW Russia barrow burial Sicily archbishopric Age site Melizeigara W India early trade Mesvin IV Belgium early tools Mirador SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Melka Kunture (Kontoure) E Africa, (Metapontion) S Italy Miran NW China Buddhist center Ethiopia early man, Stone Age tools, Greek colony Mirgissa U Egypt fortification hunter-gatherers Metaurus S Italy Greek colony Miriwun N Australia early man Melkhoutboom S Africa Stone Age site Methone NE Greece Greek colony Mirpur Khas NW India Buddhist site Melolo S Indonesia early metal site Metmenge SE Anatolia early tools Misa-ri C Korea early settlement Melos S Aegean Greek city E France Roman aqueduct Mison C Vietnam early monumental Melville Koppies S Africa Iron Age MexicaItzingo C Mexico Aztec center site site Mextithin early state of Mexico Miswar SW Arabia early capital Memphis L Egypt early city, ancient Mezcala C Mexico early farming site, Mitathal (Mitahal) NW India Indus city, Achaemenid city, Hellenistic city, Pre-Classical site Valley settlement, Harappan site early iron Mezhirich' C Russia hunter-gatherer Mitha Deheno NW India Harappan site Menard S USA temple mound site, hunter-gatherer art Mitla C Mexico pyramid, Pre-Classical Mende NE Greece Greek colony Mezin W Russia hunter-gatherer site, site, Aztec town Mendut C Java Buddhist center hunter-gatherer art Mitla Fortress C Mexico stone source Menehune Hawaiian Is. Miami S USA, Texas Palaeo-Indian site Mitli NW India Mesolithic settlement Menelaion S Greece Mycenaean Miaodigou N China Longshan site Mitropolis S Crete Minoan villa settlement Miaoqiancun N China E Chou Mitterberg W Austria copper mine Mengchi Protectorate C Asia trade cemetery Mittimatalik NE Canada Dorset site with China Mid Clyth NE Scotland stone alignment Mivath N India Mughal mint Mengxi C China Longshan site Midhen SW Greece tholos tomb Miwa, Mt. C Japan holy mountain Menidi E Greece tholos tomb Miesenheim W Germany early tools Mixco Viejo S Guatemala Maya Meniet N Africa, Algeria bone Mihintale N Ceyton Buddhist site, settlement, early town harpoons, early livestock Buddhist remains Mixian N China Tang kiln, Sung kiln Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 654

Mixnitz Austria Neanderthal site Monk Bretton N England medieval Moroto Uganda Proconsul Mixquic C Mexico Aztec center town Morrisons Islands C Canada, Ontario Mizukamidani C Japan early settlement C USA temple mound Archaic site Mlu Prei Cambodia transitional Monoo N Japan Heian fortress Mortensnes N Norway Saami grave settlement Monreale W Sicily archbishopric Morton E Scotland shell midden, Mnarani E Africa, Kenya Ming pottery Monsempron C France Neanderthal megalithic site Moanalua Hawaiian Is. early irrigation site Moscha (Moskha) S Arabia early trade Mocha SW Arabia, Yemen maritime Monsheim C Germany defensive Moschi ancient people of E Anatolia trade enclosure Moshebis S Africa Stone Age site Moche NW Peru pyramid, pre-Inca Mont Auxois E France Celtic oppidum Mosselbaai S Africa Stone Age tools center Mont Bego SE France rock art Mossgiel SE Australia early man Mochlos (Mokhlos) NE Crete Minoan Mont Beuvray E France Celtic Mostar Yugoslavia Sinan mosque town oppidum Mosul (Nud Ardashir) N Mesopotamia Modoc C USA, Illinois Archaic site Mont Lassois E France Hallstatt site Sasanian city, Islamic town Moel Ty Uchaf N Wales stone circle Mont-Dol NW France Neanderthal site Mosyllon (Mosullon) NE Africa, Mogadishu (Muqdisho) E Africa, Mont-St. Michel NW France monastery Somalia ancient port, early trade Somalia Islamic trade, Iron Age site, Montagu Cave S Africa Acheulian Mother Grundy's Parlour C England Ming pottery tools, Stone Age tools hunter-gatherer site Mogador (modern ) NW Montclus S France Mesolithic Motuopuhi New Zealand, North I. Africa, Morocco Phoenician city, early settlement early settlement iron Monte Alban C Mexico pyramid, early Motutapu Island New Zealand, North Mogara N India Mesolithic settlement writing, early farming site, Zapotec 1. defended settlement Mogen S Norway early settlement site, early town, Aztec town (Motye) W Sicily Phoenician Moghogha NW Morocco Monte Alto S Guatemala , Carthaginian city Carthaginian cemetery settlement Mouchi Sounosso N Africa, Chad early Mogollon Village SW USA Pueblo Monte Aquilone S Italy defensive man farming site enclosure Mouila W Africa, Gabon early iron Mogontiacum (modern Mainz) W Monte Bernorio N Spain native Mouliana E Crete Minoan village Germany Roman legionary fortress settlement Mound City NE USA, Ohio Hopewell Mohameriya U Egypt ancient cemetery Monte sa Idda S Sardinia metal hoard site Mohelnice Czechoslovakia farming site Monte Sant' Angelo C Italy Moundville SE USA burial site, temple Mohenjo-Daro NW India early city, archbishopric mound early writing, Buddhist site Monte Sirai S Sardinia Carthaginian Mount Burr S Australia Aboriginal site Moho Cay E Mexico Maya center site Mount Caburn S England Celtic hill fort Moikau New Zealand, North 1. early Monte Verde C Chile early settlement Mount Camel New Zealand, North 1. site Montenegro C Mexico Pre-Classical moa bones Mokau New Zealand, North I. rock art site Mount Horeb SE USA, Kentucky Mokrin NE Yugoslavia Bronze Age Monteoru NE Romania fortified site Hopewell site cemetery Montgaudier C France hunter-gatherer Mount 010 Western Samoa early site Molino Casarotto N Italy farming art Mount Pleasant S England henge settlement Montieres N France early tools Mount Rowland Tasmania Aboriginal Molodovo S Russia Neanderthal site, Montmaurin C France early tools site hunter-gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Montpellier S France monastery Mount William SE Australia Moluccas (Spice Islands) early Monzo Colombia early pottery Aboriginal site maritime trade Moor Park S Africa Iron Age site Mount's Bay SW England ax factory Mombasa E Africa, Kenya maritime Moore Creek E Australia Aboriginal Mountain Cow Belize Maya settlement trade site Mountsandel N Ireland Mesolithic Monagrillo C America, Panama early Moose River Alaska Pacific Eskimo settlement pottery site Mowthorpe N England medieval Monamore W Scotland megalithic Mopti W Africa early settlement village tomb Morales E Mexico Maya settlement Moxby N England medieval town Monastir NW Africa, Tunisia Islamic Moravany Czechoslovakia hunter- Mozs C Hungary early cemetery fortress gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Mozu C Japan mound cemetery Monastiraki C Crete Minoan villa Morgedal S Norway iron-working site Mpulungu C Africa, Zambia hunter- early civilization, steppe Morhana Pahar NE India Mesolithic gatherers nomads settlement Msecke Zehrovice W Czechoslovakia Mongonu W Africa, Nigeria early town Morongo Uta Austral Is. early site Celtic site 655 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Mt. Darwin E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Mursella (modern Petrijevci) N Nagarjunakonda S India, Mesolithic Age site Yugoslavia Roman legionary fortress village, Buddhist site, Buddhist stupa Mt. Gabriel S Ireland early copper Muru W Brazil early settlement Nagaur C India Mughal mint mine Musa-Khel NW India Harappan site Nahal Oren N Palestine Natufian and 'a Tonga Musang- Cave N Philippines cave site, Neolithic site Muaco NW Venezuela early settlement Neolithic settlement Nahr Ibrahim Lebanon Neanderthal Muang Bon N Thailand moated site Musawwarat es Sofra L Egypt temple site Muang Fa Daet NE Thailand moated remains Naibor Soit Inselberg in Olduvai site, early site Muscat SE Arabia Islamic trade Muang Serna C Thailand moated site Mutina (modern Modena) N Italy Naikund C India megalithic tomb Maura Takus N Sumatra early site Roman city Nainte Sume Mongolia Han mirror find Mucking S England early settlement Muza (Musa, modern Mawza'ah) SW Naislusiu in Miiddersheim W Germany farming site Arabia ancient port, early trade Najafenhabad NW Persia stela Mufo C Africa, Angola Oldowan tools Muziris (Mouziris, modern Najran SW Arabia early trade, Islamic Muge S Portugal shell midden Cranganur) SW India early trade town Mugharet el-Aliya NW Africa, Mwamasapa E Africa, Malawi Iron Nakamine N Japan early man Morocco Stone Age tools Age site Nakayama N Japan Heian fortress Mugharet el-Wad C Palestine Natufian My Son (Mison) Indo-China, S Nakhon Pathom C Thailand moated site Vietnam early site site, early site, Buddhist stupa Mugharet Kebara C Palestine Natufian N Sicily Greek colony Nakhon Si Thammarat S Thailand site SW Anatolia Hellenistic city early site Mugumamp Swamp E New Guinea Mynydd-bach SW Wales stone Naknek River Mouth Alaska arctic early site alignment culture Mugur-Aksy E Russia Han mirror find Mynydd Rhiw N Wales ax factory Nal'chik SW Russia steppe settlement Mukkala N Saarni grave Myos Hormos Red Sea ancient port, Nalanda N India Buddhist center Mulberry E USA temple mound early trade Nalatale E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age Muldbjerg W Denmark barrow burial SW Anatolia Roman provincial site Mulifanua Samoa Lapita site capital Nam Thn N Indo-China, Vietnam cave Mulineddu W Sardinai dry-stone N Aegean Greek city site fortress Myrsini (Mirsini) NE Crete tholos tomb Namazga C Asia steppe settlement Mullerup Denmark Mesolithic Myrtos S Crete Minoan village Namforsen N Sweden rock art settlement Mysia Ancient country of NW Anatolia Namgoi E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Multan NW India Mughal mint Mysians ancient people of SW Anatolia Namur S Belgium Celtic oppidum Mumbwa C Africa, Zambia hunter• Mytilene (Mitylene) E Aegean Greek Nan (Linjiang) C China Han city gatherers theater and temple Nan-t'ou Taiwan early settlement Muminabad C Asia steppe settlement W Anatolia Classical site Nana Mode C Africa Iron Age site Cave NW USA, Montana Naachtun N Guatemala Maya Nanchang E China Ming tomb Archaic site settlement Nanfeng C China Sung kiln Munda NW India Harappan site Naame Lebanon Neanderthal site Nanggu Solomon Is. Lapita site Mundie E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age Nabataea NW Arabia early state Nanhai S China cave site site Nabatake W Japan rice farming site Nanhaiya N China early Palaeolithic site Mundigak Afghanistan early farming Nabta W Egypt wavy-line pottery, early Nanjing E China Ming provincial village, early city, Harappan site pottery, early agriculture capital Mundus NE Africa, Somalia ancient Nachikufu C Africa, Zambia hunter• Nannook E Canada Dorset site port gatherers Nanoropus NE Africa, Sudan bone Munhata S Palestine Neolithic site, Naco Honduras Maya settlement harpoons early pottery Naco SW USA, Arizona Palaeo-Indian Nanshangen NE China E Chou Miinsterberg S Germany Celtic site cemetery oppidum Nad-i Ali E Persia Achaemenid palace Nanyang N China Han city Munychia (Mounikhia) SE Greece Nadezhdino-Kurakino C Russia steppe Nanyuan NE China Ming provincial harbor of Athens settlement capital Murcens S France Celtic oppidum Nadporizhka SW Russia steppe Nanzhihui N China E Chou cemetery Mure C Japan rice farming site settlement Napak Uganda Proconsul Mureybat N Syria Neolithic site Nag el-Deir U Egypt noble's tomb Napata NE Africa, Sudan fortress, early Muringa E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Nag el-Gaziriya U Egypt noble's tomb iron Mursa (modern Osijek) N Yugoslavia Nagappattinam S India Hindu religious Naqada (Ombos) U Egypt bone Roman legionary fortress site, Buddhist center harpoons, ancient cemetery Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 656

Naqsh-i Bahram SW Persia rock relief Nebaj C Guatemala Maya settlement, Nexpa C Mexico Pre-Classical site Naqsh-i Rajab S Persia rock relief early town Nezviska W Russia farming site Naqsh-i Rustam SW Persia royal tomb, Nebket Adhoual W Africa, Mali bone NFX New Guinea site of early man rock relief harpoons Ng'orora Kenya early man Naqsh-i Rustam Darab S Persia rock Nebo Hill C USA, Missouri Archaic Ngandong Java early man relief site Ngarradje-Warde-Djobkeng N Nara C Japan Shosho-in temple, Necker Hawaiian Is. early site Australia Aboriginal site Islamic trade, Buddhist pagoda, early Negar S Persia fire temple Nha Trang Indo-China, S Vietnam capital Negub N Mesopotamia tunnel and canal early site Naranjo N Guatemala Maya settlement head Nia E Persia ParthianJSasanian city Narbo (modern Narbonne) S France Neirab C Syria cemetery Niah N Borneo early metal site Roman provincial capital Nelcynda (Nelkunda, modern Niah Cave N Borneo early man, cave Narbonne (Narbo) S France Kottayam) S India early trade site, Neolithic settlement archbishopric Nelson Bay S Africa Stone Age site Niamey W Africa, Niger early town Narce C Italy Bronze Age settlement S Africa Stone Age Niani W Africa, Mali early settlement, Nargius W Sardinia dry-stone fortress tools, hunter-gatherers early city Nariokotome E Africa, Kenya Homo Nemea S Greece temple Niaux SW France hunter-gatherer art erectus Nemrnt Dag E Anatolia obsidian Nicaea S France Greek colony Narosura E Africa, Kenya early source Nicaea NW Anatolia Hellenistic city, livestock, Neolithic site Nenthorn New Zealand, South I. early Byzantine town Narva NW Russia mesolithic site Nichoria SW Greece Mycenaean settlement, megalithic site Nenumbo Solomon Is. Lapita site settlement Nasera E Africa, Tanzania hunter• Nepeiia C Peru Chavln site (modern Izmir) NW gatherers Nericagua Venezuela early settlement Anatolia, Hellenistic city, Roman Nasik W India Deccan city Nerja S Spain hunter-gatherer art, provincial capital Natal'yevka SW Russia steppe farming settlement NW Greece Roman settlement Neshkan E Russia Thule site provincial capital, aqueduct Natanz C Persia fire temple Netiv HaGedud N Palestine Neolithic Niederanwen (Andethanna) Native Point E Canada Dorset site site Luxembourg Roman village Natsushima C Japan shell mound Nettersheim W Germany claw beaker Nieui-sur-' Autize W France beaker Natufian sites Palestine NetzahualcoyotI C Mexico Aztec dyke burial Natunuku Fiji Lapita site Neubau N Austria Celtic site Nigliva NE India pillar edict Naucratis Egypt Greek colony Neuberg SE Germany Celtic oppidum Nihavend NW Persia Parthian city Naujan E Canada Thule site Neumagen (Noviomagus) W Germany Nihoa Hawaiian Is. early site Nauloxes W Anatolia Classical site Roman town Nikinki Timor Neolithic settlement Naura (modern Cannanore) SW India Nevalla (::ori E Anatolia Neolithic site Nikki W Africa, Benin early town early trade Neville NE USA Archaic site Nikolayevka SW Russia steppe Naushahro NW India Harappan site Nevsehir S Anatolia Neolithic site settlement Navinal NW India Harappan site New Bern E USA, N Carolina colonial Nikon NE Africa, Somalia early trade Navish N Persia fire temple settlement Nillipidji N Australia Aboriginal site E Sicily Greek colony New Buipe W Africa, Ghana urban Nimes (Nemausus) S France Roman Nayin NE Persia Islamic town center, early town aqueduct Nazca N Peru pre-Inca center New Caledonia Nimrud (Kalhu, Calah) N Nazlet Aulad el-Sheikh L Egypt flint New Cnidus SW Anatolia Hellenistic Mesopotamia zigurrat, Assyrian royal Nazlet Khatir NE Africa, Egypt Stone city palace, Assyrian capital Age tools New Guinea Kula gift exchange, early Nina S Mesopotamia early city Ndutu E Africa, Tanzania early man settlement, Lapita culture Nindowari NW India Indus Valley Nea Nikomidhia N Greece farming New Madrid SE USA temple mound settlement, early city, Harappan site site, early pottery New S Anatolia Hellenistic Nineveh N Mesopotamia pottery Nea Skala W Greece early tools city remains, early city, Mitannian city, Neanderthal N Germany Neanderthal Newark NE USA, Ohio Hopewell site Assyrian royal palace, Assyrian capital, site Newburgh N England medieval town Parthian city (, Napoli) C Italy Newferry N Ireland Mesolithic Ningbo E China early trade center, Greek colony settlement, megalithic site Buddhist center, Tang kiln, Sung kiln Neapolis NE Greece Greek colony Newgrange E Ireland gold Nintoku Emperor tomb C Japan Neapolis (Piotrovsk) S Russia steppe Newstead S Scotland Celtic religious Nioi N Japan Ainu hill fort settlement site Nioro W Africa, Mali early settlement 657 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Nippur C Mesopotamia zigurrat, North Ferriby N England medieval Nuribda Palestine Egyptian control pottery remains, early city, early town Nutari N Japan Heian fortress writing, Achaemenid city, Hellenistic North Grimston N England medieval Nuulliit NW Greenland Thule site city, Parthian city village Nuzi (Nuzu, modern Yorghan Tepe) N Niriz (Neyriz) S Persia Islamic town North Horr E Africa, Kenya early Mesopotamia early city, early town, Nirou Khani N Crete Minoan village food, Stone Age site early writing, Mitannian city NE Persia Parthian city North Otago New Zealand, South I. Nydam SE Denmark weapon hoard Nisanzai C Japan Yamato tomb rock art Nyirankuba E Africa Iron Age site Nishapur (Neyshabur) NE Persia Northallerton N England medieval town () Ukraine Sasanian city, Islamic town NorthclitTe SW Australia Aboriginal Greek colony Nishinoji E Japan early settlement site Nyong C Malaya Neolithic settlement Nishishiga C Japan rice farming site Norton Mound N USA, Michigan Nyrup NW Denmark musical Nisibis (modern ) E Anatolia Hopewell site instruments Assyrian provincial capital, Hellenistic Norwich E England Viking center, Nysa SW Anatolia Hellenistic city city, Roman provincial capital monastery Nyu W Japan early man Nitaro Cave C Japan early settlement Notgrove C England megalithic tomb Nzabi C Africa, Congo Iron Age site Nitchie Lake SE Australia early man Notornis Valley New Zealand, South I. 'Neil NE USA, New York Archaic Czechoslovakia farming site rock art site Nitriansky Hradok SE Czechoslovakia Notre Dame d'Or C France metal Oak Grove SW USA, California fortified site hoard Archaic site Nitta N Japan Heian fortress Nottingham C England Viking center Oakhanger S England Mesolithic Niya C Asia Buddhist center Novae N Bulgaria Roman legionary settlement Niyasar NW Persia fire temple fortress Oakhurst S Africa hunter-gatherers, Njimi W Africa, Chad early settlement, Noves S France Celtic art Stone Age site early town Novgorod NW Russia Islamic trade Oaxaca C Mexico pyramid Njoro River Cave E Africa, Kenya Noviomagus (modern ) S Oberkassel N Germany hunter-gatherer early food, Neolithic site Holland Roman legionary fortress site, hunter-gatherer art Nkope C Africa, Malawi Iron Age site Novo-Lipovka W Russia barrow burial Oberlarg (Mannlefelsen) Switzerland Noailles C France hunter-gatherer site Novo-Rozanovka SW Russia barrow Mesolithic settlement Nodena SE USA temple mound burial Oberleiservberg E Austria Celtic Nogliki E Russia arctic culture Novyye Ruseshty (Novi-Rusesti) SW oppidum Nohmul Belize Maya settlement Russia Cucuteni-Tripolye village Obion SE USA temple mound Noin Dla (Noyon Uul) Mongolia Noyen (sur-Seine) N France defensive Obluang NW Thailand cave site barrow burial, silk find enclosure Oboda Sinai temple remains Noisy (-sur-Ecole) N France megalithic Nsongezi E Africa, Uganda Acheulian Obre C Yugoslavia farming site tomb tools, Stone Age tools, hunter-gatherers Obrero S Guatemala Maya settlement Nok W Africa, Nigeria Stone Age tools, Ntereso W Africa, Ghana early food Oc Eo S Vietnam early trade center, Iron Age site Ntusi E Africa, Uganda Iron Age site moated site Nokjo-Shahdinzai NW India Harappan Nueva Cadiz Venezuela maritime trade Ocala Cave SW USA, Nevada early site Nuhato NW India Harappan site man Nombe New Guinea early man Numantia N Spain Celtic oppidum, Ocelis (Okelis, modern Khawr Nombre de Dios C America maritime native settlement Ghurayrah) SW Arabia ancient port, trade Numas Entrance SW Africa, Namibia early trade Non Chai N Thailand transitional Stone Age site Ochoz Czechoslovakia Neanderthal site settlement Nun Appleton N England medieval Ockov C Czechoslovakia barrow burial Non Nok Tha N Thailand transitional town Ocmulgee SE USA temple mound settlement Nun Monkton N England medieval Oconto N USA, Wisconsin Archaic site Nong Chae Sao C Thailand early metal town Ocucaje S Peru Paracas site site Nunguvik NE Canada Thule site Odense C Denmark Viking center Nonnebakken C Denmark Viking Nunivak Alaska arctic culture Odessus (modern Varna) E Bulgaria fortress Nunligran E Russia Thule site Greek colony Noola SE Australia early man Nunyamo E Russia Thule site Odienne W Africa, Ivory Coast early S Sardinia Greek colony Nupe W Africa, Nigeria early kingdom town Nora Velha S Portugal megalithic tomb Nuremberg (Mfunberg) S Germany Odishi SW Russia steppe settlement Normanby I. New Guinea Kula gift medieval trade Oeniadae NW Greece theater and exchange Nuri NE Africa, Sudan ancient temple North Brabant S Africa Stone Age site cemetery, early iron Oenoe SE Greece Athenian fort Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 658

Oenpelli N Australia Aboriginal site Omo Basin (Omo Valley) E Africa, Otakanini New Zealand, North I. N Bulgaria Roman city Ethiopia Australopithecus boisei, bone defended settlement Ofufunbe N Japan Ainu hill fort harpoons Otatara New Zealand, North I. Ogachi N Japan Heian fortress Omrynskiy E Russia arctic culture defended settlement Oglakty E Russia silk find Omuna New Zealand, North I. Otero N Spain shell midden Ohaba-Ponor Romania Neanderthal site defended settlement Otley N England medieval town Oissel N France early tools Onayna U Egypt early town Otoe N Japan Ainu hill fort Ojika N Japan Heian fortress Ongbah Cave N Thailand cave site, Ototara New Zealand, South I. moa Okinohara C Japan early settlement transitional settlement bones Okunev S Siberia steppe settlement Onion Portage Alaska Ipiutak and S Italy archbishopric Okiizlii'in SW Anatolia Palaeolithic Thule site Otsukayama C Japan Yamato tomb site Onnemoto N Japan Ainu hill fort Otumba C Mexico Aztec center N Sardinia Carthaginian cemetery Oos (Ausava) W Germany Roman Oturehua New Zealand, South I. rock Olbia S Russia Greek colony, village art Hellenistic city, barrow burial Opatowskie W Poland flint mine Ouadi Aabet Lebanon early tools Olby E Denmark barrow burial Opito New Zealand, North I. defended Ouadi Zeringa N Africa, Chad Olby Lyng E Denmark shell midden settlement Acheulian tools Old Beach Tasmania Aboriginal site Opone (modern Xaafuun) NE Africa, Ouagadougou (Wagadugu) W Africa, Old Crow NW Canada early settlement Somalia ancient port, early trade Burkina early town Old Fort C USA temple mound Opunohu Valley Society Is. early Ouahigouya W Africa, Burkina early Old Kandahar Afghanistan Hellenistic site town city Oraibi SW USA Pueblo farming site Ouidah W Africa, Benin early port Old Kiavak Alaska Pacific Eskimo site Orak S Siberia steppe settlement Ounianga N Africa, Chad wavy-line Old Kismayu E Africa, Somalia Ming Orangia S Africa Stone Age tools pottery pottery Orbliston N Scotland beaker site Ouroux (sur-Saone) E France farming Old Neck New Zealand, South I. shell Orchestra Shell Cave SW Australia settlement midden and moa bones Aboriginal site Outeidat W Africa, Mali wavy-line Old Oyo W Africa, Nigeria early town Orchomenos C Greece Mycenaean pottery, early pottery Old Sleaford E England Celtic site settlement Ovilava (modern ) N Austria Old Uppsala C Sweden barrow burial Orgnac III C France early tools Roman legionary fortress Old Winchester Hill S England Celtic Orito Easter I. early quarry Owl Creek SE USA temple mound hill fort Oriximina E Brazil early horticultural Owo W Africa, Nigeria early town Oldbury S England Neanderthal site village Oxkintok Mexico, Yucatan Maya Oldendorf N Germany megalithic tomb Orieans N France monastery settlement Olieboompoort S Africa Stone Age Easter I. petroglyph Oxpemul Mexico, Yucatan Maya tools, Stone Age site Orongo Bay New Zealand, North I. settlement Olifantspoort S Africa Iron Age site shell midden Oxtotitlan C Mexico Pre-Classical Olimbos SE Greece Athenian Oronsay W Scotland shell midden, site settlement megalithic site Oyamato-Yanagimoto C Japan mound Olinahi C Mexico Pre-Classical site Oronsk S Poland Mesolithic settlement cemetery Olintepec C Mexico Pre-Classical site Oropia district of SE Greece Ozette NW USA village C Peru Inca center Oropou SE Greece Athenian settlement Paarp Karup SW Sweden musical Olmec Caves C Mexico Pre-Classical Oropus SE Greece temple instruments site Orsett SE England defensive enclosure Paars NE France Iron Age cemetery Olorgasallie E Africa, Kenya early man Oruarangi New Zealand, North I. Pabumath NW India Harappan site Olsen-Chubbuck W USA, Colorado defended settlement PacMcamac C Peru pyramid, Middle bison kill site Orvieto N Italy early temple Horizon site Olszanica W Poland farming site Osa NW Russia megalithic site Pachamachay Peru early farming Olympia S Greece temple, sanctuary Osaka C Japan Buddhist center Pacheco S Peru Middle Horizon site NE Greece Byzantine Osan-ni C Korea early settlement Pachmarhi C India Mesolithic bishopric Osare, Mt. N Japan holy mountain settlement Omi C Japan shogunate provincial Osceola N USA Archaic site Pachten (Contiomagus) W Germany capital Osiers N France early tools Roman village Omihi New Zealand, South I. shell Ostermoor NW Germany terp Pachuca C Mexico early town midden settlement N Peru Chavfn site Omo NE Africa, Ethiopia early man, Ostia C Italy Roman city Padah-lin Burma cave site site of modem humans Ostrow S Poland Mesolithic settlement Padan Lawas N Sumatra early site 659 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Padre Piedra SE Mexico Pre-Classical Panther Cave S USA, Texas Archaic site Paviland S England hunter-gatherer site site (Pantikapaion, modern Pavlopetri S Greece Mycenaean Paekche S Korea early site Kerch) S Russia Greek colony, settlement Paengariki Cook Is. early site Hellenistic city, Roman city, early Pavlov Czechoslovakia hunter-gatherer Paethana C India early trade trade center site, hunter-gatherer art Pagan N Burma temple complex, Pantzac C Guatemala Maya settlement Pavon C Mexico early farming site Buddhist center Panyu S China Han burial Payas SE Anatolia Sinan mosque Pagar Ruyung S Sumatra early site Paomaling C China Longshan site Pazyryk E Russia barrow burial silk Pagaralam C Sumatra early metal site Papatowai New Zealand, South I. moa find Paharpur (Somapura) N India bones Peacock's Farm E England Mesolithic Buddhist center Papoura S Crete tholos tomb settlement Painsthorpe N England medieval village Paracas S Peru early site Pechal Mexico, Yucatan Maya Pair-non-Pair C France hunter-gatherer Paramonga N Peru Inca center settlement art Parc y Meirw SW Wales stone Pech-de-I' Aze C France early tools, Pajchiri N Bolivia early town alignment Neanderthal site Pajon SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Paredao E Brazil early settlement Pech-Merie C France hunter-gatherer Palaepatmae (modern Dabhoi) W Paremata New Zealand, North I. art India early trade defended settlement Pedra Branca S Portugal megalithic Palaesimundu N Ceylon early trade Pareora Mouth New Zealand, South I. tomb Palaikastro (Palaiokastro) NE Crete moa bones Pedra Coberta NW Spain megalithic Minoan town and port Parga NW Greece tholos tomb tomb Palanli Caves E Anatolia Palaeolithic Paria N Bolivia Inca tambo Pedra Furada E Brazil early settlement site Paricatuba E Brazil shell midden Peer Sultan NW India Harappan site Palantio N Spain native settlement Parihasapura (modern Paraspur) NW Pegtymel'River E Russia Thule site Palauea Hawaiian Is. early site India Buddhist stupa Pegu S Burma early site, Buddhist Palembang S Sumatra early port, Parikanians (Paricanii) ancient people center Buddhist center of SE Persia Peikthano C Burma early monumental Palenque C Mexico pyramid, Maya Pariwhakatau New Zealand, South I. site settlement defended settlement Peiligang N China early settlement, Sicily medieval trade, Parkhill SE Canada fluted points early pottery archbishopric Parkin SE USA temple mound Peine Tampu N Chile Inca tambo Palkigunda S India rock edict N Italy Roman city Pella N Greece Hellenistic city Pallavoy S India cattle pen site Paros S Aegean Greek city Pella (Peheli) Palestine Egyptian Palma W Mediterranean Phoenician Parpallo E Spain hunter-gatherer site, control, Hellenistic city, Islamic town city, medieval trade hunter-gatherer art, Mesolithic ancient country of C Palmeirinhas SW Africa, Angola settlement Greece Oldowan tools Parthians ancient people of N Persia Pendeli SE Greece quarry Palmela C Portugal rock-cut tomb Pasalar N Anatolia Ramapithecus and Pengkalan Bujang N Malaya early site Palmyra (modern Tadmur) Syria Sivapithecus Peninj E Africa, Tanzania Roman city, temple remains, early SW persia Achaemenid Australopithecus boisei, early man trade, Islamic town palace Penukonda S India Hindu religious site Palpa S Peru Paracas site Paso E Indonesia, Celebes shell midden Penzhina Bay E Russia Thule sites Palu E Anatolia Uratian inscription Paso de la Arena C Mexico Pre• Penzhina River E Russia arctic culture Palugvik Alaska Pacific Eskimo site Classical site Pera E Thrace Byzantine town Panactum (Panakton) SE Greece Passo di Corvo S Italy defensive Perarine S France stone circle and Athenian fort enclosure menhir Pandi Wahi NW India Harappan site Pasterskoye Ukraine Greek imports Perati SE Greece ancient quarry Panipat N India Mughal mint Patallputra (modern Patna) NE India Perdikaria C Greece Mycenaean Panlongcheng C China early city, early city, early trade center fortress Shang city Patavium (modern Padova, Padua) N Perello NE Spain Mesolithic settlement Panopeus C Greece Mycenaean fortress Italy Roman empire Peres Yugoslavia Mesolithic settlement Panopolis L Egypt silk trade Patna (Pataliputra) N India Buddhist Pergamum (, modern Panormos SE Greece ancient fortress center Bergama) NW Anatolia Hellenistic (modern Palermo) NW Pavagarh Hill NW India Mesolithic city, Roman provincial capital, ancient Sicily Phoencian city, Roman city site aqueduct and water supply, Byzantine Pantaleon S Guatemala Maya Paviken S Sweden Viking trading town settlement emporium Perge SW Anatolia Hellenistic city Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 660

Periam W Romania Bronze Age Phimai C Thailand transitional Pingitkalik E Canada Thule site settlement settlement, early site Pingliangtai N China E Chou burial Periano Ghundai NW India Harappan Phnom Da Cambodia early Pingshan N China E Chou burial site monumental site Pingyuan N China Han city NW Turkey Roman Phnom Laang S Indo-china, Cambodia Pinson C USA, Tennessee Hopewell provincial capital cave site site Peristeria SE Greece Athenian fort Phnom Ruung E Thailand early site Pinto Basin SW USA, California Peristeria SW Greece Mycenaean (Phokaia) W Anatolia Greek Archaic site fortress city Pintu Cave N Philippines cave site Pernant NE France Iron Age cemetery Phocis ancient country of C Greece Piquillaqta S Peru Middle Horizon site SW Persia Achaemenid cities and trade Piraeus SE Greece ancient harbor, port palace Phoenicians ancient people of Palestine of Athens Perseverancia SE Mexico Pre-Classical Phopo Hill C Africa, Malawi Iron Age Pirapitinga W Brazil early settlement site site Pirikatai N Japan Ainu hill fort Perusia (modern Perugia) C Italy Phra Afghanistan ParthianlSasanian city Pisac E Peru Inca center Etruscan city Phra Vihar (Preah Vihear) Indo-china, Pisaurum (modern Pesaro) N Italy Peshawar Pakistan Mughal mint, Cambodia early site Roman colony Buddhist stupa ancient country of NW Pita W Africa, Guinea early town Pesse Holland Mesolithic settlement Anatolia Pitangalya W India Buddhist site Petersfels W Germany hunter-gatherer Phu Hoa S Vietnam transitional Pithecusa (Pithekoussai) C Italy Greek site, hunter-gatherer art settlement colony Petit-Spiennes Belgium early tools Phung Nguyen N Vietnam transitional Placentia (modern Piacenza) N Italy Petra Jordan Roman city, Nabataean settlement Roman city capital, early trade Phylakopi (Filakopi) SE Greece Plainview S USA, Texas Palaeo-Indian Petralona N Greece early tools and ancient fortress, Mycenaean fortress site human remains SE Greece Athenian settlement Platanos S Crete tholos tomb Petrkovice Czechoslovakia hunter• Pi-Rameses L Egypt ancient city, early Plateau Parrain C France hunter- gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art city gatherer site Petropavlovsk C Russia steppe Pictograph Grave NW USA, Montana Plati C Crete Minoan town settlement Archaic site Platinum Alaska arctic culture Petsophas (Petsofas) E Crete peak Piediluco C Italy metal hoard Plawangan C Java early metal site sanctuary Piedra N Spain monastery Plenge NE USA fluted points Peu-Richard W France defensive Piedras Negras Guatemala Maya Plocnik S Yugoslavia tell settlement enclosure settlement Plussulien NW France ax factory Pfupi C Africa, Zimbabwe hunter• Piegu NW France Neanderthal site Plymouth SW England railway gatherers Pietersburg S Africa Stone Age tools development Phaistos (Phaestos, Lat. Phaestus) S Pignicourt NE France Iron Age Pochampad S India megalithic tomb Crete Minoan palace cemetery Pocklington N England medieval town Phalaborwa S Africa Iron Age site Pijijiapan SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Poco da Gateira S Portugal megalithic Phaleric Wall Athens Pikes Peak N USA, Iowa Hopewell site tomb Phalerum (Faliron) SE Greece harbor S Peru pre-Inca center Podbaba W Czechoslovakia iron• of Athens Peru early settlement working site Phan Rang Indo-China, S Vietnam Piksyasi C Russia steppe settlement Podbornoye E Russia steppe settlement early site Pilismarot-Baharc N Hungary Celtic Poduca (Arikamedu, modern Pharsalus C Greece Hellenistic city site Pondicherry) S India early trade S Anatolia Greek colony Pimenteiras S Brazil early settlement Poetovio (modern Ptuj) N Yugoslavia Philadelphia (modern Amman) Jordan Pin Hole C England hunter-gatherer site Roman legionary fortress Hellenistic city Pinarbasi SE Anatolia Neolithic site Pohanska C Czechoslovakia Celtic Philadelphia SW Anatolia Hellenistic Pincevent NE France hunter-gatherer oppidum city site Poike Ditch Easter I. early site Philae U Egypt Ptolemaic temple Pindal NW Spain hunter-gatherer art Point Barrow (Birnik) Alaska Thule site Philippi NE Greece theater Pineda C Mexico Pre-Classical site Pointe de St-Gildas NW France Philippines early settlement, Neolithic Pinedale Ruins SW USA Pueblo Mesolithic settlement settlement, early metal sites, early farming site Point Hope Alaska Ipiutak and Thule maritime trade Pinedo C Spain early tools sites Philippopolis (modern ) Pine Lawn Valley SW USA Pueblo Point of Pines SW USA Pueblo Bulgaria Hellenistic city, Roman city farming site farming site 661 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Polada N Italy lake dwelling Potrero de Payagasta C Chile Inca Theron Red Sea early trade Poliokhni (poliochni) NE Greece tambo Puako Hawaiian Is. petroglyph ancient fortress Potrero Nuevo C Mexico Olmec site Puamau Valley Marquesas Is. early PolitotdeI'skoye C Russia steppe Potter Brompton N England medieval site settlement pottery Pucani S Peru Paracas site, Inca center Pololu Valley Hawaiian Is. early Potterton N England medieval town Pucani de Andagala N Argentina Inca irrigation Potwar Plateau NW India center Polonnaruwa N Ceylon early capital Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus Pueblito N Colombia early settlement and Buddhist center Pouey-Mayou SW France megalithic SW USA Pueblo Polyanitsa E Bulgaria farming site tomb farming site Pomata S Peru Inca tambo Poulailler N France Celtic oppidum Pueblo de los Muertos SW USA Pomona Belize Maya settlement Pounawea New Zealand, South I. moa Pueblo farming site Pomongwe C Africa, Zimbabwe hunter- bones Pueblo Viejo SE Mexico Pre-Classical gatherers Pouto New Zealand, North I. defended site Pomongwe Cave SE Africa, Zimbabwe settlement Puerto Hormiga N Colombia early Stone Age tools S USA, Louisiana clay pottery, early settlement Pondicherry SE India maritime trade figurine Puerto Marquez C Mexico early Pong Tuk C Thailand early site Poyemau SW France Mesolithic farming site Ponta de GiraUl SW Africa, Angola settlement Puig Roig NE Spain megalithic tomb Oldowan tools Praaspa NW Persia Parthian city Pukaki New Zealand, South I. rock art Pont d'Ambon C France hunter• Prah Khan (preah Khan) Indo-China, Pukearuhe New Zealand, North I. gatherer site Cambodia early site defended settlement Pont-Arcy NE France Iron Age Praia a C Portugal beaker burial PoIau Kumpai (Polau Kompei) N cemetery Praia das Ma~ S Italy farming site, Sumatra early port Ponteau SE France Mesolithic early pottery PoIau Tioman S Malaya early site settlement Prairie de Mauves NW France metal PoIemelei Western Samoa early site Pontefract N England medieval town hoard PoIguk-sa S Korea Buddhist center Ponte San Pietro C Italy rock-cut tomb Praisos E Crete Minoan village Pulicat SE India early trade Pontnewydd N Wales early tools and Prambanan C Java temple complex PuIIi NW Russia Mesolithic settlement human remains Prasat Andet Cambodia early Pumpu N Peru Inca center Ponui Island New Zealand, North I. monumental site Punapau Easter I. early quarry shell midden Pratisthana C India Deccan city Puntutjarpa N Australia Aboriginal site Poor Hill New Zealand, North I. Predmosti Czechoslovakia Neanderthal Punok Is. Alaska Thule site defended settlement site, hunter-gatherer site, hunter• Purakanui New Zealand, South I. shell Poplar Grove NW Canada, British gatherer art, beaker burial midden Columbia Archaic site Prembanan C Java Buddhist center Puritjarra C Australia early man Populonia N Italy Etruscan city Prescelly Mts. SW Wales source of Purron and Abejas Caves C Mexico Port Moller Aleutian Is. arctic culture standing stones early settlement Port Royal underwater W Anatolia Classical site, Greek Purushaddum (Burushattum) E excavation city, Hellenistic city Anatolia Assyrian colony Port-aux-Choix E Canada Dorset site Prinias E Crete peak sanctuary Pushkar N India Mesolithic site Porter S USA, Mississippi Hopewell Priniatiko Pyrgos E Crete ancient port Pushkari W Russia hunter-gatherer site site Privol'noye SW Russia steppe Pusilha Belize Maya settlement Porti S Crete tholos tomb settlement Puteoli (modern Puzzuoli) C Italy Portsmouth NE USA, New Hampshire Protorville E USA temple mound Roman city colonial settlement Prome S Burma Buddhist pagoda Putu Alaska early settlement Poseidonia (Posidonia, , Prostpect Farm E Africa, Kenya Stone Putuo Shan E China holy mountain modern Pesto) S Italy Greek colony Age tools, Neolithic site Puwon S Korea rice farming site Poshankou E China E Chou burial Prosymna S Greece tholos tomb Puy d 'Yssandon C France Celtic Positano S Italy shell midden Protesilaos NW Anatolia metal vessels oppidum Postoloprty NW Czechoslovakia Providence NE USA, Rhode Island Puy de Paulhiac SW France stone Bronze Age settlement colonial settlement circle and menhir Potchevash N Russia Han mirror find NW Anatolia Byzantine town Puyo S Korea capital of early state Potentia (modern Potenza) S Italy Psafis SE Greece Athenian settlement Pyagina Peninsula E Russia Thule site Roman colony Pseira (psira) E Crete Minoan town Pylos SW Greece early port, Potidaea NE Greece Greek colony and port Mycenaean settlement Potonchan E Mexico early town Pskent C Asia Han mirror find Pyolmang C Korea early settlement Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 662

Pyongyang N Korea capital of early Qionglai W China Tang kiln Rajghat NE India early city state, Buddhist center Qir S Persia rock relief Rajgir NE India early city Pyrgi C Italy Roman empire Qishan NW China early settlement, Rajula Mandagiri S India rock edict Pyrgos C Crete peak sanctuary oracle bones Rakaia River Mouth New Zealand, Pyrgos N Crete Minoan village Qizqapan NW Persia rock relief South I. shell midden and moa bones Pyrgos NE Greece Mycenaean fortress Quad SE USA, Alabama Archaic site Rakhigarhi NW India Indus Valley Pyrgos S Crete Minoan village Quanterness N Scotland megalithic settlement, Harappan site W Anatolia Classical site tomb Rakival Papua New Guinea Lapita site Pyxus S Italy Greek colony Quanzhou SE China early trade center, Ramachandra temple of Vijayanagara Qadesh SW Syria Neolithic site, early Sung kiln Ramatirtha E India Buddhist site city Quban U Egypt fortress Rambaban S Sumatra early site Qal'at Bani Hammad NW Africa, Qubbat al-Sulaibiyya Mesopotamia Rameswaram S India Hindu religious Algeria Islamic town mausoleum of Samarra site SW Arabia early trade Qubbet el-Hawa U Egypt noble's tomb Ramnagar NW India Ramapithecus Qalatgar NW Persia Urartian fortress Quebec E Canada colonial settlement and Sivapithecus Qaleh-i Dukhtar SW Persia rock relief Quechula SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Ramp SW USA Pueblo farming site Qalinj Agha N Mesopotamia pottery Quen Santo C Guatemala Maya Rampurwa NE India pillar edict remains, early settlement settlement RamshOg S Sweden megalithic tomb Qana SW Arabia ancient port Quenstedt N Germany defensive Rana Ghundai NW India Indus Valley Qarnaw SW Arabia temple remains enclosure settlement, early city, Harappan site Qasr al-' Ashiq Mesopotamia palace of Quentowic N France Viking trading Ranchillos N Argentina Inca tambo Samarra emporium Rancho Peludo Colombia early pottery Qasr al Hayr Syria Islamic port Quereo N Chile early settlement Ranggiloch Switzerland Mesolithic Qasr al-Ja'fari Mesopotamia palace of Quetta E Baluchistan Harappan site settlement Samarra Quetzalpapaloti Palace C Mexico Rangoon S Burma Buddhist pagoda Qasr el Mushatta Jordan Islamic port Qui,. (Kisama) SW Africa, Angola Rangpur NW India early city, Qasr el-Sagha L Egypt temple salt mine Harappan site Qasr Ibrim U Egypt fortress Quinzano N Italy Neanderthal site Easter I. early site Qasr Khubbaz NW Iraq Roman dam QUirigUli N Guatemala Maya settlement Ranviken S Sweden pollen core site Qasr Shamamok (Kaksu) Quito N Ecuador Inca capital, colonial Raphanea W Syria Roman legionary Mesopotamia Assyrian provincial settlement early trade fortress capital Qujialing C China Longshan site, rice Raqchi S Peru Inca center Qataban SW Arabia early state farming site Raqote L Egypt harbor works Qatna C Syria early city Qum N Persia Sasanian city, Islamic Raqqa Syria Islamic town Qaw el-Kebir (Antaeopolis) U Egypt town, holy city Ras Beyrouth Lebanon early tools, noble's tomb Qumis N Persia Islamic town Neanderthal site Qazvin N Persia Islamic town, Safavid Qunduz Afghanistan coin hoard Ras el' Amiya C Mesopotamia pottery capital Quseir Amra Jordan Islamic port remains Qianshanyang E China early Quynh Vanh N Vietnam Neolithic Ras el Ma W Africa, Mali early settlement, Longshan site settlement settlement Qiaocun N China E Chou cemetery NW Africa, Morocco Islamic Ras el-Kelb Lebanon Neanderthal site Qijiacun N China W Chou burial and town Rasel-Lados Lebanon Neanderthal site bronze hoard Rabbit Mount SE USA, South Carolina Ras Shamra () NW Syria Qincun N China E Chou cemetery Archaic site Neolithic site, early pottery, Qingchuan C China E Chou bronze NW Algeria Carthaginian Achaemenid burial hoard cemetery Rat Buri C Thailand early site Qinggongcha NW China early Radomyshl W Russia hunter-gatherer Ratiaria (modern Archar) N Bulgaria settlement site Roman legionary fortress Qinghe N China Han city Rafter Lake E Canada, Nova Scotia Rauberhohle S Germany Neanderthal Qinglingang N China early settlement Archaic site site Qingling NE China Ming tomb Raglan New Zealand, North I. rock art Ravenna N Italy archbishopric Qingyanggong W China Tang kiln Ragusa Sicily medieval trade Ravensburg NW Germany early tools Qingzhou N China Tang kiln, Rahapara Pa New Zealand, North I. Ravnholt C Denmark bog body provincial capital defended settlement Rawak C Asia Buddhist center Qinjiagou N China Chou bronze hoard Rahman Dheri NW India Indus Valley Ray (Rai, modern ) N Persia Qinweijia NW China Shang copper settlement, early city, Harappan site ParthianlSasanian city source Raisthorpe N England medieval village Razet NE France rock-cut tombs 663 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Real Alto W Ecuador pyramid, early Ringkloster N Denmark Mesolithic Romanelli S Italy hunter-gatherer site, fanning site settlement, megalithic site hunter-gatherer art Red Mountains SW USA Pueblo Rio Azul N Guatemala Maya settlement RomeraI S Spain megalithic tomb farming site Rio Bec Mexico, Yucatan Maya Renbjerg NW Denmark bog body Redkin Lager SW Russia steppe settlement Ronquin C Venezuela early settlement Rio Chiquito C Mexico Olmec site horticultural village Reggio (di Calabria) S Italy Rio de Janeiro Brazil colonial Rooidam S Africa Acheulian tools archbishopric settlement Roonka Flat S Australia Aboriginal site Regourdou C France Neanderthal site Rio Seco S Peru early public building Roosevelt SW USA Pueblo farming site Reigh N USA, Wisconsin Archaic site Rio Tinto S Spain early copper mine Ropp W Africa, Nigeria hunter- Relilaia N Africa, Algeria hunter- Riofrio N Spain pollen core site gatherers gatherers Riol (Rigodulum) W Germany Roman Roquepertuse S France Celtic site Remagen (Rigomagus) W Germany village Rorbaek NW Denmark bog body Roman village Ripabianca C Italy farming site Rosh Horesha S Palestine Natufian site Remedello N Italy Copper Age Riparo Blanc C Italy shell midden Rosh Zin S Palestine Natufian site cemetery Ripiceni-Izvor Romania Neanderthal Roskilde N Denmark Viking center Remojadas C Mexico early farming site Ross S Ireland monastery site Ripoli C Italy defensive enclosure Rossano S Italy archbishopric Rene Simard C France Neanderthal site Ripon N England medieval town Rossum Praestegard S Norway Rennell I. Solomon Is. Lapita site Rishahr (Rev Ardashir) SW Persia musical instruments Renner C USA, Missouri Hopewell site Sasanian city Rotokura New Zealand, South I. shell Reric N Germany Viking trading Rissori Belgium early tools midden and moa bones emporium Rithymna (modern Rethimnon) N Roudo W Syria early tools Resolute NE Canada Thule site Crete Minoan village Rouen N France Viking trading Retoka S Pacific burial site Riverton C USA, Illinois Archaic site emporium, archbishopric Revheim SW Norway musical Riverton New Zealand, South I. shell Rouffignac C France hunter-gatherer instruments midden art, Mesolithic settlement Rhaedestus E Thrace Byzantine town Rixheim E France fanning site, umfield Rough I. N Ireland shell midden Rhamnus SE Greece theater and Roaix SE France rock-cut tomb Roum NW Denmark bog body temple, Athenian settlement Roanne E France Celtic site Round Green S England early tools Rhegium (, modern Reggio di Robbins NE USA, Kentucky Adena site Roundway S England beaker burial Calabria) S Italy Greek colony, Roberts Drift S Africa Iron Age site Ruahihi New Zealand, North I. Roman city Robin Hood's Cave C England hunter- defended settlement Rheims (Reims) N France Viking gatherer site Ruanga E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age center, archbishopric Robinson NE USA, New York Archaic site Rheindahlen NW Germany early tools, site Ruarangi Pa New Zealand, North I. Neanderthal site Roc de Marsal C France Neanderthal defended settlement Rheingtinheim W Germany silk trade site Rudab8nya Hungary Dryopithecus E Mediterranean Hellenistic Roc de Sers NW France hunter• Rudki W Poland iron-working site city gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art Rudna Glava C Yugoslavia early -y-beddau NW Wales stone Roc-en-Pail NW France Neanderthal copper mine alignment site Rudston NE England beaker burial Ribblehead NE Ireland Viking center SE USA temple mound Runan C China Han city Ribe W Denmark early settlement, RockmarshaIl N Ireland shell midden Runnymede S England Bronze Age Viking trading emporium Rocky Cape Tasmania Aboriginal site settlement Richmond N England medieval town Rocourt Belgium Neanderthal site Runzhou E China Tang prefecture Richu C Japan Yamato tomb Rodgers Shelter C USA, Missouri Rupar NW India early city, Harappan Rickeby E Sweden rock art Archaic site site Rievaulx N England monastery, Roersdam C Denmark bog body Rupnath C India rock edict Cistercian abbey Rognac S France native settlement Rupununi Guyana early settlement Rigabe SE France early tools, Rohira NW India Harappan site Rusahinili E Anatolia Urartian city Neanderthal site Roi Et Sites NE Thailand early sites Ruse N Yugoslavia umfield Rijkbolt (-Sint-Geertruid) S Holland Rojadi NW India Harappan site Rusellae N Italy Etruscan city flint mine C England stone circle Rusinga I. Kenya Proconsul Rim W Africa Mali hunter-gatherers, Roluos Indo-China, Cambodia early site Russell Cave SE USA, Tennessee Iron Age site Romagnano N Italy Mesolithic Archaic site RinaIdone C Italy Copper Age cemetery settlement, fanning site Rustenburg S Africa Iron Age site Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 664

Sa Huynh S Vietnam transitional Sale NW Africa, Morocco Homo San Felipe E Guatemala Maya settlement, early site erectus settlement Saaide W Syria Natufian site Salemas Portugal Neanderthal site San Fernando de Apure Venezuela NW Germany Roman water Salerno (Salernum) S Italy Roman early settlement mill colony, archbishopric San Gervasio Mexico, Yucatan Maya Saami culture Scandinavia Salgir River SW Russia steppe settlement Saarbriicken W Germany Roman settlement San Isidro C Spain early tools village Salinas la Blanca SE Mexico Maya San Isidro N Mexico early settlement Sab Champa C Thailand moated site settlement San Isidro SE Mexico Pre-Classical Saba'a NW Mesopotamia Assyrian Salinelles SE France flint mine site stela Salipetaka E India Buddhist site San Jeronimo C Mexico early farming Sabaea SW Arabia early state Salmas NW Persia rock relief site, Pre-Classical site Sabancheyevo C Russia steppe Salmendingen W Germany San Jose Belize Maya settlement settlement Dryopithecus San Jose Mogote C Mexico early Sabrata W Libya Roman city Salonae (modern Solin) N Yugoslavia farming site, early hieroglyphs Saccopastore C Italy Neanderthal site Roman provincial capital San Lorenzo C Mexico early public Sacrificios Island C Mexico Aztec Salts Cave C USA, Kentucky Archaic building, Olmec center town site San Marco S Italy monastery Sacsayhuaman C Peru Inca fortress Salzburg W Austria archbishopric San Marcos C Mexico early settlement Sadanoyama C Japan Yamato tomb Saizgitter-Lebenstedt N Germany San Martin de Castaneda NW Spain Sadhaura N India Mughal mint Neanderthal site monastery Sado S Portugal Samandag Cave S Anatolia San Martin Pajapan C Mexico Olmec Sado N Japan shogunate provincial Palaeolithic site site capital Samanli W Anatolia Sinan mosque San Miguel E Mexico Maya settlement Saeth Maen S Wales stone alignment Samapa E India rock edict San Miguel Amuco C Mexico Pre• Sagaholm S Sweden rock art Samaria N Palestine Royal fortress of Classical site ancient people of S Persia Israel, Achaemenid city, Hellenistic San Pablito C Mexico Pre-Classical Saguntum (modern ) E Spain city site native settlement Samarkand (Maracanda) C Asia San Pedro de Atacama S Bolivia Sagvar Hungary hunter-gatherer site Achaemenid city, early trade center, San Simon SW USA Pueblo farming Sabul-Iand early land bridge Islamic town, early trade site Sai Yok S Thailand cave site, early Samarra C Mesopotamia pottery San Vicenze al Volturno C Italy metal site remains, Abbasid capital, holy city monastery Sai, Island of U Egypt fortress Sambava Madagascar Ming pottery Sana SW Arabia Islamic town Said Qala Tepe Afghanistan later Sambor Prei Kuk Cambodia Neolithic Sanchi C India Buddhist site, Buddhist farming village settlement, early monumental site stupa Saikaido C Japan early highway Samburu Hills Kenya Kenyapithecus Sand Hill Point New Zealand, South I. Saint-Eugene S France beaker burial Samhar S Arabia ancient port shell midden Saint-Gaudens SW France Dryopithecus Samoa Lapita culture, early settlement Sandalja Yugoslavia hunter-gatherer Sais L Egypt ancient city SE Aegean Greek city, Greek site Saitobaru SW Japan mound cemetery aqueduct Sandhanawaia NW India Harappan site Sakcagozii SE Anatolia pottery Samosata (modern Samsat) E Anatolia Sandouville N France Celtic oppidum remains, Assyrian city Roman legionary fortress Sane NE Greece Greek colony Saki C Japan mound cemetery Samothrace N Aegean sanctuary Sanga C Africa Zaire Iron Age site Sakitama C Japan mound cemetery Samrong Sen Cambodia transitional Sanganakallu S India Mesolithic site SaI'a Czechoslovakia Neanderthal site settlement Sangasanga NE Borneo Neolithic Saladero C Venezuela early Samun Dukiya W Africa, Nigeria Iron settlement horticultural village Age site C Java Salaga W Africa, Ghana early town San Antonio S USA, Texas colonial Sanindo C Japan early highway N Spain monastery settlement Sankaram E India Buddhist site Salamis Cyprus ivory San Augustin E Mexico Maya Sankissa N India pillar edict Salamis SE Greece Athenian settlement settlement Sanliqiao N China Longshan site Salapia C Italy Roman empire San Biagio S Italy Greek shrine Sanmenxia N China early Palaeolithic Salcombe SW England ancient San Carla Balearic Is. fortified site site shipwreck San Cosmos SW USA Pueblo farming Sansan SW France Dryopithecus (Bougie, modern Bejaia) NW site Sant Andria Priu W Sardinia rock-cut Africa Phoenician city San Diego SW USA early settlement tomb 665 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Sant'Angelo Vecchio S Italy Greek Sarangpur C India Mughal mint Schulerloch S Germany Neanderthal shrine Sarapion NE Africa, Somalia early site Sant' Alvera NW Sardinia dry-stone trade Schwanberg C Germany Celtic fortress (Serdis) W Anatolia oppidum Santa Clara W USA, California Achaemenid city, Hellenistic city, Schwarzenacker W Germany Roman Archaic site Roman city village Santa Cristina N Italy beaker burial (Zarephath) Levant ivory Schweizerbild S Germany hunter• Santa Cruz SE Mexico Pre-Classical Sarnath N India Buddhist stupa gatherer site, hunter-gatherer art site, Maya settlement Sarnowo Poland adoption of plow, Scidrus (Skidros) S Italy Greek colony Sante Fe SW USA, New Mexico megalithic tomb Scione (Skioni) NE Greece Greek colonial settlement Sarre S England Viking trading colony Santa Fe de Bogota (Bogata) emporium Sclayn Belgium Neanderthal site Colombia colonial settlement Sarup SE Denmark defensive enclosure Scoglio del Tonno S Italy Bronze Age Santa Maria in Selva N Italy farming Sarurab C Sudan early pottery settlement settlement Sarutaru E India later farming village Scotts Lake E USA temple mound Santa Marta SE Mexico early farming Sas Prigionas C Sardinia megalithic Scottsbluff W USA, Nebraska Palaeo• site tomb Indian site Santa Rita Mexico, Yucatan Maya Sasaram NE India rock edict Scupi (modern Skopje) S Yugoslavia settlement, early town Saskya (Sa'gya) Tibet Buddhist center Roman legionary fortress Santa Rosa SE Mexico early farming Sassafras SE Australia Aboriginal site Scythopolis (Beth-shean) N Palestine site, Pre-Classical site, Maya settlement Sasseruwa N Ceylon Buddhist remains Hellenistic city Santa Rosa I. SW USA, California (modern Giimiisane) NE Seaford Head S England Celtic hill fort Archaic site Anatolia Roman city Sebastea E Anatolia Byzantine Santa Rosa Xtampak Mexico, Yucatan Sathing Phra S Thailand early site bishopric Maya settlement Satogi W Japan early settlement Sebennytus L Egypt ancient city Santa Sarbana NE Sardinia dry-stone Satohama N Japan fishing site Sedeinga U Egypt temple fortress Satsuma W Japan shogunate provincial Seelands E Australia Aboriginal site Santa Severina S Italy archbishopric capital W Sicily Greek temple Santa Tecchia S Italy farming site, Saturnia N Italy Roman colony C Spain Roman aqueduct early pottery Satyrion S Italy Greek colony Segu (Segou) W Africa, Mali early Santa Teresa C Mexico Pre-Classical site Saue SW Arabia early trade settlement, early town Santani-dar S Russia early tools Sauniatu Western Samoa early site Segusio (modern ) NW Italy Santarem E Brazil early settlement Sauveterre-Ia-Lemance S France Roman provincial capital Santiago C Chile Inca tambo, colonial Mesolithic settlement Seibal N Guatemala Maya settlement settlement, early trade Savannah SE USA, Georgia colonial Seila L Egypt pyramid NW Spain settlement Seip NE USA, Ohio Hopewell site archbishopric and pilgrimage center Savignano C Italy hunter-gatherer art Selby C USA early settlement Santimamiiie N Spain hunter-gatherer Sawa SW Arabia early trade Selby N England medieval town art, shell midden Sawankhalok N Thailand early site (on the Tigris) C Santo Domingo (Ciudad Trujillo) Sawaris U Egypt noble's tomb Mesopotamia Hellenistic city maritime trade Sayil Mexico, Yucatan settlement SeleucialCtesiphon C Mesopotamia Santobong NW Borneo early port Sazonkin Bugor W Russia barrow early trading capital Sanyodo C Japan early highway burial SE Anatolia Hellenistic Sao Pedro do Estoril C Portugal Scarborough N England medieval town city beaker burial Schafstiidt E Germany corded ware Seleucia Sidera SW Anatolia Sao Vicente S Portugal monastery burial Hellenistic city Sapanca W Anatolia Sinan mosque Schambach S Germany Neanderthal (modern ) SW Sicily Saphar SW Arabia early trade site Greek colony Saqqara L Egypt pyramid, early burial, Scharmbeck N Germany iron-working Selsey S England Celtic oppidum early writing, court cemetery site E Thrace Byzantine town Sar Mashhad SW Persia rock relief Schnapper Point E Australia Semma U Egypt temple, fortress Sar-i Pol NW Persia rock relief Aboriginal site Semylla (modern Chaul) W India early Sarabit el-Khadim Sinai copper mine SchOfflisdorf N Switzerland corded trade Sarai Khola NW India early farming ware burial Sena E Africa, Mozambique Iron Age village, Harappan site SchOtz Switzerland Mesolithic site Sarai-Nahar-Rai NE India Mesolithic settlement Sena (modern Siena) N Italy Roman site Schroeder C Mexico early town colony Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 666

Seneret C France vehicle burial Shanga E Africa, Kenya Islamic trading Shippea Hill SE England megalithic Senon E France Roman village post, Ming pottery site Senpukuji W Japan cave site, early Shangcunling N China E Chou Shirataki N Japan early man pottery cemetery Shiraz S Persia Islamic town Seoul S Korea Buddhist center Shangguocun N China E Chou bronze Shirjan SW Arabia ancient dam Serdica (modem Sofiya, Sofia) C hoard Shironoyama C Japan Yamato tomb Bulgaria Roman city Shanghai E China early settlement, Shiwa N Japan Heian fortress Sered' Czechoslovakia Mesolithic Ming tomb Shiyu NE China early man settlement Shangjiaocun N China E Chou Shizhaishan SW China E Chou Serendipity Cave New Zealand, South cemetery cemetery, Han burial I. early site Shangjing N China Tang kiln Shkaft-i Gulgul W Persia Assyrian Sermemiut W Greenland Dorset and Shanglinhu E China Sung kiln rock relief Thule site Shangmacun N China E Chou Shongweni S Africa Stone Age site NE USA, Ohio Adena cemetery Shoop E USA, Pennsylvania Palaeo• site Shangwangzhuang E China E Chou Indian site Serpent Mound SE Canada, Ontario burial Shorttughai (Shortugai) C Asia early Hopewell site Shangyu E China Tang kiln, Sung kiln trade, Indus colony Seruwawila N Ceylon Buddhist Shanidar N Mesopotamia Neanderthal Shotorak N India Gandharan art remains site Shouchunfu N China provincial capital Ses Paisses Balaeric Is. fortified site Shantou (Swatow) SE China early Shouxian N China Tang kiln Sesebi U Egypt temple settlement Show Low SW USA Pueblo farming Sesklo C Greece farming site, early Shaogou N China E Chou cemetery site pottery Shaqadud C Sudan early pottery Shriver C USA fluted points Sessebi U Egypt fortress Sharpovskoye Ukraine Greek imports Shuidonggou N China early man Sestus NW Anatolia Greek colony, Shawnee-Minisink NE USA fluted Shuihudi C China E Chou burial, Han Roman city points burial Setaia (Seteia, modem Sitia) NE Crete Shazhong C China E Chou burial Shungura NE Africa, Ethiopia early Minoan town She U Egypt early town tools Setanai N Japan Ainu hill fort Shechem (Shakmi, modem Nablus) N Shuqba S Palestine Natufian site Seto C Japan pottery kiln Palestine Egyptian control, Levantine Shuruppak S Mesopotamia early city, Settiva Corsica megalithic tomb city early writing SeUrington N England medieval village Sheep Rock E USA, Pennsylvania Shusharra (Shemshara, Shimshara) N Sevan Armenia Urartian inscription Archaic site Mesopotamia early town Seven Brothers S Russia burial, barrow Sheikh'Atiya U Egypt noble's tomb Shushtar W Persia Sasanian city burial Sheikh Hammad N Mesopotamia Shwezayan C Burma Neolithic SW Spain Islamic town, Assyrian stela settlement maritime trade Sheikh Sa'id U Egypt noble's tomb Si Maha Phot C Thailand moated site, SE Spain Phoenician city Sherda N Africa, Chad Oldowan tools early site Shabik'aschee SW USA, New Mexico Shibam S Arabia Islamic town Si Thep N Thailand moated site, early Basketrnaker farming village Shibaniba (modern TeD Billa) N site Shabona NE Africa, Sudan wavy-line Mesopotamia Assyrian provincial Siah Damb NW India early farming pottery, early pottery capital village Shabwah SW Arabia early capital and Shibe E Russia barrow burial Sialk (Tepe Sialk) W Persia early kiln, temple remains Shibechari N Japan Ainu hill fort early trade, early settlement, burial Shag River Mouth New Zealand, Shibiki N Japan early man Sialkot NW India Mughal mint South I. moa bones Shide S England Neanderthal site Siberia steppe nomads, arctic cultures Shah-ji-ki-dheri N India Buddhist Shigaraki C Japan pottery kiln Sidamo region of S Ethiopia monoliths stupa Shigaste (Xigaze) Tibet Buddhist center Siddapura S India rock edict Shahbazgarhi N India rock edict Shikoma N Japan Heian fortress SW Anatolia Greek colony, Shahjo-Kotiro NW India Harappan site Shllka Cave E Russia irctic culture Hellenistic city, Roman city, aqueduct Shahr-i Dakyanus S Persia Shllia (SiIla) S Korea early state Sidhari NW Greece shell midden, Achaemenid city Shillacoto E Peru early public building farming site, early pottery Shahr-i Sokhta S Persia early trade Shlloh SE USA temple mound Sidhpura NE India Mesolithic site Shama W Africa, Ghana early port Shllongtou Cave C China early Sidi Abderrahman NW Africa, Shami W Persia fire temple Palaeolithic site Morocco early man Shanbiaozhen N China E Chou Shilou N China Shang tomb Sidi Mansour N Africa, Tunisia Stone cemetery Shipovo W Russia silk find Age tools 667 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Sidi Zin N Africa, Tunisia Acheulian Sipontum C Italy Roman colony Solbjerg NW Denmark metalwork tools, Stone Age tools Sippar C Mesopotamia early city Soldiers Hole S England hunter- Sidjilmassa N Africa, Morocco early Siraf S Persia Sasanian city, Islamic gatherer site town port Soleb U Egypt temple, fortress Sidmant el-Gebel L Egypt noble's Sireniki E Russia Thule site Soleilhac C France early tools tomb Sirgenstein W Germany hunter-gatherer Soloeis NW Sicily Greek colony Sidoarjo (Hujung-Galuh) E Java early site Solola S Guatemala Maya settlement site Sirhind NW India Mughal mint Solomon Is. Lapita culture (Siduna, modern Sa'ida) Siris S Italy Greek colony Solutre E France hunter-gatherer site Lebanon early port, Phoenician city, Sirwah SW Arabia temple remains Solvieux C France hunter-gatherer site Achaemenid palace, Hellenistic city, Sisters Creek Tasmania Aboriginal site Somers, Mt. New Zealand, South I. early trade Sisupalgarh E India early city rock art Siena N Italy archbishopric Sitagroi NE Greece farming site Somme-Bionne NE France vehicle Sierkavagge N Norway Saami Sitagroi-Fotolivos NE Greece tell burial settlement settlement Somnath NW India Harappan site Sigatoka (Singatoka) Fiji Lapita site Sithulpahuwa S Ceylon Buddhist Somnathpur S India Hindu religious Sigeium () NW Anatolia Greek remains site colony Sitt Markho W Syria early tools Songguk S Korea rice farming site Sigiriya N Ceylon palace-fortress, Sizma C Anatolia Neolithic site Songhay Empire W Africa Buddhist center Sjorup S Sweden weapon hoard Songhor Kenya Proconsul Sigoukou N China early man Skallerup S Denmark metalwork Songyuan NE China E Chou cemetery Siguiri W Africa, Guinea early Skatovka C Russia steppe settlement Songze E China early settlement, settlement Skedemosse Bog SE Sweden ritual Longshan site, rice farming site Sigus N Algeria megalithic tomb metalwork Songzhou N China Tang prefecture Silversti NW Ukraine Mesolithic Skew Valley W Australia Aboriginal Sop'ohang NE Korea shell mound settlement site Sopatma (Sopattinam, modern Sijilmassa NW Africa, Morocco Islamic Skipshelleren S Norway Mesolithic Marakkanam) SE India early trade town settlement Soroki SW Russia Mesolithic Silchester S England Celtic site Sklavokambos N Crete Minoan village settlement, megalithic site Siling NE China Ming tomb Skogstorp E Sweden metalwork Sorrento S Italy archbishopric Silivri W Anatolia Sinan mosque Skoteino (Skotino) C Crete sacred cave Sos SW France Celtic oppidum Silumiut E Canada Thule site Skrydstrup SW Sweden barrow burial Sosan S Korea Buddhist center Silver Leaves S Africa Iron Age site Skudrians ancient people of SE Europe Sosdala S Sweden ritual metalwork Simmern W Germany Roman village Sledmere N England medieval village Sotka-Koh NW India Harappan site Simonsen C USA, Iowa Archaic site Smilcic W Yugoslavia farming site Soulabe-las-Maretas SW France Simyra W Syria Egyptian control Smyrna (modern Izmir) W Anatolia Neanderthal site Sinai early trade, bishopric Greek city, Roman city, Byzantine Soumont-Saint-Quentin N France Sinam-ni N Korea early settlement bishopric stone alignment Sinam-ni S Korea early settlement Snaith N England medieval town SW Scotland shipwreck Sinap N Anatolia Ramapithecus and Snaketown SW USA farming excavation Sivapithecus village Sources de la Seine E France Celtic Sine-Saloum W Africa region of Snape E England boat burial religious site Senegal Snowdrift NE Canada Thule site Sons-Balme SE France Mesolithic Singa NE Africa, Sudan Stone Age Sobata W Japan early settlement settlement tools Soconusco S Guatemala Aztec trade N Africa, Tunisia Islamic (modern Beograd, center fortress Belgrade) C Yugoslavia Roman Socotra Gulf of Aden frankincense and Southern Africa early man, hunter- legionary fortress myrrh gatherers, Stone Age sites Sinjar N Mesopotamia Assyrian stela Sodo NE Africa, Ethiopia monoliths Southwark S England Viking mint Sinope (modern Sinop) N Anatolia Soesterberg S Holland beaker burial Southwest Cape Alaska Thule sites gold and silver work, Greek colony, Sofala E Africa, Mozambique early Sovetskoye (Marienthal) W Russia silk Hellenistic city, Roman city, Byzantine trading post, maritime trade find walled town Sofia (Serdica) Bulgaria Sinan mosque Soyo-do C Korea early settlement Sinuessa C Italy Roman colony Sogard NW Denmark bog body Sozudai W Japan early man, early Sion-Petit Chasseur Switzerland Sogdians ancient people of C Asia settlement megalithic tomb Sokkuram S Korea rock-carved temple Spasinou Charax S Mesopotamia Sipka Czechoslovakia Neanderthal site Sokoto W Africa, Nigeria early town Parthian city, early trade Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 668

Spermeru U Egypt early town St. Nicolas-de-Ia-Taille N France Celtic Strimming W Germany Roman village Speyer (Noviomagus) W Germany oppidum Stroviki NE Greece Mycenaean fortress Roman village, mt

Surkotada NW India early city, Taepyong S Korea rice farming site Taland Is. S Philippines rock-shelter Harappan site Tafahi I. C Pacific Lapita obsidian Talas C Asia early trade Surt N Africa, Libya Islamic town Taferjit N Africa, Niger bone harpoons Talasea Papua New Guinea Lapita site Susa W Japan Korean pottery NW Africa, Morocco Stone Talgai E Australia early man Susa W Persia early settlement, early Age tools, hunter-gatherers Taliski C Russia hunter-gatherer site pottery and kiln, early city, early Taga N Japan Heian fortress Tall-i Bakun W Persia early kiln writing, Assyrian provincial city, Tagara (modern Thair) C India early Talus Village SW USA Pueblo farming Achaemenid palace, ParthianiSasanian trade site city, Islamic town Tagdait W Africa, Niger bone harpoons Tam Hang N Indo-China, Laos cave Susuga E Russia arctic culture Taghaza W Africa, Mali early town site Sutkagen Dor Baluchistan, NW India Tagra NE Africa, Sudan bone harpoons, Tam Pong N Indo-China, Laos cave early city, Harappan site early pottery site E England boat burial Taharoa New Zealand, North I. shell Tamar Hat N Africa, Algerian hunter- Suttukeni S India megalithic tomb midden gatherers Sutz W Switzerland corded ware Tahert N Africa Islamic town Tamatarcha S Russia early town settlement Tahunanui New Zealand, South I. shell Tamatsukuri N Japan Heian fortress Suurkree S Africa' early man midden and moa bones Tamaulipas N Mexico early settlement, Svaerdborg Denmark Mesolithic Tai Shan N China holy mountain early farming settlement Ta'if W Arabia Islamic town Tamaya Mellet W Africa, Niger bone Svilengrad Bulgaria Sinan mosque Tailing NE China Ming tomb harpoons, early pottery Swakopmund SW Africa, Namibia Taimanga C Africa, Chad bone Tamba C Japan pottery kiln Stone Age site harpoons C Peru Inca center SE England early tools Taimataima N Venezuela early Tamboratra N Peru Inca tambo and human remains settlement Tamluk (Tamralipta) E India early S Africa Australopithecus Taipivai Valley Marquesas Is, early site trade center robustus, early man Tairua New Zealand, North I. shell Tamuin C Mexico early town Swarts SW USA Pueblo farming site midden Tancah Mexico, Yucatan Maya SW England pollen core Tairua New Zealand, South I, moa settlement site bones Tanca Manna N Sardinia dry-stone SwieciechOw C Poland flint mine Taishakukyo W Japan early settlement fortress Swift Creek SE USA, Georgia Taixicun N China early burial, Shang Tandou Lake SE Australia early man Hopewell site city Tang Dynasty China Swifterbant N Holland megalithic site Taiyuan N China Han city, Tang Tang-i Chakchak S Persia fire temple S Italy Greek colony prefecture, Ming provincial capital Tang-i Sarvak W Persia rock relief Sybrita C Crete Linear B tablets Taiyuanfu N China provincial capital Tanghu N China E Chou cemetery Syniogthwaite N England medieval town Taizongmiao N China Chou burial Tangiru C Romania tell settlement Syracuse (Syracuse, modern Tajumulco S Guatemala Maya Tanis L Egypt early city, early trade Siracusa) E Sicily Greek colony, settlement, early town Taniwha Pa New Zealand, North I. Roman city, monastery Takalghat C India megalithic tomb defended settlement Szazhalombatta C Hungary Celtic site Takatori W Japan Korean pottery Tanjungpura W Borneo Buddhist Szigetszentmarton C Hungary Copper Takedda W Africa, Niger early center Age cemetery settlement Tannstock S Germany Mesolithic Taanach Palestine Egyptian control Takeo Indo-China, Cambodia early site settlement Tabarin E Africa, Kenya Takht-i Bahi N India gandharan art, Tanshishan E China Longshan site Australopithecus buddhist center Tantrimalai (Tantirimale) N Ceylon Tabbat el Hammam W Syria Neolithic Takht-i Kaikaus N Persia fire temple Buddhist religious site site Takht-i Rustam N Persia fire temple Tanum W Sweden rock art Tabon Cave SW Philippines early man, Takht-i Rustam SW Persia royal tomb Tanzania early man, hunter-gatherers, cave site, Neolithic settlement, early Takht-i Sulaiman (Takht-i early farming, Iron Age metal site Suleyman) NW Persia ParthianJ Tanzhou C China provincial capital Tabriz N Persia Safavid capital Sasanian city, Islamic town Taoudenni (Taodeni) W Africa, Mali Tabuk NW Arabia Islamic town Takrur Africa, Gambia early settlement early town Tabun C Israel Neanderthal site Takua Pa S Thailand early site Tapadong NE Borneo early metal site Tachenghit NW Africa, Algeria Tal-i Ghazir W Persia early city Ta-p'en-keng Taiwan cave site Acheulian tools Tal-i Iblis S Persia early trade Taplow S England claw beaker Taehuksan I. SW Korea early Tal-i Malyan W Persia early city Taputapuatea Society Is, early site settlement Talaja W India Buddhist site Taq-i W Persia rock relief Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 670

Tara N Ireland Celtic religious site Teayo C Mexico pyramid, Aztec town Tell Magzaliyah N Mesopotamia Tarakai qila NW India Indus Valley Tebingtinggi C Sumatra early metal site Neolithic site settlement, Harappan site Tecorral Cave C Mexico early Tell Mismar S Mesopotamia pottery S Italy archbishopric settlement remains Taras (Tarentum, modern Taranto) S Tehuacan Valley C Mexico hunter- Tell Nabasha L Egypt ancient city Italy Greek colony gatherers, early farming Tell Ramad Lebanon Neolithic site, Tarascans early people of C Mexico Tekapo New Zealand, South I. rock art early pottery Tarata Pa New Zealand, North I. Tekedda W Africa, Niger early town Tell Rubeidheh N Mesopotamia early defended settlement Tekirdag W Anatolia Sinan mosque settlement Tarawera New Zealand, North I. rock Telamon N Italy Etruscan city Tell Shemshara C Mesopotamia pottery art Tell 'Abta N Mesopotamia Assyrian city remains, early settlement Tarentaise E France archbishopric Tell Abbada C Mesopotamia pottery Tell Sotto N Mesopotamia Neolithic Tareyanagi N Japan rice farming site remains site, pottery remains Tarila N India early city Tell Abu Hassan C Mesopotamia early Tell Taya N Mesopotamia early town Tarkhan L Egypt ancient cemetery settlement Syria Mitannian city, Tarkhanawala Dera NW India Tell Abu Hureira E Syria Neolithic site Assyrian city Harappan site Tell Agrab (Tell Ajrab) C Tell Turlu C Syria pottery remains Tarma Tambo Inca center Mesopotamia early settlement Tell 'Uqair C Mesopotamia early city, Tarquinii (modern Tarquioia) C Italy Tell Ahmad el-Batu N Mesopotamia early settlement, early writing Etruscan city early settlement Tell Wilaya S Mesopotamia early (modern ) NE Tell al Oueili S Mesopotamia pottery settlement, ancient palace Spain Roman provincial, capital, remains Tellerup C Denmark musical Roman aqueduct Tell Aqab E Syria pottery remains instruments SE Anatolia Neolithic site, early Tell Ashara (Tirqa) NW Mesopotamia Telloh S Mesopotamia early city trade, Achaemenid city, Hellenistic Assyrian stela Telmessus SW Anatolia rock-cut tombs city, Roman provincial capital, Islamic Tell Asmar (Eshnunna) N Telod NW India Harappan site town Mesopotamia early city Telul eth-Thalathat N Mesopotamia Tartaria C Romania tell settlement Tell Aswad N Mesopotamia Neolithic early pottery Taruga W Africa, Nigeria early iron site, early pottery Temara NW Africa, Morocco Homo Tamen Malta bone plaques Tell Berne (Tall Birnah) NW Syria erectus Tas Ayir S Russia Mesolithic settlement Neolithic site, Mitannian city W Scotland stone circle Tas-Khazaa S Siberia steppe settlement Tell Brak E Syria pottery remains, and alignment Tashkent C Asia steppe settlement early city, early town and palace, early Tempsa S Italy Roman colony Tasovice Czechoslovakia Mesolithic writing, Mitannian city Tenayuca C Mexico Aztec center settlement Tell Deim N Mesopotamia Achaemenid Tenayucan C Mexico pyramid Tastybutak SE Russia steppe settlement palace Tengdian C China E Chou burial Tata Hungary Neanderthal site Tell el Rimah N Mesopotamia early Tenochtitllin C Mexico pyramid, Aztec Tateyama N Japan Ainu hill fort town, Assyrian stela capital Tateyama, Mt. N Japan holy mountain Tell el 'Ubaid S Mesopotamia pottery Tenta Cyprus Neolithic site Tawi E Brazil early settlement remains, early settlement Teojate S Peru Paracas site Tauai C Pacific Lapita site Tell el-Daba L Egypt ancient city Teopanzolco C Mexico pyramid Tauchira NE Africa Greek colony Tell el-Far'a S Palestine burial W Anatolia Greek city, Hellenistic Taung S Africa Australopithecus Tell el-Rub'a L Egypt noble's tomb city africanus Tell el-Yahundiya L Egypt temple Teotitlao early state of C Mexico Tavola Palatine S Italy Greek shrine Tell es-Sa'idiyeh Palestine Egyptian Tepe Abdolhoseyn NW Persia Taxila (Bhir Mound) NW India control Neolithic site Achaemenid city, Graeco-Bactrian city, Tell es-Sawwan N Mesopotamia pottery Tepe Asiab NW Persia Neolithic site early trade center, Buddhist stupa remains Tepe Gawra N Mesopotamia pottery Taxla C Mexico early farming site Tell Fakhariyah N Mesopotamia remains, early city, early settlement Tayadirt N Morocco megalithic tomb Neolithic site Tepe Giyan C Persia early settlement Tayasal N Guatemala Maya settlement, Tell Balaf E Syria pottery remains Tepe Guran NW Persia Neolithic site, early town Tell Halim Asra Hajin C Mesopotamia early pottery Tazawa C Japan early settlement early settlement Tepe Sabz W Persia early settlement Te Awanga New Zealand, North I. Tell Harmal C Mesopotamia early town Tepe Sarab W Persia early pottery defended settlement Tell Judeideh NW Syria Neolithic site Tepe Yahya S Persia early trade, Te Ikaamaru New Zealand, North I. Tell Madhhur C Mesopotamia pottery Achaemenid city defended settlement remains, early settlement Tepeapulco C Mexico early town 671 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Tepecoacuilco C Mexico Pre-Classical Thasos (Thasus) NE Greece Greek Tigaida I. Aleutian Is. arctic culture site colony, Hellenistic city Tihna U Egypt early town Tepetiaoxtoc C Mexico Aztec center Thatcham S England Mesolithic Tihna el-Gebel U Egypt noble's tomb Tepexpan C Mexico Aztec center settlement Tihodaine N Africa, Algeria Acheulian Tepotzotian C Mexico Aztec center Thaton S Burma early site, Buddhist tools Tepoztlan C Mexico pyramid center Tihoo Mexico, Yucatan Maya Tequixquiac C Mexico Aztec center The Tombs E Australia Aboriginal site settlement S Italy Greek city, Greek colony NE Greece Mycenaean Tikal N Guatemala pyramid, early Termes C Spain native settlement settlement writing, Maya center, Maya city Termini Imerses Sicily Mesolithic Thebes U Egypt early city, royal Til Barsib (Til Barsip, modern Tell settlement capital, early iron Ahmar) E Syria Assyrian provincial Ternate E Indies, Moluccas maritime Theodosian Walls of Constantinople city, burial trade Theodosiopolis E Anatolia Byzantine Tilaura-kot NE India early city Ternifine N Africa, Algeria Homo walled town Tilcara S Bolivia Inca tambo erectus (, modern Thira) S Tilki Tepe N Mesopotamia pottery Terra Amata SE France early tools Aegean fallout from eruption, Greek remains Terroso N Portugal native settlement city Tiltekin S Algeria early pottery Tertry N France Viking mint Thermi NE Greece ancient fortress Timbuktu (Tombouctou) W Africa, Teshik-Tash C Asia Neanderthal site Thessalonica N Greece Hellenistic city, Mali Islamic town, urban city, early Teso dos Bichos E Brazil early Roman provincial capital, Byzantine city settlement bishopric Timna S Israel early copper mine Tesson W France vehicle burial Thessaly ancient country of N Greece Timna' SW Arabia early capital and Tete E Africa, Mozambique Iron Age Thetford E England Viking center temple remains site Thicket N England medieval town Timonovka W Russia hunter-gatherer Teviec NW France shell midden, Thiensville N USA, Wisconsin Archaic site megalithic site, Mesolithic grave site Timor early settlement, early maritime Teviotdale New Zealand, South I. early Thire W France beaker burial trade site Thirsk N England medieval town Tindouf NW Africa, Algeria Islamic Texcoco C Mexico early town, Aztec Thixendale N England medieval village trade, early settlement town Tholey W Germany Roman village (, modern Tanger) N Teyjat C France hunter-gatherer art Thomas Quarries NW Africa, Morocco Morocco Phoenician city, Roman Tezoyuca C Mexico Aztec center Homo erectus provincial capital Thair (Tagara) S India Deccan city Thoralby N England medieval village Tingzhou NW China early trade Thalassa SE Greece Athenian Thoricus (Thorikos) SE Greece tholos N Algeria Carthaginian settlement tomb, temple, Athenian settlement cemetery Thalia Point E Canada Dorset site Three Rivers S Africa Acheulian tools Tiquisate S Guatemala Maya settlement Tham Hoi N Indo-China, Vietnam cave Thrimbokambos SW Crete Minoan Tiraspol SW Russia barrow burial site village Tiriyai N Ceylon Buddhist religious site Tham Khuyen N Vietnam Homo Thugga (modern Dougga) W Tunisia Tirpesti N Romania farming site, erectus Roman city Cucuteni-Tripolye village Thamugadi (modern ) N Thule NW Greenland Arctic culture Tirunelveli S India Hindu religious site Algeria Roman city Thuna N India pillar edict Tiruvannamalai S India Hindu Thandwe C Africa, Zambia Iron Age NE USA fluted points religious site site Ti-n-Torha N Africa early pottery Tiruvarur (Thiruvarur) S India Hindu Thang Long Indo-China, N Vietnam Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) N Bolivia religious site early site pyramid, early city Tiruvengalanatha temple of Thanjavur (Tanjuvur, Tanjore) S Tiandai Shan E China holy mountain Vijayanagara India Chola center Tianlong Shan N China rock-carved Tiryns S Greece Mycenaean settlement Thano Bula Khan NW India Harappan temple Tissamaharama S Ceylon Buddhist site Tianxingguan C China E Chou burial site, Buddhist remains Thap Cham Indo-China, S Vietnam Tibava N Czechoslovakia Copper Age Tiszapolgar N Hungary Copper Age early site cemetery cemetery N Africa Phoenician city Tibchi W Africa, Nigeria Stone Age Tit Mellil NW Africa, Morocco Stone Tharro NW India Indus Valley tools Age tools settlement, Harappan site Tichitt W Africa, Mauritania early Titelberg NE France Celtic oppidum Tharrus W Sardinia Phoenician city, agriculture, early town Tito Bustillo NW Spain hunter-gatherer Carthaginian city Tievebulliagh N Ireland ax factory art Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 672

Tiwai Point New Zealand, South I. Tomsk S Siberia steppe settlement Toumba N Greece tholos tomb shell midden Tonala SE Mexico Pre-Classical site, Toungour N Africa, Chad wavy-line Tiwanaku (Tihuanaco) N Bolivia Inca Maya settlement pottery center Tonga Lapita culture, early settlement NW France monastery Tijikkitriisk N Sweden Mesolithic Tonga Bay New Zealand, South I. rock Touro Passo N Argentina early settlement art settlement T1acopan C Mexico Aztec town Tong'an SE China Sung kiln Tours C France archbishopric T1ahuac C Mexico Aztec center Tongaporutu New Zealand, North I. Town Creek E USA temple mound Tlalmanalco C Mexico Aztec center rock art Towosahgy SE USA temple mound T1apacoya C Mexico early farming site, Tongatapu Tonga Lapita site Towthorpe N England medieval village Pre-Classical site Tongchuan N China Tang kiln Tra Kieu Indo-China, S Vietnam early Tlapacoyan S Mexico early settlement Tongchuanfu W China provincial site T1apanaloya C Mexico Aztec center capital Trakhtemirov SW Russia steppe T1atelolco C Mexico pyramid, Aztec Tonggou N Korea capital of early state settlement center Tongking N Indo-China, Vietnam shell Trani C Italy archbishopric Tlatilco C Mexico early farming middens Tranquility SW USA, California settlement, Pre-Classical site, early Tongliang W China early man Archaic site town Tonglushan NE China early copper Traostalos E Crete peak sanctuary T1azcala C Mexico early town, early mine, E Chou copper mine Trapezus (Trebizond, modem state Tongmak-tong N Korea early settlement ) NE Anatolia Greek colony, T1axmalac C Mexico Pre-Classical site Tongsam-dong S Korea cave site Hellenistic city, Roman city, Byzantine T1emcen N Africa, Algeria Islamic Tongzi W China early man walled town town Tonina E Mexico Maya settlement Trasimeno C Italy hunter-gatherer art Toala I. C Africa Iron Age site Tonopah W USA, Nevada Palaeo- Trayamar C Spain Carthaginian Toea Mai C Africa, Angola Oldowan Indian site cemetery tools Toolesboro Mounds N USA, Iowa Tre Erici C Italy farming settlement Tofting NW Germany terp settlement Hopewell site Trebizond (Trapezus) NE Anatolia Toftum E Denmark defensive enclosure Toolondo S Australia Aboriginal site Byzantine walled town Togariishi C Japan early settlement Tooya N Japan Ainu hill fort Treisseny NW France early tools Togiak Alaska arctic culture Topange Canyon W USA, California Trelleborg C Denmark viking fortress Tojin SW Japan mound cemetery Archaic site Trempealeau N USA, Wisconsin Tokaido C Japan early highway Topoxte N Guatemala Maya settlement Hopewell site Tok-Kaia C Russia steppe settlement Toprakkale E Anatolia Urartian capital, Tremper NE USA, Ohio Hopewell Tokmak C Asia early trade silk trade site Tokoname C Japan pottery kiln Topzawa NE Mesopotamia stela Tres Cabezos SE Spain farming Tokoro N Japan early settlement, Ainu Torihama C Japan shell mound, fishing settlement hill fort site Tres Zapotes C Mexico pyramid, early Tokoroa New Zealand, North I. moa Torkop S Norway Mesolithic settlement writing, Olmec center, early town bones Toro C Japan rice farming site Tresse NW France megalithic tomb Tokutan N Japan Heian fortress Torone NE Greece Greek colony Tri Brata SW Russia steppe settlement Tolaga Bay New Zealand, North I. rock Torralba-Ambrona NE Spain early Trialeti Georgia steppe burials art tools Trichur S India Hindu religious site Toledo (Toletum) C Spain Roman Torralbet Balaeric Is. megalithic tomb Tricorythus SE Greece Athenian capital, Roman aqueduct, Islamic town, Torre in Pietra C Italy early tools settlement medieval trade Torrente Conca N Italy early tools Trier (Augusta Treverorum) NW Tollund N Denmark bog body Torsbjerg (Thorsberg) SW Denmark Germany Roman city, silk find, Tolosa (modem Toulouse) SW France weapons and metalwork Rhenish pottery kiln, archbishopric Roman city Torslunda E Sweden metalwork Trikkala C Greece Sinan mosque Tomakovka Ukraine Greek imports Torupgaarde S Denmark swords Trincomalee Ceylon maritime trade Tombos U Egypt fortress Tosali E India rock edict Trindhoj SW Sweden barrow burial Tombua (Porto Alexandre) SW Africa, Tosamporo N Japan early settlement Trinidad E Mexico Pre-Classical site Angola Acheulian tools T6szeg E Hungary Bronze Age C Java Homo erectus Tomebamba C Ecuador Inca center settlement N Africa, Libya Islamic town, Tomerdingen SE Germany Celtic Tot E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site early town religious site Toterfout S Holland barrow burial Tripolye W Russia Cucuteni-Tripolye Tomi (modem Constanta) E Romania Toulouse (Tolosa) SW France medieval village Roman city trade, bishopric Tripuri C India Deccan city 673 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Trisov W Czechoslovakia Celtic Thrfan (Thrpan) NW China early Ugashik Drainage Aleutian Is. arctic oppidum trading center, Buddhist center, early culture Trivento C Italy archbishopric trade Ugemum S France native settlement Trizay W France beaker burial Thrkana NE Africa, Kenya harpoons Ui-do C Korea early settlement Troesmis (modem Iglita) NE Romania and pottery Uioara de Sus N Romania metal hoard Roman legionary fortress Thrkestan early civilizations, steppe Uitkomsts S Africa Iron Age site Tromoy S Norway barrow burial settlements, steppe nomads Uji Byodo-in C Japan Buddhist center Trou du Diable Belgium Neanderthal Thrkey Foot Ridge SW USA Pueblo Ujjain C India early city site farming site Ukhaidir Iraq Islamic port Trou Magrite Belgium hunter-gatherer Thmer Farm NE USA, Maine Archaic Ulan-Khada S Siberia steppe settlement art site Ulasli W Anatolia Sinan mosque Trou Reuviau Belgium hunter-gatherer Thmer NE USA, Ohio Hopewell site Ulkestrup Denmark Mesolithic site Thmstone Beach NE Canada Thule site settlement NW Anatolia Bronze Age Ths NE Persia Islamic town Ulpia Traiana (Sarmizegetusa) NW Trundholm C Denmark metalwork Thshpa E Anatolia Urartian capital Romania Roman provincial capital Trundle, The S England Celtic hill fort Thsket Falls E Canada, Nova Scotia Ulu Leang E Indonesia, Celebes cave Trusesti N Romania Cucuteni-Tripolye Archaic site site, Neolithic settlement village Thstrup N Denmark megalithic tomb Ulug Depe C Asia steppe settlement Tsarev C Russia steppe settlement Thtishcainyo NE Peru early farming Umami C Japan mound cemetery Tsareva Mogila SW Russia steppe settlement Umanak W Greenland Thule site settlement Thttul C Mesopotamia early town Umanoyama W Japan mound cemetery Tsarskaya SW Russia steppe settlement Thtub (modern Khafajah) C Umataka C Japan early settlement Tsona S Russia Neanderthal site Mesopotamia early city Umma S Mesopotamia early city, early Tsona Cave S Russia early tools Twickenham Road E Africa, Zambia writing Tsopi S Russia Neanderthal site Iron Age site Umm an Nar Persian Gulf early trade Tsukamawari C Japan Yamato tomb Ty lsaf S Wales megalithic tomb Umm Dabaghiyah N Mesopotamia Tsurashi N Japan Ainu hill fort Tyara E Canada Dorset site Neolithic site, pottery remains Tsushima C Japan rice farming site Tybrind Vig C Denmark megalithic site Umm ez-Zuweitina C Palestine Tham W Ireland archbishopric Tyimede N Australia Aboriginal site Natufian site Thban E Java early port Tylissos (Tilisos) N Crete Minoan town Unalaska Bay Aleutian Is. arctic ThOO Thbe New Guinea Kula gift Tyndis (Thndis) SW India early trade culture exchange S Russia Greek colony Uncleby N England medieval village Thkh (Nubt) U Egypt pyramid Tyre (Surri, modern Sour) Lebanon Undelev S Denmark bog body ThIa C Mexico pyramid, early town, early port, Phoenician city, Unetice NW Czechoslovakia Bronze Aztec town Achaemenid city, Hellenistic city, early Age cemetery ThIancingo C Mexico early town trade Ungwana E Africa, Kenya Ming ThIarosa Cave SW USA, New Mexico Tzimin Kax Belize Maya settlement pottery Archaic site, Pueblo farming site Tzintzuntzan C Mexico early town Uolantun N Guatemala Maya ThItitian C Mexico Aztec center U Thong C Thailand moated site, early settlement ThIum Mexico, Yucatan Maya site Uppsala S Sweden Viking center settlement, early town Uai Bobo Timor Neolithic settlement, Upton Lovell SW England tin and Thmbes S Ecuador Inca center metal site copper mining Thnacunnhee SE USA, Alabama Uan MUhuggiag N Africa, Libya early Ur S Mesopotamia early city, Sumerian Hopewell site cattle city, early city and palace, early Thnip Syria Egyptian control UaxactUn N Guatemala Maya writing, Assyrian city Thnis N Africa, Tunisia Islamic town, settlement Ura-Tyube C Asia frontier fortress early town Ubulla S Mesopotamia Sasanian city Uramanat E Mesopotamia Assyrian Thnisia Stone Age, Bronze Age, Roman Ucanal C Guatemala Maya settlement rock relief cities and fortresses Uch NW India Mughal mint Urasa N India rock edict Thnsucancha N Peru Inca tambo Uckange (Caranusca) E France Roman Urash SW Arabia ancient dam Thnxi E China W Chou site village Ureia Society Is. early site Thpiza C Bolivia Inca tambo Udal Hebrides Viking center Ureia Cook Is. early site Thra L Egypt Ue'a Valley Marquesas Is. early site Urewe E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Thrbino C Russia steppe settlement Uelen E Russia Thule site Uria S Italy Roman Empire Thrdas C Romania tell settlement Uerda NE Spain native settlement Urmitz NW Germany defensive Threng Tepe NE Persia Achaemenid Ugarit (modem Ras Shamra) W Syria enclosure city early town, early writing, early city Uronarti U Egypt temple Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 674

Urshu E Anatolia Assyrian colony Vasiliki E Crete Minoan town Vetulonia N Italy Etruscan city Uruvela NE India Buddhist site Vatcha New Caledonia Lapita site Vezelay C France monastery Usangi E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Vathypetro (Vathipetro) C Crete Vho N Italy farming site Usatovo SW Russia barrow burial, Minoan village Viannos S Crete tholos tomb steppe settlement Vatte di Zambana N Italy Mesolithic Viborg N Denmark Viking center Ushki E Russia arctic site settlement Victoria Falls C Africa, Zimbabwe Ushkur NW India Buddhist center Vattina W Romania Bronze Age early tools, hunter-gatherers Uspenka C Russia steppe settlement settlement Vidisa C India early city Ust'-Belaya E Russia arctic culture Vaughn NW Canada Thule site Vidra E Romania tell settlement Ust'-Mayn E Russia arctic culture Vava'u Tonga Lapita site Vienna E Austria Celtic site Usulutan Honduras Maya settlement Vedbaek E Denmark shell midden, Vienne E France Celtic site, Utatian S Guatemala Maya settlement, megalithic site archbishopric early town Veh Antiokh Khusrau C Mesopotamia Vientiane Indo-China, Laos Buddhist Utica N Tunisia Phoenician city, suburb of Ctesiphon center Carthaginian city Veh Ardashir (Seleucia) C Viet Khe N Vietnam transitional Utnur S India cattle pen site Mesopotamia Parthian city settlement Uvinza E Africa, Tanzania Iron Age Veh Ardashir (modern Kirman) SE Vijayanagara (Hampi) S India dynastic site and salt mine Persia Sasanian city capital Uxmal Mexico, Yucatan Maya Veil C Italy early temple Vikletice W Czechoslovakia corded settlement Velagiri S India Buddhist site ware burial Uxul Mexico, Yucatan Maya settlement Velem Szentvid W Hungary Celtic Vilcashuaman C Peru pyramid, Inca Uyak Alaska Pacific Eskimo site oppidum center Vaihi Society Is. early site Velika Pecina N Yugoslavia Villaricos SE Spain Carthaginian Vail SE Canada fluted points Neanderthal site cemetery Vailele Western Samoa early site Vellore S India Hindu religious site Villars-sous-Dampjoux E France Vaisali NE India early city, Buddhist Venafro C Italy Roman water mill Mesolithic settlement center Venat W France metal hoard Villejoubert C France Celtic oppidum Vaison S France Roman relief Vendel C Sweden boat burial Villeneuve-Saint-Germain NE France Vaito'otia Society Is. early site SW USA, Arizona Iron Age sanctuary Vakenaya E Russia arctic culture Archaic site, Pueblo farming site Villeneuve-sur-Verberie N France Vakhsh Valley C Asia steppe settlement Verdelpino NE Spain farming site, Mesolithic settlement Vakuta New Guinea Kula gift exchange early pottery Villeneuve-Tolosane SW France Valdivia Ecuador early pottery Vergennes NE USA, New Hampshire farming settlement Valencia E Spain medieval trade Archaic site Villers-en-Prayeres NE France Iron Vallentigny N France early tools Vergina N Greece royal tombs Age cemetery Valley of the Kings U Egypt early Vergranne C France early tools and Villethierry C France metal hoard burial, royal tombs human remains Viminacium (modern Kostolac) NE Vallhagar E Sweden early settlement Vergunda SE Aegean Greek harbor and Yugoslavia Roman provincial capital Valsequillo S Mexico fluted points temple and legionary fortress Valsgiirde C Sweden boat burial Verkhneye Pogromnoye W Russia Vimose C Denmark weapon hoard Valshni Village SW USA Pueblo barrow burial Vimy N France early tools farming site Verlaine Belgium hunter-gatherer art Vinca E Yugoslavia farming site, tell Valsomagle C Denmark metalwork Vernonnet N France Celtic oppidum settlement Valuraka W India Buddhist site Verona N Italy Roman empire, Vindija N Yugoslavia Neanderthal site Valverde Huelva SW Spain Roman medieval trade Vindobona (modern Wien, Vienna) E mine Verrieres-Ie-Buisson N France early Austria Roman legionary fortress Van E Anatolia rock inscription, Sinan tools Vinelz W Switzerland corded ware mosque VertauIt E France Celtic oppidum settlement Vankarem E Russia Thule site Vertesszollos Hungary early tools and Viratanagara C India Buddhist site Vanse S Norway barrow burial human remains Virobesca (Virovesca) N Spain native Vanuatu Lapita culture Vestby S Norway swords settlement Vaphio S Greece Mycenaean settlement Vetera (modern ) NW Germany Vini Valley Peru Pre-Columbian Variscourt NE France Iron Age Roman legionary fortress settlement cemetery Veternica N Yugoslavia Neanderthal Virunum S Austria Roman provincial Varjaren N Norway bear grave site, hunter-gatherer site capital Varna E Bulgaria Copper Age cemetery Veterov N Czechoslovakia fortified Virupaksha temple of Vijayanagara Vasilika S Russia Neanderthal site site Visadi NW India Mesolithic site 675 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Vistahermosa SE Mexico Pre-Classical Waimaru New Zealand, South 1. shell Wasserburg S Germany Bronze Age site midden settlement Viste Cave S Norway Mesolithic Waimataitai New Zealand, South I. Wat Phu Indo-China, Laos monumental settlement moa bones site, early site Vitaria Austral Is. early site Waimea Hawaiian Is. early site Wat's Dyke W England Vivallen N Norway Saami grave Waingongoro New Zealand, North 1. Waterford S Ireland Viking center Vix E France Greek bronze, Hallstatt shell midden Watertown Arsenal NE USA, site Waioneke New Zealand, North 1. Massachusetts Archaic site Vladimirovka SW Russia Cucuteni• defended settlement Watton N England medieval town Tripolye village, steppe settlement Wairau Bar New Zealand, South 1. Wawcott SW England megalithic site Vo Canh S Vietnam early site early site, moa hunter's camp Wei N China Han city Vogelherd S Germany Neanderthal site, Waitaki River Mouth New Zealand, Weifang N China Shang pottery hunter-gatherer art, hunter-gatherer site South 1. moa bones Weipa NE Australia Aboriginal site Volaterrae (modern Volterra) N Italy Waitore New Zealand, North 1. rock art Weis NW USA, Montana Archaic site Etruscan city Wajak Java early man Weizhou N China Tang prefecture Voidtofte S Denmark Bronze Age Wakanui New Zealand, South 1. moa Weka Pass New Zealand, South 1. rock settlement bones art Volgu E France hunter-gatherer site Wakapatu New Zealand, South 1. shell Weligama S Ceylon Buddhist remains Voisinii (modern Boisena) N Italy midden Wellington, Mount New Zealand, Etruscan city Wakefield N England medieval town North 1. Maori hill fort Volturnum C Italy Roman colony Wakhshushana E Anatolia Assyrian Crater C USA, Kentucky Palaeo- Vorou C Crete tholos tomb colony Indian site Vorukh C Asia Han mirror find Walakpa Alaska Thule site Wenchi W Africa, Ghana early town Vouni Cyprus Achaemenid palace Walata (Oualata) W Africa, Mauritania Wengyuan S China cave site Vourvoura S Greece tholos tomb early settlement, early town Wenzhou E China Tang kiln, Sung kiln Vrana E Greece tholos tomb, Athenian Waldalgesheim N Germany vehicle Weris E Belgium megalithic tomb settlement burial West Athens Hill NE USA, New York Vrevskiy C Asia Han mirror find Valdfischbach W Germany Roman Palaeo-Indian site Vromopousi SE Greece Athenian village West Kennet S England longbarrow settlement Wales early hominids, Megalithic Age, West Point Tasmania Aboriginal site Vroue N Denmark corded ware burial standing stones, Bronze Age West Stow SE Denmark claw beaker Vrsnik S Yugoslavia farming site Wallacea E Indies Westeregeln E Germany farming site Vrysinas (Vrisinas) W Crete peak Walls SE USA temple mound Western Samoa early settlement sanctuary Walpi SW USA Pueblo farming site Westernschouwen Holland Viking Vulci N Italy Etruscan city Walsingham S England pilgrimage trading emporium W Africa, Ghana early town center Westness Orkney Is. Viking center Wadan (Ouadane) W Africa, Wanbaoting NE China early stirrups Westward Ho SW England shell midden Mauritania early town Wanfosi NW China Buddhist center Wet SW USA Pueblo farming site Wadi Caam N Libya Roman dam Wangdu N China Han burial Wetwang N England medieval village Wadi Djidiouia N Algeria Roman dam Wangshan C China E Chou burial Wetzikon Switzerland Mesolithic Wadi el Houl Tunisia Roman dam Wangwan N China Longshan site settlement Wadi el-Hudi U Egypt ancient mine Wangyandong S China cave site Wexford S Ireland Viking center Wadi el-Sheikh L Egypt flint Wanlek E New Guinea swamp site Whakamoenga Cave New Zealand, Wadi Ganima N Libya Roman dam Waramuri Guyana early settlement North I. early site Wadi Garawi L Egypt calcite Warka (Uruk) S Mesopotamia pottery Whangamata New Zealand, North 1. Wadi Labdah N Libya Roman dam remains shell midden and moa bones Wadi Maghara Sinai graffiti, copper Warm Mineral Springs SE USA fluted Wharetaewa Pa New Zealand, North I. mine points defended settlement Wadi Megenin N Libya Roman dam Warri W Africa, Nigeria early town Wharram Grange N England medieval Wadi Mina N Algeria Roman dam Warter N England medieval town village Wadi Shaw N Sudan early pottery Washpool New Zealand, North 1. early Wharram Percy N England medieval Wadi Wassa' U Egypt early pottery site village Wahlitz N Germany corded ware burial Washshukanni E Anatolia Mitannian Wharram-Ie-Street N England Waiahukini Hawaiian Is. early site city medieval village Waihi New Zealand, North 1. rock art Wasit Iraq Islamic town Wheathampstead N England Celtic site Waikaia (Upper) New Zealand, South WasserbiIlig W Germany Roman Whiritoa New Zealand, North 1. rock I. moa bones village art Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms 676

Whitby N England medieval town Wollbury S England Celtic hill fort Xinxiang N China Ming tomb White Mound Village SW USA Pueblo Woollandale E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Xishishan E China E Chou burial farming site Age site Xixiahou N China early settlement Whitipirorua New Zealand, North 1. Worcester C England monastery Xiyincun N China early settlement shell midden Worms (Borbetomagus) W Germany Xoc SE Mexico Pre-Classical site Whitsbury S England Celtic hill fort Roman town Xochicalco C Mexico pyramid, early Wichquana SE Peru early farming Wright NE USA, Kentucky Hopewell town, Aztec town settlement site Xochimilco C Mexico Aztec center Wicklow E Ireland Viking center Wu'an N China early settlement Xochipala C Mexico Pre-Classical site Wiesbaden (Aquae) W Germany Wuchang E China Ming provincial Xpuhil Mexico, Yucatan Maya Roman town capital settlement Wietrzychowice W Poland megalithic Wucheng C China early city, Shang city Xuantu NE China Han city tomb Wupatki SW USA Pueblo farming site Xuanzhou E China Tang prefecture Wilberfoss N England medieval town Wuping SE China Longshan site Xueguan N China early man Wildscheuer N Germany Neanderthal Wutai Shan N China rock-carved NE China early man site, hunter-gatherer site temple Yabrud Syria Neanderthal site Wilgie Mia W Australia Aboriginal site Wuwei NW China early trade center, Yaco (Iiaco) W Brazil early settlement Willendorf Austria hunter-gatherer site, Han burial Yagala W Africa, Sierra Leone early food hunter-gatherer art Wuzhou E China Tang prefecture Yagodnoye C Russia steppe settlement Williamsburg E USA, Virginia colonial Wykeham N England medieval town Yagul C Mexico pyramid, early settlement Wyrie Swamp S Australia Aboriginal site settlement Williamson E USA, Virginia Palaeo• Xalitla C Mexico Pre-Classical site Yajima-yakata Japan Samurai mansion Indian site Xaltocan C Mexico Aztec center Yakutsk E Russia arctic culture Wilsford S England Celtic religious site Xanthus SW Anatolia rock inscription, Yala AJego E Africa, Kenya Iron Age site Wilson Butte NW USA, Archaic Hellenistic city Yamada-Uenodai N Japan early man site Xcocha Mexico, Yucatan Maya Yamama E Arabia Islamic town NW USA fluted settlement Yamato C Japan early state points Xelba Mexico, Yucatan Maya Yanagimata C Japan early settlement Wilson Mound C USA temple mound settlement, early town Yandogay E Russia Thule site Wilson's Promontory SE Australia Xerovrysi SW Greece tholos tomb Yangjia S China E Chou bronze hoard Aboriginal site 'an (Chang'an) N China early Yangshao N China Longshan site Wilton S Africa hunter-gatherers, Stone settlement, Buddhist pagoda, Ming Yangshaocun N Japan early settlement Age site provincial capital Yangzhou E China Islamic trade, Wimereux N France early tools Xiachuan NE China early man provincial capital Winay Wayna S Peru pre-Inca center Xiangyangfu C China provincial capital Yanjiamatou N China early settlement Winchester S England Viking mint Xiangzhou N China Tang prefecture Yanling N China early settlement Windeby Bog N Germany bog body Xianling NE China Ming tomb Yanshi N China early settlement Windhoek SW Africa, Namibia Stone Xianmengcun N China early settlement Yanuca (Yanutha) Fiji Lapita site Age tools Xianrendong SE China early Yanxiadu NE China E Chou cemetery Windmill Hill S England defensive settlement, early pottery Yaojiagang N China E Chou bronze enclosure Xiaolinding N China early settlement hoard Winnall Moors S England pollen core Xiaonanhai NE China early man Yaotougou N China early man site Xiaoshan E China Tang kiln Yaozhou (Yaoxian) NW China Sung kiln Winona and Ridge Ruins SW USA Xiapanwang N China early settlement Yapahuwa N Ceylon Buddhist remains Pueblo farming site Xiasi N China E Chou cemetery Tarang SW Thailand early site Winterville S USA temple mound Xiawanggang N China Longshan site Yara N Australia Aboriginal site Wit6w S Poland Mesolithic settlement Xibeigang N China early burial Yarim Tepe N Mesopotamia pottery Wittnauer Horn N Switzerland Xicalango E Mexico Maya settlement, remains fortified site Aztec trade center Yarinococha N Peru early horticultural Wolstenholme E USA, Virginia Xicun S China Tang kiln, Sung kiln village colonial settlement Xigong N China E Chou burial Yarkand (Yarkant) NW China Wombah E Australia Aboriginal site Xihanzhuang N China early settlement Buddhist center, early trade Wonderboom S Africa Acheulian tools Xilingxia N China early settlement Yarm N England medieval town Woodchuck Cave SW USA Pueblo Ximen E China E Chou burial Yarnbury S England Celtic hill fort farming site Xingtai N China early city, Shang city Yarumela Honduras Maya settlement Woodlark I. New Guinea Kula gift Xingyuan N China provincial capital Yashtukh S Russia early tools exchange Xingzhou N China Tang prefecture Yasuni Ecuador early settlement 677 Supplementary List of Archaeological Sites and Terms

Yatsushiro W Japan Korean pottery Yuku New Guinea early man Zenabi W Africa, Nigeria Stone Age Yauca S Peru Paracas site Yukuepira N Japan Ainu hill fort tools Yaxchihin E Mexico Maya settlement Yulin NW China rock-carved temple Zencirli (Senjirli, Sama'a1) SE Yaxha E Mexico Maya center Yuling NE China Ming tomb Anatolia ancient provincial capital Yaxuna Mexico, Yucatan Maya Yunan S China early settlement Zenebi W Africa, Nigeria hunter- settlement Yungang N China rock-carved temple gatherers Yayo C Africa, Chad Australopithecus Yunmeng N China early settlement Zengcheng S China early settlement Yayoi culture Japan Yunus C Syria pottery remains Zengovarkony Hungary farming site Yayoi-cho C Japan rice farming site Yunxian N China Homo erectus Zengpiyan W China cave site, early C Persia Sasanian city, Islamic Yuri N Japan Heian fortress pottery town Yushi N China early settlement SE Anatolia Hellenistic city, Yazd-i Khvast S Persia fire temple Yuxian N China Sung kiln Roman city and legionary fortress Yazilikaya C Anatolia rock sanctury Yuzanu C Mexico early settlement Zhangjiapo N China W Chou burial Yeavering S Scotland early settlement Zaayfontein (Saaifontein) S Africa Zhanjiawan N China early Palaeolithic Yecapixtia C Mexico early town Stone Age site site Yedi W Africa, Nigeria early town Zabalan C Mexico early writing Zhaobeihu N China Chou cemetery Yedingham N England medieval town Zabid SW Arabia Islamic town Zhaoling NE China Ming tomb Yeha NE Ethiopia temple remains Zacuala Palace C Mexico Zhdanov (Mariupol') SW Russia Yei Lulu Loga N Africa, Chad Zacualpa S Guatemala Maya steppe settlement Oldowan tools settlement, early town Zhendingfu N China provincial capital Yekia N Africa, Chad wavy-line pottery Zaculeu S Guatemala Maya settlement, Zhengzhou N China early kiln, early Yelisavetovskaya W Russia barrow early town city, Shang capital burial Zacynthus (Zakynthos, Zante) SW Zhigalovo S Siberia steppe settlement Yeliseyevichi C Russia hunter-gatherer Greece ancient city Zhmerinka W Russia steppe settlement art Zafar SW Arabia early capital Zhongxian N China early settlement Yelleshwaram S India megalithic tomb Zaghouan N Tunisia Roman aqueduct Zhongzhoulu N China E Chou burial Yelwe W Africa, Nigeria Iron Age site Zaka E Africa, Zimbabwe Iron Age site NE China cave dwelling, Yengema W Africa, Sierra Leone early Zakro (Zakros) E Crete Minoan village early man food Zalpa E Anatolia Assyrian colony Zhujiaji E China E Chou burial Yenitsari SW Greece tholos tomb Zaman-Baba C Asia steppe settlement Zhuwajie W China W Chou site Yerevan Armenia early tools and Zaman-Baba culture Zibo N China Tang kiln, Sung kiln human remains Zambezi, R. early trade routes Zigouries (Zygouries) W Greece Yerraguddi S India rock edict Zambujal C Portugal ancient fortress marble and metal artefacts Yinan NE China Han burial Zancle (Zankle, later Messana, modern ZiI'gi SW Russia steppe settlement Ying-p'u C Taiwan Longshan site Messina) S Italy Greek colony Zimri-Lim Mesopotamia palace Yingchuan N China Han city Zanja C Mexico early farming Zitlaltepec C Mexico Aztec center Yingtianfu N China provincial capital settlement Ziwa SE Africa Iron Age site Yinxian E China Tang kiln Zanzibar E Africa, Tanzania Islamic Ziota SW Poland corded ware burial Yondo-ri N Korea early settlement trade, maritime trade Zofengyi NW China Han city Yongjil-Ii C Korea early settlement Zaphon Palestine Egyptian control Zohak (Fasa) S Persia Achaemenid city Yongling NE China Ming tomb Zaranj Afghanistan ParthianlSasanian Zombepata SE Africa, Zimbabwe Yopotzingo early state of Mexico city Stone Age tools York (Eburacum) N England Viking Zarax SE Greece harbor and theater Zou E Crete Minoan village center, archbishopric, medieval town Zaria W Africa, Nigeria early town Zouxian NE China Ming tomb Yorkshire feudal villages Zatyni Czechoslovakia Mesolithic Zumpango C Mexico Aztec center Yuanjunmiao N China early settlement settlement Zuojiatang C China E Chou burial Yuanmou W China Homo erectus Zavist W Czechoslovakia Celtic oppidum Zurich-Utoquai N Switzerland corded Yubetsu-Ichikawa N Japan early Zawi Chemi N Mesopotamia Neolithic ware settlement settlement site Zuttiyen C Israel Neanderthal site Yucatan E Mexico Maya empire Zawilah N Africa, Libya Islamic town, Zvejnieki NW Russia Mesolithic Yucufiudahui C Mexico early early settlement, early town settlement settlement Zawiyet el-Amwat U Egypt pyramid Zwenkau-Harth E Germany farming Yudinovo W Russia hunter-gatherer Zawiyet el- L Egypt pyramid site site, hunter-gatherer art Zazaragi N Japan early man Yuezhou C China Tang kiln Zea SE Greece harbor of Athens Yufufeng NW China Han city Zeila (Saylac) E Africa, Somalia Resource Past Worlds: The Times Atlas Yukon I. Alaska Pacific Eskimo site monolith of Archaeology Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

Discoveries, Inventions, Landmarks, Turning millennium -the hieroglyphic and scripts of the Points, Minoans, as yet undeciphered, and the Linear B of the My• cenaeans, used to record an early form of Greek. The devel• The definition of writing is any system for symbolizing a opment of writing in the Americas occurred only in Meso• language. Writing was developed independently several america-the glyphic writing of the Maya and related times in different places, and both the writing materials and groups, found in inscriptions carved on monuments, and the the types of show great variation. The earliest true pictographic writing of Post-Classic groups such as the Mix• writing developed in southern Mesopotamia in the 4th mil• tecs and Aztecs, found on manuscripts of bark or deerskin lennium Be Uruk culture. The writing material was clay; it known as codices. was first inscribed and later impressed with a stylus to pro• Archaeology and writing are powerful companions, duce wedge-shaped cuneiform signs. The earliest signs were compelling in their ability to open even the most trivial pictograms (picture writing, in which the signs represent windows into the past. The voices of the past, once anony• stylized pictures of the objects in question), but these rapidly mous and indirect, now speak directly through their . developed into (the signs indicated not only the Their passion for record keeping brings archaeology alive. original object, but also associated objects or concepts). The Writing and literacy were invented in cities and large Egyptian hieroglyphic script, used for inscriptions on stone, settled communities to cope with administrative problems. painting on walls, and also writing on papyrus, appears well As previously mentioned, writing was probably invented at before 3000 Be. There is a dispute as to whether the Egyp• least four times in the Old World: Egypt, Mesopotamia, the tians developed writing independently or whether the art was Indus Valley, and China-and twice in the New World diffused from Mesopotamia. The Harappan civilization of (Mayas, Zapotecs). The origin of writing can be traced to the Indus Valley had a of its own, dated to the specific stress in a socioeconomic system and a need for some second half of the 3rd millennium Be and found almost form of record keeping. Writing emerged almost universally exclusively on stamp seals and seal impressions. It has not as a series of symbols for things and relations and probably been deciphered. The first true alphabet, with signs for indi• arose first among the societies of the Near East as early as vidual letters, seems to have developed in the Levant, proba• 10,000 years ago. bly in the first half of the 2nd millennium Be. The first definite At first the archaeologists' only hope of finding absolute evidence comes from Ugarit in the mid-2nd millennium Be. dates came from written history. Greek history went back to The Phoenicians spread the alphabet throughout the Mediter• about 500 Be, but, as excavation in Egypt proceeded and ranean, and theirs is ancestral to most of the alphabets in use more and more Egyptian inscriptions were discovered and today. In China, writing developed independently, first ap• deciphered, an accurate historical date system was built up pearing on oracle bones of the . In Europe, the for stretching back to 3000 Be-and correct only Pre-Classical writing occurs in the Aegean in the 2nd within 25 years at worst for the 1st and 2nd millennia Be and within 100 years at worst for the third.

Note that references are all enclosed in quotation marks (" "), whether they Discoveries such as the royal library of clay cuneiform are books or articles. Complete bibliographical references are not attempted tablets in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, provided, when the in this timeline. writing had been deciphered, an enormous structure of his-

679 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 680 torical events concerning not only , but its neighbors, Be 60,000-25,000 First traces of visual symbols in the which were easily cross-related at several points to Egyptian prehistoric Near East (). records. Thus a dated structure for a much wider Middle Be 35,000 Beginnings of European Palaeolithic art, prefig• Eastern history emerged. urative period: Mousterian or Chatelperronian incisions on One of the most valuable excavations occurred at Ras bone or stone slabs. In the Upper Palaeolithic, the use of Sharnra in Syria, also known as U garit. It has provided a abstract symbols and primitive notation began. There is variety of trade and diplomatic documents and records, evidence in cave art and engraved bones. which have enabled a whole series of states and civilizations Be 25,000 Ice Ages protowriting: pictographic communi• to be firmly anchored to Egyptian chronology and therefore cation, in use. Ice Age bones bear series of neat notches• given absolute dates of their own. Letters and treaties be• made with various tools over time-which may have been tween Hittite monarchs and Egyptian pharaohs have been keeping track of phases of the moon to create useful discovered, and the first alphabetic script was also found at calendars. Protowriting (signs and other forms of partial Ugarit. writing) long preceded the emergence of full writing in The Babylonians' and Akkadians' written records, in Sumer c. 3300 Be-and it will always exist alongside full tum, have been cross-related to dated Egyptian history. With writing. Among the oldest forms: tallies. In the 6th century the Code of Hammurabi inscribed on stone as the most Be, Darius left a thong with 60 knots, to be untied 1 per day famous of their documents, these Babylonian records have when left to fight the (according to ). allowed dated history to be pushed back beyond Egyptian Be 20,000 Notational systems go back this far, according to times, although with decreasing accuracy and certainty about Alexander Marshack. the dates. That, in tum, allowed the Sumerians to be tied into Be 18,000 Ice Age graffiti, cave in (Lot, south• the dating system, back to the early cultures of Ur and ern France )-some consider it art and others consider it al'Ubaid. writing. Reconstruction of what happened in is Be 10,000 Prehistoric painting of bison on walls of cave; partly based on the writings of Roman authors, partly based paint of minerals with blood, fat, and urine. on archaeologists' discoveries of sculptured inscriptions on Be 8000-3000 Plain clay tokens, exact purpose unknown, tombstones, altars, and elsewhere, and partly based on pure found at many Middle Eastern archaeological sites. The archaeological work. volume of trade demanded some means of tracking ship• Reconstruction of the of Yucatan and ments. As early as this, villagers were using carefully Guatemala is partly based on pure archaeology and partly on shaped clay tokens, which they carried on strings. Substi• the of the Mayan glyphic writing sculptured on tution of 2-dimensional signs for these tokens, with the stelae and temples. signs resembling the tokens, is a first step toward writing. Before 4000 Be, however, there is no accurate dating. Plain tokens were characterized by mostly geometric History, in the sense of a dated time sequence of recorded shapes and a plain surface. Tokens declined greatly by events, ceases. Therefore, before 4000 Be, there is no hope of 3000 Be but continued in use until 1500 Be; pictographic obtaining an absolute date anywhere in the world by using the writing in "embryo" -used in , Palestine, Ana• traditional and newer methods of the historian and archaeolo• tolia, Iraq, . gist combined. History begins when written records begin. Be 8000 One theory claims earliest writing system began at Recorded history began when the first document of writing this time in Sumer and evolved into cuneiform script by was set down-a calendar of the ancient from 3100 Be. It has long been known that the earliest writing 4241 Be. system in the world was Sumerian script, which in its later The invention of computers is a re-enactment of the stages was known as cuneiform. invention of writing on a more sophisticated level. The pro• Be 6500 Shrine from <;;:atal HtiyUk in southern Anatolia cessing of information by industrial societies had become so with walls of frescoes showing bull and hunts. cumbersome that it threatened further advances in cultural Be 6000 Ancient Berber script. complexity. Be 6000 Maya language begins. The Maya are a Writing gives the archaeologist an added measure for family of Mesoamerican Indian languages spoken in the past, although a limited one as so much of writing is southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize; Maya languages sanitized through official sanction. Official records can yield were also formerly spoken in western Honduras and west• information, but unofficial writings offer the most compel• ern EI Salvador. The family may be subdivided into the ling data. This timeline is offered as a partial description of Huastec, Yucatec, Western Maya, and Eastern Maya discoveries, inventions, landmarks, turning points, and de• groups. The most important Eastern Maya languages are cipherments involving writing and archaeology. Quiche and Cakchiquel; others are , Teco, Agua- 681 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

catec, lxiI, Uspantec, Sacapultec, Sipacapa, Pocomam, Be 3700 New shapes of clay tokens as well as markings to Pocomchi, and Kekchf. The largest Western Maya lan• record more data such as units of land; then envelopes guage is Tzeltal, spoken in Chiapas, Mexico; other West• (hollow clay balls) to hold the tokens were invented. ern Maya languages include Chontal, Chol, Chortf, Tzo• Groups of tokens representing particular transactions were tzil, Tojolabal, Chuj, Kanjobal, Acatec, Jacaltec, and enclosed in envelopes to be kept in archives. Some enve• Motozintlec. The Yucatec languages, including Yucatec, lopes bore on the outside the impressions of the tokens Lacand6n, Itza, and Mopan, are sometimes also classed as held inside. These envelopes were the turning point be• Western Maya languages; Yucatec, the most important, is tween tokens and writing. spoken in Yucatan, northern Guatemala, and Belize. The Be 3500 Papyrus is new writing material from tough, reed• Huastec group is composed of the Huastec and Chico• like sedge. muceltec languages. Be 3500 According to the ancient Egyptians, the god Thoth Be 5300-4300 Vinca culture's script on religious items. created writing and then bestowed it as a gift on human• Be 5000 By now, commercial transactions of all kinds were kind. Hieroglyphic writing developed as a picture or sign so complex that there were endless possibilities for thiev• used for a noun, then a word or one or more ideas (ideo• ery and accounting errors. Some clever officials made graph) closely associated with it. Then came the use of the small clay tablets and scratched them with signs depicting same symbol to represent a group of words derived from a the objects. From there, it was a short step to simplified, common root word, even though there might be differ• more conventionalized, cuneiform signs. ences in meaning. Then a symbol came to indicate a sound Be 5000 In the Halaf period, stamp seals were used in rather than a meaning. Because only consonants were northern Mesopotamia, Iran, and Anatolia (in Be 6000 in represented in hieroglyphics, the same word sign might be (:atal Hiiyiik). used for more than one word despite the fact that their Be 4800 Neolithic pottery fragments in China with incised pronunciations and meanings were different and unre• marks, but they are not identifiable with Shang or other lated. Finally, the use of a sign to represent not a word or Chinese writing; forerunner to writing. the stem of a word, but an alphabetic sound. Be 4400-3100 Complex tokens with more shapes, greater Be 3500 Earliest writing dates to at least this time in south• variety oflinear and punched markings. Complex series of west Asia, for recording business transactions. counters of same shape with variable number of lines or Be 3500 Complex tokens reach . . The use of seals and writing on clay tablets Be 3500-3100 Tablets displaying impressed markings in appeared together in Mesopotamia. Seals were cylindrical the shapes of tokens superseded the envelopes. with vertical perforation and carved with a design. In Early Be 3500-3000 Uruk civilization dawns in Sumer. Cune• Dynastic times, carved with the owner's name. iform in Sumer; one of fewer than a dozen instances of the Be 4000 Discovery of the rebus principle, the idea that a invention of writing that are recorded in . pictographic symbol could be used for its phonetic Pictograms appear for keeping accounts. In China, writing value-that is, the use of pictographic shapes to evoke in develops from pictograms to ideograms and phonograms. the viewer's mind an underlying sound form rather than India sees parallel development, and first early writing the basic of the drawn object. This brought about a appears on stone and copper tablets. Pictograms eventu• transition from pure word writing to a partial phonetic ally became so abstract they no longer resembled objects script. In Egypt and Sumer, the use of a system of rebus they stood for. was an extraordinary development in the progress of writ• Be 3300 Sumerian clay tablets with pictographic writing in ing, when signs came to represent the sounds of the spoken Uruk (Iraq), linked to dynamic changes in society-this language. The representation of sounds at the root of was the invention of writing to record business trans• all true writing. Pictograms for the sounds made up the actions-receipts, records of crop yields, quantities deliv• pictograms' names. In Sumer, about 1,500 different early ered, and so on. The first texts that can be read and express pictograms. Distinctive scripts of Babylonia and Egypt a language are Sumerian (cuneiform later adapted to write (cuneiform and hieroglyphic) may have already been well Akkadian and Eblaite). Texts have lists of raw materials established. and products such as barley and beer; list of laborers and Be 4000 Hieroglyphs record the spread of boxing through- tasks; lists of field areas and their owners; the income and out the Nile Valley. outgoings of temples-all with calculations about produc• Be 4000-3000 Clay tablets of EannalUruk. tion levels, delivery dates, locations, and debts. Writing in Be 4000-3000 Mesopotamian protocuneiform. Sumer develops as a direct consequence of the compelling Be 4000-2600 Early Harappan cultures of Baluchistan and demands of an expanding economy. The round end of a Indus Valley used potters' marks but had no real writing. reed stylus was either pressed vertically into soft clay to Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 682

make a circular hole or pressed at an angle to make a record the spoken language (which survives as Coptic) and fingernail-shaped depression-or a combination of both because they could deal with abstract as well as concrete impressions, superimposed, was used to express a larger entities. numeral. By 2500 BC, these signs had become abstract BC 3000-2000 Hieroglyphs used in Anatolia (Syria). cuneiform in widespread use for writing Sumerian. BC 3000-2000 Evolving signs underwent change of orien• BC 3300 Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform. tation. Pictograms on clay tablets became turned through BC 3300-2900 Tell Brak tablets in Sumer/Babylon. 90 degrees so that they lay on their backs. Instead of being BC 3300-2200 Proto-Elamite economic texts in Susa ar• written vertically, it became a horizontally written script chives (ElamlPersia). Bullae and numerical tablets of Sus a (often partitioned into newspaper-like columns). Instead and Mesopotamia. System of Sumerian writing taken over of being written right to left, it was switched to left to right. by the Semitic Akkadians, later by the Elamites. Date of change is vague and reason unclear. BC 3100 Symbols that inventory objects, even gods and BC 3000-1000 Cuneiform, invented between the Tigris and professions, appear at Uruk. Initially the tablets are used the , traveled south to Palestine (Canaanite) and only for administrative operations and systematic lists of north to Armenia (Urartian). characters; they are pictographic and ideographic. Sumer• BC 3000-800 Chinese script begins with jiaguwen, bone ians create literate civilization. Mesopotamian cuneiform writing. became the lingua franca of trade and international diplo• BC 3000-500 Etruscan inscriptions are brief and similar to macy, a written language so complex that learned teachers each other, dealing with burial or religion. They are not and scribes traveled and taught widely. Proto-Sumerian long enough or sufficiently varied to aid decipherment. pictographic. Pictographic script traced with a stylus on Ten thousand Etruscan inscriptions, all written in an • clay tablets marked the true beginning of writing; tokens similar to early Greek; pronunciation is established, dwindled. but no one is what they say: can be read but have never BC 3100-AD 400 First Egyptian hieroglyphs in form of been translated. The alphabetic link between the short label-texts on stone and pottery objects from various and the Romans was the Etruscans. sites; about 700 symbols. The hieroglyphs come into exis• BC 3000-AD 75 Numbers written on cuneiform texts. Fif• tence virtually fully developed at the beginning of dynastic teen languages in 3,000 years written in cuneiform script. period. Many designs/signs have been found belonging to BC 2950-2770 Tomb of Hemka at Saqqara: roll of blank the centuries preceding this (the predynastic period)• papyrus. If papyrus was produced then, then writing must painted on pottery; worked into weapons, amulets, orna• have been in wide use considerably earlier. Very few ments, tools-closely resembling or identical with hiero• records survive from this period. glyphic pictograms of dynastic Egypt. They show topo• BC 2900 Narmer palette, Egyptian hieroglyphics-which graphical features, geographical features, "standards" of were used almost unchanged visually for 3,000 years. tribes and deities, and signs standing for concepts. Participants in the decipherment of hieroglyphics included BC 3000 Sumer and , where there is clear written Thomas Young, Alexander Sayce, and Jean-Fran<;ois evidence for the existence of two non-Indo-European lan• Champollion. guages, Sumerian and Elamite. BC 2900 Interesting development-curves in primitive BC 3000 Images embossed on seals by people of the Indus pictographic signs disappeared, probably because it was Valley (modem Pakistan), who used seals to emboss im• technically difficult to draw curves on wet clay, so the ages of their and gods. Indus scribes wrote mostly script rapidly evolved into signs formed purely of straight on perishable material such as wood, which has long since lines (wedges, from cuneus). decayed. Material evidence comes from archaeology, and BC 2900-2600 First traces of the discovery ofthe phonetic only the barest historical outline can be reconstructed. value of written signs in the Uruk/Ur archives. First identi• BC 3000 First traces of writing in the Aegean world. fiable use of purely phonetic elements and grammar in BC 3000 Egyptian script developed. Hier• . atic cursive writing dating almost from invention ofhiero• BC 2800 Pictograms in lemdet Nasr. glyphs. Hieratic after hieroglyphs but before : a BC 2700-2650 Hesire, from Saqqara, chief of the royal more cursive form of hieroglyphs for the new medium of scribes. papyrus. Egypt's uniconsonantal or alphabetic signs sys• BC 2650-2135 Language of the inscriptions of the Old tem essentially complete. Hieroglyph means "writing of Kingdom, the period in which the first continuous texts the gods" in Greek, from hieros (holy) and gluphein (to appear, is Old Egyptian. engrave). Hieroglyphs were from the beginning a true BC 2600 Chinese emperor Huang discovered the gift form of writing because they could almost completely of writing. 683 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

BC 2600 At Fa'rah (Shuruppak) and Tell Abu-Salabikh, the BC 2500 The Gilgamesh of the poems and of the epic first properly literary texts are produced (hymns, incanta• tablets was probably the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk in tions, and myths). southern Mesopotamia sometime during the first half of BC 2500 Writing had become standardized across Meso• the 3rd millennium Be. potamian plain and went from economic to literary, reli• BC 2500 Cuneiform similar to U garitic used in Palestine. gious, and historical records. By this time, Sumerian writ• Cuneiform adapted to write Semitic dialects in Meso• ing's original 2,000 symbols were reduced to around 600 potamia and Syria. (Old Sumerian). Stone monuments continued to be written BC 2500-2000 Babylonians, then Assyrians, adopted the in the orientation of the archaic script. cuneiform of the Sumerians-about 750 signs in total, 300 BC 2500 Old Akkadian, the earliest written Semitic lan• in general use. Cuneiform remained in use until the Chris• guage, in cuneiform. Seen in the Amama letters-from tian era. Akkadians, who ruled Mesopotamia after the Syrian, Hittite, Kassite rulers to Egyptian pharaohs. It was Sumerians, take over the Sumerian cuneiform script, even gradually replaced by , which was written alpha• though Akkadian and Sumerian are dissimilar languages. betically on parchment. Ebla is known from Akkadian Other forms of writing coexisted with cuneiform: Proto• texts; archive of texts found at Ebla (some in cuneiform Elamite, Indus Valley, Byblos pseudohieroglyphic, and Eblaite, earliest-known form of written West Semitic), Hittite hieroglyphic. Cuneiform script originated by Su• which shows that by c. 2500 Be, Ebla was prosperous merians was used to write some 15 languages during its trading city. Fifteen thousand tablets of Early Dynastic history: languages that borrowed the Sumero-Babylonian period at Ebla; many have 3,000 lines or more. The earliest signs and (, Anatolia) and languages that type of Semitic cuneiform in Mesopotamia is called the borrowed only the principle of the clay wedge while in• Old Akkadian, seen for example in the inscriptions of the venting new cuneiform script unrelated to the Sumero• ruler Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2279 Be). Sumer, the Babylonian signs. southernmost part of the country, continued to be a loose BC 2500-170011500 used by Harappan civili• agglomeration of independent city-states until it was zation; Indus seals, copper tablets, and inscriptions from united by Gudea of Lagash (died c. 2124 Be) in a last brief 60 sites. Indus Valley script invented independently; later manifestation of specifically Sumerian culture. The politi• vanished without development. The civilization was liter• cal hegemony then passed decisively to the Akkadians, ate, and its script, with some 250 to 500 characters, has and King Hammurabi of Babylon (d. 1750 Be) unified all been partly and tentatively deciphered; the language has of southern Mesopotamia. In adapting the script to their been tentatively identified as Dravidian. Generally square wholly different language, the Akkadians retained the or rectangular symbols that probably stood for . Sumerian and combinations of logograms for Lack of long texts and appearance of inscriptions primarily more complex notions but pronounced them as the corre• on seals indicate script was used for limited and special sponding Akkadian words. They also kept the phonetic purposes. Script died with civilization. values but extended them far beyond the original Sumerian BC 2500-AD 400 Egyptian hieratic script. inventory of simple types (open or closed syllables like ba BC 2500-331 Elamite written in cuneiform. or ab). Many more complex syllabic values of Sumerian . BC 2480-2330 It is in Unas's pyramid that the "Pyramid logograms (of the type /can, muZ, bat) were transferred to texts" first make their appearance. the phonetic level, and polyphony became an increasingly BC 2400 Byblos pseudohieroglyphs. serious complication in Akkadian cuneiform (e.g., the BC 2400 Classical Sumerian in linear and cuneiform original pictograph for "sun" may be read phonetically as scripts. ud, tam, tu, par, lah, his). The Akkadian readings of the BC 2400-1700 Rulers were in the habit of placing inscribed logograms added new complicated values. Thus the sign nails in walls of temples or chapels, sometimes by the for "land" or "mountain range" (originally a picture of hundreds. Inscriptions range from simple name tags to three mountain tops) has the phonetic value kur on the recitals of historical and cult events. basis of Sumerian but also mat and sad from Akkadian BC 2250 Kings had their names stamped into bricks; the matu ("land") and sadCi ("mountain"). No effort was stamp was made either of clay or wood. This continued made until very late to alleviate the resulting confusion, until Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 Be) of Babylon, then and equivalent "graphies" like ta-am and tam continued revived in the 1980s in Iraq during "rebuilding" of ancient to exist side by side throughout the long history of Akka• Babylon. dian cuneiform. BC 2200 Proto-Indic pictographic. BC 2500 Meroe inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphic BC 2200 royal inscriptions. script. BC 2200 Akkad eclipsed by Sumerian dynasties. Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 684

BC 2135-1785 Middle Egyptian used in literary, religious, A copy or summary of the document was written on the and monumental inscriptions through Graeco-Roman • envelope, and this could be compared to the original in• riod. side. Seals were employed as an extra safeguard. BC 2112-2004 Puzrish-Dagan and Girsu archives in Sumer/ BC 2000-1600 The greatest contribution of the Phoeni• Babylon. cians was their alphabetic writing system. First invented BC 2100 Byblos mentioned in Mesopotamian texts. Ar• by the Canaanites in the second millennium, this simple chive found at U garit contains texts in several languages, script was taken abroad by Phoenician merchants wher• some written in cuneiform alphabetic script; also material ever they traveled. From them, it was adopted by the on U garitic religion and myths, which has cast light on Greeks, who made small changes to suit their language. Canaanite religious practices. Later, the Romans adapted the , and it is the BC 2100 Semitic consonantal alphabet. Roman alphabet that forms the basis of modem western BC 2100-2000 Law books of Ur, earliest Mesopotamian scripts. A Canaanite source produced Phoenician and Ara• law codes. maic. East of Syria, alphabets were offshoots of Aramaic BC 2004-1595 Archives from Larsa, Nippur, Eshnunna, and west, derived from Phoenician. Sippar, Tell ed-Der, Ur, Kish in SumerlBabylon; Old As• BC 2000-1700 Phaistos Disk (Crete), script unknown and syrian archives from Kanesh in Assyria BC 2000: Two language unknown. First "typewritten" document. pictographic scripts developed at , Crete, fol• BC 2000-1650 Fairly consistent 700 signs used to write lowed by Linear A (not Greek) and Linear B (archaic form classical stage of hieroglyphics. of Greek). Linear B indicated that Greek administrators/ BC 2000-1500 Hittite hieroglyphs. Hittites used a picture rulers dominated the Minoan capital. It was used for palace script; total number of signs between 220-350. accounts of transactions, trade, inventories. The date of the BC 2000-1500 Byblos pseudohieroglyphic script. oldest fragment found at Knossos is 2000-1650 BC. The BC 2000-1200 invented during the Middle Bronze first phase of Minoan writing was pictorial signs, the script Age and came into increasing use during the Late Bronze of the seal stones. The development of writing using clay Age. tablets (Linear A) helped to facilitate administration in BC 1990-1780 Twelfth Dynasty funeral inscriptions were Aegean world. Most of the inscriptions from Knossos have "democratized," and the sarcophagus writings helped the been ascribed to the period 2000-1500 BC. Sir Arthur dead reach the realm of Osiris. Evans listed 140 different signs. BC 1900 Another set of documents provides insight on BC 2000 Susa had adopted Mesopotamian cuneiform char• Assyrian merchants. These tablets were found in Anatolia acters. at the site of an Assyrian trading colony on the edge of BC 2000 On the southern coast (Phoenician) of Ugarit at Kanesh. This is Old Assyrian, and these tablets relating to Byblos, there was an experiment in creating a script• commercial transactions represent the oldest vestiges of "pseudohieroglyphic" of about 120 signs. writing in Anatolia. BC 2000 Numerals changed into wedge-shaped signs; BC 1900 Old Babylonian texts. numbers then expressed using a place value system as we BC 1900 Proto-Sinaitic/Canaanite script. A number of early use today. Canaanite inscriptions have been found near Byblos, BC 2000 Northern Linear (Canaanite). Gezer, Lachish, on seals, daggers, bowls, and pottery. BC 2000 proto-writing. Most Proto-Canaanite inscriptions from Shechem, Gezer, BC 2000 Hurrians in northern Mesopotamia and Hittites in Lachish-meanings unknown-date to 1700-1600 BC. Anatolia borrowed writing from Akkadians. Hurrians use BC 1894-1595 Middle Elamite. cuneiform syllabary. BC 1800 The earliest known examples of Cretan Linear A. BC 2000 Cuneiform reached its definitive form. The script is partially known, but its language is unknown. BC 2000 Chinese writing appears; the system is still in use BC 1800-1200 Consonantal alphabetic script developed today. among Semitic people on the eastern shore of the Mediter• BC 2000 Middle Elamite, Old Babylonian, Old Assyrian, ranean between Mesopotamia and Egypt-Canaanites Hurrian scripts. (conventionally includes Phoenicians, early Hebrews, and BC 2000-1800 Cylinder seals used on tablets or clay enve• Semitic speakers of Palestine). The northwestern Semitic lopes in Iran, Anatolia, Syria, and Palestine. Beautifully languages of Canaanite and Aramaic were both repre• carved and undeciphered, they probably served as signa• sented by early alphabets. In these proper alphabets, each tures and property markers. Scribes in the symbol represents a sound. First, the Phoenicians with 22 encased clay tablets in clay envelopes for safekeeping. letters and no ; then Hebrew, Greek (1200 BC), the Early examples come from Kanesh in southern Anatolia. Etruscans, and the Romans. From unclear origins on the 685 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

eastern shores of the Mediterranean, writing employing be deciphered. Mycenaean trading relations became so spread to the west (via Greek) to complex that they found it necessary to establish their own modem Europe, to the east (probably via Aramaic) to writing system. They refined a simple pictographic script modem India. Today, most peoples write in alphabetic known as Linear A, which had been used by the Minoans script, except Chinese and Japanese. Most alphabets are (1900-1400 Be) and wrote it in the , creat• 20-30 symbols. The smallest, Rotokas in the Solomon ing what scholars call Linear B. Large numbers of clay Islands, has 11 letters; the largest, Khmer in Kampuchea, tablets from a Mycenaean palace at Pylos in western has 74 letters. Greece show that the script was used for administrative BC 1792-1750 Law code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon purposes. inscribed on stela. Hammurabi's diplomatic and trading BC 1600-1000 Over 100,000 oracle bones-made from links with other cities are known from a cache of letters cattle bones and tortoise shell-were found in storage pits found at the site of Mari (Syria). When the city was in palace and temple areas of Anyang China. These were a excavated, 13,000 cuneiform tablets were found. The means of divination and were used by the king to consult Amorite ruler of Ashur (Assyria's capital) is also known his ancestors. Engraved with questions, the bones were from the Mari letters as an adversary. Law code is written then heated, and the resulting cracks interpreted as positive in cuneiform on a black piece of diorite about 7 feet long. It or negative answers. The answers and their verification (or was likely taken by the Elarnites as war booty from Baby• otherwise) were also recorded on the bones, which were lon and brought to their capital at Susa (Iran) about 500 stored in royal archives. Oracle bones reveal much about years after Hammurabi's reign. Shang Dynasty (1384-1111) society-events, rituals, and BC 1792-1750 Babylonian literature flourishes; old Sumer• sacrifices. ian masterpieces copied out, and new literature in Akka• BC 1600-1000 Boundary stones (kudurru) used in Meso• dian is born. potamia to record land grants and tax concessions. The BC 1750-1450 The date of the second-oldest fragment of symbolic motifs of the gods meant they were "witnesses" Linear A found at Knossos; 150 clay tablets from Phaistos. to the contract. BC 1700 Linear A documented in short inscriptions, mainly BC 1550-1070 For most of this period-constant flow of at Knossos. At this time, there is also Hurrian cuneiform, diplomatic correspondence between Kassite dynasty (Me• Cretan and Helladic linear, Byblos syllabary, Proto• sopotamia) and other Middle Eastern courts. The common Semitic syllabary, Old Babylonian cuneiform, was Akkadian, written in cuneiform. cuneiform. BC 1550-700 Late Egyptian used, especially in secular BC 1700 Earliest alphabetic inscriptions in ancient Near documents (1300-1080 Be); also found to some extent in East, Byblos (Lebanon), Jordan, Serabit al-Khadim in literary and monumental inscriptions. Sinai. BC 1500 The first documents in hieroglyphic characters BC 1700 South Arabian script. appear southeast of Anatolia. This script, which was a BC 1700-800 Da Zhuan, great , China. transcription of a Luwian dialect, spreads progressively BC 1650-1600 The oldest texts in the Hittite language date over a large part of the territory. to this period (Boghazkoy/Anatolia). They are written in BC 1500 Sinai sphinx made, later found by Sir Flinders cuneiform, and the most remarkable specimens are the Petrie, ·with inscriptions plus hieroglyphs. historical annals, the laws, and above all, the political BC 1500 Scribes in Babylonia compiled bilingual tablets to testament of Hattusli I, a unique document in ancient Near help students learn to write Sumerian in cuneiform; clay eastern literature. The Hittite archives from Mari could equivalents of -English dictionaries. date to 1750 BC. BC 1500 Old Canaanite alphabet, representing consonants. BC 1625-1450 Linear A script has 7,000 signs. BC 1500 Horapollo wrote "Hieroglyphics" manuscript. BC 1600 Proto-Phoenician syllabary, Proto-Palestinian syl• BC 1500 Hebrew probably existed. labary. BC 1500 Chinese codified. BC 1600-1200 Some of the clay tablets found at Knossos BC 1500 Middle Babylonian, Middle Assyrian scripts. are inscribed with a script known as Linear B. This was BC 1500-1400 Nuzi archives in Assyria; Alalakh archives. developed from Linear A for use by mainland Greeks who BC 1500-1400 Ugaritic texts record myths and legends in took control of Crete around 1450 Be, recording Greek literary form-using alphabet with 32 symbols. Also at this dialect of Mycenaeans who occupied Crete from at least time, attempts to simplify Egyptian hieroglyphic system. 1450-1375 Be. Linear A had been designed for the pur• BC 1500-1200 Cyprus (Cypriote) inscriptions at Enkomi; poses of Minoan administration and was in use in Crete source was Cretan Linear A. and parts of the by 1650 Be. Linear A has yet to BC 1500-600 Hittite hieroglyphic system in use (Anatolia, Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 686

Syria) until their civilization conquered and absorbed. BC 1285 Egyptian inscription/propaganda on eve of battle There were 400 signs not used by any other people. of Kadesh, the Egyptian pharaoh Ramesses n discussed BC 1450-1200 Linear A replaced by Linear B on Crete and plan of attack against Hittites-Hittite inscription at Bo• later in parts of Greece. Linear B tablets at Knossos, 3,400 ghazkoy says they won; Egyptian inscription at Karnak baked by fire; 1,100 at Pylos; now fully deciphered. says they won. BC 1400 Tablet written in Hittite from Boghazkoy, giving BC 1200 U garit destroyed as well as its cuneiform syllab• indications of the 8th language to be found in the archive ary. The alphabet's linear and schematic form lent itself to there. production in ink on papyrus. U garit and cuneiform script BC 1400 Linear B had spread to mainland Greece, possibly wiped out by Peoples of the Sea. to Cyprus, by Mycenaeans. BC 1200 Northern Linear abjad has 22 sounds, and South• BC 1400 Armenian pictographic, Ras Shamrah syllabary, ern Linear abjad has 28 sounds. Chinese pictographic. BC 1200 Knossos' link with the Greek mainland documents BC 1400 Alphabetic cuneiform developed at U garit/Syria pointed to Linear B as an inflected language related to (Ras Shamra) north of Byblos (32 signs =29 consonants, 3 Greek. vowels, 1 word separator). This phonetic alphabet using BC 1200 In China, a writing system based on pictographs symbols to represent the sounds of individual letters (in• developed from the early use of distinctive marks on pots stead of syllables or words) was widely used in the Levant. to denote numbers or clan names. Shang rulers recorded It was invented by the Canaanites, a Semitic people, who events on wooden or bamboo slips (the origin of writing in based their alphabet on Egyptian hieroglyphics. vertical lines). Inscriptions on oracle bones and bronzes BC 1400 Egyptians began to stamp their bricks. The stamp include at least 2,000 characters, many of which are related block was usually made with the name or device in hiero• to those in use today. glyphics. They varied in function. BC 1200 Cuneiform Hittite dies out. BC 1400-1350 Important letter in the El-Amarna archives BC 1200-1100 Destruction of Mycenaean civilization and written by king of to the Egyptian pharaoh Ame• its syllabary. nophis III. It was the pharaoh's diplomatic correspondence BC 1200-800 The Phoenicians' need for a highly accurate and tablets written in cuneiform (Babylonian/Akkadian). record-keeping system played a significant part in the de• The tablets showed Alexander Sayce had been right-that velopment of the western alphabet. The first noncuneiform the Hittites were a great in Anatolia. alphabet appears in Phoenicia. BC 1400-1200 Hittite archives from . BC 1200-800 Olmec elite horizon style (iconography). BC 1400-1100 The . Four thousand clay BC 1168 The stelae of the Code of Hammurabi was likely tablets were preserved by their accidental firing in the taken by the Elamites as war booty from Babylon and blaze that destroyed the Knossos palace. brought to their capital at Susa (Iran) about 500 years after BC 1400-1100 Canaanite linear alphabet. Hammurabi's reign. BC 1300 South Semitic alphabets took independent direc• BC 1100 Earliest known surviving . tion. From this branch developed many pre-Islamic scripts BC 1100 Aramaic developed in Syria. Aramaic influential of the and the Sabaean script, which for 1,000 years; official script of later Babylonian, As• spread into and became the basis for Ethiopic syrian, Persian empires. It was the vernacular of Jesus and and then Amharic. the Apostles, possibly the original language of the Gos• BC 1300 South scripts. pels. (The Scrolls are written in Aramaic.) BC 1300 Pylos' archive room of Mycenaean palace. BC 1100-800 Site of the earliest recognizable Phoenician BC 1300 North Semitic is the closest immediate antecedent inscriptions on the sarcophagus of King Ahiram. Although to the Phoenician. Epitaph of King Ahiram put on sarcoph• Phoenician inscriptions are found all around the Mediter• agus near Byblos. ranean, the earliest are of this date. The Phoenicians left BC 1300 Middle Assyrian archives at Ashur. few records and almost no literature, but their alphabet of BC 1300 "Book of the Dead" written. 22 letters went with them wherever they ventured. The BC 1300-1200 Cyprus, Syria/Palestine used Ugaritic writ• names of the letters were the same as those in use by the ing. Hebrews-and today in the Hebrew script; there were no BC 1300-1100 Invasions of the Levant by tribes from the vowels. Transmitted to Greek and Aramaic, including Old north and east promoted rapid spread of writing system Hebrew and Punic forms. The new script was much sim• and the first adaptations of letter forms to non-Semitic pler than earlier syllabic or pictographic writing systems languages. Phoenicians are responsible for the stabiliza• and ultimately made writing accessible to many more tion and spread of the alphabet. people. The alphabet was adopted in Greece and adapted 687 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

to the Greek language with farreaching consequences. One BC 900 Texts of Hebrew in Palestine. Hebrew script used of the earliest uses was in recording 's and for religious literature and by a small community of Sa• Odyssey. maritans; evolved from Phoenician script and disappeared BC 1100-1050 (22 letters) settles in the 6th c BC with dispersion of . First religious down, right-to-Ieft order fixed. literature of Yahweh (prophets). BC 1050-771 Seal script from the Western Zhou period in BC 900-800 Phoenician, Hebrew, Aramaic scripts diver• China. ged to some extent. BC 1000 West Semitic, early Palestinian, palaeo-Sinaitic BC 900-700 Chaldean script. writing, Old South Arabian. BC 850 Moabite Stone with script that is an early branch of BC 1000 Urartians adapted cuneiform script to their own Canaanite. This black basalt stone was discovered at language, which seems to be a late dialect of Hurrian. Dhiban in 1868 and is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris. Bilingual inscriptions found at Kelishin and Topzawa. The stone's text of 34 lines, written in a Canaanite alphabet BC 1000 The greater part of the Old Testament was written similar to contemporary Hebrew, is the only written docu• in Hebrew; oldest extant examples date to here. ment of any length that survives from Moab and the only BC 1000 Normal Hittite syllabary is one used in Syria, royal stela known from Israel's neighbors. In its inscrip• especially for cylinder seals. tion, Mesha (ft. c. 870 BC) tells of King Omri's reconquest BC 1000 Ithobaal, King of Byblos, has sarcophagus made of Moab and ascribes the renewed Israelite domination for his father Ahiram bearing an inscription that for the over Moab to the anger of Chemosh. Mesha then describes first time uses whole Phoenician alphabet except for two his own successful rebellion against Israel, which prob• letters. Earliest Byblos inscriptions written in system of ably occurred during the reign of Omri's successor, Ahab. 22 linear signs. Derived subdivisions of this Semitic writ• Moabite was an eastern subdivision of the Canaanite ing are Phoenician, Palestinian, and Aramaic. branch of the early Semitic alphabet, closely related to the BC 1000 Gezer agricultural calendar. early . Until the discovery of the Ahiram BC 1000 First carving of inscriptions in stone in Meso• inscription in 1923 at Byblos, the Mesha Stone was consid• america, for counting time. Amerindian pictograms• ered the earliest extant alphabetic inscription. best-known form of protowriting; comparatively crude BC 830-650 Urartian cuneiform in Anatolia. marks and symbols engraved or painted on walls and BC 800 In Syria (Aram), another alphabet was developed• rocks-commonest known as petroglyphs. The Maya de• Aramaic-similar to that of the Phoenicians. Aramaic veloped a hieroglyphic script for calculating calendars and writing and language had a major impact on history as it regulating religious observances. They also used it for was in this language that several books of the Old Testa• recording genealogies, king lists, conquests, and dynastic ment were written. A scribe might write in imperial Ara• . maic (alphabetic script) with a brush on papyrus; a col• BC 1000 Much of what is known about ancient Egypt league might write in traditional cuneiform script on a clay comes from the writings found in the tombs, preserved by or wax-covered tablet. the dry desert conditions. BC 800 Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems attributed to Homer, BC 1000-800 Punic, archaic Greek, Etruscan, and other written down. Also, writings of . Greek could not alphabets made their appearance on the Greek islands or be transcribed by any of the existing alphabetic systems, so the Italian peninSUla. Indo-European speaking Greeks they borrowed certain signs from the to adopted the alphabet from the Phoenicians. Greeks trans• transcribe their sounds-choosing those signs that formed several of the consonants in the Phoenician alpha• represented consonants that did not exist in the Greek bet into letters to notate essential vowels. language: A alpha, E , 0 , Y , and BC 1000-700 Writing of bilingual or trilingual texts I . The earliest extant inscriptions date from end of 8th (Luwian, Phoenician, Aramaic). Tradition of writing or beginning of 7th century BC (scratched on pottery) hieroglyphic Luwian continued even after the fall of the and include the verse inscription on Bowl of Nestor at Hittite Empire, but writing cuneiform on clay tablets dis• Pithecusa (Ischia). continued. BC 800 Earliest known examples of Etruscan (northern BC 1000-625 Neo-Babylonian in SumerlBabylon; Neo• Italy), script known and language partially known. Beauti• Assyrian archives from Ashur, Kalhu, and Nineveh; Urar• ful Etruscan abecedary preserved, which shows well• tian inscriptions. developed linear Phoenician alphabet. BC 1000-609 Great majority of Assyrian texts written. BC 800 Assyrians, Babylonians, used alphabet. BC 1000-100 Cypro-Phoenician version of Phoenician BC 800-500 Herodotus calls alphabet phoinikeia gram• script. mata ("Phoenician letters") and says they were brought to Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 688

Greece by Kadmos. The 22 Phoenician consonants were from the first three centuries AD-written in the Greek adopted as Greek consonants and vowels. Three new signs alphabet. were added. Accounts of Greek historians Herodotus and BC 700-600 Parts of the calendar began to be recorded in and other later authors such as geographer Mesoamerica. offer information to supplement archaeological BC 700-600 Greek inscription from Egyptian site of Abu evidence. Simbel. BC 800-403 Dorian script, Greece. BC 700-403 Laconian script, Greece. BC 800-200 , which shares features of BC 700-400 Oaxacan script in use: logographic, but be• Linear B. came more iconographic. Isolated examples of hiero• BC 750 Newly invented Greek , khi, and . glyphs, sometimes accompanied by numbers, occur on BC 750 Greek colonists took Euboean to Italy, then taken stone carvings in Oaxaca and parts of Chiapas and Vera• by Etruscans (with modifications), and later adopted by cruz (some dealing with kings and conquest). Later Maya Romans. glyphs deal mainly with a ruler, his birth, accession to BC 750-700 Writing reappears on Greek mainland after throne, death, and anniversaries (sometimes parentage, disappearance of Minoan Crete and Mycenae. Dipylonjug ancestry). Writing was carved on stone monuments, and Nestor's cup are among oldest examples of Greek painted on murals and pottery, preserved in codices epigraphy. Earliest known alphabetic Greek inscription (folded manuscript books of bark paper or deerskin). (on vase from Athens, "to him who dances most deli• Closely tied to the writing systems were the symbols and cately," 730 BC), but there are no practical or business numbers used in the complex calendar. Only the elite 2% documents for over 200 years after the Greek alphabet's were able to read the complicated glyphs. invention. BC 700-100 Iron Age inscriptions in Aegean. BC 700 The legacy of the Aramaeans was their language, BC 668-627 Epic of Gilgamesh anticipates the Greek which at this date became the common tongue of the Near myths, foreshadows the account in the Bible. Mesopota• East until Arabic. The Aramaic script was adapted from mian cuneiform confined to those who knew how to in• the Phoenician alphabet and because it was easy to write, scribe the signs and who understood the various meanings displaced cuneiform. Persian Empire selected it as official (depending on the context). The fullest extant text of the language. Gilgamesh epic is on 12 incomplete Akkadian-language BC 700 RomanlLatin script. Neo-Assyrian cuneiform. Cy• tablets found at Nineveh in the library of the Assyrian king priote syllabary, Anatolian alphabet. Ashurbanipal (reigned 668-627 BC). The gaps that occur based on Greek. in the tablets have been partly filled by various fragments BC 700 Library of Ashubanipal of Assyria at Nineveh• found elsewhere in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. In addi• nearly 25,000 tablets recovered. Scribal schools have also tion, five short poems in the Sumerian language are known yielded many clay copybooks; schools at far-flung out• from tablets that were written during the first half of the posts helped spread writing to much of southwest Asia. 2nd millennium BC; the poems have been entitled "Gil• Royal libraries at Nineveh have bilingual texts in Sum• gamesh and Huwawa," "Gilgamesh and the Bull of erian and Akkadian. Heaven," "Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish," "Gilgamesh, BC 700 India's 0 and invented. Enkidu, and the Nether World," and "The Death of Gil• BC 700 In Karatepe (Anatolia), longest-known hiero• gamesh." The Gilgamesh of the poems and of the epic glyphic Hittite inscription with Phoenician. tablets was probably the Gilgamesh who ruled at Uruk in BC 700 Branch that was neither early Aramaic nor derived southern Mesopotamia sometime during the first half of from Canaanite prototype spread to the non-Semitic lan• the 3rd millennium BC. guages of the Indian subcontinent. BC 664-332 Generation of new hieroglyphics accelerates. BC 700-650 Earliest abecedaria of the Greek alphabet. BC 650 Late Assyrian cuneiform. BC 700-650 Demotic (cursive) Egyptian script developed; BC 625-539 Archives from Babylon. standard documentary script by the time of the Rosetta BC 620 Roman alphabet from Etruscan. Stone. Originally, hieratic was everyday administrative BC 600 Zapotecs used hieroglyphic elements in pictographs. and business script, then ousted by demotic and became a BC 600 Persian syllabary; Thamudic, Lihyanic, Safaitic. priestly script. Deomtic was quicker, lighter, more lig• Old North Arabic scripts; Ammonite, Neo-Babylonian atured; same demotic signs retained in Coptic script. cuneiform. BC 700-600 The , which survived in the BC 600 Old Testament Deuteronomy and story of creation Anatolian province of Phrygia in Greek times, is known written down. from 25 inscriptions. Then a hundred or so inscriptions BC 600 Greeks as well as Etruscans began to settle in 689 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

Rome. Latin appears for the first time on the "Black workers, peasants, and artisans employed at Persepolis• Stone" of the . archive of Achaemenid Persian kings. BC 600-500 Carian script. BC 500-400 Lydian alphabet; Lycian script. BC 600-332 Imperial Aramaic; Aramaic spread widely BC 500-400 Earliest known text in the Americas was until the breakup of the Persian Empire. Aramaic spawned carved around this time on a monolith (now in 3 pieces) major branches of national scripts: Syriac, Nabataean, erected in the Zapotec city of Monte Alban in Oaxaca, Palmyrene, and Jewish alphabet. Mexico. Zapotec is largely undeciphered, but appears to BC 600-AD 500 South ArabianiSabaean script. use a native system of writing and calendrical notation. BC 600-AD 1100 Rune inscriptions. BC 500-AD 300 Kharoshthi script. BC 597-539 Hebrew written in linear Hebrew abjad when BC 500-200 Turdetanian script. it was gradually replaced by a form of the Aramaic script. BC 500 . BC 559-331 inscriptions, Late Elamite tablets. BC 500-AD 500 Brahrni script. BC 521-486 The inscription of Behistun in Media recounts BC 450-430 Herodotus, subject of Artaxerxes I, describes Darius I's (king of Persia) version of events in four lan• Persian Empire in his "History." guages (Old Persian, Akkadian, Elamite, Aramaic). BC 403 The Ionian alphabet was adopted as the standard, BC 520/519 Behistun-carved on a smoothed rock face of official form by a decree in Athens (22 letters). Kuh-i-Parau Mountain, runs along ancient road of Per• BC 400 Revival of cuneiform under the Seleucids, Meso• sepolis to Hamadan; appears to be first inscription written potamia. in Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Darius I BC 400 Panini, the first grammarian, was able to describe created (key to decipherment of cu• exact functions of the consonants and vowels in . neiform) to record the official version of the controversial Indian scripts are integrally alphabetic and have a highly events surrounding his accession to the throne. structured phonetic system. BC 518 An extension to the relief damaged the Elamite text, BC 400 Last hieroglyph at Philae. so a second identical Elamite version was added in the BC 400 Iberian script. Hebrew (square) script. language of Susa in SW Iran. It is a language unrelated to BC 400 Composed over possibly hundreds of years, "Ma• its neighbors and is unlike any other language known. habharata," world's largest epic poem. These encyclope• BC 500 Velianas, King of Caere (Cerveteri) dedicates dic Sanskrit epics, together with the Vedas, the Upanishads shrine at Pyrgi (San Severa) to the goddess Astarte-text and so on, make up extraordinary body of literature. in Etruscan and Phoenician. BC 400-AD 900 Stone majUSCUle (capital) script, Greece. BC 500 Southeastern script culminating in Mayan writing. BC 400-500 , Kharoshthi script. BC 500 's descriptions of national games at Olym• BC 400-300 Lydian script. Latin, Jewish, later Aramaic pia, Nemea, Corinth, and Delphi. scripts. BC 500 Old Persian was written in a cuneiform alphabet BC 400-100 OscanlUmbrian script. derived from the Mesopotamian sign forms. Old Persian BC 350 Koine began to evolve in Greece. cuneiform of 36 characters. BC 335 From the time of , cuneiform BC 500 Mesopotamia has many cuneiform documents car• was increasingly superseded by Aramaic and eventually rying notation of their substance in the Aramaic alphabet, disappeared at the beginning of the Christian era. Soon inked onto tablets with brushes. after that, the supplanted Egyptian hiero• BC 500 Introduction of Byzantine minuscule script in glyphs. Greek alphabet. BC 304-282 The founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty in BC 500 Herodotus said Phoenicians introduced writing into Egypt, I Soter, established a Shrine of the Muses Greece. Herodotus's first-hand, full account of Egypt. in his palace complex at Alexandria-and the Great Li• Greek alphabet has 17 consonants, 7 vowels. Greek was brary, in which most of the writings of the forerunner of the complicated Coptic, Armenian, and were stored. It grew to V2 million papyrus rolls. Georgian alphabets and was the source of the Latin alpha• BC 300 Quadrate form of Greek majuscules became stan• bet. Greek writing became the basis for four different dardized; some rounded forms or uncials found in inscrip• families of writing: through Glagolithic to Cyrillic, tions after this time. through Armenian to Georgian, through Etruscan to Latin, BC 300 Manetho's "Chronicle of Kings" (in Greek), pre• and finally Coptic. served by later writers, lists Egyptian rulers from Menes to BC 500 Early Sanskrit literature written in accordance with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. grammarian Panini's code. Manetho's 31-dynasty system still used today as the basic BC 500-510 The Elamite tablets-records of wages paid to framework for Egypt's history. Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 690

BC 300 Lapidary script flourished on the monuments of the BC 200-AD 100 In China, paper was made from hemp Roman Empire. waste or old rags, and fragments have been found in north BC 300 Iberian, Pahlevi scripts. Achaemenid Elamite, Late and northwest China. Solid ink was rubbed onto an ink Babylonian scripts. stone with water, then a brush used to apply the resulting BC 300 Adaptation and modification of an by liquid ink. migrating Goths in the Alpine region. Writing was pos• BC 200-AD 200 Parthian period texts. sibly introduced to the Goths by Ulphilas, who was the BC 200-AD 200 Caoshu, grass script, China. successor of Theophilus as bishop under Emperor . BC 200-AD 220 Lishu, clerical script, China. BC 300 "Hymns of the Rigveda" preserve the oldest BC 200-AD 300 Thalmudic script. form-Vedic Sanskrit-and earliest actual inscriptions BC 200-AD 900 Maya hieroglyphs on monuments. from India, dating to Ashoka. BC 199 X and Y added to the alphabet. BC 300-200 Northeast Iberian adapted by Celtiberians. BC 150 Earliest deciphered text from Veracruz, descen• BC 300-AD 700 Pahlavi script. dants of Olmecs. BC 300-AD 300 Xiao Zhuan, , China. BC 146 Greece annexed by Roman Empire-but Greek BC 273-232 Indian writing first appeared, when edicts of alphabet adopted by founders of Rome. The letter A, B, Ashoka (2651273-238/232 Be) were committed to stone. E, I, K, M, N, 0, T, X, Y, adopted almost unchanged. Principal writing systems, and Brahmi, ap• Greek characters altered to form D, G, L, S, P, R. Romans peared on the Indian subcontinent (not counting variants resurrected F, Q, and V. used to transcribe other languages spoken there). The BC 100 Samaritan script emerged, Hebrew (Paleo), Coptic, needs of trade combined with western influences led to the Nabatean, Palmyrene. development of the Brahmi script, ancestor to most mod• BC 100 described hieroglyphic writing. Indian scripts. Two hundred modem Indian scripts BC 100-AD 100 Old Cursive version of RomanlLatin. derive from Brahmi, including southernlDravidian and BC toO-AD 300 CarthaginianiPunic version of Phoenician northern/Sanskrit. Brahmi, a totally alphabetic script of script. consonants and vowels, was the root of the BC 58 Tironian notae script. script, used to write Sanskrit. Brahmi also lies behind Hindi. BC 40 At this stage, only a few legal and literary texts still All are traced back to the Phoenician alphabet. In the written in cuneiform. Middle East, the old cuneiform script, composed of AD 1 Classical Ethiopic, Ligyan, Runic, Syriac scripts. wedge-shaped marks, had given way to new alphabetic AD 1 Chinese script known in Japan, to a small circle of scripts, Aramaic and Greek. people. BC 270-250 Bible translated into Greek. AD 1-100 The Dead Sea Scrolls were likely written by the BC 250 Breakdown of uniformity of Imperial Aramaic Essenes in AramaiclHebrew script. These are a collection script. of documents that include the earliest surviving examples BC 221-206 QinlCh'in Dynasty reforms Chinese character of the books of the Bible. There are sectarian writings spelling and introduces Small Seal script (simplified) in among the Dead Sea Scrolls: copies of most of the Hebrew China. Chinese writing system fixed in its present form. sacred canon, and commentaries on prophets such as BC 2to-AD 224 Iranian texts in Aramaic script. Isaiah. List of Dead Sea Scrolls: book ofIsaiah in Hebrew, BC 206-AD 220 There were 10,000 characters in writing comments on Book of Habakkuh, version of book of during the of China. Genesis in Aramaic, Psalms of Thanksgiving, The War of BC 200 Square Hebrew became the Hebrew script and was the Children of Light Against the Children of Darkness, the one most used by Jewish communities. and Manual of Discipline (rules of the Essenes), as well as BC 200 Rosetta Stone written. two copper scrolls. BC 200 NumidianiOld Lybian script, which developed into AD 75 Latest Babylonian tablet; latest inscription in cunei• Berber script. form dated to this time; total years cuneiform employed as BC 200 Neo-Punic Jewish, Nabatean, Palmyran, Edessan, writing system is 3,000 years. Cuneiform still used along Hatran, Mandaic, . the northern coast where Phoenicians traded and in Meso• BC 200 Egypt refused to supply rival Pergamon with pa• potamia. pyrus, so they resorted to leather/parchment. AD 100 Aramaic is principal language of traders from BC 200 Earliest known examples of Meroitic (Meroe/ Egypt and Asia Minor in India. Sudan), script known and language partially known. Ear• AD 100 script; Sinaitic script. liest dated text in Meroitic (hieroglyphic temple inscrip• AD 100 People of northern Arabia-the Nabateans-were tion of Queen Shanakdakhete) around 180/170. already using a script that was neither Phoenician nor Arabic. 691 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

AD 100 Pliny's history of obelisks. AD 200-300 Clement of Alexandria produced "Stromates" AD 100-200 Earliest inscriptions in runes with some mas• on symbology. tery of the script and variety of technique in recording it. AD 200-300 Coptic, final stage of the , Runes bear strong resemblance to early forms of Etruscan begins and is used till AD c. 900. and Latin alphabets. Beginning of Christian era was the AD 200-300 Jewish script or "square Hebrew" evolved invention of runic alphabet. Runes were used to record the from Aramaic; now used in Israel as national script. Used early stages of Gothic, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, En• after the Jews' Babylonian captivity, first for religious glish, Frisian, Frankish, and tribal tongues of Germany. literature and then in 19th c for colloquial writing, too. There are a range of runic scripts and 500 inscriptions AD 200-300 Latest Phoenician inscriptions (in Punic found in Nordic countries; most are in Sweden, then Nor• script). way, Denmark, Iceland. The earliest finds in eastern Eu• AD 200-300 Neo-Phyrgian inscriptions. are Pietroassa in Rumania, Dahmsdorf in Germany, AD 200-750 Germanic Runic alphabet of 24 letters in and Kowel in Russia. The Roman alphabet exercised influ• three groups of eight (aettir). ence of some kind on the runic script, which was used for AD 200-900 . over 1,000 years. The runic alphabet has 24 letters in an AD 200-1200 Champa script. order calledjUthark after the first 6 letters. Germanic runes AD 250-900 Maya writing's "golden age" -most of the perhaps derived from Etruscan. 5,000 Maya texts were carved or painted then. Probably AD 100-200 First inscriptions in Sanskrit or Indian al• began as early as Epi-Olmec. phabet. AD 300 , Ethiopic scripts. AD 100-200 spread throughout northern AD 300 Glyphs of pre-Columbian America. Europe into under the influence of earlier AD 300 Plotinus praises hieroglyphs. Roman occupations and subsequent Christian missions. AD 300-400 The increased use of parchment ( skin AD 100-200 , Greek traveler and geographer, prepared for writing) may have led to the adoption of the detailed an account of what he saw as he traveled around codex or book, because parchment was less suitable than Greece. papyrus for scrolls. In a codex, both sides of each page AD 100-200 Pergamon disk with areas associated with 24 could be written on. letters. AD 300-500 originated from the script of the AD 100-200 Tacitus describes Ramesses inscriptions, Nabataeans. Earliest inscriptions of Arabic writing. Egyptian writing. AD 300-700 inscriptions dated to this time, from AD 100-400 New Cursive version of RomanlLatin. southern Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and Isle of Man. The AD 100-600 Rustic script. Ogham alphabet was probably invented in Ireland and AD 100-1500 Maya writing; 800 known hieroglyphs. Sites imported to Scotland with the Dalriadic settlers in the 5th with inscriptions: Tikal, Palenque, Copan, Calakmul. Vir• century. K. H. Jackson said the inscriptions date from the tually all Maya monuments bear glyphs detailing the exact late-Pictish period. date when the rituals and events they depict were per• AD 300-900 Sogdian script. formed. The Mayan glyphs were copied and transformed AD 300-1000 Unciallhalf uncial version of RomanlLatin. by Toltec, Aztec, etc. The Spanish conquest terminated AD 350 Alphabet invented by Bishop Wulfila for transcrib- their development. ing holy texts for . The earliest extensive Ger• AD 105 Chinese legend credits Tsai Lun (c. 50-118) with manic text is the (incomplete) Gothic Bible, translated at the invention of paper. The Chinese kept this a secret. this time by the Visigothic bishop Ulfilas (Wulfila), and AD 135 Paleo-Hebrew remained in intermittent use until written in a 27-letter alphabet of the translator's own this date. design. AD 150 Earliest known examples of La Mojarra (Meso• AD 350 Ethiopic/'ez, Old Abyssinian scripts. america), script unknown and language unknown (no AD 394 Latest datable Egyptian hieroglyphic examples in scholarly consensus, however). temple inscription, island of Philae. Total number of hiero• AD 163 Epi-Olmec script, known from two inscriptions at glyphs about 6,000, although fewer than 1,000 in standard Veracruz. use. AD 186 Introduction of the Chinese script into Vietnam. AD 400 Ammianus Marcellinus discussed obelisks, includ• AD 200 Find spots of runes parallel the movements of ing a translation of an obelisk inscription by Hermapion. migrating Goths. AD 400 Gothic, Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic (OSA) AD 200 Syriac script. scripts. AD 200 Xingshu, running script, China. AD 400 Horapollo's hieroglyph treatise from Nilopolis Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 692

translated into Greek, then lost until manuscript discov• AD 512-513 First truly Arabic inscriptions. ered on a Greek island in 1419. AD 540 Chinese book written on methods of cultivation. AD 400 Kaishu, standard script, China. AD 580 Great quantities of Maya glyphic texts appear. AD 400-500 Alvan, Arabic, Estranghelo, Samaritan scripts. AD 600 Earliest runic texts from Frisia. First Sanskrit inscriptions from Cambodia, Java, Borneo. AD 600 Gaelic, Mandean, Pre-Islamic, Tibetan (dbu-can), Georgian, khutsuri or ecclesiastical hand, script. Tibetan (dbu-med) scripts. AD 400-600 Anglo- brought Germanic Runic script AD 600-700 Aramaic was a unifying force of Arabic to England, increased the letters to 28 and then 33. (whose script descended from Aramaic script) and . AD 400-600 Japanese/Chinese script. Japanese imported Beginning of the Islamic period: several forms of Arabic Chinese characters, despite the great disparity between the script, 28 consonants with new ordering based on letter two languages. shape. AD 400-700 Runes common in central Germany and then AD 600-700 The Koreans adopted the Chinese script and disappear with . Runes throughout Germanic later exported it to Japan. world (Denmark, Sweden, Norway, England, Germany, AD 600-700 TokhaianlKuchen script. Poland, Russia, Hungary). They record different Ger• AD 600-800 . manic languages and are cut, stamped, inlaid, or impressed AD 600-900 At Koucha and Turfan, documents found in on metal, bone, and stone. There is no standardfttthark (the two related languages of which no trace had previously peculiar order of the alphabet). What survives to modem been recognized. times is only a small fragment of the total runic corpus. AD 600-1200 Visigothic minuscule. Inscriptions on stone are uncommon before AD c. 400. AD 650 Koran dictated to Mohammed by Allah, then tran• Total number of known inscriptions is 5,000, mostly in scribed into Arabic script. Sweden, then Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. There are AD 650 Tribes from Altay consolidate first Turkic empire some in Greenland, Faroe, Isle of Man, Orkneys, Shet• and develop ancient Orkhon script. lands, Ireland, Anglo-Saxon England, Germany, and AD 690 First attempt at creating a syllabic Korean script Frisia. They were used in Scandinavia well into the Middle based entirely on Chinese script signs. Ages. AD 698 Date of Casket, most famous of English AD 400-800 Proto-Sinhalese script. runic objects. It was named after the man who donated it to AD 400-1000 . British Museum and has scenes of Wayland the Smith and AD 400-1300 Syriac/Estrangela script. the Adoration of Christ. AD 400-1400 . AD 700 Ma'il script (replaced by Kufic). Syriac/Jacobite AD 408 Last time Etruscan language was spoken. It was script. faithfully written in Greek alphabet, but the language is AD 700 New runes developed in Norse country. Norse still completely unknown. There are 13,000 Etruscan in• inscriptions form the most important epigraphical archive scriptions in central Italy. of any Germanic people. Find spots of runes parallel the AD 414 Use of Chinese by Koreans on a stone inscription. movements of Anglo-Saxon pilgrims. AD 500 Samaritan, Sogdian, Arabic, Japanese syllabary. AD 700-750 Mashk script. AD 500-600 Discovery of a script identical to Etruscan on AD 700-800 SharadalKashmir script; . the island of Lemnos; heavy rectangular block has an AD 700-900 Tocharian manuscripts largely written in a engraving of what is probably a warrior with one inscrip• north Indian alphabet of the Brahmi type-and the mate• tion of perhaps 18 words surrounding the head and another rial consisted of of Sanskrit originals: texts of 16 words in three lines on an adjacent side. written on palm leaves, occasionally on Chinese paper, AD 500-600 The art of block-book printing is almost cer• and ink on wooden tablets. tainly of Chinese origin, probably of the 6th century AD. AD 700-1300 ; The first examples were produced by hand-rubbing im• script. pressions from the block. AD 700-1500 script. AD 500-1000 Chalukya script. AD 700-1700 Uighur script. Mongols wrote in two alpha- AD 500-1100 Rediscoveries of ancient writers, notably the betic scripts-Uighur and Phags-pa. of Greek science and philosophy in the Islamic AD 700-1800 Thuluth script. world, saved by translators and passed on later to the AD 700-1900 . Western world. AD 700-1900 Syriac/Nestorian script, then becomes mod• AD 500-1300 Sephardic script of Hebrew. ified New Syriac script. AD 500-1400 Khmer/Cambodian script. AD 700-1928 Runic Old Turkish (Kok Turki). 693 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

AD 712 Earliest work of Japanese literature, Kojiki, an devised geometric principles for the six major scripts, a of Japan. Japanese writing is a mix of system that has been followed every since. Arabic charac• (Chinese characters) and (Japanese phonetic signs). ters in use today are the invention of Vizier Moclah, AD There are two : (easy kana) and ka• 933. The oldest Arabic characters are called Kufic (after takana (side kana). the town of Kufa). AD 800 Hiragana script, Japan. Slavonic script. AD 900-1000 In the Khitan, a kingdom on China's north• AD 800-900 Cyrillic alphabet (43 letters, now 30) used in eastern frontier, a writing system was devised, based on Russia, adapted from Greek alphabet. It became the script the 3,000 Chinese characters and modified for the Khitan for more than 60 languages. Saint Cyril (AD c. 827-869) language. The Mongolians did the same. Chinese charac• was entrusted the mission of creating this alphabet by the ters, however, were designed for uninflected language and Byzantine emperor Constantine at the request of the Slav were unsuited to multisyllabic languages with complicated king of . The Russians had no system of writing grammar. In time, these hybrids were abandoned. The before the reign of the Byzantine emperor Michael the Koreans created a new alphabet, and the Mongolians Paphlagonian, when they adopted the language and char• adopted an alphabetic system derived from Aramaic. acters of the Slavs (Greek characters). AD 900-1000 Rabbinical script of Hebrew; Western Kufic AD 800-900 Use of runes persisted until this time in Eng• script. land (futhark). Ogham inscriptions found in areas of Brit• AD 900-1100 Anglo-Saxon script. ish Isles where there were Scandinavian settlements (esp. AD 900-1500 Old Javanese/Kavi script. Wales) and were out of use by end of the medieval period. AD 900-1600 . AD 800-1000 Kufic script. AD 916-1125 Kitan scripts introduced, inner Asia. AD 800-1050 Nordic Runic alphabet, at the time of the AD 960 Chinese treatise on the is Viking expansion, spread over Europe. written. AD 800-1100 Persian script. AD 1000 Buddhist scribes become important to Chinese AD 800-1500 Andalusian script; Muhaqqaq script. civilization. AD 800-1800 Tawqi script. AD 1000 Continental Celtic (series of languages) written. AD 800-1900 Naskhi script. Sources of information are inscriptions and names; • AD 807 Book of Kells (in Trinity College Library, Dublin) merous preserved in ancient , northern Italy, and in developed by Irish monks from uncial Iberia-but a lack of long literary texts. script of official Roman documents of 3rd century AD AD 1000 Earliest extant examples of script onward. Each monastery developed its own variant of of Easter Island, of unknown origin and function. uncials. Rongorongo, a form of protowriting, used for "chants or AD 832 Baghdad, translations made from the Greek. A recitations" of the language of Easter Island. Script in• world atlas is made. scribed on wooden boards and tablets-29 examples in AD 850 Muslim mapmakers are active. museums, containing 14,000 "glyphs" engraved with AD 860 First Slavic writing. shark's tooth, obsidian flakes, or sharpened bird bone. One AD 900 Documentary minuscule script, Greece. scholar stated there are 120 elements combined to form AD 900 Ecclesiastical script created by Cyril and Metho• between 1,800-2,000 compound signs. Yuri Knorosov dius, missionaries to Slavic Moravians and . said "Rongorongo may be compared with the ancient AD 900 script, Japan; Old Bulgarian script. Egyptian hieroglyphs at an early stage of their develop• AD 900 Mixtecs had developed a script based on picto• ment." graphs. AD 1000 Nabataean Arabic script, precursor of the Arabic AD 900 Recording of Maya texts on architectural monu• script, replaced Aramaic script. The sequence was Phoeni• ments ceased. cian > Aramaic> Nabataean > Arabic. AD 900-1000 Decorative writing, the Kufic script, was a AD 1000 Writing system spread to all regions of Europe that version of Arabic that came into widespread use in North were dominated by the Romans and where Latin was Africa. It was used on ornamental panels and was easier to written. carve than the usual flowing script. The is AD 1000-1050 Codex Nuttall is an early example ofMixtec derived from earlier Semitic alphabets. The Arabic script pictographic writing. Recorded genealogy and history of had been in use since before the time of Muhammad. 1st, 2nd dynasties of Tilantongo (Oaxaca, Mexico). Several flowing styles of Arabic writing had developed AD 1000-1050 Runic script-the Vikings borrowed the under the impetus of recording the Koran, and these multi• practice of writing from France and Britain where Latin plied dramatically in the 10th century. Abu Ali Ibn Muqlah script was in use but developed their own script, with Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 694

characters known as runes. Runic script used by Viking poorly drawn and not equal in quality to those of the other communities in Scandinavia and the British Isles was surviving codices. The is devoted almost gradually replaced by the in the 11th and 12th entirely to Mayan ritual and ceremony, such as the cere• centuries. Find spots of runes parallel the movements of mony held to celebrate the end of a 20- period. Viking adventurers. AD 1100-1600 Gothic script. In the , Caroling• AD 1000-1100 Nubian script. ian, Gothic, and humanist scripts recorded Latin while AD 1000-1500 Old . Cyrillic, derived from Greek, also developed. For more AD 1000-1521 Mixtecs, Aztecs write-but restricted to than 1,000 years, writing skills were virtually the monop• members of the elite. oly of monks. Maya's bark-paper books elaborately painted AD 1036-1227 Tangut/Hsi-hsia script. in color and bound in jaguar skin; the prognostications AD 1041-1048 The earliest movable type for printing was based on a written calendrical system so sophisticated it invented in China. Consisted of individual characters made extended back 5 billion years. of clay, which could be fixed onto an iron-framed plate. AD 1100-1650 -chen script. AD 1100 Burmese and Devanagari scripts. Bengali script. AD 1120 Jurchin script introduced, inner Asia. Bengali script's mix of syllabic letters and vowels is ar• AD 1150 Europeans still used papyrus and parchment while ranged in an order determined by Indian phoneticians well Chinese paper a secret. over 2,000 years ago. was most respected art AD 1155 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, earliest records of Anglo• form of China. Saxon England. AD 1100-1200 Ashkanazi script of Hebrew. AD 1200 English cursive script; Modem Sinhalese script; AD 1100-1200 Runic script used by Viking communities in Vietnamese (chu nom). Scandinavia and the British Isles was gradually replaced AD 1200-1300 ; Sibo script form Uighur; Sudan- by the Latin script. By the time of the Norman Conquest ese script. (1066), the Roman script had triumphed, and in Britain the AD 1200-1600 Thai/Siamese script evolves. runic script had almost disappeared. AD 1200-1800 ; Magbribi script. AD 1100-1200 The many written documents that have sur• AD 1272-1350 Passepa script. vived from the medieval kingdoms of AD 1300 Movable type replaced by a wooden-type process. testify to the growing complexity of bureaucratic adminis• AD 1300-1500 Maya glyphs in written fonnJdocuments. tration. Substantial collections of royal and ecclesiastical AD 1300-1600 Aztec script. records detail expenditure and receipts and were written on AD 1300-1700 Mamluk script. sheepskin or parchment by using a stylus. Styli were AD 1300-1800 Sini script. usually made of bone with a metal tip, but some were AD 1300-1900 Moso (Na-khilNaxi) script. entirely metal. AD 1310-1400 KalikalGalik script. AD 1100-1200 There were 23,000 characters in the Chinese AD 1400 Modem Javanese, Balti, Lolo, Telugu scripts; Az• script. tecs had adapted the Mixtec script for their use. AD 1100-1300 Rayhani script. AD 1400-1600 Batarde, Gothic hybrid, Humanistic book AD 1100-1500 Codex Dresden, Madrid, and Paris-the scripts. Philippine script, including Bisaya, Buhil, Tag• only surviving Maya manuscripts-thought to have been banu, and Belarmino. composed at this time, although some suggest slightly AD 1400-1700 Bihari script. earlier dates. Only four codices of thousands survived the AD 1419 Horapollo's book "Hieroglyphics" discovered on early Spanish missionaries to Mesoamerica. There are, island of Andros by Buondelmonte. however, hundreds of statements on fine clay vessels and AD 1443-1444 Korean alphabet invented. Riqa, monumental inscriptions on stelae and architectural fea• Secretary hands scripts. The development of the Hangul tures. Maya glyphs tell about grand historical events, the alphabet is traditionally ascribed to Sejong, fourth king of rise and fall of dynasties, and sophisticated ideology, reli• the Dynasty; the system was made the official writing gion, and cosmology. The , together with system for the Korean language in the mid-1440s by one of the Paris and Dresden codices, one of several richly illus• Sejong's decrees. Because of the influence of Confucian• trated glyphic texts of the pre-Conquest Mayan period to ism and of Chinese culture, however, HangUl was not used have survived the book burnings by the Spanish by scholars or Koreans of the upper classes until after clergy during the 16th century. The Madrid Codex is be• 1945, when Korea ceased to be underJapanese rule. The 28 lieved to be a product of the late Mayan period (AD c. 1400) letters introduced are one of the few alphabets that can be and is possibly a Post-Classic copy of Classic Mayan dated. Hangul has yet to entirely supplant Chinese charac• scholarship. The figures and glyphs of this codex are ters throughout Korea. 695 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

AD 1500 Inca -knotted arrangement of rope and AD 1600s There were collectors and students of Coptic cords for keeping track of the movement of goods in the manuscripts: Peirsec, Pietro della Valle, Salmasius, Thomas empire. Many types of knot, each representing a value in a Obicini. system, but no zero. Value varies also according to AD 1600-1800 Old Hungarian script. knot's position on cord. Summation cords were used to tie AD 1600-1900 Manchu, Mughal script. off bunches of strings. Also spelled quipo, it was an Incan AD 1604 Pietro della Valle made preliminary drawings of accounting apparatus consisting of a long rope from which Behistun monument. hung 48 secondary cords and various tertiary cords at• AD 1609 Garcilaso de la Vega's "The Royal Commentaries tached to the secondary ones. Knots were made in the of the Incas." cords to represent units, tens, and hundreds; and, in impe• AD 1618 Persepolis (capital of Darius and Persian kings of rial accounting, the cords were differently colored to des• ) discoverer was Spanish ambassador ignate the different concerns of government-such as to Persia, Garcia Silva Figueroa; mysterious inscriptions tribute, lands, economic productivity, ceremonies, and on ruins in carved black jasper. Persepolis scripts: Old matters relating to war and peace. The quipus were created Persian, Elamite (regional variant of Babylonian), and and maintained as historical records and were kept not Babylonian. only by high officials at the capital of Cuzco-judges, AD 1621 Spanish ambassador to Persia correctly identifies commanders, and important heads of extended families• site of Persepolis and described an inscription in the lan• but also by regional commanders and village headman. guage of the Persian Empire: Garcia Silva Figueroa, "De AD 1500 Balinese, Kannada, Kavi, Khmati, Limbu, Malay/ Rerum Persicarum Epistola." Jawi scripts. AD 1632 . AD 1500 Discovery that , containing Maya AD 1636 Athanasius Kircher's "Introduction to Coptic, or dates, was written as an almanac of divination with days Egyptian" published. Kircher assisted in the rescue of linked by complex astronomical calculations. Each god! Coptic, the language of the last phase of ancient Egypt. goddess is named with a above his or her portrait. Coptic dates to Christian times and was the official lan• AD 1500-1700 Attempts to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs guage of the Egyptian church but lost ground to Arabic and in Europe by Giovanni Pierio Valeriano, Mercati M., Atha• by late 17th century was headed for . nasius Kircher, and Sir J. Marshall. AD 1643 Athanasius Kircher's "The Egyptian Language AD 1500-1700 . Restored" published. AD 1500-1800 Urdu script. AD 1646 John Greaves's "Pyramidographia" about Egyp• AD 1500-present Diwani, Farsi scripts. tian pyramids. AD 1505 Horapollo's "Hieroglyphs" published, went AD 1649-1950 Kalmuck script from Mongolian. through 30 editions, one illustrated by Albrecht Durer. AD 1657 First published example of a cuneiform inscrip• AD 1538 script. tion, by Pietro della Valle. AD 1556 First book on hieroglyphs by Pierius Valerianus. AD 1658 Pietro della Valle described Sumerian system of AD 1561 Fray Diego de Landa (1524-1579), in Yucatan writing after a visit to Persepolis. Groups of sign lists are (later, its bishop, 1572), writes "An Account of Things of found in Sumer, which were used by scribes as an early Yucatan," which contains the Mayan "alphabet," which dictionary and an aid to learning. The number of signs proved to be the key to deciphering Mayan glyphs in the diminished as each sign came to stand for more than its 20th century. He burnt most of the surviving codices. In original meaning; eventually no more than 600 signs in late 1560s, he returned to Spain to face charges, was common use. exonerated, and returned. Realization that Mayan glyphs AD 1666 Athanasius Kircher entrusted with publication of were partially phonetic. an Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription on obelisk in Rome's AD 1563 Leo Africanus's description of Africa published. Piazza dell Minerva from 6th century Be. AD 1566 Diego de Landa's "Relacion de las casas de AD 1678 Jean Tavernier's "The Six Voyages of Tavernier Yucatan" published. French scholar Brasseur de Bour• through Turkey into Asia." bourg came across de Landa's colonial dictionary in a AD 1681 Robert Knox's" An Historical Relation of Ceylon, Madrid archive and published it in French and Spanish. Together with Somewhat Concerning Remarkable Pas• AD 1582-1589 Six ancient Egyptian obelisks were re-sited sages of My Life." or re-erected in Rome. AD 1700 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (philosopher, mathe• AD 1583 John Eldred's "The Voyage of M. John Eldred to matician) wanted to invent new written language for uni• Trypolis in Syria by Sea and from Thence by Land and versal communication. River to Babylon and Balsara." AD 1700 . Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 696

AD 1700 Thomas coined name cuneiform meaning AD 1763 Denis Diderot and Jean D' Alembert published wedge-like ("ductuli pyramidales seu cuneiformes," cu• "L' Art d'ecrire," which was the first scholarly account of neus being Latin for wedge). the writing systems of the world. AD 1700-1800 Attempts to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs AD 1763 Ruins of Pompeii identified. Pompeii had hand• in Europe by: P. Lucas, R. Pococke, C. Niebuhr, F. L. writing on the walls-graffiti-an amount of writing so Norden, A. Gordon, N. Freret, P. D'Origny, C. de Gebelin, prolific that it was an important means of communication. J. H. Schumacher, J. G. Koch, T. Ch. Tychsen, P. E. Early Greek alphabetic writing used for recording poetic Jablonski, A. De Caylus, Bishop Warburton, C. de Guignes, verse (hexametrical poetry) and also for graffiti (such as and G. Zoega. that on Thera and in Pompeii). AD 1700-1800 There were 49,000 characters (including AD 1764 Abbe Barthelemy's Phoenician abjad. many variants and obsolete forms) in the Chinese script. AD 1764 Johann Winckelmann's "History of Ancient Art." AD 1700-1900 . AD 1765 's copies of inscriptions at Per- AD 1707 Edward Lhwyd's "Archaeologia Britannica." sepolis. AD 1712 E. Kaempfer published better cuneiform inscrip- AD 1765 William Warburton's second edition of the book tions from visit to Persepolis in 1686. describing his theory of hieroglyphics and writing in gen• AD 1720 LepchaIRong script, derived from Tibetan. eral, including Barthelemy'S table of the signs. Warbur• AD 1721 Jacob Roggeveen discovered Easter Island ton's three stages of history of the hieroglyphic class of and wooden writing boards with over 500 signs. writing were: (1) by representation (example: Mexican, AD 1722 J. Richardson's "Account of Statues, Bas Reliefs, pictures), (2) by analogy or symbol (example: Egyptian, Drawings, and Pictures of Italy." pictures, contrasted and arbitrarily chosen marks), and AD 1723 Sir Thomas Dempster's "De Etruria Regali" pub• (3) by arbitrary institution (example: Chinese, marks lished. only). Warburton was first to suggest that all writing might AD 1739 Dresden Codex, key to the decipherment of have evolved from pictures. Mayan glyphs, which was painted by Maya scribes, just AD 1768 Abbe Barthelemy'S Imperial Aramaic abjad. before the Spanish conquest of Mexico-purchased by the AD 1771 Anquetil-Duperron published translation of sacred royal library of the court of Saxony in Dresden. It had been literature of Zoroastrians (). taken to Europe by Cortes. At the height of Maya power, AD 1772 Carsten Niebuhr (1733-1815) confirmed left-to• AD 250-800, codices had jaguar-skin covers and were right direction of cuneiform writing; first to draw the painted by scribes. One of only four surviving "books" of inscriptions accurately. He showed that there were three the ancient Maya of Central America, the Dresden Codex different cuneiform scripts at Persepolis. has 39 leaves folding out to 12 feet. A series of gods and AD 1772-1778 First decent copies of trilingual Old Persian, animals is accompanied by hieroglyphic symbols. Alex• Elamite, Akkadian from Persepolis published. ander von Humboldt published Dresden Codex in part. AD 1774 Carsten Niebuhr made a table of hieroglyphs ar- The codex was acquired by the Sachsische Landesbiblio• ranged in an order. thek (Saxon State Library), Dresden, Saxony, and was AD 1775 James Adair's "History of the American Indian." published by Edward King, Viscount Kingsborough, in AD 1776 James Hutton's "Theory of the Earth." Antiquities ofMexico (1930-48). King erroneously attrib• AD 1784 Sir William Jones first showed that Sanskrit was uted the codex to the Aztecs. The first scientific edition of related to Latin and Greek. the codex was made by E. Forstemann (, 1880). AD 1787-1791 Silvestre de Sacy's Sassanian abjad. AD 1740 William Stuckeley's ", A Temple Re• AD 1788 Abbe Barthelemy'S "Voyage dujeune Anacharsis stored to the British Druids." en Grece." AD 1743 Richard Pococke's "A Description of the East, AD 1788 First (historical) writing in Australia. and Some Other Countries." AD 1789 Abbe Lanzi's "Saggio di lingua Etrusca" (Story AD 1750 Abbe Barthelemy guessed cartouches contain of the Etruscan Language). kings' or gods' names. AD 1792-1798 Eckhel's "Doctrina numorum veterum." AD 1750 AlbanianJElbasan script. AD 1797 Georg Zoeg/Zoega's book "On the Order and AD 1753 Discovery at Herculaneum of 3,000 rolls of Purpose of the Obelisks" suggested some hieroglyphs charred papyri. might be phonetic signs. AD 1755 Swinton's Palmyrene abjad. AD 1798 Word cartouche coined by French soldiers in AD 1757 Frederick Norden's "Travels in Egypt and Nubia." Egypt who were part of Napoleon's invasion force; the AD 1759 Abbe Barthelemy's Palmyrene abjad. ovals reminded them of the cartridges in guns. AD 1761-1762 Stuart and Revett's "Antiquities of Athens." AD 1799 Rosetta Stone discovered in Egypt by demolition 697 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

squad of soldiers, probably built into a very old wall in the the Coptic etymology of Egyptian placenames preserved village of Rashid (Rosetta) on a branch of the Nile. Top in the works of Greek and Latin authors. register Egyptian hieroglyph, middle register demotic, and AD 1809-1828 Napoleon Bonaparte's men's reports and bottom register Greek. monographs were collected in the monumental "Descrip• AD 1800 Aymara, Bushman, Chipewyan, Cree, Tamahag, tion de l'Egypte" (Description of Egypt), published in Vai scripts; Miao phonetic script, Chu Yin System. parts in Paris. AD 1800 Copies of the Rosetta Stone made and distributed AD 1812 John Izard Middleton's "Grecian Remains in to scholars in Europe. Italy." AD 1800 Danish scholar Zoega said some hieroglyphs AD 1814 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion's 1st of 3 volumes on might be "phonetic signs" and coined the phrase "notae Egypt: 1 = , 2 = social institutions, 3 = language phoneticae. " and letters. AD 1800 Constantine Samuel Rafinesque discovered Maya AD 1814 Thomas Young deciphers the hieroglyphic writing bar-and-dot numeration. of the names "" and "Ptolemy" by using the AD 1800s Attempts to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs in Rosetta Stone. Young made an important breakthrough by Europe by: N. G. de Pahlin, J. von Hammer-Purgstall, A. deducing that hieratic was a kind of cursive for hiero• Lenoir, P. Lacour, J. . glyphics. AD 1800s Discovery of Franks casket, now in British Mu• AD 1815 Rich's "Memoir on the Ruins of seum, most famous of English runic objects. Babylon." AD 1800s The Mayan numbers were the first part of the AD 1815 Obelisk of Philae (island on Nile) found and re• writing system to be deciphered; very sophisticated. Place moved to England (and used as a decoration on an estate). value increased in multiples of 20; had a zero (which AD 1816 William Smith's "Strata Identified by Organized Romans and Babylonians did not have). ." AD 1800s Until archaeological discoveries of this time and AD 1818-1819 Encyclopaedia Britannica included articles later, the decipherment of the Babylonian script, the Meso• on Egyptian hieroglyphs. Thomas Young's article in En• potamian area and its history were known only through cyclopaedia Britannica, "Egypt," on his ideas on the biased accounts and inaccurate narratives. Egyptian script, which he first communicated to Jean• AD 1800 Ernst Forstermann's studies of Dresden Codex Fran~ois Champollion. W. J. Bankes transported from and Maya calendrics, unraveling some of the Maya cal• Egypt an obelisk and base block. endrical systems, identifying glyphs of the Long Count, AD 1818 C. Rich's "Second Memoir on the Ruins of and recognizing some distinctive features of Maya writ• Babylon." ing. The first scientific edition of the codex was made by AD 1818 Thomas Young's Egyptian logosyllabary. E. Forstemann (Leipzig). AD 1820 Caleb Atwater's "Description of the Antiquities AD 1801 Rosetta Stone moved to Alexandria in attempt to Discovered in the State of Ohio and Other Western avoid its capture by British . States." AD 1802 Georg Grotefend (1775-1853) decided the single AD 1821 Cherokee "alphabet" invented by Sequoya in slanting wedges of were word United States. dividers and concluded the system must be alphabetic. AD 1821 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion published "De l'ecri• Compiled an alphabet of Old Persian, but many of his ture Hieratique des Anciens Egyptiens." sign values were wrong because the Persian script was not AD 1821 W. J. Bankes made lithographs of Greek and purely alphabetic but partially syllabic. He deciphered 12 hieroglyphic texts. Persian cuneiform signs. AD 1822, 1828 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion announced his AD 1802 Count Silvestre de Sacy and Johan Akerblad read decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics and exhibited his "Ptolemy" and "Alexander" off demotic section of Ro• logosyllabary/hieroglyphic alphabet. Champollion got setta Stone. Akerblad attempted to transliterate proper crucial clue from obelisk excavated at Philae by William J. names of Rosetta Stone. Silvestre de Sacy's "Lettre a Bankes (it now stands at Kingston Lacy in Dorset)-copy Citoyen Chaptal" -one of the earliest and best articles on of bilingual obelisk inscription sent to Champollion by the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. Bankes. The base block inscription was in Greek, the AD 1802 Rosetta Stone arrived in England; went to British column inscription in hieroglyphic script. Champollion's Museum. "Lettre a M. Dacier" with table of demotic and hiero• AD 1803 Vivant Denon's "Travels in Upper and Lower glyphic signs with their Greek equivalents. Egypt." AD 1821-1833 John Gardiner Wilkinson recorded inscrip• AD 1807 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion presented paper on tions, cartouches, and tomb paintings. He filled dozens of Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 698

notebooks with details of ancient Egyptian life, culled estate papers, lawsuits, narratives, proverbs, teachings, from papyri and other writings. and poetry. AD 1822 Antonio Del Rio's "Descriptions of the Ruins of AD 1837 Karl Richard Lepsius's Egyptian logosyllabary. an Ancient City, Discovered Near Palenque." AD 1837 Sir Henry Rawlinson deciphered and translated AD 1822 W. J. Bankes published a copy of his new bilingual first half of the Old Persian cuneiform inscription from inscription from Egyptian obelisk. Behistun. Inscription of Darius contains Elarnite; 2.5 mil• AD 1823 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion's fundamentals ex• lennia before, a quasipictographic script was used to write plained further: The writing system is a mixture of seman• the language of Elam, and it is known as Proto-Elamite and tic symbols, i.e., symbols that stand for words and ideas is yet undeciphered. (also called logograms) and phonetic signs, phonograms, AD 1837 Wilhelm Gesenius published and deciphered full that represent one or more sounds (alphabetic or polycon• corpus of known examples of Phoenician writing ("Scrip• sonantal). may function as a phonogram and as turae Linguaquae Phoeniciae Monumenta"). a , depending on its context. Champollion ac• AD 1838 Jean F. Waldeck's "Voyage pittoresque et archae• complished full decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs ologique dans ... Yucatan." ("Tableau des Signes Phonetiques"). AD 1838 James Prinsep's Kharoshthi's . AD 1824 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion's "Precis du systeme AD 1838 William Henry Harrison's "Discourse on the Ab• hieroglyphique" (Summary of the Hieroglyphic System of origines of the Valley of the Ohio." Ancient Egyptians) published. AD 1839 John Lloyd Stephens discovered Maya civiliza• AD 1826 Frederick Cailliaud's "Voyage a Meroe." tion. Frederick Catherwood (with John Lloyd Stephens) AD 1827 H. Baradere's "Antiquities Mexicaines." went to Copan and sketched stela after stela, recording AD 1828 August Bockh began publishing all known exam• exotic glyphs (also Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and ples of Greek inscriptions. Cozumel). The decipherment of this complicated script AD1830 Charles Lyell's "Principles of Geology" and Lord came through teamwork between linguists, epigraphers, Kingsborough's "Antiquities of Mexico." and scholars. The published "Incidents of Travel in Cen• AD 1833 Eugene Burnouf's . tral America, Chiapas, and Yucatan." The Cholan lan• AD 1834, 1837 James Prinsep's Brahmi abugida. He was the guage covered Copan, Palenque, and influenced the Dres• first European scholar to decipher the edicts of the ancient den Codex. Yucatec had three of four surviving codices. Indian emperor Ashoka. AD 1839 Sir Henry Rawlinson completed the task of de• AD 1835-1837 Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson copied ciphering the Behistun Rock. This opened the way to the great rock inscriptions of King Darius from the cliff at reading of Babylonian and the related Assyrian languages Behistun. Rawlinson's first major step in cuneiform led to so that much of the literature of the early Near East was the reading of the earliest texts of the Near East, from unlocked. which the cuneiform system of writing was later de• AD 1839 Samuel G. Morton's "Crania Americana." ciphered. Rawlinson went to cliff in the Zagros Mountains AD 1840-1850 George Friedrich Grotefend said that he had of western Iran near Behistun (Bisitun) and copied Darius' deciphered the cuneiform inscriptions of Persepolis. Gro• inscription-leading to the decipherment of Babylonian tefend tackled the top inscription directly below the sculp• cuneiform. He never explained how he did it, and study of tured relief on the Behistun Rock (Old Persian). Grotefend his notes suggests that he borrowed without attribution identified the names of Hystaspes, Darius, and Xerxes. from Edward Hincks. Rawlinson identified the names of peoples ruled by AD 1836-1841 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion's "Grammaire Darius, mentioned in the Greek histories of the Persian Egyptienne. " empire. Rawlinson knew to expect consistent relations AD 1836 Eugene Burnouf's and 's Old between words of same meaning in Avestan, Sanskrit, and Persian syllabaries. Old Persian. Investigations were also done by Rasmus C. AD 1836 Claudius Rich's "Narrative of a Residence in N. Raske, Eugene Burnouf, Christian Lassen, and Henry Koordistan" and Albert Gallatin's "A Synopsis of the Creswicke Rawlinson. Indian Tribes Within the U.S." AD 1840 Second Albanian script. AD 1837 John G. Wilkinson brought his work together in AD 1841 Wilhelm Gesenius's Himyaritic abjad. Gesenius "The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians." also laid the basis for Semitic epigraphy, collecting and Ancient Egypt offered up a mass of written materials, deciphering the Phoenician inscriptions known in his time. including some of the world's first literature, the Books of AD 1841 John L. Stephens's "Incidents of Travel in Central the Dead, medical manuals, school texts, legal documents, America, Chiapas, and Yucatan." 699 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

AD 1842 Jens Worsaae's "Danmarks Oldtid." discovery of the palace and , in• AD 1843 F. de Saulcy deciphers ancient Berber. cluding the Gilgamesh Epic, c. 2nd millennium Be. AD 1843 Jean-Fran~ois Champollion's "Dictionnaire AD 1853 The Gilgamesh Epic, the first heroic epic known, Egyptien. " is discovered in the library of King Ashurbanipal (c. 669- AD 1843 William Prescott's "History of the Conquest of 663 Be) of Assyria at the site of Kouyounjik (biblical Mexico" and John L. Stephens's "Incidents of Travel in Nineveh). Sir Austen Henry Layard found some; Paul Yucatan." Botta did some initial work there. Just as some of the ideas AD 1846, 1859 Edward Hincks's Egyptian logo syllabary. in the Code of Harnmurabi were restated in the Bible, the AD 1846 Darius's inscription on the Behistun Rock was Gilgamesh Epic has a flood story similar to Genesis. used by Sir Henry Rawlinson to complete Grotefend's AD 1855 Edwin Norris deciphered most of Elamite and decipherment. entire Behistun inscription. AD 1846 Discovery in Egypt of papyrus containing three AD 1856 Sir Clements Markham's "Cuzco: A Journey to lost orations of Hyperides. the Ancient Capital of Peru." AD 1846 Edward Hincks's and Henry Rawlinson's Old AD 1857 Cuneiform inscription on a clay cylinder of Persian syllabaries. Old Persian cuneiform was deciphered Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria (1120-1074 Be) translated, after Babylonian and Susian. Rawlinson's complete trans• confirming the decipherment of Babylonian cuneiform. lation ("The Persian Cuneiform Inscription of Behistun") AD 1857 M. Thenou found first inscribed stone of Gortyna of a portion of the Behistun inscription in Old Persian. law inscription. Also, Christian Lassen noticed certain cuneiform signs AD 1857 Royal Asiatic Society (London) sent recently dis• occurred only before particular vowels-a mixed alphabet! covered Behistun inscription to four Assyriologists: Henry syllabary. Rawlinson and Hincks, independently, realized Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, William H. Fox Talbot, and that the proportion of syllabic spelling varied from sound Julius Oppert. They were to study it without consulting to sound. each other. A month later, they turned in translations, AD 1846 Edward Hincks's Elarnite cuneiform logosyllab• which proved to be essentially the same. ary. AD 1857 The decipherment of Akkadian cuneiform texts AD 1847 Papyri written in an older form of hieratic than any recognized. previously known was published in facsimile by Prisse AD 1859, 1874 Emmanuel de Rouge's talk suggesting an d' Avennes ("Le Papyrus"). Egyptian origin for the Phoenician alphabet; and its later AD 1847 William Prescott's "History of the Conquest of publication ("Memoire sur l'origine Egyptienne de l'al• Peru." phabet Phoenicienne"). AD 1848 Edward Hincks moved toward decipherment of AD 1859 's "Origin of ." Urartian (cuneiform logosyllabary). AD 1863 Charles Lyell's "The Geological Evidences ofthe AD 1848 George Dennis's "Cities and Cemeteries of Antiquity of Man." Etruria," Austen Layard's "Nineveh and Its Remains," AD 1867 J. Thompson's "The Antiquities of Cambodia." and E. Squier and E. Davis's "Ancient Monuments of the AD 1867 Typewriter invented. Christopher Latham Sholes Mississippi Valley." constructed what became the first practical typewriter. His AD 1849 Jens Worsaae's "Primeval Antiquities of Den• second model, patented in 1868, wrote at a speed far mark" and Paul Botta and Eugene Flandin's "Monument exceeding that of a pen. de Nineve." AD 1868 Bishop Jaussen obtained square board which is AD 1850, 1856 Edward Hincks's Sumerian cuneiform logo• now in Congregation of the Sacred Heart in Rome; written syllabary. boustrophedon where reader has to tum the board 180 AD 1850-1851, 1857 Sir Henry Rawlinson's Mesopotamian degrees at the end of each line. Archaeological evidence cuneiform logosyllabary. supports colonization of Easter Island from the west (Poly• AD 1850 Hittite hieroglyphs' decipherment assisted by dis• nesia). Bishop Jaussen of Tahiti tried to get islander to covery of the Tarkondemos seal, an embossed silver chant Rongorongo texts so he could translate them, but the roundel bearing cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions. results were inaccurate. Florentin Etienne Janssen created AD 1851 Henry C. Rawlinson translated the 112 lines of the list of several hundred signs of Rongorongo. third column of the Behistun inscription-which was AD 1868 Sindhi, remodeled Landa, script. Semitic Akkadian. AD 1868 The Moabite stone, stelae of King Mesha, found in AD 1852 Edwin Norris's Elamite cuneiform logosyllabary. Dhiban, preserved an archaic form predating the Phoeni• AD 1853 Britain's Hormuzd Rassasm beat the French to the cian letters. Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 700

AD 1869 Heinrich Schliemann's "Ithaka, the Peloponnese AD 1882-1903 Perrot e Chipiez's "Histoire de l'art an• and Troy." tique." AD 1869 Jules Oppert identified Sumerians through cune• AD 1882 A. H. Sayce published lengthy study of Urartian. iform tablets. AD 1883 I. Taylor's "The Alphabet: An Account of the AD 1870 Conze's "Zur Geschichte der AnHinge griech• Origin and Development of Letters." ischen Kunste." AD 1884 Gortyna law inscription discovered. AD 1870s Cypriote script solved by George Smith, as re• AD 1885 Gustav Oscar Montelius's "Sur la Chronologie lated to Linear B. Sounds of Cypriote script could be l' Age du Bronze." deciphered. AD 1887 Tell el' Amarna letters found by peasant woman AD 1870s Archaeologists aware of an undeciphered script looking for old bricks, correspondence of Akhenaten and from the Indus Valley area. earlier letters probably brought from Thebes when the AD 1871 Charles Darwin's "The Descent of Man" and capital was moved. From the tablets, possible to follow the Edward Tylor's "Primitive Culture." international events of the time. AD 1871 George Smith's work on Cypriot characters. AD 1887 Pitt Rivers began publishing "Excava• AD 1872 Flood story of the Gilgamesh Epic deciphered by tions at Cranborne Chase." George Smith at the British Museum. Shortly thereafter, he AD 1890 Discovery of Gurob papyrus and one leaf of the found the missing piece at Nineveh. "Antiope" of . AD 1873 Johann Brandis' work on Cypriote characters/ AD 1890s First excavations at Susa (the capital of Elam) syllabary. by J. de Morgan, with clay tablets of cuneiformlProto• AD 1873 Publication of the discovery of the Moabite stone. Elarnite, but the tablets also occur as far east as the Iranian AD 1874 Heinrich Schliemann at Mycenae at of border with Afghanistan (roughly contemporary with ear• Agamemnon, finds dated to 1600 BC. liest Sumerian tablets of Uruk). Linear Elarnite is a half a AD 1874 Moriz Schmidt's work on Cypriot characters. millennium younger than Proto-Elarnite. AD 1874 Alexander Sayce's Elamite cuneiform logo• AD 1891 Discovery at El Hibeh in Upper Egypt of papyrus syllabary. roll containing adventures of Wenamen. AD 1875 Stamp seal from Harappa, first-known Indus sam• AD 1891 Flinders Petrie excavated the capital dty of Ame• ple, published. nophis IV (Akhnaton). AD 1876 Leon de Rosny applied the Landa alphabet to the AD 1892 Alphons Stubel and Max Uhle's "Die Ruin en• first sign in the glyph for "turkey" in the Madrid Codex. statte von Tiahuanaco." He went on to propose that Mayan writing was a phonetic AD 1892 Yukashir Love Letter, example of pictography, system, based on syllables. northeastern Siberia, found. AD 1877-1878 Ernest de Sarzee unearthed rich deposits of AD 1893-1894 Vilhelm Thomsen's Orkhon runes alphabet. cuneiform tablets (35,000-40,000 total) at Telloh (Lagash), Orkhon (Orhon) are oldest extant Turkish writings. a royal archive from 3000 BC. AD 1893 French archaeologists discovered fragments of AD 1877 Lewis Morgan's "Ancient Sodety: or Researches clay tablets clearly written in unknown Arzawa language in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through at the Boghazkoy site in Anatolia. Arzawa was an un• Barbarism to Civilization." known land also mentioned in the Amarna tablets. AD 1878 Paul Haupt's Sumerian cuneiform logosyllabary. AD 1893n.972 G. Mallery's "Picture-Writing of the Ameri• AD 1879 M. Haussoullier found fragments of Gortyna law can Indians." inscription. AD 1893 Erland Nordenskiold's "The Cliff Dwellers of AD 1879 Stone Age paintings in cave of Altarnira discov• Mesa Verde, Southwestern Colorado, Their Pottery and ered by Sautnola. Implements. " AD 1880 Archibald Henry Sayce made remarkable claim AD 1894 Cyrus Thomas's "Report on the Mound Explora• that remains in Turkey and North Syria belonged to a tions of the Bureau of Ethnology." forgotten empire in Anatolia-the Hittites. Also, Sayce's AD 1894 Sir Arthur Evans suggested connection between Luwian logo syllabary. Cyprus's script and Minoan (from Crete). Evans also dis• AD 1880 Ernst Forstemann published "Venus Tables of covered two other scripts in Crete: a hieroglyphic script Dresden Codex." (almost all on seal stones and sealings) and the Linear A AD 1880s-1890s Englishman Alfred Perdval Maudslay re• script (mainly on clay tablets and fewer than Linear B) corded many inscriptions in Mesoamerica. evolved from the hieroglyphic script and lasted until the AD 1881 Sir John Evans's "Andent Bronze Implements of collapse of the Minoan civilization in the 15th century BC. Great Britain." The largest collection of Linear A tablets was found in the 701 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

Minoan palace of Ayia Triada, on the Cycladic island nizable antecedents of modem Chinese characters. There of Kea. were 4,500 Shang signs, about 1,000 identifiable. There AD 1895 Engravings found on a cave wall at La Mouthe, were 10,000 characterf in the Han Dynasty (206 Be-AD France. 220). By the 12th century, there were 23,000 characters, AD 1895 Bernard Grenfell, Arthur Hunt, and David Ho• and by the 18th century there were 49,000 characters garth began to hunt for papyri in Egypt. (including many variants and obsolete forms). Wang• AD 1895 Sir Arthur Evans on Crete, published paper "Cre• I-Yang (Wang Yirong) purchased some "dragon bones" tan Pictographs and the Prae-Phoenician Script." with ancient Chinese characters inscribed on them. AD 1895 W. H. Holmes' "Archaeological Studies among AD 1899 Isaac Taylor's publication on alphabet history. the Ancient Cities of Mexico." AD 1898 J. G. Frazer's "Pausanias' Description of AD 1896 G. A. Smith's "The Historical Geography of the Greece." Holy Land." AD 1898 Narmer palette uncovered at Kom el-Ahmar (Hi• AD 1897 Cave drawings found at Pair-non-Pair, France. erakonpolis) recorded victories, agricultural, ritual events. AD 1897 Sir John Evans' "Ancient Stone Implements of AD 1899 A. Mau and F. W. Kelsey's "Pompeii, Its Life and Great Britain." Art." AD 1897-1907 Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt exca• AD 1899 Publishing of find in Kensington, Minnesota, of a vated Oxyrhynchus in the Faiyum and found a large num• rune stone. ber of papyri with sayings (Logia) of Jesus-which have AD 1900 Alaska, Barnum, Chukchi, Landa, Lisu, Malinshi, provided much information about life under the Mappila, Mende, Miao, Slaveffinne, Somali scripts. and Romans, for many are copies of edicts, petitions, AD 1900 Archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) be• receipts, contracts, and letters. Also contain copies of lost gan to dig up and reconstruct Knossos (from The Odyssey), works by classical authors and scholars, including , discovering what he thought was the palace of King , and . Oxyrhynchus was ancient capi• with famous labyrinth. Also discovered caches of over tal of the 19th Upper Egyptian nome (province), on the 3,000 clay tablets, but published less than 200. Script did western edge of the Nile Valley. It is best known for the not resemble Egyptian hieroglyphs, Sumerian cuneiform, numerous papyri uncovered there, first by Grenfell and or Greek. Coined term Minoan for it; named unknown Hunt, and later by Italian scholars early in the 20th century. writing "Linear Script of Class B." First Linear B tablet The papyri -dating from about 250 Be to AD 700 and published ("The Athenaeum"). Although Evans failed to written primarily in Greek and Latin but also in demotic decipher the script, he did take steps in the right direction. Egyptian, Coptic, Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic-include He saw that ancient Crete had hieroglyphic script, Linear religious texts (e.g., miracles of Sarapis, early copies of the A, and Linear B. New Testament, and such apocryphal books as the Gospel AD 1900 remodeled from Takri. of Thomas) and also masterpieces of Greek classical litera• AD 1900 First archaic texts of Proto-Elamite from Susa are ture. Among the papyri were texts once considered lost, published. including selections of early Greek lyric poetry, Pindar, AD 1900 G. A. Cook and Mark Lidzbarski, noted epigraph• dramatists such as and Callimachus, and innu• ists, laid authoritative groundwork for modem Phoenician merable prose works of oratory or history, such as those of epigraphy. the Oxyrhynchus historian. AD 1900 Taoist priest Wang Tao-shih found a whole library AD 1898-1899 In the wake of the Yellow River's flooding, of ancient documents in one of the Caves of the Thousand fragments of tortoise shells and deer scapulae were found• Buddhas at Ch'ien Fo Tung. Aurel Stein had the area which had inscriptions-the oldest known examples of reopened in 1907 and found Buddhist texts dating to the Chinese writing. Early Chinese writing discovered-the 5th century Be, written in Chinese and other languages, "oracle bones" in Anyang. These were shells and ox Tibetan manuscripts, and other works in a variety of scripts scapulae with signs scratched on their surfaces. Around and languages. this time, the oracle bones were bought up from Chinese AD 1900s Epigraphic revolution began with Heinrich Ber• medicine shops in Peking where they had been sold as lin's decipherment of the names of the different Maya city• "dragon bones." The Anyang artifacts include divinations states ("emblem glyphs") and recognition by Tatiana by the 12 kings of the later Shang Dynasty (1400-1200 Be). Proskouriakoff that the Classic Maya stone inscriptions' There are drilled or chiseled concavities so that when heat dates recorded the birth, accession to power, conquests, was applied by the diviner, a crack would appear to the left anniversaries, deaths of , proving that Maya or right, which was then interpreted as the answer to a stelae lined up before pyramids were dynastic records. question. Many ofthe signs on the oracle bones are recog- Proskouriakoff was a pioneer decipherer of Mayan glyphs. Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 702

AD 1900-1910 Francis L. Griffith carried out fundamental AD 1905 Drawings of 200+ Proto-Elarnite texts published work on Meroitic. (from SusalElam 3000 Be) with similarities to later cune• AD 1900-1925 Avid collecting of oracle bones. ifonn. The earliest Elarnite writings are in a figurative or AD 1901 Work undertaken at the Akropolis: produced clay pictographic script and date from the middle of the 3rd tablets with cuneifonn, stone inscriptions, and one Akka• millennium Be. dian text in cuneifonn-of 3000 Be. AD 1905 Fran~ois Thureau-Dangin produced first transla• AD 1901-1905 First series of impressed tablets excavated at tion of Sumerian, the earliest identified writing. Sumerolo• Susa by Jacques de Morgan. gists consulted an enonnous corpus of cuneifonn texts, AD 190111902 Code of Hammurabi was discovered by M. and cuneifonn laboratories have developed comprehen• de Morgan at Susa excavation. It is now in the Louvre. Its sive computer databases of individual tablets of Sumerian discovery was important because it extended the knowl• grammar and word usage. The archaeologist and epigra• edge of early legal systems to before the ancient Greeks pher can study Sumerian against a backdrop of multi• and Romans. Shortly after 1902, Father Vincent Scheil disciplinary research. translated it. There are about 300 laws on the stelae, 262 AD 1905 Hugo Winkler excavated Boghazkoy (Turkey) well preserved and classifiable. and found 34 fragments of clay tablets . . . eventually AD 1902 Norwegian Assyriologist Jf6rgen Alexander Knudt• finding more than 10,000 cuneifonn tablets (mostly in zon's study on the Arzawa letters was published; these Akkadian)-letters between Egypt and King of Hatti. He were two letters exchanged between a king of Arzawa and had unearthed the Hittite royal archive. Pharaoh Amenhotep III that had been found in the Amarna AD 1906 Excavation of Hittite capital at Boghazkoy (an• archive. They were written in the Hittite language is cune• cient Hattusas) revealed a royal archive of 10,000 tablets. ifonn writing. Many could be read in Babylonian, but majority were in AD 1902 Alfred Percival Maudslay's casts, drawings, and unknown Hittite language. Hittite scribes alternated freely photos provide the first raw material for serious decipher• between Hittite, Sumerian, Babylonian, and that provided ment of Mesoamerican writings. a good starting point for deciphennent of Hittite cune• AD 1902 R. M. Hall and W. O. Neal's "The Ancient Ruins ifonn. of Rhodesia." AD 1906 Flinders Petrie excavated temples of Hathor's AD 1902 W. Doerpfeld's "Troia and Ilion." inscriptions (11 texts) with hieroglyphics and Sinaitic AD 1903 First deciphennent of oracle bones; most have script. come from Anyang, the last Shang capital. AD 1906 Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt found in Egypt AD 1903 Major comparative study by Stanley A. Cook a of broken rolls including parts of "Paeans" of published, "The Laws of Moses and the Code of Ham• Pindar, the "Hypsipyle" of Euripides, the "Phaedrus," murabi." and a . AD 1904-1905 Stone inscriptions found by W. M. Flinders AD 1906 Hugo Winkler excavated at Boghazkoy and un• Petrie on Sinai Peninsula, a Proto-Sinaitic writing. Alan H. covered large Hittite cuneifonn archive-IO,ooo clay tab• Gardiner laid the foundations for its deciphennent. Also, lets, some in Akkadian (Babylonian)-he had discovered W. F. Albright contributed toward final deciphennent. the capital city of the empire Sayce had suggested, dated to Flinders Petrie unearthed evidence of Egyptian origin of 1200 Be and having an occupation of 400 years. Semitic alphabet. Found inscriptions in Sinai caves, mine AD 1907 Sir Aurel Stein discovered library of early Chinese entrances, and temples (Serabit EI-Khadem) with links to texts in one of the Caves of the 1000 Buddhas at Ch'ien Fo hieroglyphics, but which demonstrated a Semitic lan• Tung, China. guage. Petrie's research provided the basis for investigat• AD 1907 Hugo Winkler published his readings of the Hittite ing an early source for the alphabet, one that preceded the cuneifonn texts and although he had translated many Ak• Phoenician dissemination and extended the period in kadian tablets, there remained a large number in a lan• which both development and transmission had occurred. guage he could not read. At Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai, found by Flinders Petrie, in AD 1908 Discovery of the famous Phaistos Disk by Italian turquoise mines active in ancient Egyptian times-a archaeologists in Crete. It remains one of the greatest sphinx dated to middle of 18th Dynasty (by Flinders Pe• puzzles in the history of writing. Large clay disk, covered trie), now c. 1500 Be. One side has inscriptions plus on both faces with 45 signs written in a spiral. Phaistos hieroglyphs-and Petrie guessed that the script was an disk found in ruins of a palace at Phaistos-in an archae• alphabet because it had less than 30 signs. He thought it ological context suggesting the disk was not later than was Semitic because Semites from had worked the 1700 Be (contemporary with Linear A). It is baked clay mines for the pharaohs. with signs impressed by punch or stamp-"the world's 703 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

first typewritten document" -resembles no other Minoan AD 1921 Sir John Marshall (with R. D. Banerji) discovered signs, nor the hieroglyphic script, nor Linear A or B. Both the Indus Valley civilization of 3000-1800 Be. Most of the sides with inscription of 242 signs, first "typewritten" inscriptions preserved on seal stones-generally of only a document. few characters each (400 signs, 53 used commonly)-may AD 1908 Christos Tsountas's "Prehistoric of Di• be a mixed hieroglyphic and syllabic script. Scholars have mini and Sesklo." attempted decipherment of the Indus script; 3,500 inscrip• AD 1908 C. Kahnweiler's translation of A. Michaelis's "A tions are known, mostly on seal stones. Indus script also on Century of Archaeological Discoveries." terracotta sealings, pottery, copper tablets, bronze imple• AD 1909-1911 Francis Griffith's Meroitic alphabet and the ments, ivory and bone rods; scattered in houses and streets phonetic values of the script. Although a small number of (but not on walls, tombs, statues, clay tablets, papyri). The Meroitic words and a small portion of the grammar are inscriptions average less than four signs in a line. Con• known, the language remains largely undeciphered. sisted of signs, animal outlines, and anthropomorphic fig• AD 1909 First volume of Minoan inscriptions published by ures. Sir Arthur Evans, "Scripta Minoa I." AD 1921 Sir Arthur Evans published "The Palace of AD 1911 Comprehensive classifications of the Mesoameri• Minos." can Indian languages were presented by the U.S. anthro• AD 1923 Sarcophagus inscription found near Byblos by pologists Cyrus Thomas and John R. Swanton in "Indian Paul Montet, debatably the oldest of the group of north Languages of Mexico and Central America and Their Semitic examples of alphabet, epitaph praising King Geographical Distribution." Cyrus Thomas spoke for Ahiram of 13th c Be. Until the discovery of the Ahiram phonetic approach to Maya glyphs. inscription, the Moabite Stone was considered the earliest AD 1911-1912 John Myres published volume that Sir Ar• extant alphabetic inscription. thur Evans planned and largely compiled. AD 1924 Alfred Kidder's "An Introduction to the Study of AD 1912 T. A. Joyce's "South American Archaeology." ." AD 1912 W. Flinders Petrie's "The Formation of the Alpha• AD 1924 D. Randall-MacIver's "Villanovans and Early bet. " Etruscans. " AD 1913 Czech scholar Bedrich Hrozny deciphered the AD 1924 F. J. Haverfield's "The Roman Occupation of Hittite language Winkler could not read and made the Britain" (revised by G. MacDonald). astounding discovery that it belonged to the Indo-European AD 1924 George G. MacCurdy's "Human Origins." languages and was possibly the oldest. AD 1924 O. G. S. Crawford's "Air Survey and Archaeol• AD 1913 C. H. Weller's "Athens and Its Monuments." ogy." AD 1913 Zhuyin zimu, national alphabet, China. AD 1924 University of Michigan worked in Antioch (Pisi• AD 1915 Clay tablets found in southern Mesopotamia of dia) on 200 fragments; F. W. Kelsey and D. M. Robinson proto-cuneiform. published "Res Gestae Divi Augusti." AD 1915 F. Hrozny announced his decipherment of Hittite AD 1925 Vere Gordon Childe's "The Dawn of European and published paper "The of the Hittite Prob• Civilization. " lem." AD 1925 Discovery of 1,000 tablets in Assyrian by Ameri• AD 1915 H. R. Hall's "Aegean Archaeology." can School at Baghdad and Iraq Museum. AD 1915 S. G. Morley's "An Introduction to the Study of AD 1928 About 4,000 clay tablets found in Eanna/Uruk, the Maya Hieroglyphs." oldest written documents in that part of the Near East, if AD 1916 Sir Alan Gardiner attempted to read Semitic/ not the oldest in history-from end of 4th, beginning of Sinaitic script that Flinders Petrie found in 1904/05 and 3rd millennium. succeeded. He studied Proto-Sinaitic signs and noted re• AD 1928 Excavations at Caerlon in Wales brought to light a semblances to pictographic Egyptian hieroglyphs: Proto• dedication inscription to Trajan. Sinai tic sign I Egyptian sign I Semitic name. The Semitic AD 1928 H. R. Hall's "Babylonian and Assyrian names are the same as the names of the letters of the in the British Museum" and "The Civilization of Greece Hebrew alphabet (he knew Hebrews had lived in Canaan in the Bronze Age." in the late 2nd millennium Be). Gardiner's hypothesis AD 1928 Kemal Ataturk officially abandoned Arabic script, enabled him to translate one of the inscriptions on the Sinai replacing it with LatinIRoman script. sphinx. AD 1928 Scholars decided to investigate the most produc• AD 1917 Dr. Friedrich Hrozny's decipherment of Hittite tive places for finding oracle bones-near the city of published in book form. Anyang. AD 1920 F. H. Marshall's "Discovery in Greek Lands." AD 1929 Discovery of the Ras Shamrah/Ugarit tablets, cu- Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 704

neiform unlike any others; the low number of 30 different and Onofrio Carruba gave strong evidence in 1959 that signs pointed to an alphabetic type. The use of a vertical Lydian should be placed in the Anatolian subgroup of stroke as facilitated the decipherment, which Indo-European languages because Lydian shares many was based on the correct assumption that an early North common features with Hittite, Luwian, and Palaic. Semitic Canaanite dialect was involved. Thus the script AD 1935 Johannes Sundwall copied 38 inscriptions in Crete was solved with astonishing speed by Hans Bauer, Edouard and published them, offending Sir Arthur Evans. Dhorme, and Charles Virolleaud, yielding a Semitic dia• AD 1936-1952 Michael Ventris (1922-1956) able to com• lect named U garitic, closely related to Old Phoenician. pile a promising grid, after suspecting that the Knossos This was hard evidence of the existence of an alphabet tablets studied by Kober contained place names. by 14th century Be, well after Proto-Sinaitic writing. Ten AD 1936 Adam Falkenstein's publication of the first 620 languages and five scripts used at Ugarit; dominant script tablets found during first 3 seasons of Uruk. was Akkadian cuneiform until the alphabet was intro• AD 1936 Vere Gordon Childe's "Man Makes Himself." duced, written in cuneiform (30 signs) bearing no resem• AD 1937 Piero Meriggi's Luwian logo syllabary. blance to Akkadian cuneiform. AD 1937 Tepe Sialk impressed tablets found. AD 1929 Vere Gordon Childe' s "The in Prehistory." AD 1938 Thomas Obicini's manuscript notes on Coptic AD 1929 Sir Leonard Woolley found list of Sumerian kings discovered in Vatican Library. that refer to "the flood." Max Mallowan dated the Meso• AD 1939 Cache of 600 Linear B tablets found at ancient potamian flood to 2900 Be. Pylos, mainland Greece, by Carl Blegen at Epano En• AD 1930-1931 Impressed tablets in temple of Eanna at glianos (in first season). The fragments dated to 1200 Be; Uruk, identified as precursor of pictographic tablets. he published them after World War II. AD 1930s Decipherment of Hittite hieroglyphic writing by AD 1940-1960 Sir J. Eric Thompson wrote "Maya Hiero• the combined efforts of Helmuth T. Bossert, Emil O. glyphic Writing" among 250 publications. Forrer, Bedrich Hrozny, Piero Meriggi, and Ignace J. Gelb. AD 1940 Palaeolithic paintings found in Lascaux Cave, AD 1930s Maurice Dunand found a number of inscriptions France. on bronze tablets and spatulae-a different form of Old AD 1940s Alice Kober identified five groups of words, with Canaanite script (pseudohieroglyphic). Dunand published three words in each group (called Kober's triplets by inscriptions of Byblos. Michael Ventris) which suggested declension. Kober saw AD 1930s-1940s Matthew Stirling and Miguel Covarrubias beginning of a tentative phonetic pattern. Kober was the found evidence of writing and calendar of Olmecs. first to discover the nature of language (Linear B syllabary) AD 1930 Tatiana Proskouriakoff built on Yuri Knosorov's through the barrier of script. work, obtaining an unrivaled knowledge of the glyphs AD 1941 A large number of tablets with Linear B helped Sir through architectural reconstruction. Arthur John Evans put forward many theories and sugges• AD 1930 Decipherment of Iberian script by Manual Gomez• tions before his death. Moreno. Also, inscriptions of Gaud, numerous and infor• AD 1945 Yuri Valentinovich Knorosov considered chief mative, including calendar of Coligny. Also, a bronze initiator of the decipherment of Mayan glyphs. As a mili• tablet at Botorrita, north-central Spain, bearing on both tary man, he snatched one book from the burning National faces a long inscription written in -Iberian. The dis• Library-the one-volume edition (1933) of the Dresden, covery of this long text has had a major impact on the Madrid, and Paris codices of the Maya. He discovered understanding of Hispano-Celtic. Maya writing was mixed script with fundamental phonetic AD 1931, 1935, 1942 Ignace J. Gelb's Luwian logosyllabary. component. AD 1931 Oberi Okaime script. AD 1945 G. Pugliese Carratelli published important series AD 1932 Emil Forrer's Luwian logosyllabary. of Linear A. AD 1933 Complete decipherment of . AD 1946 Second great postwar Maya discovery was murals AD 1933 Hittite decipherment begun by B. Hrozny. of Bonampak (three painted rooms) in Chiapas, Mexico, AD 1934-1935 Khafaje impressed tablets found. close to Yaxchilan. Murals show life of Classic Maya in AD 1934 Excavations at Tell Hariri, Syria (ancient Mari), late 8th century AD just before civilization's collapse. where a great cuneiform archive from the 17th century Be Many of its glyphs are yet to be deciphered. Murals show would be found. narrative of a successful battle, its aftermath, and victory AD 1934 Glossary of Hittite hieroglyphics published by celebrations. Murals were never completed as Bonampak Piero Meriggi. In 1936, Lydian was proved to be an Indo• was abandoned. Seem to have been painted for the conse• European language by the Italian scholar Piero Meriggi, cration of a male heir to the throne. Objects looted from Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

various Maya sites have actually helped the decipherment AD 1950s Heinrich found each Maya city-state had of Maya glyphs. its own emblem glyph. AD 194611947 Nomadic Bedouins herding sheep and goats AD 1950s The Chinese Small Seal script used until now. near the northwest end of the Dead Sea found two holes in Communist rulers introduced still-controversial simplified a cliff and fell into a cave where they found large pottery script. jars-three scrolls in one jar. A Hebrew dictionary was AD 1950, 1984 Sir Arthur Evans' unrecorded tablets dis• used to identify that part of the scrolls were written by covered in Iraklion Museum. Isaiah. AD 33 ± 200 years is the radiocarbon date of the AD 1950 G. Boas's "The Hieroglyphics of Horapollo." linen wrapping of the Isaiah Scroll. AD 1950 Discovery of at EI-Khadr showing AD 1947 Luwian/Luvian (Anatolia, Syria) deciphered resemblance to Sinai pictographs midway in evolution to owing to discovery of at Karatepe. the schematic linear form of the Phoenician letters. This The importance of Karatepe lies in its inscriptions. At the was evidence of the connection between Old Canaanite beginning of the excavations, a long Phoenician text was protoalphabet of Sinai and the Phoenician system. discovered. The gateways were found to contain extensive AD 1950 Emmett L. Bennett demonstrated divergence of versions of the same text in both Phoenician script and systems of measurements in Linear A and Linear B. Hittite (Luwian) hieroglyphs. By comparing the two in• AD 1951-1952 Michael Ventris's Linear B syllabary. scriptions, archaeologists greatly increased their under• AD 1951 Emmett L. Bennett wrote about Blegen's find of standing of the Hittite hieroglyphic script and language. tablets near Pylos, "The Pylos Tablets: A Preliminary AD 1948-1949 Tall-i-Ghazir tablets found. Transcription. " AD 1948 Discovery of abecedary that uses traditional se• AD 1951 Excavation of Khirbet , monastery by the quence of Semitic alphabet. Dead Sea, by G. Lankaster Harding and Pere Roland de Vaux. AD 1948 Hebrew became national language in Israel. AD 1952-1953 With help of John Chadwick, Michael Ven• AD 1948 The Biblical Archaeologist published "A Phe• tris showed more and more tablets yielding to "Greek nomenal Discovery" about that particular scroll, which solution." It began to seem that Minoans and Mycenaeans was important because it filled a significant gap in knowl• had been speaking and writing Greek centuries before edge of biblical history-between the Old and New Testa• Homer. Chadwick believed he has deciphered Linear B. ments, near the beginning of Christianity. The original AD 1952 Archaeological discovery providing breakthrough scrolls are now housed in a specially built part of the Israeli in decipherment of Mayan script. Mexican archaeologist Museum called "The Shrine of the Book." Through the Alberto Ruz, temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque, found years, a large number of scrolls were found at other sites by great funerary crypt with treasure trove; compared find to Bedouins and archaeologists-about 800 are available tomb of Tutankhamen. now, with nearly half from one cave. AD 1952 Yuri Knorosov made the phonetic breakthrough AD 1948 U garit text found with letters in abecedary with Maya writing; alphabet was a syllabary. He proposed order. phonetic readings of many glyphs. Produced a series of AD 1948 Walter Taylor's "A Study of Archaeology." such decipherments-his basic approach was sound, and AD 1948 G. R. Driver's "Semitic Writing." most (except Thompson) thought he was onto AD 1948 O. Ogg's "The 26 Letters." something important. AD 1948 William Albright said he had identified 19 of 25- AD 1952 A. J. B. Wace found clay tablets at Mycenae, 27 Sinaitic signs, and Sinai inscriptions were vulgar form including Linear B, outside the walls of the akropolis and of Canaanite. royal castle. Fifty-seven thousand occurrences of signs in AD 1949 D. Diringer's "The Alphabet." Linear B enabled Michael Ventris to decipher it. AD 1949 More scroll fragments discovered in the caves at AD 1952 John Myres finished and published Sir Arthur Kumran by the Dead Sea. Evans's "Scripta Minoa II." AD 1949 North Korea adopted Hangul; South Korea inch• AD 1952 Michael Ventris accomplished decipherment of ing toward Hangul-only. the whole syllabary of signs and with Chadwick was able AD 1950s Carl Blegen used a tablet, one of 400 found at to make sense of many of the Pylos and Knossos tablets. Pylos, to test Michael Ventris's syllabary and found that it Ventris announced decipherment of the Linear B/Myce• worked. With continued excavation from 1952, more than naean script. 1,000 inscribed tablets were found at Pylos, and a fine 13th• AD 1952 Yuri Knosorov published "Ancient Writing of century-Be Mycenaean palace was revealed. First Linear South America" and set out to crack the , B tablet from Mycenae found. phonetic and syllabic hieroglyphs. Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 706

AD 1953 A. C. Moorhouse's "The Triumph of the Alpha• caves is a site called Khirbet Qumran, possibly the home of bet: A History of Writing." the authors of the scrolls-the Essenses. This link is dis• AD 1953 Confirmation from new tablet find, made at an• puted. The scrolls seem too varied to be linked to one cient Pylos on Greek mainland, by Carl Blegen. The tablet group. that clinched the decipherment of Linear B is a simple AD 1961 Hertha Marquardt published bibliography of runic inventory of tripod cauldrons and of goblets of varying inscriptions in British Isles with appendix of reported runic sizes and number of handles. inscription in North America (40 distinct sites). AD 1955 Another bilingual broken tablet discovered that AD 1961 Ignace Gelb developed Old Akkadian syllabary. lists U garitic signs in the abecedary order and adds to each AD 1961 L. H. Jeffery's "The Local Scripts of Archaic one its Akkadian syllabic equivalent. It allowed definitive Greece." decipherment of U garit (making clear its alphabetic char• AD 1962 J. E. S. Thompson's "A Catalog of Maya Hiero• acter). glyphs." AD 1955 Chinese characters simplified by eliminating cer• AD 1963 I. J. Gelb's "A Study of Writing: The Foundations tain variants and reducing the number of strokes in many of Grammatology." of those remaining. AD 1963 L. R. Palmer's "The Interpretation of Mycenaean AD 195511957 Earliest Cyprus inscription found on Island Greek Texts." ofEnkomi; source was Cretan Linear A of 1500 Be. Also, a AD 1964 Bilingual inscription (c. 500 BC) with Etruscan group of tablets similar to Cretan scripts (12th c BC). found at Pyrgi, a major Etruscan seaport near Rome-two AD 1956 Michael Ventris and John Chadwick assembled gold plaques, one in Phoenician, the other in Etruscan! dramatic evidence supporting Ventris' theory. In 1953 they Greek script. The Greeks borrowed the alphabetic princi• published their historic paper, "Evidence for Greek Dia• ple from the Phoenicians and then gave it to the Etruscans, lect in the Mycenaean Archives." Their Documents in including the signs of their alphabet. (1956; rev. ed., 1973) was published a AD 1964 Linear B tablets found in Thebes. few weeks after Ventris' death in an auto accident, and AD 1964 Mari tablets found. Chadwick's "The Decipherment of Linear B" (1958; 2nd AD 1965-1966 Chogha Mish tablets found. ed., 1968) followed. AD 1966 Linear B tablets found in Tiryns. AD 1957 Sir A. Gardiner's "Egyptian Grammar: Being an AD 1966 W. F. Albright'S "The Proto-Sinaitic Inscriptions Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs." and Their Decipherment." AD 1958 Heinrich Berlin's Maya logo syllabary. AD 1967 During the Six-Day War, followed AD 1958 China's Pinyin system permits Chinese language up lead about new Dead Sea Scroll. It was 27 feet long (the to be written in romanized form. Chinese government longest) and contained elaborate plans for building a tem• introduced romanized Chinese script, Pinyin ("spell ple. It also contained many parts of the Old Testament. sound") as official system for writing sounds and tran• AD 1968 C. Gordon's "Forgotten Scripts: The Story of scribing Chinese characters. Pinyin adopted for the spell• Their Decipherment." ing of Chinese names outside China, as Peking> . AD 1968 D. Diringer's "The Alphabet: A Key to the His• Now Pinyin is in chaos and has an uncertain status. China tory of Mankind." uses two scripts: . Chinese is older than any other AD 1968-1970 Proto-Elamite found at Tepe Yahya on living script. southern Iranian plateau, including texts, seals and seal• AD 1959 A. G. Woodhead's "The Study of Greek Inscrip• ings from 3rd millennium. tions." AD 1969 Denise Schmandt-Besserat began investigating AD 1959 R. W. V. Elliott's "Runes: An Introduction." when and in what ways clay first came to be used in the AD 1959 Tatiana Proskouriakoff graphed all the Maya dates Near East. She found tokens all the way from Turkey to the from the stelae and found they formed distinct patterns• Nile Valley in the Sudan, first used in Neolithic times an actual recorded history. (9,000 years ago) and up to the first city-states in Meso• AD 1960 Documents from the Second Jewish Revolt (AD potamia. They were used for keeping economic records. 132-135) found in Cave of Letters near Dead Sea (Nahal Many of their patterns have been shown to closely resem• Hever, Israel). ble the incised designs on the earliest clay tablets. Eventu• AD 1960 Tatiana Proskouriakoff's Maya logosyllabary. ally, tokens were put into clay envelopes and sealed with AD 1960 Yigael Yadin got his first clue as to the existence of the number and kinds of tokens inscribed on the surface. a new Dead Sea Scroll. The Dead Seal Scrolls contain Subsequently, envelopes developed into the first clay tab• almost all the books of the Old Testament and a variety of lets. other religious writings. Close to the Dead Sea Scroll AD 1969 H. Jensen's "Sign, Symbol, and Script." 707 Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline

AD 1970-1971 Jebel Aruda tablets found. AD 1976 Over 80 artifacts discovered in tomb of Fu Hao (a AD 1970s Cuneifonn is photo-digitized with a scanner, in wife of Shang King Wuding, 1324-1266 BC) at Anyang which a laser breaks down the image into individual were inscribed with her name or various titles, making hers pixels, for computer processing. It becomes a drawing the earliest tomb in China whose occupant is historically template on electronic canvas. Division lines and discern• identifiable. She was already known as royalty from oracle ible signs can be traced on the screen. bone records. AD 1970s Ebla (Tell Mardikh) in Syria, where an archive of AD 1976 R. Caminos and H. G. Fischer's "Ancient Egyp• 15,000 clay tablets has yielded evidence of a previously tian Epigraphy and ." unknown language and state of the 3rd millennium BC. AD 1978 Tell Brak tablets found. AD 1971 Only four Mayan codices are known to survive: AD 1980 A. Nakanishi's "Writing Systems of the World: the Dresden Codex, or Codex Dresdensis, probably dating Alphabets-Syllabaries- Pictograms. " from the 11th or 12th century, a copy of earlier texts of the AD 1980s Roman alphabet invaded Japanese writing 5th to 9th century AD; the Madrid Codex, or Codex Tro• through advertising. Cortesianus, dating from the 15th century; the Paris Codex, AD 1981 Denise Schmandt-Besserat deciphered some ofthe or Codex Peresianus, probably slightly older than the earliest known cuneifonn tablets by using the analysis of Madrid Codex; and the Gorlier Codex, discovered in 1971 clay tokens; found evidence of 18 signs on the clay tablets and dated to the 13th century AD. The codices were made that represent tokens. Tokens were simple clay disks, of fig-bark paper folded like an accordion; their covers cones, triangles. were of jaguar skin. AD 1982 Copan project exhibited how combination of ar• AD 1971 Michael Coe noticed the sequence of glyphs chaeology and epigraphy produces more complete results. around rims of many pots was similar: Primary Standard AD 1985 Forty years after Yuri Knorosov's first publication, Sequence. scholars have put together a syllabic chart; now 85% of the AD 1971 Asko Parpola has made impressive analysis in Mayan glyphs can be "read" (meaning they can be under• attempt to decipher the Indus Valley script. So far, no stood with some precision, and a lot of the pronunciations bilingual inscriptions involving the Indus Valley script are done). Without Landa's alphabet, no one would have have been found, nor can any proper names be read. been able to create the Mayan equivalent of the Linear B AD 1971 Fragmentary Linear B tablets found at Tiryns. grid. AD 1972 Habuba Kabira tablets found. AD 1985 G. Sampson's "Writing Systems: A Linguistic AD 1973 Floyd Lounsbury, Linda Schele, Peter Matthews Introduction. " assembled dynastic history of Palenque from early 7th AD 1985 One of the earliest hieroglyphically inscribed century to its demise. The next year, they teamed up to put stone monuments found in Copan. together the missing part of Palenque's history, the first AD 1987 C. B. F. Walker's "Cuneifonn." 200 years of the dynasty. Lounsbury's Maya logo syllabary. AD 1987 David Stuart's "Ten Phonetic Glyphs." AD 1973 Godin Tepe tablets found. AD 1989 F. Coulmas's "Writing Systems of the World." AD 1973 J. E. S. Thompson's "Maya Hieroglyphic Writ• AD 1989 J. Chadwick's "Linear B and Related Scripts." ing." AD 1989 J. DeFrancis's ": The Diverse One- AD 1973 M. Ventris and J. Chadwick's "Documents in ness of Writing Systems." Mycenaean Greek." AD 1989 S. D. Houston's "Maya Glyphs." AD 1973 Scholars in Palenque realized that the name glyph AD 1989 W. M. Senner's "The Origins of Writing." on the sarcophagus was logographic, while that in the AD 1990 Yuri Knorosov unable to personally visit Maya temple was phonographic. ruins until this time. AD 1974 E. J. W. Barber's "Archaeological Decipher• AD 1990 In the contemporary world, there are several hun• ment." dred alphabets in use, all of which are derivations of the AD 1974 R. Claiborne's "The Birth of Writing." Canaanite scripts of the Old Semitic language. Thus the AD 1975 Archive of Early Bronze Age tablets, many in a Phoenician alphabet is the direct antecedent of the alpha• previously unknown Semitic language, found at Tell Mar• bets of western Europe. dikh (ancient Ebla) in Syria. Over 15,000 cuneifonn tablets AD 1990 Linda Schele and David Freidel published first (fragments) discovered in the library by Paolo Matthiae- Mayan history derived from archaeology and glyphs, "A 4500 years old. Forest of Kings," combining archaeology and deciphered AD 1975 M. Pope's "The Story of Archaeological De• inscriptions. ciphennent. " AD 1990 M. P. Brown's "A Guide to Western Historical AD 1976 D. Kelley's "Deciphering the Mayan Script." Scripts from Antiquity to 1600." Writing and Archaeology: A Timeline 708

AD 1991 Maya hieroglyphs fully deciphered. script, Hittite hieroglyphs. Undeciphered scripts in three AD 1992 A. Gaur's "A History of Writing." categories: (1) unknown script writing a known language AD 1992 M. D. Coe's "Breaking the Maya Code." (Mayan, until recently), (2) a known script writing an AD 1996 British Museum epigrapher Dr. Nikolai Grube unknown language (Etruscan), and (3) an unknown script announced decipherment of some inscriptions on an ll-foot• writing an unknown language (Indus Valley). Although high stone monument associated with a royal tomb site in research continues, neither Linear A nor the Phaistos disk La Milpa (Belize), symbols deciphered give date of AD 406. have given up their secrets. That goes for some Maya AD 1996 Partially deciphered (in decreasing degree of de• writing and Rongorongo from Easter Island, too. cipherment) Egyptian hieroglyphs, Linear B, Mayan AD 2012 Current Maya Great Cycle of time due to end.